INSTITUT PENDIDIKAN GURU MALAYSIA

KAMPUS SULTAN MIZAN,BESUT,TERENGGANU

PROGRAM IJAZAH SARJANA MUDA PERGURUAN

SEMESTER 4 2009

KNOWLEDGE-BASE COURSEWORK
( PROJECT )

BASIC CALCULUS PISMP SEMESTER 4

( MTE 3108 )

NAME:
NOR FAZILAH BINTI JAMIL
880108-
SITI HAJAR AISHAH BINTI RAMLI
880605-11-6136

UNIT:
PISMP ( JAN/08/P/KPM ) MT

IPGM:
INSTITUT PENDIDIKAN GURU MALAYSIA
KAMPUS SULTAN MIZAN,BESUT,TRG

COORDINATOR’S NAME:
1) WAN JUSOH WAN AHMAD
2) MOHD ARIFF ABD RAHMAN

DATE OF SUBMISSION:
 CONTENT

NO. TOPIC PAGES

1 PROFILE

2 APPRECIATION

3 TASK QUESTION

4 TASK

5 GSP PROJECT

6 GRAPH

7 MANUAL CALCULATIONS

8 SIR ISAAC NEWTON AND

GOTTFRIED LEIBNITZ
9 APPENDIX

10 REFERENCES

11 COLLABORATION FORM
PROFILE
 SITI HAJAR AISHAH BT RAMLI
880605-11-6136
432, KG ALOR SURAU PANJANG
21070, KUALA TERENGGANU
013-9719158
5 JUN 1988
GLORIES AND DEFEATS, THE SPIRIT WILL NEVER
DIE
 NAMA:
NOR FAZILAH BINTI JAMIL
NO. I/C:
880108-06-5542
ALAMAT:
343 (F) SELANCAR 2, 26700 MUADZAN SHAH, PAHANG
NO MATRIK.:
4147
UNIT:
PISMP (JAN/08/P/KPM) MT
EMAIL :
iela_219@yahoo.com
NO TEL:
0139825281
APPRECIATION

APPRECIATION
 Assalamualaikum we bid to my Basic Calculus’ lecturer,Mr
Wan Jusoh Bin Wan Ahmad and also not to forget Mr. Mohd
Ariff bin Abd Rahman for giving me this assignment as the
Knowledge-Based Coursework for semester 4 2009.
In this assignment,we had to discover the GSP programs
and also to make a graph based on the calculus question.
Here,we would like to thanks to my lecturers for giving us
support and help in completing this coursework. Not to
forget,we also would like to thank to my beloved friends who
help me directly or indirectly in finishing this coursework.
So,we hope that with this assignment it will help us a lot in
basic calculus in the future.We also hope that this assignment
gives many benefits to us.

With this I thank you…

TASK QUESTION
TASK
GSP PROJECT
GRAPH
 MANUAL
CALCULATIONS

Graph the polynomial:

 F (x) = 2 x ³ + 3 x ² - 2 x + 5

Determine the maximum and minimum point using manual calculations.

F (x) = 2 x ³ + 3 x ² - 2 x + 5

dy
= 6x2 + 6x - 2
dx
For turning point:

dy
= 0,
dx

6x2 + 6x - 2 = 0

Cannot be factorized, so we use this formula to find the value of x.

-b �b 2 - 4ac
x=
2a

a = 6 , b = 6 ,c = -2
-6 + 84 -6 - 84
12 12
= 0.2638 = -1.2638

x = 0.2638
so, we get : x= -1.2638

d2y
= 12 x + 6
dx 2
= 12(0.2638) + 6
= 9.1656 > 0
= min

y = 2(0.2638)3 + 3(0.2638) 2 - 2(0.2638) + 5

= 4.7179
( 0.2638 , 4.7179 ) is minimum point
 d2y
= 12 x + 6
dx 2
= 12( -1.2638) + 6
= -9.1656 < 0
= max

y = 2(-1.2638)3 + 3( -1.2638) 2 - 2( -1.2638) + 5

= 8.282

( - 1.2638 , 8.282 ) is maximum point

 SIR ISAAC NEWTON
AND
GOTTFRIED LEIBNITZ

GOTTFRIED LEIBNITZ IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CALCULUS

 Like most discoveries, calculus was the culmination of centuries of work
rather than an instant epiphany. Mathematicians all over the world contributed to
its development, but the two most recognized discoverers of calculus are Isaac
Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. Although the credit is currently given to
both men, there was a time when the debate over which of them truly deserved
the recognition was both heated and widespread.

Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (July 1, 1646 in Leipzig - November 14,

1716 in Hannover) was a German philosopher, scientist, mathematician,
diplomat, librarian, and lawyer of Serb descent. Leibniz is credited with the term
"function" (1694), which he used to describe a quantity related to a curve; such
as a curve's slope or a specific point of said curve. Leibniz is generally, with
Newton, jointly credited for the development of modern calculus; in particular, for
his development of the integral and the Product rule. He was born in Leipzig. He
was a highly intelligent youth who entered Leipzig University at age 15. He
graduated from there with a bachelor's degree in philosophy at 17 and with a
doctorate in law at 20.

Although the mathematical notion of function was implicit in trigonometric

and logarithmic tables, which existed in his day, Leibniz was the first, in 1692 and
1694, to employ it explicitly, to denote any of several geometric concepts derived
from a curve, such as abscissa, ordinate, tangent, chord, and the perpendicular.
In the 18th century, "function" lost these geometrical associations.
 Leibniz was the first to see that the coefficients of a system of linear
equations could be arranged into an array, now called a matrix, which can be
manipulated to find the solution of the system, if any. This method was later
called Gaussian elimination. Leibniz's discoveries of Boolean algebra and of
symbolic logic, also relevant to mathematics, are discussed in the preceding
section. A comprehensive scholarly treatment of Leibniz's mathematical writings
has yet to be written.

Leibniz published the first account of differential calculus in 1684 and then
published the explanation of integral calculus in 1686 (Boyer, 1968).Many
believed that Leibniz used Newton's unpublished ideas, created a new notation
and then published it as his own, which would obviously constitute plagiarism.
Despite the ruling of the Royal Society, mathematics throughout the eighteenth
century was typified by an elaboration of the differential and integral calculus in
which mathematicians generally discarded Newton's fluxional calculus in favor of
the new methods presented by Leibniz.

Leibniz believed that much of human reasoning could be reduced to

calculations of a sort, and that such calculations could resolve many differences
of opinion:The only way to rectify our reasonings is to make them as tangible as
those of the Mathematicians, so that we can find our error at a glance, and when
there are disputes among persons, we can simply say: Let us calculate
[calculemus], without further ado, to see who is right.

Leibniz's calculus ratiocinator, which resembles symbolic logic, can be

viewed as a way of making such calculations feasible. Leibniz wrote memoranda
that can now be read as groping attempts to get symbolic logic—and thus his
calculus—off the ground Because Leibniz was a mathematical novice when he
first wrote about the characteristic, at first he did not conceive it as an algebra but
rather as a universal language or script.
 Only in 1676 did he conceive of a kind of "algebra of thought", modeled on
and including conventional algebra and its notation. The resulting characteristic
included a logical calculus, some combinatory, algebra, his analysis situs
(geometry of situation), a universal concept language, and more.What Leibniz
actually intended by his characteristica universalis and calculus ratiocinator, and
the extent to which modern formal logic does justice to the calculus, may never
be established.

Although there is some question of original authorship, Leibniz is credited

along with Isaac Newton with inventing the infinitesimal calculus in the 1670s.
According to his notes, a critical breakthrough in his work here occurred on
November 11, 1675, when he demonstrated integral calculus for the first time to
find the area under the y=x function. He introduced several notations used in
calculus to this day, for instance the integral sign "+ representing an elongated S
from the Latin word summa and the d used for differentials from the Latin word
differentia.

As is well known, the theory of the maxima and minima of functions was
indebted to him for the greatest progress through the discovery of the method of
tangents. Well, he conceives God in the creation of the world like a
mathematician who is solving a minimum problem, or rather, in our modern
phraseology, a problem in the calculus of variations – the question being to
determine among an infinite number of possible worlds, that for which the sum of
necessary evil is a minimum.

The product rule of differential calculus is still called "Leibniz's law". In

addition, the theorem that tells how and when to differentiate under the integral
sign is called the Leibniz integral rule. Beginning in 1960, Abraham Robinson
worked out a rigorous foundation for Leibniz's infinitesimals, using model theory.
The resulting nonstandard analysis can be seen as a belated vindication of
Leibniz's mathematical reasoning.
Leibniz's approach to the calculus fell well short of later standards of rigor (the
same can be said of Newton's). We now see a Leibniz "proof" as being in truth
mostly a heuristic hodgepodge mainly grounded in geometric intuition. Leibniz
also freely invoked mathematical entities he called infinitesimals, manipulating
them in ways suggesting that they had paradoxical algebraic properties. George
Berkeley, in a tract called The Analyst and elsewhere, ridiculed this and other
aspects of the early calculus, pointing out that natural science grounded in the
calculus required just as big of a leap of faith as theology grounded in Christian
revelation.

From 1711 until his death, Leibniz's life was envenomed by a long dispute
with John Keill, Newton, and others, over whether Leibniz had invented the
calculus independently of Newton, or whether he had merely invented another
notation for ideas that were fundamentally Newton's. Modern, rigorous calculus
emerged in the 19th century, thanks to the efforts of Augustin Louis Cauchy,
Bernhard Riemann, Karl Weierstrass, and others, who based their work on the
definition of a limit and on a precise understanding of real numbers. Their work
discredited the use of infinitesimals to justify calculus. Yet, infinitesimals survived
in science and engineering, and even in rigorous mathematics, via the
fundamental computational device known as the differential. Beginning in 1960,
Abraham Robinson worked out a rigorous foundation for Leibniz's infinitesimals,
using model theory. The resulting nonstandard analysis can be seen as a belated
vindication of Leibniz's mathematical reasoning.
 SIR ISAAC NEWTON IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CALCULUS

Sir Isaac Newton was born in a manor house of Woolsthorpe near

Grantham in Lincolnshire. He was born on 4 January 1643. Isaac Newton came
from a family of farmers. His father is uneducated person who owned property
and animals which made him quite a wealthy man. His father died in October
1642 before he was born. After that his mother remarried the minister of the
church at North Witham. Then, Isaac left in the care of his grandmother as an
orphan. Upon the death of his stepfather in 1653, Newton lived in an extended
family consisting of his mother, his grandmother, one half-brother, and two half-
sisters. Isaac was taken away from school because his school reports described
him as 'idle' and 'inattentive'. But, his uncle William Ayscough, decided that Isaac
should prepare for entering university and, having persuaded his mother that this
was the right thing to do, Isaac was allowed to return to the Free Grammar
School in Grantham in 1660 to complete his school education. After that, Newton
entered his uncle's old College, Trinity College Cambridge, on 5 June 1661. He
was older than most of his fellow students but, despite the fact that his mother
was financially well off, he entered as a sizar.

Newton's interest in mathematics began in the autumn of 1663 when he

bought an astrology book at a fair in Cambridge and found that he could not
understand the mathematics in it. While Newton remained at home he laid the
foundations for differential and integral calculus, several years before its
independent discovery by Leibniz. The 'method of fluxions', as he termed it, was
based on his crucial insight that the integration of a function is merely the inverse
procedure to differentiating it. Taking differentiation as the basic operation,
Newton produced simple analytical methods that unified many separate
techniques previously developed to solve apparently unrelated problems such as
finding areas, tangents, the lengths of curves and the maxima and minima of
functions. Newton's De Methodis Serierum et Fluxionum was written in 1671 but
Newton failed to get it published and it did not appear in print until John Colson
produced an English translation in 1736.

After suffering a second nervous breakdown in 1693, Newton retired from

research. The reasons for this breakdown have been discussed by his
biographers and many theories have been proposed: chemical poisoning as a
result of his alchemy experiments; frustration with his researches; the ending of a
personal friendship with Fatio de Duillier, a Swiss-born mathematician resident in
London; and problems resulting from his religious beliefs. Newton himself blamed
lack of sleep but this was almost certainly a symptom of the illness rather than
the cause of it. There seems little reason to suppose that the illness was anything
other than depression, a mental illness he must have suffered from throughout
most of his life, perhaps made worse by some of the events we have just listed.

Newton decided to leave Cambridge to take up a government position in

London becoming Warden of the Royal Mint in 1696 and Master in 1699.
However, he did not resign his positions at Cambridge until 1701. As Master of
the Mint, adding the income from his estates, we see that Newton became a very
rich man. For many people a position such as Master of the Mint would have
been treated as simply a reward for their scientific achievements. Newton did not
treat it as such and he made a strong contribution to the work of the Mint. He led
it through the difficult period of recoinage and he was particularly active in
measures to prevent counterfeiting of the coinage.
 In 1665-1666 Newton determined the area under a curve by first
calculating a momentary rate of change and then extrapolating the total area. He
began by reasoning about an indefinitely small triangle whose area is a function
of x and y. He then reasoned that the infinitesimal increase in the abscissa will
create a new formula where x = x + o (importantly, o is the letter, not the digit 0).
He then recalculated the area with the aid of the binomial theorem, removed all
quantities containing the letter o and re-formed an algebraic expression for the
area. Significantly, Newton would then “blot out” the quantities containing o
because terms “multiplied by it will be nothing in respect to the rest”.

Newton attempted to avoid the use of the infinitesimal by forming

calculations based on ratios of changes. In the Methodus Fluxionum he defined
the rate of generated change as a fluxion, which he represented by a dotted
letter, and the quantity generated he defined as a fluent. For example, if x and y
are fluents, then and are their respective fluxions. This revised calculus of
ratios continued to be developed and was maturely stated in the 1676 text De
Quadratura Curvarum where Newton came to define the present day derivative
as the ultimate ratio of change, which he defined as the ratio between
evanescent increments (the ratio of fluxions) purely at the moment in question.
Essentially, the ultimate ratio is the ratio as the increments vanish into
nothingness. Importantly, Newton explained the existence of the ultimate ratio by
appealing to motion. Newton developed his Fluxional Calculus in an attempt to
evade the imprecise use of infinitesimals in his calculations. Foremost a scientist,
he found the imprecise and unverifiable notion of the infinitesimal an unfit base
for calculations.

In 1703 he was elected president of the Royal Society and was re-elected
each year until his death. He was knighted in 1705 by Queen Anne, the first
scientist to be so honoured for his work. However the last portion of his life was
not an easy one, dominated in many ways with the controversy with Leibniz over
which of them had invented the calculus. Given the rage that Newton had shown
throughout his life when criticised, it is not surprising that he flew into an irrational
temper directed against Leibniz. We have given details of this controversy in
Leibniz's biography and refer the reader to that article for details. Perhaps all that
is worth relating here is how Newton used his position as President of the Royal
Society. He was died 31 March 1727 in London, England
REFLECTION
 INDIVIDUAL REFLECTION
After I finished doing this task, I found that I had gained many knowledge
that was gave benefits to me.In doing this task,my partner,Nor Fazilah and I had
discussed many things before started doing this task.We collected all the
formation about the calculus mathematicians, Sir Isaac Newton an also Gottfried
Leibnitz. When I read about these calculus mathematicians, directly I will know
many things about them; their backgrounds, their knowledge and also how they
discovered the calculus.
Then,I had to summarize and find the main points from the article that I
collected.My part is about Gottfried Leibnitz. Besides, in doing the manual
calculations,it directly trained me on how to use the mathematics software which
was Math Type.With Math Type,I can easily did the calculus calculations without
any mistakes.
With this task,I also learned on how to use another mathematics software
which is GSP software.Before this,I got unfamiliar with this software and after I
was introduced by my lecturer,it was very easy way to build any mathematics
graph using this GSP Software.Besides graph,we also managed to make any
mathematics formation and it was very easy to use.
With this task,it directly help me lots to excel in mathematics firld with the
using of mathematics software.I hope that with this task also can give benefits to
me as a preparations to be the mathematics teacher in the future.
With this,I thank you…..

By: Siti Hajar Aishah binti Ramli

PISMP Mathematice Semester 4
 INDIVIDUAL REFLECTION

After I finished doing this assignment, I got a lot of knowledge about basic
calculus and I believe that someday this will give benefit to me. In completing this
task, I have to cooperate with Siti Hajar Aishah. Together, we discuss many
things about the assignment.

Before start doing this task, we decide to collect all the information about
the task. The most important information that we need is about calculus
mathematicians which is Sir Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibnitz. So, we search
a lot of article about both of them.

After got all the suitable article, I had to summarize the article about Sir
Isaac Newton. From this task, I can know about his background and contribution
in calculus.

With this task, I also learned about how to use GSP software. It helped me
to solve the mathematic problem easily based on the topic of calculus. Other
than that, I also learn how to make a correct mathematic calculation by using
Math Type software.

That’s all. Thank you.

Written by:
(___________________)
Nor Fazilah Jamil
(PISMP/Jan/P/KPM) MT
 REFLECTION
From the project we had done,we found that it was not difficult than what
we expected before.At first,we had learned on how to use the GSP software to
make the calculus graph based on the functions given from the task. Then, we
sketch the graph and print it out followed by their steps on getting the graph.

Then we also had to use the manual calculations to get the maximum
point and also the minimum point from the graph.To find the x value,we cannot
factorized it so we must use the formula to get the x values.Finally,after
determine where was the maximum value and where was the minimum value,we
got the value for maximum and minimum point.

Our third task was to summarize from the article of Sir Isaac Newton and
also Sir Gottried Leibnitz.We must enclosed together all their contributions in
calculus and also their background life.With this,we can gain more knowledge
about calculus mathematicians and their contributions in calculus field.

Last but not least,all the materials that we got we binned

altogether.Finally,this task had finished in a given period of time. We hope that
the knowledge that we learned from the task can be applied in the future for
preparation to be the good mathematics teacher.
REFERENCE