J2006 - Termodinamik 1 PDF

J2006 THERMODYNAMICS 1 (0)
MALAYSIA
POLYTECHNICS
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION
MODULE J2006
THERMODYNAMICS 1
KAMARUZZAMAN BIN DAUD (PUO)

ROSLAN BIN HASHIM (PUO)
http://modul2poli.blogspot.com/
BIODATA OF MODULE WRITERS

J2006 THERMODYNAMICS 1
Name : Kamaruzzaman b. Daud

Address : Mechanical Engineering Department,
Ungku Omar Polytechnic,
Jln. Raja Musa Mahadi,
31400 Ipoh, Perak.
Telephone No. : 05-5457622 ext.1041
e-mail : kman_dd@hotmail.com
Position : Polytechnic Lecturer
Name : Roslan b. Hashim

Address : Mechanical Engineering Department,
31400 Ipoh, Perak.
Telephone No. : 05-5457622 ext.1041
Editor
Name : Nor Resom bt. Buyong
Address : English Language Unit,
General Studies Department,
31400 Ipoh, Perak.
Telephone No. : 05-5457622 ext. 2225
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A. FORMAT
1 The pages are organized in an interesting manner.
2 The font size makes it easy for me to read the module.
The size and types of pictures and charts used are suitable for
3
the input.
4 The pictures and charts are easy to read and understand.
5 The tables used are well-organised and easy to understand.
6 The arrangement of the Input makes it easy for me to follow.
7 All the instructions are displayed clearly.
1 2 3 4
B. CONTENTS
8 I understand all the objectives clearly.
9 I understand the ideas conveyed.
10 The ideas are presented in an interesting manner.
11 All the instructions are easy to understand.
12 I can carry out the instructions in this module.
13 I can answer the questions in the activities easily.
14 I can answer the questions in the self-assessment.
15 The feedback section can help me identify my mistakes.
16 The language used is easy to understand.
17 The way the module is written makes it interesting to read.
18 I can follow this module easily.
19 Each unit helps me understand the topic better.
I have become more interested in the subject after using this
20
module.
CURRICULUM GRID
The curriculum grid of this module is based on the curriculum used by Malaysian
Polytechnics.
No. TOPIC UNIT Total

Hours
1 Basic 1 2 3
Thermodynamics ( 1 H) (2H) (2H) 5 Hours
2 Non-Flow 4 5 5 Hours
Process ( 3 H) ( 2 H)
3 Flow Process 6 7 4 Hours

(2H) (2H)
4 Properties of 8 5 Hours
Steam (5H)
5 The Second 9 10 6 Hours

Law of (3H) (3H)
Thermodynamics
6 The Steam Power 11 5 Hours

Cycle (5H)
UNIT 1 BASIC THERMODYNAMICS

1.0 Introduction
1.1 Fundamental and derived quantities
1.1.1 Force
1.1.2 Energy
1.1.3 Power
1.1.4 Pressure
1.1.5 Density
1.2 Unit conversions

2.0 Introduction
2.1 Definitions of system, boundary, surrounding, open system and close system
2.2 Property, state and process
2.3 The First Law of thermodynamics
2.4 Work and heat transfer
2.5 Sign convention for work transfer
2.6 Sign convention for heat transfer
2.7 Internal energy

3.0 Definition of perfect gas
3.1 Boyle’s Law
3.2 Charles’ Law
3.3 Universal Gases Law
3.4 Specific heat capacity at constant volume
3.5 Specific heat capacity at constant pressure
3.6 Relationship between the specific heats
3.7 Specific heat ratio
UNIT 4 NON-FLOW PROCESS

4.0 Introduction
4.1 Differences between the Flow and Non-Flow Process
4.1.1 Flow Process
4.1.2 Non-Flow Process
4.2 Constant temperature (isothermal) process
4.3 Adiabatic process
UNIT 5 NON-FLOW PROCESS

5.0 Non-flow process
5.1 Polytropic process
5.2 Constant volume process
5.3 Constant pressure process
UNIT 6 FLOW PROCESS

6.0 Steady flow processes
6.1 Steady flow energy equation
6.2 Application of steady flow equation
6.2.1 Boilers
6.2.2 Condensers
UNIT 7 FLOW PROCESS

7.0 Application of steady flow equation
7.0.1 Turbine
7.0.2 Nozzle
7.0.3 Throttle
7.0.4 Pump
7.1 Equation of continuity
UNIT 8 PROPERTIES OF STEAM

8.0 Introduction
8.1 Phase-change process
8.2 Saturated and Superheated Steam
8.3 Properties of a Wet Mixture
8.3.1 Specific volume
8.3.2 Specific enthalpy
8.3.3 Specific internal energy
8.3.4 Specific entropy
8.4 The use of Steam Tables
8.4.1 Saturated Water and Steam Tables
8.4.2 Superheated Steam Tables
8.5 Interpolation
8.5.1 Single Interpolation
8.5.2 Double Interpolation
UNIT 9 THE SECOND LAW OF THE THERMODYNAMICS

9.0 Introduction to the Second Law of Thermodynamics
9.1 The heat engine and heat pump
9.2 Entropy
9.3 The T-s diagram for a steam
9.4 To show that Q = h2 – h1
9.5 Reversible processes on the T-s diagram for steam
9.5.1 Constant pressure process
9.5.2 Constant volume process
9.5.3 Constant temperature (or isothermal) process
9.5.4 Adiabatic (or isentropic) process
9.5.5 Polytropic process
UNIT 10 THE SECOND LAW OF THE THERMODYNAMICS

10.0 The P-V and T-s diagram for a perfect gas
10.1 Reversible processes on the T-s diagram for a perfect gas
10.1.1 Constant pressure process
10.1.2 Constant volume process
10.1.3 Constant temperature (or isothermal) process
10.1.4 Adiabatic (or isentropic) process
10.1.5 Polytropic process
UNIT 11 THE STEAM POWER CYCLE

11.0 Introduction
11.1 The Carnot cycle
11.1.1 Thermal efficiency of Carnot cycle
11.1.2 The work ratio for Carnot cycle
11.2 Rankine cycle
11.2.1 Thermal efficiency of Rankine cycle
11.2.2 The work ratio for Rankine cycle
11.3 Specific steam consumption
MODULE GUIDELINES
To achieve maximum benefits in using this module, students must follow the instructions
carefully and complete all the activities.
1. This module is divided into 11 units.

2. Each page is numbered according to the subject code, unit and page number.
J2006 / 1 / 5
Subject Page Number 5

Unit 1
3. The general and specific objectives are given at the beginning of each unit.
4. The activities in each unit are arranged in a sequential order and the following
symbols are given:
OBJECTIVES
The general and specific objectives for each learning topic are stated
in this section.
INPUT
This section introduces the subject matter that you are going to learn.
ACTIVITIES
The activities in this section test your understanding of the subject matter.
You have to complete this section by following the instructions carefully.
FEEDBACK
Answers to the questions in the activity section are given here
SELF-ASSESSMENT
Self-assessment evaluates your understanding of
each unit.
FEEDBACK TO SELF-ASSESSMENT
This section contains answers to the activities in the self-assessment.
5. You have to follow the units in sequence.

6. You may proceed to the next unit after successfully completing the unit and you are
confident of your achievement.
GENERAL AIMS
This module is prepared for the second semester students who are undergoing
Certificate/Diploma programmes in Malaysian Polytechnics. In each unit, the aim is to
expose the students to the concepts of Thermodynamics and to lead them towards self-
directed learning with guidance from their lecturers.
PREREQUISITE SKILLS AND KNOWLEDGE
At least a pass in Mathematics and Science at SPM level
GENERAL OBJECTIVES
At the end of this module, students should be able to:
1. understand the principles and concepts of units and dimensions

2. define the fundamental concepts of system, boundary, surrounding, open system and
close system
3. understand the state of working fluid, its example and the definition of the first law
of thermodynamics
4. describe the differences between work and heat transfer
5. define and show the definition and application of internal energy, the Boyle’s law,
Charles’ law and universal gases law
6. define and apply the principle of specific heat capacity of constant pressure and
constant volume
7. provide definition, differences and give examples of the flow process and the non
flow process
8. provide definitions of heat and work in reversible processes
9. define and calculate the following non-flow processes :
9.1 constant temperature (isothermal) process
9.2 adiabatic process
9.3 polytropic process
9.4 pressure and volume constant processes
10. derive the meaning and interpret the steady-flow energy equations
11. apply the steady-flow energy equations on :
11.1 boiler
11.2 condenser
11.3 turbine
11.4 nozzle
11.5 throttle
11.6 pump
12. define the following phases:
12.1 solid
12.2 liquid
J2006 THERMODYNAMICS 1 ( 10
)
12.3 steam
13. define steam at constant pressure
14. differentiate the wet steam, dry saturated steam and superheated steam
15. define dryness fraction (x) and internal energy
16. derive enthalpy from the energy equations
17. apply of the wet steam equations
18. define and evaluate the properties of steam using u = h + pv and the steam tables
19. calculate the specific volume, enthalpy, internal energy and entropy using the steam
table, equation and interpolation
20. define The Second Law of Thermodynamics
21. define, give examples and state the differences between the efficiency of heat engine
and heat pump
22. define entropy, s
23. derive Q = ∫ T. ds equations for reversible process
24. use T – s diagram to show the changes in entropy and its properties for steam
25. define constant pressure using T – s diagram
26. define and calculate Q = h2 - h1
27. draw volume and pressure properties using T – s diagram
28. use equations and calculate the changes in entropy for constant pressure and
constant volume
29. draw reversible isothermal, isentropic and polytropic process using T-s diagram for
vapour and perfect gas
30. calculate heat, work done and the changes in entropy for isothermal, isentropic and
polytropic process
31. draw Carnot cycle using the T – s diagram
32. define and calculate the Carnot cycle efficiency
33. differentiate between Carnot and Rankine cycle
34. describe the two characteristics of Rankine cycle
35. draw Rankine cycle using the T – s diagram
36. define the processes in Rankine cycle
37. draw block diagrams for Rankine cycle
38. derive equation for turbine, condenser, pump and boiler
39. calculate heat, work done and efficiency of Rankine cycle.
J2006 THERMODYNAMICS 1 ( 11
)
TEACHING AIDS AND RESOURCES NEEDED
1. Calculator
2. Mayhew,Y.R. & Rogers, G.F.C. Steam tables
3. Plant laboratory
REFERENCES
1. Ahmad Taufek Mohd Tiblawi, (1990). Haba dan Bendalir II; IBS Buku Sdn. Bhd.
2. Dr. Yunus A. Cengel & Boles, M.A.(1994). Thermodynamics: An Engineering

Approach; McGraw-Hill, Inc
3. Eastop, T.D. and Mc Conkey, A.(1978). Applied Thermodynamics for

Engineering Technologists; Longman
4. Irving Granet & Maurice Bluestein, (2000). Thermodynamics and Heat Power
(6th Edition); Prentice Hall Inc.
5. K. Iynkaran & David J. Tandy, (1993). Basic Thermodynamics: Applications and

Pollution Control; Prentice Hall, Simon & Schuster (Asia) Pte. Ltd.
6. Mayhew,Y.R. & Rogers, G.F.C., (1981). Thermodynamic and Transport

Properties of Fluids in SI Units (3rd Edition); Oxford, Basil Blackwell.
7. Metcalfe, F. (1972). Heat Engines and Applied Heat; Cassell & Company Ltd
8. Moran,M.J. and Shapiro, H.N.(1988). Fundamentals of Engineering

Thermodynamics; John Wiley & Sons, Inc
9. Rayner Joel, (1971). Basic Engineering Thermodynamics in SI Units

(3rd Edition); Longman Group Ltd.
10. Thomas,T.H. and Hunt, R. (1987). Applied Heat; Heinemann Educational Books
11. http://www.engr.lousiana.edu
12. http://www.mme.tcd.ie
BASIC THERMODYNAMICS J2006/1/1
UNIT 1
BASIC THERMODYNAMICS
OBJECTIVES
General Objective : To understand the concept of units and dimensions
Specific Objectives : At the end of the unit you will be able to:
state the difference between fundamentals and derived

quantities
describe the physical quantities of thermodynamics
understand the conversion units of thermodynamics
calculate the examples of conversion factors
INPUT
1.0 INTRODUCTION
10 Kilometer + 5 Feet +
25 Yard + 100 Inches
= ? Meter
Could you give me an

answer?
D id you realize that the work of an engineer is limited unless he has a source
of power to drive his machines or tools? However, before such a study can
begin, it is necessary to be sure of the number of definitions and units, which
are essential for a proper understanding of the subject. We are familiar with most of
these items in our everyday lives, but science demands that we have to be exact in
our understanding if real progress is to be made.
When engineering calculations are performed, it is necessary to be concerned with

the units of the physical quantities involved. A unit is any specified amount of a
quantity by comparison with which any other quantity of the same kind is measured.
For example, meters, centimeters and millimeters are all units of length. Seconds,
minutes and hours are alternative time units.
1.1 Fundamental and Derived Quantities
In the present discussion, we consider the system of units called SI (International

System of Units) and it is a legally accepted system in many countries. SI units will
be used throughout this module.
Length, mass, time, electric current, thermodynamic temperature and luminous

intensity are the six fundamental physical quantities. These six quantities are
absolutely independent of one another. They are also called the ‘Indefinables’ of
mechanics. The SI base units are listed in Table 1.1-1.
Table 1.1-1 Fundamental units
Quantity Unit Symbol
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Length meter m
Thermodynamic temperature degree Kelvin K
Electric current ampere A
Luminous intensity candela cd
All other physical quantities, which can be expressed in terms of one or more of
these, are known as ‘derived quantities’. The unit of length, mass, time, electric
current, thermodynamic temperature and luminous intensity are known as
‘fundamental units’. Physical quantities like area, volume, density, velocity,
acceleration, force, energy, power, torque etc. are called derived quantities since
they depend on one or more of these fundamental quantities. The units of the derived
quantities are called derived units as shown in Table 1.1-2.
Table 1.1-2 Derived units
Quantity Unit Symbol Notes
Area meter square m2

Volume meter cube m3 1 m3 = 1 x 103 litre
Velocity meter per second m/s
Acceleration Meter per second m/s2
squared
Density kilogram / meter cube kg/m3
Force Newton N 1 N = 1 kgm/s2
Pressure Newton/meter square N/m2 1 N/m2 = 1 Pascal
1 bar = 105 N/m2 = 102 kN/m2
1.1.1 Force
Newton’s second law may be written as force α (mass x acceleration), for a

body of a constant mass.
i.e. F = kma (1.1)
(where m is the mass of a body accelerated with an acceleration a, by a force

F, k is constant)
In a coherent system of units such as SI, k = 1, hence:
F = ma (1.2)
2
The SI unit of force is therefore kgm/s . This composite unit is called the
Newton, N.
i.e. 1 N = 1 kg.m/s2
1.1.2 Energy
Heat and work are both forms of energy. The work done by a force is the
product of the force and the distance moved in the same direction.
The SI unit of work = force x distance in the Newton meter, Nm.

A general unit for energy is introduced by giving the Newton meter the name
Joule, J.
i.e. 1 Joule = 1 Newton x 1 meter

or 1 J = 1 Nm
A more common unit for energy in SI is the kilo joule (1 kJ = 103 J)
1.1.3 Power
The use of an additional name for composite units is extended further by

introducing the Watt, W as the unit of power. Power is the rate of energy
transfer (or work done) by or to a system.
i.e. 1 Watt, W = 1 J/s = 1 N m/s
1.1.4 Pressure
Pressure is the force exerted by a fluid per unit area. We speak of pressure
only when we deal with gas or liquid. The pressure on a surface due to
forces from another surface or from a fluid is the force acting at 90o to the
unit area of the surface.
i.e. pressure = force/ area

P = F/A (1.3)
The unit of pressure, is N/m2 and this unit is sometimes called the Pascal, Pa.
For most cases occurring in thermodynamics the pressure expressed in Pascal
will be a very small number. This new unit is defined as follows:
1 bar = 105 N/m2 = 105 Pa
1.1.5. Density
Density is the mass of a substance per unit volume.

mass
Density =
volume
m
ρ= (1.4)
V
The unit of density is kg/m3 .
Force, F = ma
Pressure, P = F/A
Work, W = F x L
Density, ρ = m/V
Example 1.1
Calculate the pressure of gas underneath the piston in equilibrium for a 50 kg

mass that reacts to a piston with a surface area of 100 cm2.
Solution to Example 1.1
force
Pressure (P) =
area
50 x 9.81
=
0.01
= 49.05 N/m 2 Force = mass x acceleration
Pressure = force/area
Example 1.2
A density of ρ = 850 kg/m3 of oil is filled to a tank. Determine the amount of

mass m in the tank if the volume of the tank is V = 2 m3.
We should end up with the unit of kilograms. Putting the given information into
perspective, we have
ρ = 850 kg/m3 and V = 2 m3
It is obvious that we can eliminate m3 and end up with kg by multiplying these

two quantities. Therefore, the formula we are looking for is
m
ρ=
V
Thus, m = ρV
= (850 kg/m3)(2 m3)
= 1700 kg
Activity 1A
TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING BEFORE YOU CONTINUE WITH THE

NEXT INPUT…!
1.1 What is the work done by an expanding gas if the force resisting the motion
of the piston is 700 N and the length of the stroke is 0.5 m ?
1.2 What is the force required to accelerate a mass of 30 kg at a rate of 15 m/s2 ?
1.3 The fuel tank of a large truck measures 1.2m x 0.9m x 0.6m. How many litres
of fuel are contained in the tank when it is full?
1.4 A weather research instrument is suspended below a helium filled balloon

which is a 3.8m diameter sphere. If the specific volume of helium is
5.6m3/kg, what is the weight of helium in the balloon? Explain briefly why
the balloon rises in the atmosphere.
Feedback to Activity 1A
1.1 Work = Force x Distance

= (700 N)(0.5 m)
= 350 Nm or J
1.2 Force = mass x acceleration

F = ma
= (30 kg)(15 m/s2)
= 450 kg.m/s2 or N
1.3 Volume = 1.2 x 0.9 x 0.6 = 0.648 m3

Since 1m3 = 1000 litres
Then, contents of full tank = 0.648 x 1000
= 648 litres
d
1.4 Radius of volume, r =
2
3.3
= = 1.9 m
2
4
Volume of balloon, V = π r 3
3
4
= π (1.9) 3
3
= 28.73 m3
V
Mass of helium in balloon, m =
v
= 28.73/5.6
= 5.13 kg
∴ w = mg
= 5.13 x 9.81
= 50.3 N
1
Density of helium, ρ =
v
1
=
5.6
= 0.1786 kg/m3
The balloon rises in the atmosphere because the density of helium is less than
the density of atmosphere.
INPUT
1.2 Unit Conversions
We all know from experience that conversion of units can give terrible
headaches if they are not used carefully in solving a problem. But with some
attention and skill, conversion of units can be used to our advantage.
Measurements that describe physical quantities may be expressed in a variety of

different units. As a result, one often has to convert a quantity from one unit to
another. For example, we would like to convert, say, 49 days into weeks. One
approach is to multiply the value by ratios of the equivalent units. The ratios are
formed such that the old units are cancelled, leaving the new units.
The Dimensional Homogeneity
8 Despite their causing us errors, units/dimensions can be our friends.

8 All terms in an equation must be dimensionally homogeneous.
• That is, we can’t add apples to
oranges…
• Neither can we add J/mol to J/kg s.
8 By keeping track of our units/dimensions,
we can automatically do a reality check
on our equations.
8 But the fun doesn’t stop there…
8 A dimensional analysis can help to determine the form of an equation
that we may have forgotten.
The example of unit conversions are:

1 kg = 1000 g
1 m = 100 cm = 1000 mm
1 km = 1000 m = (100 000 cm @ 105 cm) = (1 000 000 mm @ 106 mm)
1 hour = 60 minutes = 3600 seconds
1 m3 = 1000 litre, or 1 litre = 1 x 10-3 m3
1 bar = 1 x 105 N/m2 = 1 x 102 kN/m2
Multiple and sub-multiple of the basic units are formed by means of prefixes, and the
ones most commonly used are shown in the following table:
Table 1.2 Multiplying factors

Multiplying Factor Prefix Symbol
1 000 000 000 000 1012 tera T
1 000 000 000 109 giga G
1 000 000 106 mega M
1 000 103 kilo k
100 102 hector h
10 101 deca da
0.1 10-1 desi d
0.01 10-2 centi c
0.001 10-3 milli m
0.000 001 10-6 micro μ
0.000 000 001 10-9 nano n
0.000 000 000 001 10-12 pico p
Example 1.3
Convert 1 km/h to m/s.
1 km 1 km 1000 m 1j
∴ = x x
j j 1 km 3600 s
1000 m
=
3600 s
= 0.278 m/s
Example 1.4
Convert 25 g/mm3 to kg/m3.
1 kg = 1000 g
1 m = 1000 mm
1 m3 = 1000 x 1000 x 1000 mm3
= 109 m3
25 g 25 g 109 mm3 1 kg
∴ 3
= 3
x 3
x
mm mm 1m 1000 g
25 x 109 x 1 kg
=
1000 m 3
= 25 x 106 kg/m3
How could I convert

g/mm3 to kg/m3?
Activity 1B

NEXT INPUT…!
1.5 Convert the following data:

a) 3 N/cm2 to kN/m2
b) 15 MN/m2 to N/m2
1.6 Convert 15 milligram per litre to kg/m3.
I hope you’ve learnt something

from this unit. Let’s move on to
the next topic.
Feedback To Activity 1B
1.5 a) 1 kN = 1000 N
1 m2 = 100 x 100 = 104 cm2
3N 3 N 10 4 cm 2 1 kN
∴ 2
= 2
x 2
x
cm cm 1m 1000 N
3 x 10 4 kN
=
1000 m 2
= 30 kN/m 2
b) 1 MN = 106 N/m2
15 MN 15 MN 10 6 N
∴ = x
m2 m2 1 MN
= 15 x 10 6 N/m 2
1.6 1 kg = 1 000 000 mg

1 m3 = 1000 litre
15 mg 15 mg 1 kg 1000 litre
∴ = x x
litre litre 1 000 000 mg 1 m3
= 15 x 10 -3 kg/m 3
SELF-ASSESSMENT
You are approaching success. Try all the questions in this self-assessment section
and check your answers with those given in the Feedback to Self-Assessment on the
next page. If you face any problem, discuss it with your lecturer. Good luck.
1. A gas is contained in a vertical frictionless piston-cylinder device. The

piston has a mass of 4 kg and a cross-sectional area of 35 cm2. A compressed
spring above the piston exerts a force of 60 N onto the piston. If the
atmospheric pressure is 95 kPa, determine the pressure inside the cylinder.
2. A force of 8 N is applied continuously at an angle of 30o to a certain mass.

Find the work done when the mass moves through a distance of 6 m.
3. A man weighing 60 kg goes up a staircase of 5 m in height in 20 secs.

Calculate his rate of doing work and power in watts.
4. The density of water at room temperature and atmospheric pressure is

1.0 g/cm3. Convert this to kg/m3. Find also the specific volume of water.
Feedback to Self-Assessment
Have you tried the questions????? If “YES”, check your answers now.
1. 123.4 kPa
2. 41.57 J
3. 147 J, 147 watt.
4. 1000 kg/m3 ; 0.001 m3/kg
CONGRATULATIONS!!!!…..
May success be with you
always….
UNIT 2
OBJECTIVES
General Objective : To understand the basic concept and the First Law of
Thermodynamics
Define the fundamental concepts of system, boundary,

surrounding, open system and close system
explain the property, state and process of the working fluid

and provide example
state the definitions of the First Law of Thermodynamics
describe the differences between work and heat transfer
define the definitions and show the application of internal

energy
INPUT
2.0 Introduction
Every science has a unique vocabulary associated with it, and thermodynamics is no
exception. Precise definition of the basic concepts forms a sound foundation for the
development of science and prevents possible misunderstandings. In this unit, the
systems that will be used are reviewed, and the basic concepts of thermodynamics
such as system, energy, property, state, process, cycle, pressure and temperature are
explained. Careful study of these concepts is essential for a good understanding of
the topics in the following units.
2.1 Definitions of system, boundary, surrounding, open system and close system
A thermodynamic system, or simply a system, is defined as a quantity of matter or

a region in space chosen for study. The fluid contained by the cylinder head,
cylinder walls and the piston may be said to be the system.
The mass or region outside the system is called the surroundings. The surroundings
may be affected by changes within the system.
The boundary is the surface of separation between the system and its surroundings.
It may be the cylinder and the piston or an imaginary surface drawn as in Fig. 2.1-1,
so as to enable an analysis of the problem under consideration to be made.
Boundary
Surrounding
System
Figure 2.1-1 System, surroundings and boundary
A system can either to be close or open, depending on whether a fixed mass or a

fixed volume in space is chosen for study. A close system (also known as a control
mass) consists of a fixed amount of mass, and no mass can cross its boundary. That
is, no mass can enter or leave a close system, as shown in Fig. 2.1-2. But energy,
in the form of heat or work can cross the boundary, and the volume of a close system
does not have to be fixed.
SURROUNDINGS
SYSTEM
BOUNDARY
Fig. 2.1-2 A closed system with a moving boundary
An open system, or a control volume, as it is often called, is a properly selected

region in space. It usually encloses a device, which involves mass flow such as a
boiler, compressor, turbine or nozzle. Flow through these devices is best studied by
selecting the region within the device as the control volume. Both mass and energy
can cross the boundary of a control volume, as shown in Fig. 2.1-3.
Fluid Inlet SURROUNDINGS
QOUT
SYSTEM WOUT
BOUNDARY
Fluid Outlet
Fig 2.1-3 Open system in boiler
2.2 Property, State and Process
Properties are macroscopic characteristics of a system such as mass,

volume, energy, pressure, and temperature to which numerical values can be
assigned at a given time without knowledge of the history of the system.
Many other properties are considered during the course of our study of
engineering thermodynamics. Thermodynamics also deals with quantities
that are not properties, such as mass flow rates and energy transfers by work
and heat. Properties are considered to be either intensive or extensive.
Intensive properties are those which are independent of the size of the
system such as temperature, pressure and density.
Extensive properties are those whose values depend on the size or extent of
the system. Mass, volume and total energy are some examples of extensive
properties.
The word state refers to the condition of system as described by its

properties. Since there are normally relations among the properties of a
system, the state often can be specified by providing the values of a subset of
the properties.
When there is a change in any of the properties of a system, the state changes
and the system are said to have undergone a process. A process is a
transformation from one state to another. However, if a system exhibits the
same values of its properties at two different times, the state remains the
same at these times. A system is said to be at a steady state if none of its
properties changes with time. A process occurs when a system’s state (as
measured by its properties) changes for any reason. Processes may be
reversible or actual (irreversible). In this context the word ‘reversible’ has a
special meaning. A reversible process is one that is wholly theoretical, but
can be imagined as one which occurs without incurring friction, turbulence,
leakage or anything which causes unrecoverable energy losses. All of the
processes considered below are reversible and the actual processes will be
dealt with later.
Processes may be constrained to occur at constant temperature (isothermal),

constant pressure, constant volume, polytropic and adiabatic (with no heat
transfer to the surroundings).
Activity 2A

NEXT INPUT…!
2.1 Fill in the blanks with suitable names for the close system in the diagram
below.
i. _____________
ii. _________
iii. _____________
2.2 Study the statements in the table below and decide if the statements are
TRUE (T) or FALSE (F).
STATEMENT TRUE or FALSE

i. The mass or region inside the system is called
the surroundings.
ii. In a close system, no mass can enter or leave
a system.
iii. Intensive properties are those which are
independent of the size of the system
iv. Mass, volume and total energy are some
examples of intensive properties.
Feedback To Activity 2A
2.1 i. Surroundings
ii. System
iii. Boundary
2.2 i. False
ii. True
iii. True
iv. False
CONGRATULATIONS, IF YOUR ANSWERS ARE CORRECT YOU CAN

PROCEED TO THE NEXT INPUT…..
INPUT
2.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics
Energy can exist in

many forms such as
thermal, kinetic,
potential, electric,
chemical,…
Figure 2.3 Pictures showing types of energy
The first law of thermodynamics is simply a statement of conservation of

energy principle and it asserts that total energy is a thermodynamic property.
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it can only change forms. This
principle is based on experimental observations and is known as the First
Law of Thermodynamics. The First Law of Thermodynamics can therefore be
stated as follows:
When a system undergoes a thermodynamic cycle then the

net heat supplied to the system from its surroundings is
equal to the net work done by the systems on its surroundings.
……The First Law of Thermodynamics
In symbols,
Σ dQ = Σ dW (2.1)
where Σ represents the sum of a complete cycle.
2.4 Work and Heat Transfer
Work transfer is defined as a product of the force and the distance moved in
the direction of the force. When a boundary of a close system moves in the
direction of the force acting on it, then the system does work on its
surroundings. When the boundary is moved inwards the work is done on the
system by its surroundings. The units of work are, for example, Nm or J. If
work is done on unit mass of a fluid, then the work done per kg of fluid has
the units of Nm/kg or J/kg. Consider the fluid expanding behind the piston
of an engine. The force F (in the absence of friction) will be given by
F = pA (2.2)
where
p is the pressure exerted on the piston and
A is the area of the piston
If dx is the displacement of the piston and p can be assumed constant
over this displacement, then the work done W will be given by,
W = F x dx
= pA x dx
= p x Adx
= p x dV
= p(V2 – V1) (2.3)
where dV = Adx = change in volume.
F
PRESSURE
dx
Figure 2.4 Work transfer
When two systems at different temperatures are in contact with each other,
energy will transfer between them until they reach the same temperature (that
is, when they are in equilibrium with each other). This energy is called heat,
or thermal energy, and the term "heat flow" refers to an energy transfer as a
consequence of a temperature difference.
Heat is a form of energy which crosses the boundary of a system during a

change of state produced by the difference in temperature between the system
and its surroundings. The unit of heat is taken as the amount of heat energy
equivalent to one joule or Nm. The joule is defined as the work done when
the point of application of a force of one newton is displaced through a
distance of one meter in the direction of the force.
2.5 Sign Convention for Work Transfer
It is convenient to consider a convention of sign in connection with work

transfer and the usual convention adopted is:
• if work energy is transferred from the system to the surroundings, it is
donated as positive.
• if work energy is transferred from the surroundings to the system, it is
donated as negative.
SURROUNDINGS BOUNDARY
WORK W2
SYSTEM + ve
WORK W1
- ve
Figure 2.5 Sign Convention for work transfer
2.6 Sign Convention for Heat Transfer
The sign convention usually adopted for heat energy transfer is such that :
• if heat energy flows into the system from the surroundings it is said to
be positive.
• if heat energy flows from the system to the surroundings it is said to be
negative. It is incorrect to speak of heat in a system since heat energy
exists only when it flows across the boundary. Once in the system, it is
converted to other types of energy.
SURROUNDINGS
HEAT ENERGY
SYSTEM Q2
HEAT -ve
ENERGY
Q1
+ ve
BOUNDARY
Figure 2.6 Sign convention for heat transfer
2.7 Internal Energy
Internal energy is the sum of all the energies a fluid possesses and stores
within itself. The molecules of a fluid may be imagined to be in motion
thereby possessing kinetic energy of translation and rotation as well as the
energy of vibration of the atoms within the molecules. In addition, the fluid
also possesses internal potential energy due to inter-molecular forces.
Suppose we have 1 kg of gas in a closed container as shown in Figure 2.7.

For simplicity, we shall assume that the vessel is at rest with respect to the
earth and is located on a base horizon. The gas in the vessel has neither
macro kinetic energy nor potential energy. However, the molecules of the gas
are in motion and possess a molecular or 'internal' kinetic energy. The term is
usually shortened to internal energy. If we are to study thermal effects then
we can no longer ignore this form of energy. We shall denote the specific
(per kg) internal energy as u J/kg.
Now suppose that by rotation of an impeller within the vessel, we add work
dW to the closed system and we also introduce an amount of heat dQ. The
gas in the vessel still has zero macro kinetic energy and zero potential
energy. The energy that has been added has simply caused an increase in the
internal energy.
The change in internal energy is determined only by the net energy that has
been transferred across the boundary and is independent of the form of that
energy (work or heat) or the process path of the energy transfer. In molecular
simulations, molecules can of course be seen, so the changes occurring as a
system gains or loses internal energy are apparent in the changes in the
motion of the molecules. It can be observed that the molecules move faster
when the internal energy is increased. Internal energy is, therefore, a
thermodynamic property of state. Equation 2.4 is sometimes known as the
non-flow energy equation and is a statement of the First Law of
Thermodynamics.
dU = dQ - dW
or, U 2 − U 1 = Q12 − W12 (2.4)
dW
dQ
Figure 2.7 Added work and heat raise the internal energy of a close system
Example 2.1
Qin = +10 kJ Wout = (+) ?
SYSTEM
Qout = -3 kJ
Win= -2 kJ
The figure above shows a certain process, which undergoes a complete cycle
of operations. Determine the value of the work output for a complete cycle,
Wout.
ΣQ = Qin + Qout Qin is +10 kJ

= (10) + (-3)
Qout is –3 kJ
= 7 kJ
Win is –2 kJ
ΣW = Win + Wout Wout is +ve
= (-2) + (Wout)
Hence ΣQ - ΣW = 0
ΣW = ΣQ
(-2) + (Wout) = 7
Wout = 9 kJ
Example 2.2
A system is allowed to do work amounting to 500 kNm whilst heat energy

amounting to 800 kJ is transferred into it. Find the change of internal energy
and state whether it is an increase or decrease.
U2 – U1 = Q12 – W12
now,
W12 = +500 kNm = 500 kJ
Q12 = +800 kJ
∴ U2 – U1 = 800 – 500
= 300 kJ
Since U2 > U1, the internal energy has increased.
Activity 2B

NEXT INPUT…!
2.3 During a complete cycle operation, a system is subjected to the following:

Heat transfer is 800 kJ supplied and 150 kJ rejected.
Work done by the system is 200 kJ.
Calculate the work transferred from the surrounding to the system.
2.4 Each line in Table 2.4 gives information about a process of a closed system.
Every entry has the same energy unit i.e. kJ. Fill in the empty spaces in the
table with the correct answers.
PROCESS Q12 W12 (U2 – U1)
a. +50 -20 i. ________
b. +100 ii. _______ -30
c. iii. _______ -70 +130
d. -50 +20 iv. _______
2.5 A close system undergoes a process in which there is a heat transfer of 200 kJ from
the system to the surroundings. The work done from the system to the surroundings
is 75 kJ. Calculate the change of internal energy and state whether it is an increase
or decrease.
2.3 ΣQ = Qin + Qout = (800) + (-150) = 650 kJ

ΣW = Win + Wout = (Win) + (200)
Hence ΣQ - ΣW = 0
ΣW = ΣQ
(Win) + (200) = 650
Win = 450 kJ
2.4 i. 70
ii. 130
iii. 60
iv. -70
2.5 U2 – U1 = Q12 – W12
now,
Q12 = -200 kJ
W12 = 75 kJ
∴ U2 – U1 = (-200) – (75) = -275 kJ

(Since U2 - U1 = -ve, the internal energy is decreased)
CONGRATULATIONS, IF YOUR ANSWERS ARE CORRECT THEN YOU

ARE SUCCESSFUL.
! Tips
Problem Solving Methodology
There are several correct and effective steps to problem solving. There are many
variations as to what various authors give for their problem solving strategy.
Some of these steps are:
8 Read the ENTIRE problem carefully and all the way through before starting work on the
problem. Make sure that you understand what is being asked.
8 List the data based on the figures given in the question. This will include both explicit
and implicit data items. Note that not all of the explicitly given data are always
necessarily involved in the problem solution. Be wary of introducing implicit conditions
that may be unnecessary for the problem solution.
8 Draw a diagram of the physical situation. The type of drawing will depend upon the
problem.
8 Determine the physical principles involved in the particular problem. What are the
pertinent equations and how can they be used to determine either the solution or
intermediate results that can be further used to determine the solution. Often one
equation will be insufficient to solve a particular problem.
8 Simplify the equations as much as possible through algebraic manipulation before

plugging numbers into the equations. The fewer times numbers are entered into
equations, the less likely numerical mistakes will be made.
8 Check the units on the quantities involved. Make sure that all of the given quantities are
in a consistent set of units.
8 Insert the given data into the equations and perform the calculations. In doing the
calculations, also manipulate the units. In doing the calculations, follow the rules for
significant figures.
8 Is the result reasonable and are the final units correct?
GOOD LUCK, TRY YOUR BEST.
SELF-ASSESSMENT
You are approaching success. Try all the questions in this self-assessment
section and check your answers with those given in the Feedback to Self-
Assessment on the next page. If you face any problem, discuss it with your
lecturer. Good luck.
1. A thermodynamic system undergoes a process in which its internal energy decreases

by 300 kJ. If at the same time, 120 kJ of work is done on the system, find the heat
transferred to or from the system.
2. The internal energy of a system increases by 70 kJ when 180 kJ of heat is transferred

to the system. How much work is done by the gas?
3. During a certain process, 1000 kJ of heat is added to the working fluid while 750 kJ
is extracted as work. Determine the change in internal energy and state whether it is
increased of decreased.
4. If the internal energy of a system is increased by 90 kJ while the system does 125 kJ
of work to the surroundings, determine the heat transfer to or from the system.
1. Q = - 420 kJ
2. W = 110 kJ
3. U2 – U1 = 250 kJ (Since U2 - U1 = +ve, the internal energy is increased)
4. Q = 215 kJ
always….
UNIT 3
OBJECTIVES
General Objective : To understand the laws of thermodynamics and its constants.
define the definitions of Boyle’s Law, Charles’ Law and

Universal Gases Law
define and show the application of the specific heat capacity at

constant pressure
define and apply the specific heat capacity at constant volume
INPUT
3.0 Definition Of Perfect Gases
Did you know, one important type of fluid that has many applications in
thermodynamics is the type in which the working temperature of the fluid remains
well above the critical temperature of the fluid? In this case, the fluid cannot be
liquefied by an isothermal compression, i.e. if it is required to condense the fluid,
then cooling of the fluid must first be carried out. In the simple treatment of such
fluids, their behavior is likened to that a perfect gas. Although, strictly speaking, a
perfect gas is an ideal which can never be realized in practice. The behavior of many
‘permanent’ gases, e.g. hydrogen, oxygen, air etc is very similar to the behavior of a
perfect gas to a first approximation.
A perfect gas is a collection of particles that:

are in constant, random motion,
have no intermolecular attractions (which leads to elastic collisions in which
no energy is exchanged or lost),
are considered to be volume-less points.
You are more familiar with the term ‘ideal’ gas. There is actually a distinction
between these two terms but for our purposes, you may consider them
interchangeable. The principle properties used to define the state of a gaseous system
are pressure (P), volume (V) and temperature (T). SI units (Systems International)
for these properties are Pascal (Pa) for pressure, m3 for volume (although liters and
cm3 are often substituted), and the absolute scale of temperature or Kelvin (K).
Two of the laws describing the behavior of a perfect gas are Boyle’s Law and
Charles’ Law.
3.1 Boyle’s Law
The Boyle’s Law may be stated as follows:

Provided the temperature T of a perfect gas remains constant, then volume, V of a
given mass of gas is inversely proportional to the pressure P of the gas, i.e. P ∝ 1/V
(as shown in Fig. 3.1-1), or P x V = constant if temperature remains constant.
P ∝ 1/V
1/V
Figure 3.1-1 Graph P ∝ 1/V
If a gas changes from state 1 to state 2 during an isothermal process, then
P1 V1 = P2 V2 = constant (3.1)
If the process is represented on a graph having axes of pressure P and volume V, the
results will be as shown in Fig. 3.1-2. The curve is known as a rectangular
hyperbola, having the mathematical equation xy = constant.
P1 1
PV = constant
P2 2
3
P3
V1 V2 V3 V
Figure 3.1-2 P-V graph for constant temperature
Example 3.1
A quantity of a certain perfect gas is heated at a constant temperature from an

initial state of 0.22 m3 and 325 kN/m2 to a final state of 170 kN/m2. Calculate
the final pressure of the gas.
From equation P1V1 = P2V2
⎞
( )⎛⎜⎜ 170
2
P1 325 kN/m
∴V2 = V1 x = 0.22 m 3 2
⎟⎟ = 0.421 m 3
P2 ⎝ kN/m ⎠
3.2 Charles’ Law
The Charles’s Law may be stated as follows:

Provided the pressure P of a given mass of gas remains constant, then the volume V
of the gas will be directly proportional to the absolute temperature T of the gas, i.e.
V ∝ T, or V = constant x T. Therefore V/T = constant, for constant pressure P.
If gas changes from state 1 to state 2 during a constant pressure process, then
V1 V2
= = constant (3.2)
T1 T2
If the process is represented on a P – V diagram as before, the result will be as shown

in Fig. 3.2.
1 2
0 V
V1 V2
Figure 3.2 P-V graph for constant pressure process
Example 3.2
A quantity of gas at 0.54 m3 and 345 oC undergoes a constant pressure process

that causes the volume of the gas to decreases to 0.32 m3. Calculate the
temperature of the gas at the end of the process.
From the question

V1 = 0.54 m3
T1 = 345 + 273 K = 618 K
V2 = 0.32 m3
V1 V2
=
T1 T2
V2
∴ T2 = T1 x
V1
⎛ 0.32 m 3 ⎞
= (618 K ) ⎜⎜ ⎟
3 ⎟
⎝ 0.54 m ⎠
= 366 K
3.3 Universal Gases Law
Charles’ Law gives us the change in volume of a gas with temperature when the
pressure remains constant. Boyle’s Law gives us the change in volume of a gas with
pressure if the temperature remains constant.
The relation which gives the volume of a gas when both temperature and the
pressure are changed is stated as equation 3.3 below.
PV
= constant = R (3.3)
T
i.e. P1V1 P2V2 (3.4)

=
T1 T2
No gases in practice obey this law rigidly, but many gases tend towards it. An
PV
imaginary ideal that obeys the law is called a perfect gas, and the equation =R
T
is called the characteristic equation of state of a perfect gas.
The constant, R, is called the gas constant. The unit of R is Nm/kg K or J/kg K.
Each perfect gas has a different gas constant.
The characteristic equation is usually written

PV = RT (3.5)
or for m kg, occupying V m3,

PV = mRT (3.6)
Another form of the characteristic equation can be derived using the kilogram-mole
as a unit. The kilogram-mole is defined as a quantity of a gas equivalent to m kg of
the gas, where M is the molecular weight of the gas (e.g. since the molecular weight
of oxygen is 32, then 1 kg mole of oxygen is equivalent to 32 kg of oxygen).
From the definition of the kilogram-mole, for m kg of a gas we have,

m = nM (3.7)
(where n is the number of moles).

Note: Since the standard of mass is the kg, kilogram-mole will be written simply as
mole.
Substituting for m from equation 3.7 in equation 3.6,
PV
PV = nMRT or MR = (3.8)
nT
Now Avogadro’s hypothesis states that the volume of 1 mole of any gas is the same
as the volume of 1 mole of any other gas, when the gases are at the same temperature
and pressure. Therefore V/n is the same for all gases at the same value of P and T.
That is the quantity PV/nT is constant for all gases. This constant is called the
universal gas constant, and is given the symbol Ro.
i.e. PV (3.9)
MR = Ro = or PV = nRoT
nT
or since MR = Ro then,
Ro
R= (3.10)
M
Experiment has shown that the volume of 1 mole of any perfect gas at 1 bar and 1 oC
is approximately 22.71 m3. Therefore from equation 3.8
PV 1 x 10 5 x 22.71
R0 = = = 8314.4 J/mole K
nT 1 x 273.15
From equation 3.10 the gas constant for any gas can be found when the molecular
weight is known, e.g. for oxygen of molecular weight 32, the gas constant is
Ro 8314.4
R= = = 259.8 J/kg K
M 32
Example 3.3
0.046 m3 of gas are contained in a sealed cylinder at a pressure of 300 kN/m2

and a temperature of 45 oC. The gas is compressed until the pressure reaches
1.27 MN/m2 and the temperature is 83oC. If the gas is assumed to be a perfect
gas, determine:
d) the mass of gas (kg)

e) the final volume of gas (m3)
Given:
R = 0.29 kJ/kg K
From the question

V1 = 0.046 m3
P1 = 300 kN/m2
T1 = 45 + 273 K = 318 K
P2 = 1.27 MN/m2 = 1.27 x 103 kN/m2
T2 = 83 + 273 K = 356 K
R = 0.29 kJ/kg K
From equation 3.6

PV = mRT
P1V1 300 x 0.046

m= = = 0.1496 kg
RT1 0.29 x 318
From equation 3.4, the constant volume process i.e. V1 = V2
P1 P2
=
T1 T2
⎛P ⎞ ⎛ 1.27 x 10 3 ⎞
T2 = (T1 )⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ = (318)⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 1346 K
⎝ P1 ⎠ ⎝ 300 ⎠
Activity 3A

NEXT INPUT…!
3.1 Study the statements in the table below. Mark the answers as TRUE or
FALSE.
STATEMENT TRUE or FALSE

i. Charles’ Law gives us the change in volume
of a gas with temperature when the
temperature remains constant.
ii. Boyle’s Law gives us the change in volume of
a gas with pressure if the pressure remains
constant.
iii. The characteristic equation of state of a
perfect gas is PV = R .
T
iv. Ro is the symbol for universal gas constant.
v. The constant R is called the gas constant.
vi. The unit of R is Nm/kg or J/kg.
3.2 0.04 kg of a certain perfect gas occupies a volume of 0.0072 m3 at a pressure

6.76 bar and a temperature of 127 oC. Calculate the molecular weight of the
gas (M). When the gas is allowed to expand until the pressure is 2.12 bar the
final volume is 0.065 m3. Calculate the final temperature.
3.1 i. False
ii. False
iii. True
iv. True
v. True
vi. False
3.2 From the question,

m = 0.04 kg
V1 = 0.072 m3 V2 = 0.072 m3
P1 = 6.76 bar = 6.76 x 102 kN/m2 P2 = 2.12 bar = 2.12 x 102 kN/m2
T1 = 127 + 273 K = 400 K
From equation 3.6

P1V1 = mRT1
P1V1 6.76 x 10 2 x 0.0072

∴R = = = 0.3042 kJ/kg K
mT1 0.04 x 400
Then from equation 3.10

Ro
R=
M
Ro 8.3144
∴M = = = 27 kg/kmol
R 0.3042
i.e. Molecular weight = 27
From equation 3.6

P2V2 = mRT2
P2V2 2.12 x 10 2 x 0.065

∴ T2 = = = 1132.5 K
mR 0.04 x 0.3042
i.e. Final temperature = 1132.5 – 273 = 859.5 oC.
CONGRATULATIONS, IF YOUR ANSWERS ARE CORRECT YOU CAN

PROCEED TO THE NEXT INPUT…..
INPUT
3.4 Specific Heat Capacity at Constant Volume (Cv)
The specific heat capacities of any substance is defined as the amount of heat energy
required to raise the unit mass through one degree temperature raise. In
thermodynamics, two specified conditions are used, those of constant volume and
constant pressure. The two specific heat capacities do not have the same value and it
is essential to distinguish them.
If 1 kg of a gas is supplied with an amount of heat energy sufficient to raise the

temperature of the gas by 1 degree whilst the volume of the gas remains constant,
then the amount of heat energy supplied is known as the specific heat capacity at
constant volume, and is denoted by Cv. The unit of Cv is J/kg K or kJ/kg K.
For a reversible non-flow process at constant volume, we have

dQ = mCvdT (3.11)
For a perfect gas the values of Cv are constant for any one gas at all pressures and
temperatures. Equations (3.11) can then be expanded as follows :
Heat flow in a constant volume process, Q12 = mCv(T2 – T1) (3.12)
Also, from the non-flow energy equation

Q – W = (U2 – U1)
mcv(T2 – T1) – 0 = (U2 – U1)
∴ (U2 – U1) = mCv(T2 – T1) (3.13)
i.e. dU = Q
Note:
In a reversible constant volume process, no work energy transfer can take
place since the piston will be unable to move i.e. W = 0.
The reversible constant volume process is shown on a P-V diagram in Fig. 3.4.
P2 2
P1 1
V
V1 = V2
Figure 3.4 P-V diagram for reversible constant volume process
Example 3.4
3.4 kg of gas is heated at a constant volume of 0.92 m3 and temperature 17 oC

until the temperature rose to 147 oC. If the gas is assumed to be a perfect gas,
determine:
a) the heat flow during the process

b) the beginning pressure of gas
c) the final pressure of gas
Given
Cv = 0.72 kJ/kg K
R = 0.287 kJ/kg K
From the question

m = 3.4 kg
V1 = V2 = 0.92 m3
T1 = 17 + 273 K = 290 K
T2 = 147 + 273 K = 420 K
Cv = 0.72 kJ/kg K
R = 0.287 kJ/kg K
a) From equation 3.13,

Q12 = mCv(T2 – T1)
= 3.4 x 0.72(420 – 290)
= 318.24 kJ
b) From equation 3.6,

PV = mRT
Hence for state 1,

P1V1 = mRT1
mRT1 3.4 kg x 0.287 kJ/kgK x 290 K
P1 = = 3
= 307.6 kN/m 2
V1 0.92 m
c) For state 2,
P2V2 = mRT2
mRT2 3.4 kg x 0.287 kJ/kgK x 420 K
P2 = = 3
= 445.5 kN/m 2
V2 0.92 m
3.5 Specific Heat Capacity at Constant Pressure (Cp)
If 1 kg of a gas is supplied with an amount of heat energy sufficient to raise the

temperature of the gas by 1 degree whilst the pressure of the gas remains constant,
then the amount of heat energy supplied is known as the specific heat capacity at
constant pressure, and is denoted by Cp. The unit of Cp is J/kg K or kJ/kg K.
For a reversible non-flow process at constant pressure, we have

dQ = mCpdT (3.14)
For a perfect gas the values of Cp are constant for any one gas at all pressures and
temperatures. Equation (3.14) can then be expanded as follows:
Heat flow in a reversible constant pressure process Q = mCp(T2 – T1) (3.15)
3.6 Relationship Between The Specific Heats
Let a perfect gas be heated at constant pressure from T1 to T2. With reference to the
non-flow equation Q = U2 – U1 + W, and the equation for a perfect gas
U2 – U1 = mCv(T2 – T1), hence,
Q = mCv(T2 – T1) + W
In a constant pressure process, the work done by the fluid is given by the pressure
times the change in volume, i.e. W = P(V2 – V1). Then using equation PV = mRT,
we have
W = mR(T2 – T1)
Therefore substituting,
Q = mCv(T2 – T1) + mR(T2 – T1) = m(Cv + R)(T2 – T1)
But for a constant pressure process from equation 3.15,

Q = mCp(T2 – T1)
Hence, by equating the two expressions for the heat flow Q, we have
mCp(T2 – T1) = m(Cv + R)(T2 – T1)
∴Cp = Cv + R
Alternatively, it is usually written as
R = Cp - Cv 3.16
3.7 Specific Heat Ratio (γ)
The ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure to the specific heat at constant
volume is given the symbol γ (gamma),
Cp
i.e. γ= (3.17)
Cv
Note that since Cp - Cv= R, from equation 3.16, it is clear that Cp must be greater
than Cv for any perfect gas. It follows therefore that the ratio Cp/Cv = γ , is always
greater than unity. In general, γ is about 1.4 for diatomic gases such as carbon
monoxide (CO), hydrogen (H2), nitrogen (N2), and oxygen (O2). For monatomic
gases such as argon (A), and helium (He), γ is about 1.6, and for triatomic gases such
as carbon dioxide (CO2), and sulphur dioxide (SO2), γ is about 1.3. For some hydro-
carbons the value of γ is quite low (e.g. for ethane (C2H6), γ = 1.22, and for iso-
butane (C4H10), γ = 1.11.
Some useful relationships between Cp , Cv , R, and γ can be derived.

From equation 3.17
Cp - Cv= R
Dividing through by Cv
Cp R
−1 =
Cv Cv
Cp
Therefore using equation 3.17, γ = , then,
Cv
R
γ −1 =
Cv
R
Cv = 3.18
(γ − 1)
Also from equation 3.17, Cp = γCv hence substituting in equation 3.18,
γR
Cp = γCv =
(γ − 1)
γR
Cp = 3.19
(γ − 1)
Example 3.5
A certain perfect gas has specific heat as follows
Cp = 0.846 kJ/kg K and Cv = 0.657 kJ/kg K
Find the gas constant and the molecular weight of the gas.
From equation 3.16
R = Cp - Cv
i.e. R = 0.846 – 0.657 = 0.189 kJ/kg K

or R = 189 Nm/kg K
From equation 3.10
R0
M=
R
8314
i.e. M= = 44
189
Activity 3B

NEXT INPUT…!
3.3 Two kilograms of a gas receive 200 kJ as heat at constant volume process. If
the temperature of the gas increases by 100 oC, determine the Cv of the
process.
3.4 A perfect gas is contained in a rigid vessel at 3 bar and 315 oC. The gas is
then cooled until the pressure falls to 1.5 bar. Calculate the heat rejected per
kg of gas.
Given:
M = 26 kg/kmol and γ = 1.26.
3.5 A mass of 0.18 kg gas is at a temperature of 15 oC and pressure 130 kN/m2.

If the gas has a value of Cv = 720 J/kg K, calculate the:
i. gas constant
ii. molecular weight
iii. specific heat at constant pressure
iv. specific heat ratio

m = 2 kg
Q = 200 kJ
(T2 – T1) = 100 oC = 373 K
Q = mCv(T2 – T1)
Q 200
Cv = = = 0.268 kJ/kgK
m(T2 − T1 ) 2(373)

P1 = 3 bar
T1 = 315 oC = 588 K
P2 = 1.5 bar
M = 26 kg/kmol
γ = 1.26
From equation 3.10,

R 8314
R= o = = 319.8 J/kg K
M 26
From equation 3.18,

R 319.8
Cv = = = 1230 J/kg K = 1.230 kJ/kg K
(γ − 1) 1.26 − 1
During the process, the volume remains constant (i.e. rigid vessel) for the
mass of gas present, and from equation 3.4,
P1V1 P2V2
=
T1 T2
Therefore since V1 = V2,

P 1.5
T2 = T1 2 = 588 x = 294 K
P1 3
Then from equation 3.12,
Heat rejected per kg gas, Q = Cv(T2 – T1)
= 1.230(588 – 294)
= 361.6 kJ/kg
3.5 From the question

m = 0.18 kg
T = 15 oC = 288 K
V = 0.17 m3
Cv = 720 J/kg K = 0.720 kJ/kg K
i. From equation 3.6,

PV = mRT
PV 130 x 0.17
R= = = 0.426 kJ/kgK
mT 0.18 x 288
ii. From equation 3.10,

R
R= o
M
R 8.3144
M = o = = 19.52 kg/kmol
R 0.426
iii. From equation 3.16,

R = Cp - Cv
Cp = R + Cv = 0.426 + 0.720 = 1.146 kJ/kg K
iv. From equation 3.17,

C p 1.146
γ = = = 1.59
C v 0.720
SELF-ASSESSMENT
Assessment on the next page. If you face any problem, discuss it with your lecturer.
Good luck.
1. 1 m3 of air at 8 bar and 120 oC is cooled at constant pressure process until the
temperature drops to 27 oC.
Given R = 0.287 kJ/kg K and Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg K, calculate the:
i. mass of air
ii. heat rejected in the process
iii. volume of the air after cooling.
2. A system undergoes a process in which 42 kJ of heat is rejected. If the

pressure is kept constant at 125 kN/m2 while the volume changes from
0.20 m3 to 0.006 m3, determine the work done and the change in internal
energy.
3. Heat is supplied to a gas in a rigid container.The mass of the container is 1 kg

and the volume of gas is 0.6 m3. 100 kJ is added as heat. If gas has
Cv = 0.7186 kJ/kg K during a process, determine the:
i. change in temperature
ii. change in internal energy
Feedback To Self-Assessment
1. i. m = 7.093 kg
ii. Q = 663 kJ
iii. V2 = 0.763 m3
2. W = -24.25 kJ
(U2 – U1) = -17.75 kJ
3. i. (T2 – T1) = 139.2 K

ii. (U2 – U1) = 100 kJ
always….
NON-FLOW PROCESS J2006/4/1
UNIT 4
NON - FLOW PROCESS
OBJECTIVES
General Objective : To understand and apply the concept of non-flow process in

thermodynamics
define and describe the differences between the flow and the
non-flow processes
identify heat and work in reversible process
define and calculate the following non-flow processes :
• constant temperature (Isothermal)

• adiabatic
INPUT
4.0 INTRODUCTION
What is a non
flow process?
O nce a fluid has entered a system, it may be possible for it to undergo a series
of processes in which the fluid does not flow. An example of this is the
cylinder of an internal combustion engine. In the suction stroke, the working
fluid flows into the cylinder in which it is then temporarily sealed. Whilst the
cylinder is sealed, the fluid is compressed by the piston moving into the cylinder,
after which heat energy is supplied so that the fluid possesses sufficient energy to
force the piston back down the cylinder, causing the engine to do external work. The
exhaust valve is then opened and the fluid is made to flow out of the cylinder into the
surroundings. Processes which are undergone by a system when the working fluid
cannot cross the boundary are called non-flow process. This process occurs during
the compression and the working stroke as mentioned in the above example (refer to
Fig. 4.0).
SUCTION WORKING
STROKE STROKE EXHAUST
COMPRESSION
STROKE STROKE
Figure 4.0 The cycle of an internal combustion engine
4.1 Differences Between The Flow and Non-flow processes
4.1.1 Flow Process

In an open system, not only the energy transfers take place across the
boundary, the fluid may also cross the boundary. Any process undergone by
an open system is called a flow process. This process may be sub-divided
into an unsteady flow process and steady flow process. The general equation
is shown below,
C12 C2
gZ1 + u1 + P1v1 + + Q = gZ 2 + u 2 + P2 v 2 + 2 + W
2 2
4.1.2 Non-flow process

In a close system, although energy may be transferred across the boundary in
the form of work energy and heat energy, the working fluid itself never
crosses the boundary. Any process undergone by a close system is referred to
as the non-flow process.
If the fluid is undergoing a non-flow process from state (1) to state (2) then
the terms from the general equation for p1V1 and p2V2 (which represent the
amount of work energy required to introduce and expel the fluid from the
system) will be zero, since the fluid is already in the system, and will still be
in the system at the end of the process. For the same reason, the changes in
kinetic and potential energies of the fluid will also be zero. Thus the equation
becomes
U1 + Q = U2 + W
or, U2 – U1 = Q –W (4.1)
In words, this equation states that in a non-flow process, the change in the
internal energy of the fluid is equal to the nett amount of heat energy
supplied to the fluid minus the nett amount of work energy flowing from the
fluid.
This equation is known as the non flow energy equation, and it will now be
shown how this may apply to the various non-flow processes.
4.2 Constant temperature (Isothermal) process (pV = C)
If the change in temperature during a process is very small then that process may be
approximated as an isothermal process. For example, the slow expansion or
compression of fluid in a cylinder, which is perfectly cooled by water may be
analysed, assuming that the temperature remains constant.
P
1
W
v
v1
Q
v2
Figure 4.2 Constant temperature (Isothermal) process
The general relation properties between the initial and final states of a perfect gas are
applied as follows:
p1V1 p 2V2
=
T1 T2
If the temperature remains constant during the process, T1 = T2 and the above
relation becomes
p1V1 = p 2V2
From the equation we can know that an increase in the volume results in a decrease
in the pressure. In other words, in an isothermal process, the pressure is inversely
proportional to the volume.
Work transfer:
Referring to the process represented on the p – V diagram in Fig.4.2 it is noted that
the volume increases during the process. In other words the fluid is expanding. The
expansion work is given by
2
W = ∫ pdV
1
2
c
=∫ dV (since pV = C, a constant)
1
V
2
dV
= c∫
1
V
2
dV
= p1V1 ∫
1
V
V ⎡ larger volume ⎤
= p1V1 ln 2 ⎢ smaller volume ⎥⎦
V1 ⎣
V2
= mRT1 ln (since p1V1 = mRT1)
V1
p V2 p
= mRT1 ln 1 (since = 1) (4.2)
p2 V1 p2
Note that during expansion, the volume increases and the pressure decreases. On the
p – V diagram, the shaded area under the process line represents the amount of work
transfer.
Since this is an expansion process (i.e. increasing volume), the work is done by the
system. In other words the system produces work output and this is shown by the
direction of the arrow representing W.
Heat transfer:
Energy balance to this case is applied:
U1 + Q = U2 + W
For a perfect gas
U1 = mcvT1 and U2 = mcvT2
As the temperature is constant
U1 = U2
Substituting in the energy balance equation,
Q=W (4.3)
Thus, for a perfect gas, all the heat added during a constant temperature process is
converted into work and the internal energy of the system remains constant.
For a constant temperature process

V
W = mRT1 ln 2 = Q
V1
or
p
W = mRT1 ln 1 = Q
p2
4.3 Adiabatic process (Q = 0)
If a system is thermally well insulated then there will be negligible heat

transfer into or out of the system. Such a system is thermally isolated and a
process within that system may be idealised as an adiabatic process. For
example, the outer casing of steam engine, steam turbines and gas turbines
are well insulated to minimise heat loss. The fluid expansion process in such
machines may be assumed to be adiabatic.
P
1
W
v
v1
Thermal insulation
v2
Figure 4.3 Adiabatic (zero heat transfer) process
For a perfect gas the equation for an adiabatic process is
pVγ = C
Cp
where γ = ratio of specific heat =
Cv
The above equation is applied to states 1 and 2 as:
p1V1γ = p 2V2γ
γ
p 2 ⎡ V1 ⎤
=⎢ ⎥ (4.4)
p1 ⎣V2 ⎦
Also, for a perfect gas, the general property relation between the two states is given
by the equation below
p1V1 p 2V2
= (4.5)
T1 T2
By manipulating equations 4.4 and 4.5 the following relationship can be determined:
γ −1
γ −1
T2 ⎡ p 2 ⎤ γ ⎡V ⎤
=⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ 1⎥ (4.6)
T1 ⎣ p1 ⎦ ⎣ V2 ⎦
By examining equations 4.4 and 4.6 the following conclusion for an adiabatic
process on a perfect gas can be drawn:
An increase in volume results in a decrease in pressure.
An increase in volume results in a decrease in temperature.
An increase in pressure results in an increase in temperature.
Work transfer:
Referring to the process represented on the p-V diagram (Fig.4.3) it is noted that the
volume increases during the process.
In other words, the fluid expanding and the expansion work is given by the formula:
2
W = ∫ pdV
1
2
c
=∫ γ
dV (since pVγ = C, a constant)
1 V
2
dV
= c∫ γ
1 V
p V − p 2V2
= 1 1 [larger pV- small pV] (4.7)
γ −1
Note that after expansion, p2 is smaller than p1. In the p – V diagram, the shaded
area under the process represents the amount of work transfer.
As this is an expansion process (i.e. increase in volume) the work is done by the
system. In other words, the system produces work output and this is shown by the
direction of the arrow representing W (as shown in Fig 4.3).
Heat transfer:
In an adiabatic process, Q = 0.
Applying an energy balance to this case (Fig.4.3):
U1 - W = U2
W = U1 – U2
Thus, in an adiabatic expansion the work output is equal to the decrease in internal
energy. In other words, because of the work output the internal energy of the system
decreases by a corresponding amount.
For a perfect gas, U1 = mcvT1 and U1 = mcvT1

On substitution
W = mcv(T1-T2) [larger T- smaller T] (4.8)
We know
c p - cv = R
or
R
cv =
γ −1
Substituting in equation 4.8
mR (T1 − T2)
W = (4.9)
γ −1
But, mRT2 = p2V2 and mRT1 = p1V1
Then the expression for the expansion becomes
p1V1 − p 2V2
W = (4.10)
γ −1
Referring to the process represented on the p-V diagram it is noted that during this
process the volume increases and the pressure decreases. For a perfect gas, equation
4.6 tells that a decrease in pressure will result in a temperature drop.
Example 4.1
In an industrial process, 0.4 kg of oxygen is compressed isothermally from

1.01 bar and 22o C to 5.5 bar. Determine the work done and the heat transfer
during the process. Assume that oxygen is a perfect gas and take the molecular
weight of oxygen to be M = 32 kg/kmole.
Data: m = 0.4 kg; p1= 1.01 bar; t1= 22oC

p2 = 5.5 bar; W=? Q=?
From the equation

R
R= 0
M
8314
=
32
= 260 J/kgK
= 0.260 kJ/kgK
For an isothermal process

Work input,
p
W = mRTln 2
p1
5.5
= 0.4 x 0.260 x (22 + 273) ln
1.01
= 52 kJ
In an isothermal process all the work input is rejected as heat.

Therefore, heat rejected, Q = W = 52 kJ
Example 4.2
In a thermally insulated reciprocating air compressor, air at 0.98 bar and 20oC
is compressed into one sixth of its original volume. Determine the pressure and
temperature of the air after compression. If the compressor cylinder contains
0.05 kg of air, calculate the required work input. For air, take γ = 1.4 and
cv = 0.718 kJ/kgK.

Data : p1 = 0.98 bar; T1= 20 + 273 = 293 K
V2 1
= ; m = 0.05 kg; W = ?
V1 6
As the cylinder is well insulated the heat transfer is negligible and the process may
be treated as adiabatic.
Considering air as a perfect gas
γ
p 2 ⎡ V1 ⎤
From equation 4.4, =⎢ ⎥
p1 ⎣V2 ⎦
p2 = 0.98 x 61.4
= 12 bar
γ −1
T2 ⎡V 1 ⎤
From equation 4.6, =⎢ ⎥
T1 ⎣ V2 ⎦
T2 = 293 x 60.4
= 600 K
= 327oC
Re-writing equation 4.8 for an adiabatic compression process
W = mcv(T2-T1) [larger T- smaller T]

= 0.05 x 0.718 (600-293)
= 11 kJ
Activity 4

NEXT INPUT…!
4.1 In the cylinder of a large engine, 1.0 kg of carbon dioxide at 527o C and
20 bar expands isothermally to a pressure of 1.4 bar. What is the final volume
of the gas?
Take R = 189 Nm/kgK for carbon dioxide.
4.2 1 kg of nitrogen (molecular weight 28) is compressed reversibly and

isothermally from 1.01 bar, 20oC to 4.2 bar. Calculate the work done and the
heat flow during the process. Assume nitrogen to be a perfect gas.
4.3 Air at 1.02 bar, 22oC, initially occupying a cylinder volume of 0.015 m3, is
compressed reversibly and adiabatically by a piston to a pressure of 6.8 bar.
Calculate the final temperature, the final volume, and the work done on the
mass of air in the cylinder.
Feedback to Activity 4
4.1 Data: m = 1.0 kg; T1= 527 + 273 = 800 K

p1 = 20 bar; p2= 1.4 bar; V2 = ?
Carbon dioxide is a perfect gas and we can apply the following characteristic
gas equation at state 1.
p1V1 = mRT1
mRT1
V1 =
p1
1x189 x800
=
20 x10 5
= 0.0756 m3
Applying the general property relation between state 1 and 2

p1V1 p 2V2
=
T1 T2
For an isothermal process T1 = T2

Hence,
p1V1 = p 2V2
20
V2 = x 0.0756
1.4
V2 = 1.08 m3
4.2 Data: m=1kg; M= 28 kg/kmole p1 = 1.01 bar;

T1 = 20 + 272 = 293 K; p2 = 4.2 bar
From equation
R
R= 0
M
8.314
=
28
= 0.297 kJ/kgK
The process is shown on a p-v diagram below. When a process takes place
from right to left on a p-v diagram the work done by the fluid is negative.
That is, work is done on the fluid.
p
4.2
pV=C
1.01
v
From equation 4.2

p1
W = mRT1 ln
p2
1.01
= 1 x 0.297x293x ln
4.2
= -124 kJ/kg
For an isothermal process for a perfect gas,

Q = W = -124 kJ/kg
4.3 Data: p1=1.02 bar; T1=22 + 273 = 295 K;

v1= 0.015 m3; p2= 6.8 bar
From equation 4.6

γ −1
T2 ⎡ p 2 ⎤ γ
=⎢ ⎥
T1 ⎣ p1 ⎦
(1.4 −1) / 1.4
⎛ 6.8 ⎞
T2 = 295 x ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1.02 ⎠
= 507.5 K
(where γ for air = 1.4)
i.e. Final temperature = 507.5 – 273 = 234.5oC
From equation 4.4

γ 1/ γ
p 2 ⎡ V1 ⎤ v1 ⎡ p 2 ⎤
=⎢ ⎥ or =⎢ ⎥
p1 ⎣V2 ⎦ v 2 ⎣ p1 ⎦
1 / 1.4
0.015 ⎛ 6.8 ⎞
∴ =⎜ ⎟
v2 ⎝ 1.02 ⎠
i.e. Final volume
v2 = 0.0038 m3
For an adiabatic process,

W = u1 – u2
and for a perfect gas,

W = cv(T1- T2)
= 0.718(295-507.5)
= - 152.8 kJ/kg
i.e. work input per kg = 152.8 kJ
The mass of air can be found using equation pV = mRT

p1v1 1.02 x10 5 x0.015
∴ m= = = 0.018kg
RT1 0.287 x10 3195
i.e. Total work done = 0.0181 x 152.8 = 2.76 kJ
SELF-ASSESSMENT
1. 0.05 m3 of a perfect gas at 6.3 bar undergoes a reversible isothermal process

to a pressure of 1.05 bar. Calculate the heat flow to or from the gas.
2. Nitrogen (molecular weight 28) expands reversibly in a perfectly thermally

insulated cylinder from 2.5 bar, 200oC to a volume of 0.09 m3. If the initial
volume occupied was 0.03 m3, calculate the work done during the expansion.
Assume nitrogen to be a perfect gas and take cv = 0.741 kJ/kg K.
3. A mass of 0.05 kg of air at a temperature of 40oC and a pressure of 1 bar is

compressed adiabatically to 5 bar. Determine the following:
a) final temperature
b) final volume
c) work transfer
d) heat transfer
e) change in internal energy
4. A quantity of gas occupies a volume of 0.3 m3 at a pressure of 100 kN/m2

and a temperature of 20oC. The gas is compressed isothermally to a pressure
of 500 kN/m2 and then expanded adiabatically to its initial volume.
For this quantity of gas determine the following:
a) the heat received or rejected (state which) during the compression,
b) the change of internal energy during the expansion,
c) the mass of gas.
1. 56.4 kJ
2. 9.31 kJ
3. 222.7oC, 14230 cm3, 6.56 kJ input, 0 kJ, 6.56 kJ increase.
4. – 48.3 kJ (heat rejected), -35.5 kJ, 0.358 kg
CONGRATULATIONS!!!!
You can now move on to
Unit 5…
UNIT 5
NON-FLOW PROCESS
OBJECTIVES
General Objective : To understand and apply the concept of non-flow process in

thermodynamics
define and calculate the following non-flow processes:
• polytropic
• constant volume
• constant pressure
INPUT
5.0 NON-FLOW PROCESS

Processes, which are
undergone by a system
when the working fluid
cannot cross the
boundary, are called
non-flow process.
In a close system, although energy may be transferred across the boundary in the
form of work energy and heat energy, the working fluid itself never crosses the
boundary. Any process undergone by a close system is referred to as non-flow
process.
The equation for non-flow process is given as follows:
U1 + Q = U2 + W
or, U2 – U1 = Q –W
In words, this equation states that in a non-flow process, the change in the internal
energy of the fluid is equal to the nett amount of heat energy supplied to the fluid
minus the nett amount of work energy flowing from the fluid.
This equation is known as the non-flow energy equation, and it will now be
shown how this may apply to the various non-flow processes.
5.1 Polytropic process (pVn = C)
This is the most general type of process, in which both heat energy and work
energy cross the boundary of the system. It is represented by an equation in the
form
pVn = constant (5.1)
If a compression or expansion is performed slowly, and if the piston cylinder

assembly is cooled perfectly, then the process will be isothermal. In this case the
index n = 1.
If a compression or expansion is performed rapidly, and if the piston cylinder

assembly is perfectly insulated, then the process will be adiabatic. In this case the
index n = γ.
If a compression or expansion is performed at moderate speed, and if the piston

cylinder assembly is cooled to some degree, then the process is somewhere
between those discussed above. Generally, this is the situation in many
engineering applications. In this case the index n should take some value, which is
between 1 and γ depending on the degree of cooling.
Some practical examples include:

compression in a stationary air compressor (n = 1.3)
compression in an air compressor cooled by a fan (n = 1.2)
compression in a water cooled air compressor (n = 1.1)
P
1 pVn=C
W P1
2
P2
v1 v2 v
Qloss
Figure 5.1 Polytropic process
Equation 5.1 is applied at states 1 and 2 as:
p1V1n = p 2V2n
or
n
p 2 ⎡ V1 ⎤
=⎢ ⎥ (5.2)
p1 ⎣V2 ⎦
Also, for a perfect gas, the general property relation between the two states is
given by
p1V1 p 2V2
= (5.3)
T1 T2
By the manipulation of equations 5.2 and 5.3 the following relationship can be
determined:
n −1
n −1
T2 ⎡ p 2 ⎤ n ⎡V ⎤
=⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ 1⎥ (5.4)
T1 ⎣ p1 ⎦ ⎣ V2 ⎦
By examining equations 5.2 and 5.4 the following conclusions for a polytropic
process on a perfect gas can be drawn as:
An increase in volume results in a decrease in pressure.

An increase in volume results in a decrease in temperature.
An increase in pressure results in an increase in temperature.
Work transfer:
Referring to the process represented on the p-V diagram (Fig.5.1) it is noted that
the volume increases during the process.
In other words the fluid is expands and the expansion work is given by
2
W = ∫ pdV
1
2
c
=∫ n
dV (since pVn = C, a constant)
1V
2
dV
= c∫ n
1 V
p1V1 − p 2V2
= [larger pV- small pV] (5.5)
n −1
Note that after expansion p2 is smaller than p1. In the p – V diagram, the shaded
area under the process represents the amount of work transfer.
Since this is an expansion process (i.e. increase in volume), the work is done by
the system. In other words, the system produces work output and this is shown by
the direction of the arrow representing W as shown in Fig. 5.1.
Heat transfer:
Energy balance is applied to this case (Fig.5.1) as:
U1 – Qloss - W = U2
Qloss = (U1 – U2) – W
or
W = (U1 – U2) - Qloss
Thus, in a polytropic expansion the work output is reduced because of the heat
loses.
Referring to the process represented on the p–V diagram (Fig.5.1) it is noted that
during this process the volume increases and the pressure decreases. For a perfect
gas, equation 5.4 tells us that a decrease in pressure will result in a temperature
drop.
For adiabatic process:

p V − p 2V2
W= 1 1
γ −1
For polytropic process:
p V − p 2V2
W= 1 1
n −1
Example 5.1
The combustion gases in a petrol engine cylinder are at 30 bar and 800oC
V 8.5
before expansion. The gases expand through a volume ratio ( 2 ) of ( )
V1 1
and occupy 510 cm3 after expansion. When the engine is air cooled the
polytropic expansion index n = 1.15. What is the temperature and pressure of
the gas after expansion, and what is the work output?

V2 = 510 cm3
P1= 30 bar p2 = ?
t1 = 800oC Qloss t2 = ?
State 1 State 2
Data: p1 = 30 bar; T1 = 800 + 273 = 1073 K; n = 1.15
V2
= 8.5; V2 = 510 cm3;
V1
t2 = ? p2 = ? W=?
Considering air as a perfect gas, for the polytropic process, the property relation is
given by equation 5.4 as:
n −1
⎡V ⎤
T2 = T1 ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎣ V2 ⎦
1.15−1
⎡ 1 ⎤
= 1073 x ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 8.5 ⎦
= 778.4 K
= 505.4oC
From equation 5.2
n
⎡V ⎤
p 2 = p1 ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎣V2 ⎦
1.15
⎡ 1 ⎤
= 30 x ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 8.5 ⎦
= 2.56 bar
Now,
V2 = 510 cm3 = 510 x 10-6 m3
and,
V2
= 8.5
V1
Then,
510 x10 −6
V1 =
8.5
= 60 x 10-6 m3
Work output during polytropic expansion is given by equation 5.5 as:
p1V1 − p 2V2
W = [larger pV- small pV]
n −1
(30 x10 5 )(60 x10 −6 ) − (2.56 x10 5 ) − (510 x10 −6 )
=
1.15 − 1
= 330 J
= 0.33 kJ
Activity 5A

NEXT INPUT…!
5.1 0.112 m3 of gas has a pressure of 138 kN/m2. It is compressed to

690 kN/m2 according to the law pV1.4 = C. Determine the new volume of
the gas.
5.2 0.014 m3 of gas at a pressure of 2070 kN/m2 expands to a pressure of

207 kN/m2 according to the law pV1.35 = C. Determine the work done by
the gas during expansion.
5.3 A cylinder containing 0.07 kg of fluid has a pressure of 1 bar, a volume of

0.06 m3 and a specific internal energy of 200 kJ/kg. After polytropic
compression, the pressure and volume of the fluid are 9 bar and 0.011 m3
respectively, and the specific internal energy is 370 kJ/kg.
Determine
a) the amount of work energy required for the compression
b) the quantity and direction of the heat energy that flows during the
compression.
5.1 Since the gas is compressed according to the law pV1.4 = C, then,
p1V11.4 = p 2V21.4
1.4 1 / 1.4
p1 ⎡V2 ⎤ V ⎛p ⎞
∴ =⎢ ⎥ or 2 = ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟
p 2 ⎣ V1 ⎦ V1 ⎝ p 2 ⎠
from which,
1 / 1.4
⎛p ⎞ p1
V2 = V1 ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ = V1 1.4
⎝ p2 ⎠ p2
138
= 0.012 x 1.4
690
= 0.0348 m3
5.2 The work done during a polytropic expansion is given by the expression:
p1V1 − p 2V2
W = [larger pV- small pV]
n −1
In this problem V2 is, as yet, unknown and must therefore be calculated.

Now
p1V1n = p 2V2n
1/ n
⎛p ⎞
∴ V2 = V1 ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟
⎝ p2 ⎠
1 / 1.35
⎛ 2070 ⎞
or V2 = 0.014 x ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 207 ⎠
V2 = 0.077 m3
(2070 x10 3 x0.014 − 207 x10 3 x0.077)

∴ Work done =
1.35 − 1
= 37.3 x 103 Nm
= 37.3 x 103 J
= 37.3 kJ
5.3 a) For a polytropic process,

p1V1n = p 2V2n
In the given case

1 x 0.06n = 9 x 0.011n
n
⎛ 0.06 ⎞
∴ ⎜ ⎟ =9
⎝ 0.011 ⎠
n = 1.302
p1V1 − p 2V2
W =
n −1
(1x10 5 x0.06) − (9 x10 5 x0.0111)
=
1.302 − 1
= -13.2 kJ
The negative sign indicates that work energy would flow into the
system during the process.
b) The non-flow energy equation gives
Q – W = U2 – U1
Q – (- 13.2) = ( 370 x 0.07 ) – ( 200 x 0.07 )
∴ Q = - 1.3 kJ
The negative sign indicates that heat energy will flow out of the
fluid during the process.
INPUT
5.2 Constant volume process
If the change in volume during a process is very small then that process may be
approximated as a constant volume process. For example, heating or cooling a
fluid in a rigid walled vessel can be analysed by assuming that the volume
remains constant.
Q
p 2 p 1
1 2
Q v v
a) Heating b) Cooling
Figure 5.2 Constant volume process (V2=V1)
The general property relation between the initial and final states of a perfect gas is
applied as:
p1V1 p 2V2
=
T1 T2
If the volume remain constant during the process, V2 = V1 and then the above
relation becomes
p1 p 2
=
T1 T2
or
T2 p
= 2 (5.6)
T1 p1
From this equation it can be seen that an increase in pressure results from an
increase in temperature. In other words, in constant volume process, the
temperature is proportional to the pressure.
Work transfer:
Work transfer (pdV) must be zero because the change in volume, dV, during the
process is zero. However, work in the form of paddle-wheel work may be
transferred.
Heat transfer:
Applying the non flow energy equation
Q – W = U2 – U1
gives Q – 0 = U2 – U1
i.e. Q = U2 – U1 (5.7)
This result, which is important and should be remembered, shows that the nett
amount of heat energy supplied to or taken from a fluid during a constant volume
process is equal to the change in the internal energy of the fluid.
5.3 Constant pressure process
If the change in pressure during a process is very small then that process may be
approximated as a constant pressure process. For example, heating or cooling a
liquid at atmospheric pressure may be analysed by assuming that the pressure
remains constant.
P
W
1 2
p
v
Q v1 v2 – v1
v2
Figure 5.3 Constant pressure process
Consider the fluid in the piston cylinder as shown in Figure 5.2. If the load on the
piston is kept constant the pressure will also remain constant.
The general property relation between the initial and final states of a perfect gas is
applied as:
p1V1 p 2V2
=
T1 T2
If the pressure remain constant during the process, p2 = p1 and then the above
relation becomes
V1 V2
=
T1 T2
or
T2 V2
= (5.8)
T1 V1
From this equation it can be seen that an increase in volume results from an
increase in temperature. In other words, in constant pressure process, the
temperature is proportional to the volume.
Work transfer:
Referring to the process representation on the p-V diagram it is noted that the
volume increases during the process. In other words, the fluid expands. This
expansion work is given by
2
W = ∫ pdV
1
2
= p ∫ dV (since p is constant)
1
= p (V2 – V1) (larger volume – smaller volume) (5.9)
Note that on a p-V diagram, the area under the process line represents the amount
of work transfer. From Figure 5.3
W = area of the shaded rectangle

= height x width
= p (V2 – V1) (larger volume – smaller volume)
This expression is identical to equation 5.9
Heat transfer:
Applying the non flow energy equation
Q – W = U2 – U1
or Q = (U2 – U1) + W (5.10)
Thus part of the heat supplied is converted into work and the remainder is utilized
in increasing the internal energy of the system.
Substituting for W in equation 5.10
Q = (U2 – U1) + p(V2 – V1)

= U2 – U1 + p2 V2 – p1 V1 (since p2 = p1 )
= (U2 + p2 V2) – (U1 + p1 V1)
Now, we know that h = u + pv or H = U + pV

Hence
Q = H2 – H1 (larger H – smaller H) (5.11)
Referring to the process representation on the p-v diagram shown in Figure 5.3, it
is noted that heating increases the volume. In other words, the fluid expands. For
a perfect gas, equation 5.8 tells us that an increase in volume will result in
corresponding increase in temperature.
For constant volume process:

W=0
For constant pressure process:
W = p (V2 – V1)
Example 5.2
The specific internal energy of a fluid is increased from 120 kJ/kg to 180 kJ/kg
during a constant volume process. Determine the amount of heat energy
required to bring about this increase for 2 kg of fluid.
The non flow energy equation is

Q – W = U2 – U1
For a constant volume process

W=0
and the equation becomes

Q = U2 – U1
∴ Q = 180 – 120
= 60 kJ/kg
Therefore for 2 kg of fluid

Q = 60 x 2 = 120 kJ
i.e. 120 kJ of heat energy would be required.
Example 5.3
2.25 kg of fluid having a volume of 0.1 m3 is in a cylinder at a constant

pressure of 7 bar. Heat energy is supplied to the fluid until the volume
becomes 0.2 m3. If the initial and final specific enthalpies of the fluid are
210 kJ/kg and 280 kJ/kg respectively, determine
a) the quantity of heat energy supplied to the fluid
b) the change in internal energy of the fluid

Data: p = 7.0 bar; V1 = 0.1 m3 ; V2 = 0.2 m3
a) Heat energy supplied = change in enthalpy of fluid

Q = H2 – H1
= m( h2 - h1 )
= 2.25( 280 – 210 )
= 157.5 kJ
b) For a constant pressure process

W = P(V2 – V1)
= 7 x 105 x ( 0.2 – 0.1)
= 7 x 104 J
= 70 kJ
Applying the non-flow energy equation

Q – W = U2 – U1
gives
U2 – U1 = 157.5 – 70
= 87.5 kJ
Activity 5B

NEXT INPUT…!
5.4 The pressure of the gas inside an aerosol can is 1.2 bar at a temperature of
25o C. Will the aerosol explode if it is thrown into a fire and heated to a
temperature of 600o C? Assume that the aerosol can is unable to withstand
pressure in excess of 3 bar.
5.5 0.05 kg of air, initially at 130o C is heated at a constant pressure of 2 bar

until the volume occupied is 0.0658 m3. Calculate the heat supplied and
the work done.
5.6 A spherical research balloon is filled with 420 m3 of atmospheric air at a

temperature of 10o C. If the air inside the balloon is heated to 80oC at
constant pressure, what will be the final diameter of the balloon?
5.4 Data: p1 = 1.2 bar; T1= 25 + 273 = 298 K

T2 = 600 + 273 = 873 K; p2 = ?
We can idealize this process at constant volume heating of a perfect gas.

Applying the general property relation between states 1 and 2
p1V1 p 2V2
=
T1 T2
in this case V2 = V1
p p
Hence, 1 = 2
T1 T2
T
or p 2 = p1 2
T2
873
= 1.2 x
298
= 3.52 bar
Since the aerosol cannot withstand pressures above 3 bar, it will clearly
explode in the fire.
5.5 Data: m = 0.5 kg; p = 2 bar; V2 = 0.0658 m3;

T1 = 130 + 273 =403 K
Using the characteristic gas equation at state 2
p 2V2
T2 =
mR
2 x 10 5 x 0.0658
=
0.05 x 0.287 x 10 3
= 917 K
For a perfect gas undergoing a constant pressure process, we have
Q = mcp(T2 – T1)
i.e. Heat supplied = 0.05 x 1.005(917 – 403)

= 25.83 kJ
W = p (V2 – V1)
From equation pV = RT
∴ Work done = R (T2 – T1)

= 0.287(917 – 403)
i.e. Work done by the mass of gas present = 0.05 x 0.287 x 514
= 7.38 kJ
5.6 Data: T1 = 10 + 273 = 283 K; T2 = 80 + 273 = 353 K

V1 = 420 m3; V2 = ?
Applying the general property relation between states 1 and 2
p1V1 p 2V2
=
T1 T2
Since the air is heated at constant pressure p1 = p2
Then,
V1 V2
=
T1 T2
T
or V2 = V1 2
T1
353
= 420 x
283
= 523.9 m3
4 3
Since the balloon is a sphere, V2 = πr
3
where r = radius of the balloon
Hence,
4
523.9 = πr 3
3
Solving gives r=5m
Final diameter of balloon, d = 2r = 2 x 5 = 10 m
SELF-ASSESSMENT
Assessment on the next page. If you face any problem, discuss it with your
lecturer. Good luck.
1. A receiver vessel in a steam plant contains 20 kg of steam at 60 bar and

500oC. When the plant is switched off, the steam in the vessel cools at
constant volume until the pressure is 30 bar. Find the temperature of the
steam after cooling and the heat transfer that has taken place.
2. 0.25 kg of combustion gas in a diesel engine cylinder is at temperature of

727oC. The gas expands at constant pressure until its volume is 1.8 times
its original value. For the combustion gas, R = 0.302 kJ/kgK and
cp = 1.09 kJ/kgK. Find the following:
a) temperature of the gas after expansion
b) heat transferred
c) work transferred
3. A quantity of gas has an initial pressure and volume of 0.1 MN/m2 and
0.1 m3, respectively. It is compressed to a final pressure of 1.4 MN/m2
according to the law pV1.26 = constant. Determine the final volume of the
gas.
4. A mass of 0.05 kg of air at a temperature of 40oC and a pressure of 1 bar is

compressed polytropicly following the law pV1.25 = C. Determine the
following:
a) final temperature
b) final volume
c) work transfer
d) heat transfer
e) change in internal energy
1. 233.8oC; 14380 kJ rejected
2. 1527oC; 218 kJ added; 60.4 kJ output
3. 0.01235 m3
4. 158.9oC; 12390 cm3; 6.82 kJ input; 2.56 kJ rejected; 4.26 kJ increase
CONGRATULATIONS!
!!!…May success be
with you always…
FLOW PROCESS J2006/6/1
UNIT 6
FLOW PROCESS
OBJECTIVES
General Objective: To understand the concept of flow process and its application in
steady flow energy equation.
¾ derive the meaning and interpret the steady-flow energy

equation
¾ apply the steady-flow energy equation to :
• boiler
• condenser
UNIT 7
FLOW PROCESS
OBJECTIVES
General Objective: To understand the application of steady flow energy equation.
¾ apply the steady-flow energy equation to :
• turbine
• nozzle
• throttle
• pump
INPUT
7.0 APPLICATION OF STEADY FLOW EQUATION
Do you know the

application of steady
flow equation for
turbine?
The steady flow energy equation may be applied to any apparatus through which a
fluid is flowing, provided the conditions stated in Unit 6 are applicable. Some of the
most common cases found in engineering practise will now be dealt with in detail.
7.0.1 Turbine
A turbine is a device which uses a pressure drop to produce work energy

which is used to drive an external load.
FLUID IN
SYSTEM
BOUNDARY
2
FLUID OUT
Figure 7.0.1 Turbine
The steady flow energy equation gives
⎡ ⎛ C 2 − C12 ⎞ ⎤
Q − W = m ⎢(h2 − h1 ) + ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ + ( gZ 2 − gZ 1 )⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦⎥
Points to note :
i. The average velocity of flow of fluid through a turbine is normally
high, and the fluid passes quickly through the turbine. It may be
assumed that, because of this, heat energy does not have time to flow
into or out of the fluid during its passage through the turbine, and
hence Q = 0 .
ii. Although velocities are high the difference between them is not large,
and the term representing the change in kinetic energy may be
neglected.
iii. Potential energy is generally small enough to be neglected.
iv. W is the amount of external work energy produced per second.
The steady flow energy equation becomes
- W = m (h2 − h1 )
or W = m (h1 − h2 ) (7.1)
7.0.2 Nozzle
A nozzle utilises a pressure drop to produce an increase in the kinetic energy

of the fluid.
2
BOUNDARY
SYSTEM
FLUID FLUID
IN OUT
Figure 7.0.2 Nozzle
⎡ ⎛ C 2 − C12 ⎞ ⎤
Q − W = m ⎢(h2 − h1 ) + ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ + ( gZ 2 − gZ 1 )⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦⎥
Points to note :
i. The average velocity of flow through a nozzle is high, hence the fluid
spends only a short time in the nozzle. For this reason, it may be
assumed that there is insufficient time for heat energy to flow into or
out of the fluid during its passage through the nozzle, i.e. Q = 0.
ii. Since a nozzle has no moving parts, no work energy will be
transferred to or from the fluid as it passes through the nozzle,
i.e. W = 0.
iii. Potential energy is generally small enough to be neglected.
Hence the equation becomes
⎡ ⎛ C 2 − C12 ⎞⎤
0 = m ⎢(h2 − h1 ) + ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎥⎦
Often C1 is negligible compared with C2. In this case the equation becomes
⎡ ⎛C2 ⎞⎤
0 = m ⎢(h2 − h1 ) + ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎥⎦
C 22
or = (h1 − h2 )
2
or C 2 = 2(h1 − h2 ) (7.2)
Example 7.1
A fluid flows through a turbine at the rate of 45 kg/min. Across the turbine the
specific enthalpy drop of the fluid is 580 kJ/kg and the turbine loss 2100 kJ/min
in the form of heat energy. Determine the power produced by the turbine,
assuming that changes in kinetic and potential energy may be neglected.
⎡ ⎛ C 22 − C12 ⎞ ⎤
Q − W = m ⎢(h2 − h1 ) + ⎜⎜
⎟⎟ + ( gZ 2 − gZ 1 )⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
Q = heat energy flow into system = -2100 kJ/min

W = work energy flow from system kJ/min
m = fluid flow rate = 45 kg/min
h2 - h1 = -580 kJ/kg
C1& C2 = neglected
Z1& Z2 = neglected
Therefore the steady flow energy equation becomes
-2100 kJ/min – W = 45 kg/min (-580 kJ/kg)

W = (26100 – 2100) kJ/min
= 24000 kJ/min
= 400 kJ/s
= 400 kW
Example 7.2
Fluid with a specific enthalpy of 2800 kJ/kg enters a horizontal nozzle with
negligible velocity at the rate of 14 kg/s. At the outlet from the nozzle the
specific enthalpy and specific volume of the fluid are 2250 kJ/kg and
1.25 m3/kg respectively. Assuming an adiabatic flow, determine the required
outlet area of the nozzle.
⎡ ⎛ C 2 − C12 ⎞ ⎤
Q − W = m ⎢(h2 − h1 ) + ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ + ( gZ 2 − gZ 1 )⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦⎥
When applied to the nozzle, this becomes
⎡ ⎛ C 2 − C12 ⎞⎤
0 = m ⎢(h2 − h1 ) + ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎥⎦
Since the inlet C1 is negligible, this may be written as
C 22 = 2(h1 − h2 )
= √ [2(2800 – 22500]
= 1050 m/s
Applying the equation of continuity at outlet gives
A2C2
m =
v2
A2 x 1050 m/s
14 kg/s =
1.25 m 3 /kg
A2 = 0.01668 m2
Activity 7A

NEXT INPUT…!
7.1 Steam enters a turbine with a velocity of 16 m/s and specific enthalpy
2990 kJ/kg. The steam leaves the turbine with a velocity of 37 m/s and
specific enthalpy 2530 kJ/kg. The heat lost to the surroundings as the steam
passes through the turbine is 25 kJ/kg. The steam flow rate is 324000 kg/h.
Determine the work output from the turbine in kilowatts.
7.2 In a turbo jet engine the momentum of the gases leaving the nozzle produces
the propulsive force. The enthalpy and velocity of the gases at the nozzle
entrance are 1200 kJ/kg and 200 m/s respectively. The enthalpy of the gas at
exit is 900 kJ/kg. If the heat loss from the nozzle is negligible, determine the
velocity of the gas jet at exit from the nozzle.
Feedback to Activity 7A
7.1 Neglecting the changes in potential energy, the steady flow energy equation
is
⎡ ⎛ C 2 − C12 ⎞⎤
Q − W = ⎢(h2 − h1 ) + ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎥⎦
Q is negative since heat is lost from the steam to the surroundings
⎛ C 2 − C 22 ⎞
∴specific W = (h1 − h2 ) + ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ - Q
⎝ 2 ⎠
(16 2 − 37 2 )
= (2999-2530) + − 25
2 x10 3
= 434.443 kJ/kg
The steam flow rate = 324000/3600 = 90 kg/s
∴ W = 434.443 x 90
= 39099.97 kJ/s or kW
≈ 39100 kW
≈ 39.1 MW
7.2 The steady energy flow equation for nozzle gives
⎡ ⎛ C 2 − C12 ⎞⎤
0 = m ⎢(h2 − h1 ) + ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦⎥
On simplification,
C 2 = 2(h1 − h2 ) +C12
= √2(1200x 103- 900x 103) + 2002
= 800 m/s
INPUT
7.0.3 THROTTLE
A throttling process is one in which the fluid is made to flow through a restriction ,
e.g. a partially opened valve or orifice, causing a considerable drop in the pressure
of the fluid.
Figure 7.0.3 Throttling process
⎡ ⎛ C 22 − C12 ⎞ ⎤
Q − W = m ⎢(h2 − h1 ) + ⎜⎜
⎟⎟ + ( gZ 2 − gZ 1 )⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦⎥
Points to note:
i. Since throttling takes place over a very small distance, the available area
through which heat energy can flow is very small, and it is normally
assumed that no energy is lost by heat transfer, i.e. Q = 0.
ii. Since there are no moving parts, no energy can be transferred in the form of
work energy, i.e. W = 0.
iii. The difference between C1 and C2 will not be great and consequently the
term representing the change in kinetic energy is normally neglected.
iv. The potential energy is generally small enough to be neglected.
The steady flow energy equation becomes
0 = m (h2 - h1)
or h2 = h1 (7.3)
i.e. during a throttling process the enthalpy remains constant.
7.0.4 Pump
The action of a pump is the reverse of that of a turbine, i.e. it uses external
work energy to produce a pressure rise. In applying the steady flow energy
equation to a pump, exactly the same arguments are used as for turbine and
the equation becomes
- W = m (h2 − h1 ) (7.4)
Since h2 > h1, W will be found to be negative.
OUTLET
SYSTEM
BOUNDARY
INLET
Figure 7.0.4 Pump
7.1 Equation of Continuity

This is an equation which is often used in conjunction with the steady flow
energy equation. It is based on the fact that if a system is in a steady state,
then the mass of fluid passing any section during a specified time must be
constant. Consider a mass of m kg/s flowing through a system in which all
conditions are steady as illustrated in Fig.7.5.
2
C1 C2
AREA A2
2
AREA A1
Figure 7.1 Mass flowing through a system
Let A1 and A2 represent the flow areas in m2 at the inlet and outlet
respectively.
Let v1 and v2 represent the specific volumes in m3/kg at the inlet and outlet
respectively.
Let C1 and C2 represent the velocities in m/s, at the inlet and outlet
respectively.
Then mass flowing per sec = volume flowing per sec m3/s
volume per kg m3/kg
A C kg
= 1 1 at inlet
v1 s
A2 C 2 kg
= at outlet
v2 s
A1C1 A2 C 2
i.e. m = = (7.5)
v1 v2
Example 7.3
A fluid flowing along a pipeline undergoes a throttling process from 10 bar to 1

bar in passing through a partially open valve. Before throttling, the specific
volume of the fluid is 0.3 m3/kg and after throttling is 1.8 m3/kg. Determine the
change in specific internal energy during the throttling process.
For a throttling process, the steady flow energy equation becomes
0 = m (h2 - h1)
or h2 = h1
But h2 = u2 + P2v2
and h1= u1 + P1v1
Therefore the change in specific internal energy

= u2 – u1
= ( h2 - P2v2 ) - ( h1 – P1v1)
= ( h2 - h1 ) – ( P2v2 - P1v1 )
= 0 – ( 1 x 1.8 – 10 x 0.3 ) bar m3/kg
= 120 x 10 Nm/kg
= 120 kJ/kg
Example 7.4
A pump delivers fluid at the rate of 45 kg/min. At the inlet to the pump the
specific enthalpy of the fluid is 46 kJ/kg, and at the outlet from the pump the
specific enthalpy of the fluid is 175 kJ/kg. If 105 kJ/min of heat energy are lost to
the surroundings by the pump, determine the power required to drive the pump if
the efficiency of the drive is 85 %.
The flow rate of fluid = 45 kg/min

= 0.75 kg/s
The steady flow energy is
⎡ ⎛ C 2 − C12 ⎞ ⎤
Q − W = m ⎢(h2 − h1 ) + ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ + ( gZ 2 − gZ 1 )⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
Q = - 105 kJ/min = - 1.75 kJ/s

W = work energy flow (kJ/s)
h1 = 46 kJ/kg
h2 = 1.27 kJ/kg
m = 0.75 kg/s
The kinetic and potential energy may be neglected
Substituting the data above with the steady flow energy equation gives
- 1.75 – W = 0.75 (175 – 46)

W = -1.75 – (0.75 x 129)
= - 98.5 kJ/s
= - 98.5 kW
(N.B. The negative sign indicates work energy required by the pump)
Since the efficiency of the drive is 85 %
100
Power required by the compressor = 98.5 x
85
= 114.8 kW
Turbine
W = m (h1 − h2 )
&
Pump
- W = m (h2 − h1 )
Activity 7B

NEXT INPUT…!
7.3 A rotary air pump is required to deliver 900 kg of air per hour. The enthalpy
at the inlet and exit of the pump are 300 kJ/kg and 500 kJ/kg respectively.
The air velocity at the entrance and exit are 10 m/s and 15 m/s respectively.
The rate of heat loss from the pump is 2500 W. Determine the power
required to drive the pump.
7.4 In activity 7A, for question No. 7.2, if the diameter of the nozzle at exit is
500 mm, find the mass flow rate of gas. The gas density at the nozzle inlet
and exit are 0.81 kg/m3 and 0.39 kg/m3 respectively. Also determine the
diameter of the nozzle at the inlet.
Feedback to Activity 7B
900
7.3 Data : m = = 0.25 kg/s
3600
h1 = 300 kJ/kg
h2 = 500 kJ/kg
C1= 10 m/s
C2= 15 m/s
Q = 2500 W = 2.5 kW
W=?
⎡ ⎛ C 2 − C12 ⎞ ⎤
Q − W = m ⎢(h2 − h1 ) + ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ + ( gZ 2 − gZ 1 )⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
Neglecting the change in Potential energy since it is negligible
⎡ ⎛ C 22 − C12 ⎞ ⎤
Q − W = m ⎢(h2 − h1 ) + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦⎥
15 2 − 10 2
-W = 0.25 [( 500- 300) + ( )] + 2.5
2 x10 3
-W = 52.5 kW
0.5 2
7.4 Data : A2 = π = 0.196 m2
4
ρ1 = 0.81 kg/m3
ρ2 = 0.39 kg/m3
m = ?
d =?
Mass flow rate at exit,
m = A2 C2 ρ2
= 61.2 kg/s
From the mass balance,

Mass entering the nozzle = mass leaving the nozzle = m
m = A1 C1 ρ1 = A2 C2 ρ2
On substitution
A1 x 200 x 0.81 = 61.2
On simplification
A1 = 0.378 m2
or
d1 = 0.694 m
= 694 mm
SELF-ASSESSMENT
1 Steam flows through a turbine stage at the rate of 4500 kJ/h. The steam
velocities at inlet and outlet are 15 m/s and 180 m/s respectively. The rate of
heat energy flow from the turbine casing to the surroundings is 23 kJ/kg of
steam flowing. If the specific enthalpy of the steam decreases by 420 kJ/kg in
passing through the turbine stage, calculate the power developed.
2 A rotary pump draws 600 kg/hour of atmospheric air and delivers it at a

higher pressure. The specific enthalpy of air at the pump inlet is 300 kJ/kg
and that at the exit is 509 kJ/kg. The heat lost from the pump casing is
5000 W. Neglecting the changes in kinetic and potential energy, determine
the power required to drive the pump.
3 A nozzle is supplied with steam having a specific enthalpy of 2780 kJ/kg at

the rate of 9.1 kg/min. At outlet from the nozzle the velocity of the steam is
1070 m/s. Assuming that the inlet velocity of the steam is negligible and that
the process is adiabatic, determine:
a) the specific enthalpy of the steam at the nozzle exit
b) the outlet area required if the final specific volume of the steam is
18.75 m3/kg.
4 Fluid at 10.35 bar having a specific volume of 0.18 m3/kg is throttled to a

pressure of 1 bar. If the specific volume of the fluid after throttling is
0.107 m3/kg, calculate the change in specific internal energy during the
process.
1. 476 kW
2. 353 kW
3. 2208 kJ/kg; 2660 mm2
4. 175.7 kJ/kg
You can continue with the
next unit…
PROPERTIES OF STEAM J2006/8/1
UNIT 8
PROPERTIES OF STEAM
OBJECTIVES
General Objective : To define the properties of wet steam, dry saturated steam and
superheated steam using information from the steam tables.
define the word phase and distinguish the solid, liquid and
steam phases
understand and use the fact that the vaporization process is
carried out at constant pressure
define and explain the following terms: saturation
temperature, saturated liquid, wet steam, saturated steam, dry
saturated steam, , dryness fraction and superheated steam
determine the properties of steam using the P-v diagram
understand and use the nomenclature as in the Steam Tables
apply single and double interpolation using the steam tables
locate the correct steam tables for interpolation, including
interpolation between saturation tables and superheated tables
where necessary
THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS J2006/9/1
UNIT 9
THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
OBJECTIVES
General Objective : To define and explain the Second Law of Thermodynamics and
perform calculations involving the expansion and compression of
steam and gases.
state the definition of the Second Law of Thermodynamics

explain the Second Law of Thermodynamics
estimate the efficiency of heat engine
explain entropy and entropy change
sketch processes on a temperature-entropy diagram
understand that Q = h2 – h1 and apply the formula in
calculations
calculate the change of entropy, work and heat transfer of
steam in reversible processes at:
i. constant pressure process
ii. constant volume process
iii. constant temperature (or isothermal) process
iv. adiabatic (or isentropic) process
v. polytropic process
THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS J2006/10/1
UNIT 10
THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
OBJECTIVES
General Objective : To define and explain the Second Law of Thermodynamics and
perform calculations involving the expansion and compression of
perfect gases.
sketch the processes on a temperature-entropy diagram

calculate the change of entropy, work and heat transfer of
perfect gases in reversible processes at:
i. constant pressure process
ii. constant volume process
iii. constant temperature (or isothermal) process
iv. adiabatic (or isentropic) process
v. polytropic process
THE STEAM POWER CYCLE J2006/11/1
UNIT 11
THE STEAM POWER CYCLE
OBJECTIVES
General Objective : To understand and apply the concept of steam power cycle in
thermodynamics
define, derive, calculate and differentiate the following heat

engine cycle:
• Carnot cycle
• Rankine cycle

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J2006 THERMODYNAMICS 1 (0)

KAMARUZZAMAN BIN DAUD (PUO)

BIODATA OF MODULE WRITERS

Name : Kamaruzzaman b. Daud

Name : Roslan b. Hashim

What Do You Think Of This Module?

Title of Module: _______________________ Module Code : ___________

Student’s Name: _______________________ Registration No. : ___________

Module Writers: ______________________________

Please use the following scale for your evaluation:

Instruction : Please √ on the space provided.

No. TOPIC UNIT Total

3 Flow Process 6 7 4 Hours

5 The Second 9 10 6 Hours

6 The Steam Power 11 5 Hours

UNIT 1 BASIC THERMODYNAMICS

UNIT 2 BASIC THERMODYNAMICS

UNIT 3 BASIC THERMODYNAMICS

UNIT 4 NON-FLOW PROCESS

UNIT 5 NON-FLOW PROCESS

UNIT 6 FLOW PROCESS

UNIT 7 FLOW PROCESS

UNIT 8 PROPERTIES OF STEAM

UNIT 9 THE SECOND LAW OF THE THERMODYNAMICS

UNIT 10 THE SECOND LAW OF THE THERMODYNAMICS

UNIT 11 THE STEAM POWER CYCLE

1. This module is divided into 11 units.

Subject Page Number 5

5. You have to follow the units in sequence.

PREREQUISITE SKILLS AND KNOWLEDGE

At least a pass in Mathematics and Science at SPM level

1. understand the principles and concepts of units and dimensions

TEACHING AIDS AND RESOURCES NEEDED

2. Dr. Yunus A. Cengel & Boles, M.A.(1994). Thermodynamics: An Engineering

3. Eastop, T.D. and Mc Conkey, A.(1978). Applied Thermodynamics for

5. K. Iynkaran & David J. Tandy, (1993). Basic Thermodynamics: Applications and

6. Mayhew,Y.R. & Rogers, G.F.C., (1981). Thermodynamic and Transport

8. Moran,M.J. and Shapiro, H.N.(1988). Fundamentals of Engineering

9. Rayner Joel, (1971). Basic Engineering Thermodynamics in SI Units

General Objective : To understand the concept of units and dimensions

 state the difference between fundamentals and derived

 describe the physical quantities of thermodynamics

 understand the conversion units of thermodynamics

 calculate the examples of conversion factors

Could you give me an

When engineering calculations are performed, it is necessary to be concerned with

1.1 Fundamental and Derived Quantities

In the present discussion, we consider the system of units called SI (International

Length, mass, time, electric current, thermodynamic temperature and luminous

Quantity Unit Symbol

Area meter square m2

Newton’s second law may be written as force α (mass x acceleration), for a

i.e. F = kma (1.1)

(where m is the mass of a body accelerated with an acceleration a, by a force

The SI unit of work = force x distance in the Newton meter, Nm.

i.e. 1 Joule = 1 Newton x 1 meter

A more common unit for energy in SI is the kilo joule (1 kJ = 103 J)

The use of an additional name for composite units is extended further by

i.e. 1 Watt, W = 1 J/s = 1 N m/s

i.e. pressure = force/ area

1 bar = 105 N/m2 = 105 Pa

Density is the mass of a substance per unit volume.

The unit of density is kg/m3 .

Title of Module: _____________ Module Code : _

Student’s Name: _____________ Registration No. : _

state the difference between fundamentals and derived

describe the physical quantities of thermodynamics

understand the conversion units of thermodynamics

calculate the examples of conversion factors

Define the fundamental concepts of system, boundary,

explain the property, state and process of the working fluid

state the definitions of the First Law of Thermodynamics

describe the differences between work and heat transfer

define the definitions and show the application of internal