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Quantum Computation
Quantum Computation
Vedat Bayraktar
June 5, 2007
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control bit (also it’s the bit being measured) is minus ton with a sharp observable which corresponds to the
1.The inputs of the controlled not gate {a, b}becomes direction of motion strikes a beam splitter,and the
{a, a · b}.If b=+1 the physical process copies infor- observable value becomes unsharp.Although it may
mation of the control bit to the target bit.This 2 bit look like science-fiction,the photon may have now the
reversible computational gate is the analog of the clas- ability to be in different universes and perform some
sical XOR gate.In interference experiment the √ mirror parts of a complex computation and ultimately after
works as a NOT gate and the beam splitter as NOT passing through the beamsplitter its observable value
gate.It must be understood that computation is not may become sharp again.This is the quantum inter-
performed by these physical objects rather the dy- ference phenomenon.The most interesting part is the
namical process undergone by the qubits physically computations it did in different universes may be com-
realizes a rule to obtain a specified output in terms of bined through superposition to obtain the final answer
the inputs.We have a physical system consisting of two of the computation.In some instants,it may perform
qubits which passes through a quantum controlled not a computation which can’t be possible using classi-
gate.The observables of the qubits are Ẑ1 and Ẑ2 .To cal computation because to get the right answer em-
speciyfy the static consitution first the algebra of the ploying classical computation there must be present
system must be determined which is the time invari- more particles than the particles present in our uni-
ant feature of a system that undergoes motion.We al- verse.Nevertheless,in this case the presence of the sec-
ready know the algebra of a single qubit.The observ- ond qubit because of the uncertainty principle and
ables of the qubit X̂(t), Ŷ (t), Ẑ(t) and unit observ- the effect of the quantum gate on the expection value
able 1̂ obeys the Pauli algebra. [X̂(t), Ŷ (t)] = iẐ(t), function of the observable causes the observable to
[Ŷ (t), Ẑ(t)] = iX̂(t), [Ẑ(t), X̂(t)] = iŶ (t) where the stay unsharp and this amounts to the suppression of
operation meant with brakets is commutator oper- the interference.
ation.The addititional algebra involving both qubits
must be specified for example [Ẑ1 (t), X̂2 (t)] =?.As a
general rule for a composite quantum system the ob- 4 The Schrodinger Picture
servables of the different constutients commute with
each other namely [Â1 (t), B̂2 (t)] = 0.T he2×2 ma- It is possible to look at the quantum physics from
trix represantation of a qubit is not enough here.The two different pictures,Heisenberg and Schrodinger
algebra of the whole system can be represented pictures.Although the observables of a system may
here by a 4 × 4 matrix of the change the algebra which specifies the constitution of
tensor product of the system stays invariant,therefore the laws of mo-
a b N e f
the observable matrices. = tion are constrained to preserve the algebraic rela-
c d g h
ae af be bf
tions between the observables of the system.Pick an
ag ah bg bh observable of a qubit H for instance,at any given time
ce cf de df .A 4 × 4 represantion of the a different observable can be expressed as the linear
3
observable that commutes with Hamiltonian is also both pictures to have the same expectation values.If
constant of the system.A coherent system is the one the density matrix is sharp meaning at that time
whose Hamiltonian is a possibly time dependent func- it is equal to a sharp observable ,the system is in
tion of the observables of its system only and if the a pure state.For example,if the Ẑ observables of a
Hamiltonian depends on other systems then it is deco- set of qubits are sharp then the density matrix is
herent.In order to have interference to perform quan- sharp and the system is in pure state.In a pure state
tum computation the process must be coherent which ρt = |ψ(t)i hπ(t)| where ψ(t) is called the Schrodinger
is possible only if observables at the end of the pro- state vector.For a quantum system in a pure state all
cess are functions of only of the observables of the the motion is summed up by this state vector.The
same system at the beginning.In an isolated system computations of quantum computers namely the mo-
Hamiltonian is only an observable of that system.The tions of the quantum systems are analyzed through
equation of motion can be solved as Â(t) the Schrodinger equation.
dt = i[Ĥ, Â(t)],
Â(t) = eiĤt Â(0)e−iĤt .For a coherent system solu-
tion will be Â(t) = Ut † Â(0)Ut where Ut † Ut = 1̂ 5 A Quantum Algorithm
and dUt dt = −iUt Ĥt , Ut is unitary transforma-
tion matrix called evolution matrix of the system be- This is the first quantum algorithm proposed by
tween time 0 and t.The state of a system is defined Deutsch to speed up a classical computation. Prob-
in terms of the expectation function of its observ- lem it solves is that given a black box,which is used
ables which
D Eis a X
mapping from a matrix to a real as a part of a quantum computational network,in
value Â(t) = Aˆαβ (t)ρβα = T rÂ(t)ρ ,where ρ other words an oracle which is dedicated to com-
α,β
pute a Boolean function f using reversible classic
is called the density computation ,the algorithm determines the function
D matrix
E of the system.For an arbi-
trary observable Â(t) = T rA(t)ρ ˆ = T rÛt † Â(0)Ut ρ that the oracle performs. Oracle computes such a
Boolean function f : {−1, 1} −→ {−1, 1} As a gate
Using the cyclic permutation of the trace function {x, y} → {x, y · f (x)} and in order to compute f(x), y
one can define a new density matrix ρt = Ut ρUt † must be initiliazed to 1.There are only four functions
which changes in time and a constant observable that can map a single bit to a single bit.The four pos-
 = Â(0),thereby constituting a new picture called sible fuctions mapping{−1, 1} −→ {−1, 1} are iden-
the Schorodinger picture. Unlike the Schrodinger pic- tity functionx → x, not function x → −x or constant
ture, Heisenberg picture consists of changing observ- functions x → −1 or x → 1.In reality the oracle may
ables and a constant density matrix.The law of motion perform a subroutine for a complex problem such as
for the Schrodinger picture is dρ dt = −i[Ĥt , ρt ].The
t
travelling salesman problem and it may compute a
eigenvectors of the density matrix form the Hilbert Boolean part of the problem for instance if the total
space which a is vector space that has a norm.The steps are even or odd.The computational task is to
observables represented by the matrices are linear op- find what f is without looking inside? The compu-
erators on the Hilbert space.The eigenkets of an ob- tational task is obtaining whether f (1) = f (−1) or
servable or the density matrix form a basis for the computing the product of f (1) · f (−1).Classicaly one
Hilbert space.Therefore,the
X density matrix can be ex- has to invoke the oracle at least 2 times with different
panded as ρt = pn |n; ti hn; t|.The eigenvalues pn In Out
n x y x y
remains constant and the equation of motion for the
d 1 1 1 f(1)
eigenkets is dt |n; ti = −iĤt |n, ti,which is the no- inputs to find what f is
1 -1 1 -f(1)
torious Schrodinger equation.For a general eigenket
d -1 1 -1 f(-1)
dt |ψi = −iĤt |ψ(t)i the solution will have this form -1 -1 -1 -f(-1)
|ψ(t)i = Ut |ψ(0)i .The unitary transfomation matrix
Ut which defines the motion amounts to a rigid rota- The Quantum algotithm invokes the oracle one time
tion in the Hilbert space(meaning it preserves scalar but with different inputs from different universes.In
product on a ket it acts on).The density matrix rep- other words the oracle performs different computa-
resents the state of the world.In Heisenberg picture tions in different universes.The single qubit which
state is fixed and eigenkets of the observables ro- holds the different outputs from different universes
tate,whereas in Schrodinger picture the observables combine them with quantum interference to get the
are fixed and the state rotates rigidly in the oppo- final ouput.To describe this quantum algorthim it is
site sense,hence makes it possible the observables in simple to work in Schrodinger picture and to assume
4
the system is in a pure state in which the density ma- flips its Ẑ observable to minus 1 so the state vec-
trix takes the form ρ̂(t) = |ψ(t)i hψ(t)| where |ψ(t)i tor of the system becomes |ψ(1)i = |1, −1i.Next both
is the state vector of the system simply the state of qubits pass through Hadamard gates according to
the system.The effect of the quantum gate operat- the definiton of the Hadamart gate the state will be
ing on a state is |ψ(t + 1)i = U |ψ(t)i where U is a at time t= 2 |ψ(2)i = 12 (|1i + |−1i)(|1i − |−1i) =
1
unitary matrix characterizing the gate.We invoke the 2 (|1, 1i + |−1, 1i − |1, −1i − |−1, −1i). Then the
oracle with 2 qubits one of them is labeled as sys- oracle acts on the qubits once but now neither of
tem 1 and the other system 2. If the system 1 is the Ẑ observables are sharp now.We are presenting
in a pure state|ψ(t)i and the system 2 is in a pure 4 different inputs from different universes to the ora-
state |φ(t)i,then the combined system is the tensor cle,namely to the gate f.After passing through the or-
product of |ψ(t)i |φ(t)i.Cosidering now the system as acle at time 3 the state will be |ψ(3)i = 21 (|1, f (1)i +
two qubits in a simultaneous eigenstate of their Ẑ ob- |−1, f (−1)i − |1, −f (1)i − |−1, −f (−1)i) .If f (1) =
servables |ai |bi where a and b can be plus or minus f (−1) = f is the case then the state will take this
1,these 4 eigenkets form a basis in the 4-D vectorspace form |ψ(3)i = 12 (|1, f i + |−1, f i − |1, −f i − |−1, −f i)
more precisely an orhtonormal basis in the Hilbert factorizing into a tensor product |ψ(3)i = 12 (|1i +
space of the combined system.Pure states are always |−1i)(|f i − |−f i), √12 (|1i + |−1i) shows the pure state
unit vectors by definition.The normalized eigenstates of the first qubit and if f (1) = −f (−1) then its
lie in a unit shere in Hilbert space.A fixed basis is state is √12 (|1i − |−1i). finally the first qubit goes
picked in the system’s Hilbert space called thereupon to the Hadamard gate Interference occurs at the
computation basis and the evolving state of the sys- Hadamard gate, the unsharp observables of the first
tem is expressed as the linear combination of the ba- qubit becomes sharp again through the opreation of
sis states.When a quantum computer executes classi- the hadamart gate.Since H √12 (|1i + |−1i) = |1i and
cal operations,the simultanous eigenstates of all the Ẑ
H √12 (|1i − |−1i) = |−1i So we can distinguish if
observables of the qubits evolve independently which
makes them a good candidate to be chosen as the f (1) = f (−1) or iff (1) = −f (−1) according to the
computational basis.To specify a Gate it is enough sharp value of the first qubit ,the state of the second
to specify its effect on an arbitrary compuation ba- qubit is not important for the decision.This algorithm
sis.For example the not gate is a single qubit gate.A is recently realized in April 2007 for cluster states by
single qubit has a 2-D Hilbert space.Dynamics of the a Queens University theoretical group and an exper-
not gate is given as |ai → |−ai ,a is plus or minus imental group in Vienna and their next target is to
1. Ẑ |ai = a |ai and also these are the eigenstates of apply it to larger systems.
the Ẑ observable.Another single qubit gate which will
be used in the quantum network of the algorithm is
the Hadamart gate H which has this effect |1i −→ 6 Summary and Conclusion
√1 (|1i + |−1i) , |−1i −→ √1 (|1i − |−1i),Hadamart
2 2
operation has this features H 2 = I meaning H = H −1 Generally,in quantum algorithms the Ẑ observables
which has no classical analog . Definiton of the are prepared with a particular initial value and then
Controlled-not gate |xi |yi = |x, yi −→|x, xyi where those observables are unsharpened via Quantum phe-
x is control and y is target.The operation of the or- nomena so that they contain many possible values.In
acle is |x, yi → |x, y · f (x)i. In the algorithm qubits the above algorithm we start with sharp values and
start at time t=0 sharp with value 1 , |1i.We can unsharpen them and there you have four different in-
think of it as the blank state of our computer mem- puts for the gate f.With 2 qubits you perform compu-
ory.At start taskless qubits are always blank to keep tations as if you’ve got 4 qubits and this speeds up the
the account of the available resources.Our quantum overall computation by a factor of two.In the coarse
network will look like this, imagine it in a diagram of process we may perform classical reversible compu-
f irstqubit |1i → (t = 0) → (t = 1) → [H] → tation using coherent quantum componenents.We can
(t = 2) → [f ] → (t = 3) → [H] → (t = 4)output think of quantum computation as parallel computing
secondqubit |1i → (t = 0) → [not] → (t = 1) → but with the difference that Quantum Parallelism use
[H] → (t = 2) → [f ] → (t = 3) → (t = 4)output The parallel universe counter parts of the qubits which are
overall state at the beginning is the tensor product of in principle infinite.Finally,these unsharp observables
the Ẑ observables of the qubits |1i |1i = |1, 1i = |ψ(0)i must be combined through the interference to provide
Then the second qubit encounters a not gate which a sharp output,which in practice gets difficult as the
number of involved particles increases.
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References
[1] 1)Deutsch,David Lectures on Quan-
tum Computation, excellent Video lec-
tures designed as an introduction to
the quantum theory of computation
www.quiprocone.org/Protected/DD lectures.htm
,2003
[2] Deutsch,David Quantum theory,the Church-
Turing principle and the universal quantum com-
puter, Proceedings of Royal Society of London,A
400 pp. 97-117 ,1985.
[3] Feynman,Richard Simulating Physics with Com-
puters, International Journal of Theoretical
Physics, V21, 1982.