Fibers and Polymers 2007, Vol.8, No.

2, 218-224

A Study of Comfort Performance in Cotton and Polyester Blended Fabrics. I.

Vertical Wicking Behavior
Cheol Jae Hong and Jong Bum Kim
*

Department of Organic Materials and Fiber Engineering, Soongsil University, Seoul 156-743, Korea
(Received July 14, 2006; Revised September 13, 2006; Accepted September 20, 2006)

Abstract: Vertical wicking model was developed based on Darcy’s law. In the model, permeability coefficient, capillary
pressure and fabric thickness were used as the key parameters to describe wicking behavior. For the simulation and test, fiber
type and fabric structure were chosen as variables. In a highly porous knit fabric, gravitational effect during the wicking pro-
cess was significant. The higher the capillary pressure was, the higher was the wicking rise. Surface wetting tension, i.e., the
specific fluid affinity of material, was newly defined to characterize different capillary pressures in various types of fabric
structures. The model, the methodology and the results could provide an insight into fabric design to produce fabric with an
optimum wicking performance.
Keywords: Absorbency, Capillary pressure, Permeability, Pore size, Surface wetting tension, Wicking

Introduction saturated during absorption. In this case, absorbency model

Consumers consider fabric sensorial properties as one of
determining factors in selecting clothes. The sensorial properties
could be classified into two categories, i.e., tactile properties
and mass transfer related comfort properties. Many researches
have been carried out to objectively evaluate and standardize
fabric tactile properties from the measurement of mechanical
and surface properties since Kawabata et al. developed
KES-F system [1-5].
Fabric comfort properties have been evaluated mainly by
the measurements of transmissivity of moisture (vapor or
liquid state) and heat, generated by human body metabolism.
Many researches have been made to evaluate fabric comfort
performance by the measurement of vapor pressure accu-
mulated in the local environment between human body and
fabric [6-17]. The research would be suitable for a mild
weather condition where body fluid is excreted in a limited
condition and remains in the vapor state. However, in hot
summer season, human metabolism is so active that body
fluid is excreted in an unlimited condition and remains in the
liquid state. Therefore the fabric should absorb rapidly and
then evaporate body fluid to impart a comfort feeling to
human body. In a series of comfort related researches, now
we report vertical wicking behavior in cotton and polyester
blended knit fabrics, i.e., widely used as major materials for
summer clothes.
In order to understand and rationalize the absorbency
behavior, the model should be developed. Absorbency models
tend to vary according to the flow mechanisms [18]. Depending
can be constructed by directly applying capillary pressure
into hydrodynamic law [19-21]. However, when fluid is
supplied in a limited condition, unsaturated flow mode appears,
showing wide saturation gradient along the flow direction.
In this case, the model can be developed on the basis of
diffusion law [22-25].
In this research, we developed the absorbency model
based on saturated flow mechanism in the unlimited condition
which would be suitable for the application in summer
condition. The variables considered in the model were fabric
permeability, fabric capillary pressure, and fabric thickness.
Vertical wicking and permeability tests were made on
Gravimetric Absorbency Testing System (GATS) in which
the test cell was modified to be suitable for the experimental
purpose.
Experiment
Materials
The samples were knit fabrics with interlock and honeycomb
constructions. The materials used are cotton yarn, regular
polyester filament yarn, cotton and regular polyester blended
yarn, and cross-shaped polyester (Aero-Cool®) filament yarn.
The specifications of samples are summarized in Table 1.
Flow Rate Measurement
Figure 1 shows the Gravimetric Absorbency Testing System
with which liquid transferred is measured gravimetrically at
the controlled pressure head (h ). Liquid source is a relatively
p

on fluid conditions, the mechanisms could be classified as a
saturated flow mode or an unsaturated (diffusion) flow mode.
When fluid is supplied in an unlimited quantity, saturated
flow mode appears, the advancing front being completely
*Corresponding author: cjhong@ssu.ac.kr
large vessel resting on the top of electronic balance. The test
cell in the Figure 1 was modified to be fit the testing purpose.
The specimen is held between two plastic solid circular discs
of 6.35 cm diameter which restrict the flow through specimen
plane. The bottom disc has a single hole of 0.64 cm diameter
in the middle through which fluid enters and spreads radially

218
Comfort Performance in Cotton and Polyester Blended Fabrics Fibers and Polymers 2007, Vol.8, No.2 219

Table 1. Identification of samples

Sample Fabric Fiber Fineness Fabric density (thread/cm) Fabric weight Fabric thickness
symbol construction composition (%) (Denier) Wale Course (g/cm )
2
(cm)
I Interlock Cotton 100 133 16 17 0.0227 0.0875
II Interlock Polyester 65 133 17 16 0.0249 0.0970
Cotton 35
III Interlock Polyester 100 150/48F 15 19 0.0269 0.0970
IV Honey-comb Aero-Cool ®

75/36F 15 21 0.0148 0.0570

Polyester 100

Figure 1. Gravimetric absorbency testing system (GATS). Figure 2. Test cell for vertical wicking.

outward through specimen. Pressure head was controlled to the scaled film using a lead pencil. Capillary rise measured
drive fluid by lowering the test cell to 2 cm below the fluid at the 23 different positions along the width of fabric were
reservoir on GATS which gave 2 cm of positive hydrostatic averaged to calculate capillary pressure.
pressure head. The test cell is lowered automatically to
compensate the loss of liquid level in the vessel due to fluid Results and Discussion
transfer such that a predetermined pressure head can be
maintained constant during the process. At the controlled Permeability
positive pressure head, flow rate was measured in the steady Schematic diagram of radial in-planar flow is shown in
state condition. Figure 3. Flow velocity under a given hydrostatic pressure
head is defined by Darcy’s law [26].
Vertical Wicking and Capillary Pressure Measurement k dP
Figure 2 shows the test cell modified on GATS to measure v = ---- -----
-
s
(1)
vertical wicking and capillary pressure. A fabric strip of 2.5 cm η dl
× 20 cm was prepared. The cut specimen was clamped where, v: flow velocity
between two transparent acrylic plates under a controlled k : permeability
s

pressure and then the specimen holder was positioned on the η: viscosity
test cell on the GATS with the end of the fabric (1 mm) ∇ : gradient operator
immersed in the liquid (Figure 2). After finishing vertical P: hydrostatic pressure
wicking test, capillary pressure was calculated by the l: radial flow distance
measurement of maximum capillary rise in the equilibrium In Figure 3, flow amount rate is given as follows.
state.
To measure the capillary rise, a scaled film was attached to Q = 2 π lTv (2)
the transparent acrylic plate. Under appropriate illumination,
capillary rise front through fabric between the acrylic plates where, Q: flow rate (volume/time)
could be clearly seen. Profile of capillary rise was drawn on T: specimen thickness
220 Fibers and Polymers 2007, Vol.8, No.2 Cheol Jae Hong and Jong Bum Kim

Figure 4. Measurement of fluid flow in selected specimen against

Figure 3. Specimen geometry for the measurement of permeability. time under positive pressure head (h = 2 cm).
p

Substituting the equation (1) into the equation (2) and then Table 2. Permeabilities measured and mean pore radii calculated
rearranging, we can get flow rate as follows.
Symbol Q (cc/sec) k (×10− cm )
6 2
r (×10− cm)
3

Q η - d----l
s

dP = -------------- (3) I 0.07 1.31 3.24

2 π Tk l
s
II 0.09 1.62 3.60
Integrating the equation (3) with the boundary conditions III 0.13 2.17 4.17
as follows: IV 0.04 1.52 3.49
P = ∆P at l = l1
P=0 at l = l2
we can get the equation to calculate the permeability.
Q η ln ( l 2 /l 1 )
k = ---------------------------- (4)
s
2 π T ∆P
When fluid is supplied by pressure head (h ) as shown in
p

Figure 1, hydrostatic pressure (∆P) is given by

∆P = ρ gh p
(5)
where, ρ: fluid density
g: gravitational acceleration
With specimen being completely saturated with fluid, the Figure 5. Permeabilities measured in different specimens.
experiment was conducted on GATS at the pressure head
(h ) controlled to 2 cm below fluid reservoir. Figure 4 shows
p

typical flow behavior as a function of time. Initially, the flow
rate (Q) appeared very unstable due to the device’s pumping
action for forcibly supplying fluid into specimen. In the
steady state condition with sufficient time elapse, the rate
(Q) was measured to calculate the permeability from the
equation (4).
The flow rates measured and permeabilities calculated are
listed in Table 2. Figure 5 shows the permeability values
according to sample types. The permeability is the highest
for sample III (interlock fabric of 100 % polyester filament
yarn) and decreases as one goes to sample II (interlock fabric
of cotton and polyester blend yarn), sample IV (honeycomb
fabric of polyester filament yarn) and finally to sample I
(interlock fabric of 100 % cotton yarn).
Polyester fiber has difficulty in absorbing fluid into the
molecular structure due to incapability to swell which does
not cause to decrease the interstitial space between the fibers
in fabric during fluid transfer. In non-swellable polyester
fabric, the higher the thickness is, the higher is the pore size
and thus the permeability. Since the thickness of interlock
polyester fabric (Sample III) was higher than that of honeycomb
polyester fabric (Sample IV), the permeability value of the
former appeared to be higher than that of the latter.
Cotton fiber absorbs fluid into the molecular structure by
swelling its own volume significantly. The fluid absorbed in
the fiber tends to remain in an immobilized state being tightly
Comfort Performance in Cotton and Polyester Blended Fabrics Fibers and Polymers 2007, Vol.8, No.2 221

bound with the fiber’s hydrophilic molecular sites. It leads to

a decrease of the interstitial space between fibers through
which fluid flows. Since the sample I (interlock fabric of
100 % cotton yarn) had higher ratio of cottons than the
sample II (interlock fabric of cotton and polyester blend
yarn), the former showed lower pore size and thus lower
permeability value.
In a porous fabric, the mean pore size can be used to
characterize fluid transfer phenomena and material’s surface
wetting tension. The pore size could be derived theoretically
introducing a channel model, i.e., applicable for a simple
nonwoven web structure. However, it has a limitation in the
application for complex knit fabric structures in which we
should consider not only the interstitial spaces between fibers Figure 6. Pore sizes calculated in different specimens.
but also those between yarns for the modeling. Experimentally,
pore size distribution can be derived by stepwise measurements
of fluid sorption amount at differently controlled capillary Table 3. Capillary rise measured and surface wetting tension
pressures each of which corresponds to critical pore size for calculated
the sorption. It is a time consuming work requiring an h ∆P
Surface wetting
expensive experimental device. In this research, therefore, Symbol o

(cm)
c

(×10 dyne/cm )
3 2 tension
we introduced semi-empirical method to simply derive mean (dyne/cm)
pore sizes as follows. I 11.22 11.0 17.81
The equation of fluid flow through porous media was derived II 8.90 8.72 15.70
experimentally by Darcy. III 4.24 4.16 8.67
k ∆P IV 8.09 7.93 13.83
v = ------------
s
(6)
ηl
In incompressible Newtonian laminar flow through channel
structure with the radius r, the equation was derived
theoretically by Poiseuille [26].
r 2∆P-
v = ----------- (7)
8ηl
From the relation between Darcy’s equation (6) and
Poiseuille’s equation (7), mean pore size can be derived as
function of permeability as follows.
r = 8k s
(8)
In fibrous materials, mean pore sizes have different values
according to pore shape, the fiber orientation, the fluid Figure 7. Capillary pressures measured in different specimens.
tortuosity, and the web packing density. Therefore, mean
pore sizes derived from the equation (8) are not absolute values
but relative ones that can be used only for comparing the Capillary Pressure and Fiber Surface Wetting Tension
properties between samples. Capillary pressure (∆P ) was calculated from the measure-
c

The values of mean pore sizes calculated using the ment of maximum capillary rise (h ) at the equilibrium state.
o

equation (8) are listed in Table 2 and graphically shown in
Figure 6. The order and difference in magnitude of pore size
is similar with that of permeability; sample III (interlock
fabric of 100 % polyester filament yarn) was the highest in
pore size, followed by sample II (interlock fabric of cotton
and polyester blend yarn), sample IV (honeycomb fabric of
polyester filament yarn), and sample I (interlock fabric of
100 % cotton yarn, the lowest in permeability.
The equation used to calculate capillary pressure can be
given as follows.
∆P = ρ gh
c o
(9)
The values of measured pressure rise and calculated capillary
pressure are listed in Table 3. Figure 7 shows the capillary
pressure according to sample types. The values of capillary
222 Fibers and Polymers 2007, Vol.8, No.2 Cheol Jae Hong and Jong Bum Kim

pressure is the highest for sample I (interlock fabric of

100 % cotton yarn), and decreases as one goes to sample II
(interlock fabric of cotton and polyester blend yarn), sample
IV (honeycomb fabric of 100 % polyester filament yarn),
and finally to sample III (interlock fabric of 100 % polyester
filament yarn).
As known from the Laplace’s relationship, capillary pressure
is inversely proportional to the mean pore size.
∆P = 2----------------
γ cosθ- (10)
c
r
where γ is fluid surface tension, θ is contact angle.
It suggests that even though a material may have high
surface energy, bulkiness of the structure (large pore size) Figure 9. Surface wetting tension measured in different specimens.
will cause the capillary pressure to be low. In the equation
(10), the product of capillary pressure and pore size represents
material’s own unique surface wetting tension.
r ∆P
γ cosθ = ------------
c
(11)
2
Figure 8 illustrates material’s surface wetting tension. The
surface wetting tension could be used as a key parameter in
characterizing comfort related fluid transfer properties such
as the fluid driving force for wicking, the moisture holding
force for evaporation, and the adhesion force for fabric
clinging.
The values of fabric surface wetting tensions are listed in
Table 3. Figure 9 shows the surface wetting tension in different Figure 10. Schematic diagram for illustration of vertical absorption.
sample types. The order and difference in magnitude of
surface wetting tension is similar with that of capillary properties, the sample I (100 % cotton) had the highest value
pressure; sample I (interlock fabric of 100 % cotton yarn) of surface tension among the others. From the result that the
was the highest in surface wetting tension, followed by sample IV (100 % cross-shaped polyester) had higher value
sample II (interlock fabric of cotton and polyester blend than the sample III (100 % regular polyester), it could be
yarn), sample IV(honeycomb fabric of 100 % polyester filament known that the surface of cross-shaped polyester fiber was
yarn), and finally sample III (interlock fabric of 100 % treated with a hydrophilic agent to increase the wicking
polyester filament yarn), i.e., the lowest in capillary pressure. property for summer clothing
Fabric surface wetting tension is a unique property regardless
of the geometric structure. As known from fiber’s molecular Vertical Wicking
In order to rationalize the results of vertical wicking test,
theoretical equation was developed as follows. Figure 10
illustrates vertical wicking behavior in a rectangular fabric
strip of uniform thickness T and width X. In case that fabric
absorbs liquid being completely saturated, fluid volume
amount (V ) absorbed in fabric is given as
V = XTS h s
(12)
where, S is concentration in completely saturated state (S ≈
s s

1) and h is vertical wicking rise.

Dividing both side of the equation (12) by fabric mass
(W ), volume amount per unit fabric mass can be given as
f

V- = X ⎛ -----
----- T ⎞
Figure 8. Illustration of surface wetting tension. W f
⎝ W- ⎠ S h
f
s
(13)
Comfort Performance in Cotton and Polyester Blended Fabrics Fibers and Polymers 2007, Vol.8, No.2 223

In the equation (13), vertical wicking rise (h) can be ρ gt

obtained from the Darcy’s law as follows. ln ⎛⎝ 1 – ---- h- = k------------
h-⎞ –1 – ---- - (18)
⎠
s

h h ηh
------ = ---- ∆------P-
k
o o o

dh s
(14) To simulate wicking behavior without considering gravita-
dt η h tional effect, we derive the equation by substituting the
In case that absorption occurs spontaneously without equation (16) into (13). On the other hand, to simulate
gravitational effect, driving pressure for absorption (∆P) is wicking behavior with considering gravitational effect we
given by capillary pressure (∆P ), i.e., defined as follows.
c
can derived the equation by substituting wicking rise (h)
obtained from the equation (18) into (13).
∆P = ∆P = ρ gh c o
(15) Figures 11 show the simulated and measured results of
vertical wicking in each sample. In Figures 11, data represented
where h is the maximum vertical wicking rise at the
o
by solid line ignores gravitation while the data represented
equilibrium state. by dot line takes gravitation into account. From the experimental
Substituting the equation (15) into (14) and then integrating results, it could be known clearly that in samples of this
with initial condition of h = 0 at t = 0, we get research, gravitational effect on retarding wicking rise was
2 k ρ gh highly significant. Figure 12 shows the simulated vertical
h = -------------------- t 1 2
s o /
(16) wicking results with gravitational effect. After time elapses
η of 50 sec, the values of fluid amount absorbed is the highest
On the other hand, when we consider gravitational effect for sample I (interlock fabric of 100 % cotton yarn), and
that occurs due to fluid amount absorbed in the vertical decreases as one goes to sample II (interlock fabric of cotton
direction, driving pressure for absorption (∆P) is given by and polyester blend yarn), sample IV (honeycomb fabric of
100 % polyester filament yarn), and finally to sample III
∆P = ∆P − ρ gh = ρ gh − ρ gh
c o
(17) (interlock fabric of 100 % polyester filament yarn).
In sample I (100 % cotton), the higher surface wetting
Substituting the equation (17) into (16) and then integrating tension of cotton material led to higher capillary pressure
with initial condition of h = 0 at t = 0, we get and thus to higher rise over longer wicking period showing

Figure 11. Vertical wicking behaviors simulated and measured.

224 Fibers and Polymers 2007, Vol.8, No.2
Figure 12. Simulated results of vertical wicking behaviors in
different specimens with considering gravitational effect.
the highest value of total amount of fluid absorbed. As ratio
of polyester in blend with cotton increases, the capillary
pressure decreases while the permeability increases. In the
sample III (100 % regular polyester filament yarn) with the
lowest surface wetting tension and the highest permeability,
the rate of wicking rise was high at the beginning but then
decreased rapidly and then leveled off with elapse of time as
gravitational force became significantly.
Conclusion
In the research, we investigated comfort related vertical
wicking behaviors in cotton and polyester blended knit fabrics
widely used for summer clothing. To feel comfort in summer
clothing, fabric should absorb easily and evaporate rapidly
fluid exuded from human body. To simulate and rationalize
vertical wicking, semi-empirical models were developed. The
major parameters of the model were transport coefficient
(permeability), the driving force through pore (capillary
pressure), and fabric thickness. And also to rationalize the
results with regards to raw materials, the surface wetting
tension was derived. In highly porous knit fabrics, vertical
wicking mechanism was complex as the effect of gravitation
force was significant. Higher surface wetting tension led to
higher capillary rise over a long wicking period. The testing
methods and analysis of experimental results with the models
could provide useful information on fabric structural design
for the comfort performance improvement.
Acknowlegements
This work was supported by the Soongsil University
Research Fund.
Cheol Jae Hong and Jong Bum Kim
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