IP L E S O F G E O M ET RY

Q 1

m
H . F . BA KE R , S c D . .
, E
P RO F ESSO R O F AST R ONOM Y AN D GE OM ET RY , A N D F ELL OW OF

O
J HN
’
S C O L L EG E, IN THE U N I V E RS I T Y I
O F C A M B R DGE

V OLU M E II

P L A N E G EO M ET R Y
C I R C L E S, N O N -
E U C LI D E A N G E O M ET RY

I n mznimzs ma x imal
’ ’

C A M BR ID G E

AT T H E U N IVE R SITY P RES S

 F i r s t E dit ion 1 92 2

S econ d E dit ion 1 93 0

PR I N TE D I N G R E AT B R T A I IN
 P RE F ACE

t v o l u m e h a in e ff ct t w o a im s I n t he firs t p l a ce in
H E p r e s en s e : ,

u r s u a n c e o f t h ge n e r a l u r o s e o f t h e b o o k it s ee k s t o u t t he
p p p e
p ,

re a d r in t o u ch w ith t he m a i n p r e limi n a y th e re m s o f p la n e geo m e t ry

e r o .

Ch p t e r I is d e v o t e d t o a d e d u cti o n w ith s y n th e ti m e th o d s o f t h e
a , c ,

fu n d m e n t a l p ro p er ti e o f c o n ic e cti o n s ; it i a n i n t o d u cti o n t o
a s s s r
w ha t i u s u a ll c a ll e d P r j e ctiv e G e o m e t r
s
y y in t h e p l a n e in which
o , , ,

h o w e v r t he n o ti n s o f di s t n c e a n d c o n gr u e n e a r e n o t a s u m e d
e , o a c s .

C h a p t e r II a l o with o u t h e l p o f th e s e n o ti o n s d e v e l o p s r e s u lt s th a t
, s ,

a ris e b c n s id i n g c o n ic s in r e l a ti o n t o t w o A b s o l u t e i nt s
y o er
p o ,

i ncl u di n g f o r i n s ta n c e t he p r o p e ti es o f ci r cl e s a n d o f c n f c a l
, , r , o o

c o n ics ; t he m a tt r h er e c o n t a i n e d is u s u a lly fo u n d in s e q u e ls t o
e

E u clid b o k s o n P u r e G e o m e t r y a n d b o o k s o n G eo m e tr ica l C o n ic s
,
o , .

C h p t e r III is de s ig n e d t o e x p l i n t he a pp lica ti o n f t h e a lg e b r a ic
a a o

s mb o l s t o l a n e ge o m e tr it c o nta i n s m e th o d s a n d fo r m u l a
y p y ; e

fo u n d in w o r k s o n A n a ly tica l G e o m e t r y o f t he P l a n e Cha p t e r I V .

is a b r i e f o n s id e r a ti o n o f s o m e l o gic a l q u e s ti o n s n d m a r k s t h e e
c
,
a r

c gn iti o n o f a l imit a ti o n in t h e s y mb o l s e m p l o ye d ; it d e a l s with

o

t he s e n in w hich t h e w o r d s r ea l a n d im a gi n a r y a r e u s e d a n d
se
,

c a ll s a tt en ti o n t o t h e e l e m e n t s o f A n a lys i s a s s u m e d in t h e fo ll o wi n g
ch a p t e r Ch a p te r V d e l s with t he the o y o f m e a s u r e m e n t o f l e n gth
. a r ,

a nd n gl e w ith t h e h e l
a o f a n A b s o l u t e c o n ic s h e wi n g h o w t h e s o
, p ,

c a ll e d n o n E u clidea n ge o m e t r i e s m a y b e r ega r d e d a s i n cl u de d in o u r
-

ge n er a l fo r m u l ti on It c on ide rs t h e m e tr ica l p l a n e a l s o a s d e d u e d
a . s c

f o m t he g o m e tr y o f a q u a dric s u r fa c i n cid en t a lly d e li n g with

r e e, a

t h e f n d m e n t l p o p e rti es o f thi s s u r f ce a n d in p a rtic u l a r with

u a a r a , ,

S p h e i l T r igo n o m t r y
r ca A s a c o r o ll y fr o m thi s p o i n t o f vi e w
e . ar ,

R i e m n n s p a c e o f o n s t n t c u r v a t u r e is s ee n n o t t o r e q u i r e t h e
’
a s c a

s u m ti o n f a b s o l u t e c o r di n a t e s ; a n d fu th e r th a t fo r m o f t h e r
a s
p o o ,

hy p e b o lic g o m e t r y in which li n es a r e r e p l d b y ci r cl es c tti ng

r e a ce u

a fi xe d ci r cl a t r ight a n gl e s e
( w hich f o i n s ta n ce w a s n i n p i r a ,
r ,
a s

ti o n t o P o i n c a r é in h is d e v e l p m e n t o f t h e th e o r y o f a u t o m o rp hic o

fu n cti o n s ) is e e n t o a r i s e n a tu r a lly N o tes I a n d II d ea l w ith t h e

s .

th e o r e m o f i n cid e n c e w hi h w e r e d e ve l o p e d er y gr a d u a lly f or t he
s c v

c o m p l e te P a s ca l fig u r e a n d a pp e a e d v e ry i n t r ic a t e ; fr o m t he p o i n t r

o f vi e w h e e e x p l a i n e d th y r r e n t u a l if
p a r tic l re r o e rti e s o f
p p a a r ,
u a ,

a fig u r e w hich r i s e s o th er wi s e a n d will m u ch c o n c e n u s in a l a t e r
a ,
r

v o l m e N t e III giv e s s o m i n dica ti on s o f t h e lite r a t u r e o f n o n

u . o e

E u clid e a n ge o m e try N o t e I V c o n t a i n s r e m a r k s a n d c or r e cti o n s f o r

.

V o l u m e I f o r m a n y o f which I a m i n d e bt e d t o f i e n d
,
T h e re i r s . s

a l s o a n I n d ex ; b u t it is p o s s ibl e th a t t he e x t n s iv e T a bl e o f C o n t e n t s e
viii P re af ce
ma y b e m or e f l N o a tte m p t is m a d e t o giv e a ge n e r a l B ibli o
u se u .

g r a p hy f o r t h e c o n t en t o f t he v o l u m e s .

It w ill b e s e e n th t t h e v o l u m e d e a l s w ith a wide r a n ge o f th e o r y ;

a

in o th r c o n diti o n s th n t h e p e s e n t a l e s s c o n d e n e d tre a tm e n t
e a r , s

might h a v e b e e n d e s ira ble T he o r d er in which t he id ea s a r e ta k e n

.

h a s b e e n ch o s e n l ge ly in vi e w o f t h e s e c o n d a im o f t h e v o l u m e ;
a r

it will n o t b e di ffi c u lt with t h e h el p o f t h e T a bl e o f Co n te n t s f o r
, ,

t h e r ea d e r t o m o dify thi s o rd e r It is b e li e v e d h o we ve r th a t a
.
, ,

l a r ge a m o u n t o f t h e tim e u s u a lly s p e n t a t p r e se n t in l ea rn i n g , ,

ge o m e t r y c o u ld b e s a v e d b y fo ll o wi n g fr o m t he b e gi n n i n g a fte r
, , ,

a n ex t e n s iv e s t u d o f di a g r a m a n d m o d e l s t h e o rd e r o f d e v e l o
s
y p ,

m e n t h e r e a d o p t e d ; a n d s u ch a p la n w o u ld m a k e m u ch l e s s d e m a n d
u p on t he m e m o r
y .

B u t t h e s e c o n d a im o f t h e v o l u m e m a y I h o p e a p p e a l t o a tt e n tiv e , ,

rea der s It is a n a tt e m p t t e m p e r e d i n d ee d b y p r a ctica l c on s id

.
,

ti o n s t o t e s t t he a pp lica ti o n in d e t a il o f t h e l o gic a l p r i n ci p le s e x
,

p l a i n d in V o l u m e I
e It s e e k s t o b r i n g t o light t h e a s s u m ti o n s
.
p
which u n d er li e a n e x ten s iv e lit e ra tu re in which c o o r di n a t es a r e f e ly r e

u s e d with o u t a tt e mpt a t j u s tific a ti o n It s u gges ts t he q u e ti o n . s

wh e th e r in t he ca s e o f di s t a n c e a s in m a n y o th e r ca s e s w e m a y n o t
, , ,

h a v e d er iv e d fr o m fa mili a r ity with ph ys ic a l e x p er i e n ce a c o n fid e n ce s ,

which a m or e c a r e fu l s c r u ti ny ca n o n ly rega r d a s a n ill u s i o n W h e n .

thi s Vi e w which s e e m s s u r e s h a ll w in a c e p ta n c e t he ch a n ge in
, ,
c ,

s ci e n tific th o u ght will b e r a id a n d m o m e n t o u s A s t he fi r s t s te

p p .

in thi s s en s e w a s m a d e in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h th e o r y o f o u r g e o e

m e tr ica l c o n c ep ti o n s it is p r o p e r th a t t h e m a tt e r s h o u ld b e d a lt
,
e

with h er e It w ill b e o f im p o r t a n c e if t h e r e d r c o m e t o s e e h o w
.
a e

d ee p ly i n g a r e t h e q u e s ti o n s i n v o lve d in t h e u s e o f c o o r di n a t es a nd ,

t h e a s s u m p ti n o f di s t a n c e a s a fu n d a m e n t a l id e a
o .

A s in t h e ca s e o f t h e firs t v o l u m e I d e s i r e t o e x p r es s my th a n k s,

t o t he S t a ff o f t h e U n iv er s ity P e s s f o r th e i r c a r e a n d c o u r t e s y
r nd ,
a

t o Mr J B P e a c e M A f o r t h e g r e a t t o bl e h e h a s t a k e n with
. .
,
. .
,
r u

t h e n u m e r o u s di a g a m r s .

H F B . . .

2 S ep tem ber 1 9 2 2

T o t h e p re s en t R e pri n t a r e a dd e d , a t t h e e n d o f t h e o l u m e , V
v a ri o u s re m a r k s a n d e x a m p l e s ; th es e a r e r e fe r r e d t o in t he t e x t
b y t h e a bbr e vi a ti o n [ A dd ] T o m a ny fr i e n d s w h o h a v e m a d e
.

s u gg es ti o n s I o ff e r m b e s t th a n k s
y .

H . F . B .

2 4 Ja n u a r y 1 9 3 0
 TA B L E OF C ON T E N TS

PRELI MINA R Y
Re l a t ed ra n
g es on the s a me l i ne

In v o l u t i on

S ym bo li ca l e x r e s s on of
p i t he pr ece d i n
g r es u lts

E xa m p l es of iv
n o l u t on i
vi
A g e n e r a l a bb r e a t e d a r g u m e nt f or r e l a t n g t w o r a n g es i
i i i
Of t h e d s t n c t on b e t w ee n t h e s o c a l l e d r ea l a n d ma g n a r y p o -
i i i nts

C H A P TER I . G ENER A L PROPERTIE S O F C ONI C S

De fi iin t on o f a c o n c i
In v i
ol u t o n o n a li ne by c o n cs i ha vi g f o u r c om m o n p o
n i nt s

Ma c l a u r in ’
s de fi iin t on o f a con c i . P a s ca l s t h e o r e m
’

Ra n g es of p o i
n t s o n a c on c i
I n vol u t on ofi i
p o n t s of a c o n c
pa r s of i i
P a s ca l s t h e o r e m a n d r e l a t e d r a n g e s of p o
’
i nts u p on a c on c i
C v
o n e r s e of P a s ca l s t h e or e m
’

I n t r o d u c ti on g eb ra c of the al i s y m b ol s

i
G e om e t r c a l t h e or y r e s u m e d . P ol a r l i nes

i
D ua l t y in r e g a r d t o a c on c i
Du a l d fi i ie n t on o f a c o n c i
E x a m p l es of the a
pp l i i
c a t o n of t h e f or eg o i ng t h e or e m s ( E x x 1 — 3 6 ) .

Ex 1 . . The se lf -
i
p ola r tr a d of p o n ts f or con cs thr ou g h f ou r p o i i i n ts

the lf
se -
p ola r i i
tr a d of l nes f or con cs tou c h ng f ou r l nes i i i
theor e m
’
Ex 2 . . D ua l o f P a s ca l s

Ex 3 . . The d i r ector con c o i f a gi ven con c i in r es p ect o f tw o a r b tr a r y i

po i n ts

Ex 4 . The p ola r s
. of thr ee p o i n ts d eter m i ne a tr ia d f
o po i n ts in p e r

s p ective w th t he ig i l i d i or na tr a

E 5 A x i f cons tr u ct onp i j g i or g d
tw o o n ts c on u a te n re ar to a c on i c

i d by h j i f h p i
.

E 6 R g d t m i d by
.

x. an e e er ne a con c, a n t e o ns o t r ee o n ts

i
.

f h
o i
t e con
p y l ic, u d h
on a n g h fi d p ine f h r a wn t r ou a xe o nt o t e con c 28 , 2 9

E 7 Th i j i
x . .
f t
e s x i d f p
o ns o i f i
wo h trh a s o o n ts o a con c tou c a n ot er

i
c on c

E 8x Th p d l l i f
e h e ap i f ne o i i tg d h
r ee o n ts o a con c n re ar to t r ee

i i
. .

h ot p i erf t h o n ts o k i p l
e c on c , d ta en n a ar t c u a r or er 29 , 3 0

E 9x T h H i l i e f h
es s a n p i f ne o i Th H ti r ee o nts o a con c . e es s a n

i
. .

p i t f t
o n h g
o t f
r ee ta n en s o a co n c
 C on ten ts

Ex . 10 . P ola r tr i ads in r eg a r d to a c on c i . H es s e s t heor em

'

Ex . 11 . Ou tp ola r con cs i
Ex 1 2
. . Tw o s el f -
p ola r tr i a ds of on e con c a r e s ix i po i n ts o f a n other

c on c i
Ex . 13 . P a rt i cu l a r ca s es o f o u tp ol a r , or o f i np ol a r , c on cs i
Ex . 14 . The jo i ns o f f ou r po i n ts o f a con c a n d i the i n ter s ect on s o i f
the ta ng en ts at thes e p o i n ts . The c omm on po i n ts , a n d t he com m on

ta ng ents , of tw o c on cs i
Ex 1 5. . The p ol a r l i nes o f a ny po i nt in r eg a r d to the con cs i thr oug h

f ou r gi ven p o i n ts a l l p a s s thr ou g h a n other po i nt

Ex 1 6
. . Apo i i
n t to p o n t cor r es p on d en ce in r eg a r d tof ou r g i ven po i n ts

Ex 1 7. . F ou r con cs c a n i be d r a w n thr ou g h tw o g i ven po i n ts to tou ch

thr ee g i ve n l i n es 3 9—41
Ex 1 8. . The p oles of a l i n e, in r eg a r d to co n cs i w i hft ou r c omm on

p o n ts , i lie on a con i c 41 , 42
Ex 1 9 Tw o
. . c on cs i o f w h ch i the ta ng en ts a t the i r comm on po i n ts

meet, in f ou r s , a t tw o p o in ts

Ex 2 0. . A c on c i d er i ved f r om tw o g i ven con cs i

Ex 2 1. . To c on s tr u ct a con c i in r eg a r d to w h i ht
c w o tr a d s o i f po i n ts

o f a gi ven c on c s i ha ll both be s el f p ol a r
-

E x 22. . To c on s tr u ct a c on c if or w hic h a
g ven tr i a d of p o n ts s ha l l be i i
a se lf -
p ola r tr i ad , a nd a gi i
ven p o n t a n d l n e s ha l l be p ol e a n d
p ola r i
Ex 23 . . To c on s tr u ct a con if i
c or w h c h a g ven tr a d of p o n ts s ha l l i i i
be se lf -
p ola r , to p a ss t hr oug h tw o g ven p o n ts i i
Ex 24 . . The p ola r r ec p r oca l of on e con c in i i r eg a r d to a n other .

A p a r t c u la r c a s e i
E x 2 5 Ga s k in s theor em
. .
’

f or c on cs i t hr ou g h t w o fi x ed p o i n ts ou t

p ola r to a gi ven c on c i 4 8 —5 0
Ex 26 . . Tw o r el a ted r a ng es u p on a i
con c obta n ed i by comp os ii
t on

of t w o n volu t i i on s 50—5 2
Ex 27 . . Thr ee t r i a ds o f po i n ts o f a con c a r e a
'

i ll i n p er s p ect i ve w t h i
a n oth er tr i a d f
o po i n ts o f the con c i
Ex 2 8 . . The en velop e o f t he l i ne jo n ii ng t wo cor r es p on d ng i po i n ts

o f tw o r el a ted r a ng es on a c on c i
E x 29 . . The ta ng en ts f r om t hr ee p o i n ts , A, B , C ,
to a c on c , i m eet
B C, CA , A B in s ix po i n ts o f a c on c i
Ex 3 0 . . Tw o ta ng en ts o f on e c on c i m eet t w o ta ng en ts o f a n other in

f our po i n ts i
ly ng on a con c thr ou g h the c ommon p o i i n ts o f the t w o

con cs , i if the f ou r p o n ts of c on ta c t a r e i n l ne i i
Ex 3 1 . . P on celet s theor e m,
’

f or s ets f
o po i n ts A , B , C,
'
f one o

con c, o i f w h ch i the jo i ns A B , B C, s ep a r a tely tou c h other fi x ed

c on cs , a i ll the con cs i ha v i ng f ou r p o n ts i in c omm on 55 —5 8

Ex 3 2 . . C on s tr u ct on o i f a f ou r th ta ng en t, w ihit ts p oi n t of con ta ct,

o f a con c i tou c hi g n thr ee l nes i at g i ve n p o nts i 5 8, 59

 Co n ten ts X1

Ex 3 3 . . H a m lton i ’
s ex ten s o n o i f F eu er ba c h s theor em
’

Ex 3 4 . . Theor em in r eg a r d to t he r em a n ng c omm on ii ta ng en ts f
o

thr ee con cs i , i
w h c h tou ch thr ee g ven l n es i i
Ex 3 5 . . The f ou r con cs i thr oug h t w o p o n ts i f
o i
w h ch ea ch conta n s i
t hr ee o f f ou r other gi ve n po i n ts

Ex 3 6 . The p ola r s of a ny p o n t in r eg a r d to the s in: c on cs w

. i i hi h c

ca n be d r a w n t hr oug h the s e ts of fi ve , f r o m s ix a r b tr a r y p o n ts i i f
o

a p la n e, touc h a con c i
C H A PTER II PROPERTIE S RELA TI V E
. T O T WO
POINT S O F RE FERENC E
In t r o d u c t o r y
i
M dd l e po i nt s , P e r p e nd i cu la r l i nes , C e nt r o id , Or t h o c e n t r e
Ci l
r c es . Ci l
r c es a t r ig h t an
g l es
C i i
oa x a l c r c l e s

In v i i
e r s on n r eg a r d to a c r cl e i
Ex a m pl es of iv in e r s on in re
ga rd to a
g iv i
e n c r cl e

Ex a m p l e s in re
g a rd to c i r c l e s (E x x . 1 — 9)
M ig u el s
’
t heor em , p ed a l ( Wa l l a ce ) l i n e, p r op er ty f f
o ou r c r cl es i
P r oof o f F eu e r ba c h s t heor em by
’
i n ve r s on i
An g l e p r o p e r t i es f or a i
c r cl e

F oc i a n d a x e s o f a c on c i
C o n f o c a l c on cs i
C o m m on ch o r d s o f a c r c l e w i ih
t a c on c i
Th e d i i
r e ct o r c r c l e o f a c o n c . i Th e d i i
r e c t o r c r c l e s o f c o n cs i t ouc h i ng

f ou r l i n e s a r e c oa x a l i
P a r a b ol a s . Th e d i r e ct r x o f a i p a r a b ol a
E x a m pl e s in re
g a rd to a
p a r a b o l a ( Ex x . 1 —5 )
fi ii f
De n t on o a r e c ta n
g u l a r h yp e r b o l a
E mpl
xa i es n r e a r d t o a r e c ta n u l a r h
g g y p e r b ol a (Exx . 1— 3)
A il i y i
ux ar c r cl e of a con c i
E x a m p l es in g re a rd to a ux il i ar
y i
c r cl e , a n d
p e da l c r cle i ( E x x 1 — 5) .

Th e l oc u s of t h e c en t r e s o f r e c t a n u l a r
g hy p er b ol a s p a s s
-
i n
g throu g h
thr ee g iv en i
p o nt s 88 —9 0
Th e p ol a r s of a po nt i in g re a rd to a s y s t e m o f c on o c a l c on c s f i t o u ch
a
p a ra bo a l . F ou r n or m a l s ca n be d ra w n f ro m a
p o nti to a c on c i
Ap i
a rt c u la r t h e or e m f o r i i
n t e r s e c t on o f a c o n c w i i th a r e cta ng u a r l
h y p e r b ol a
Th e n or m a l s o f a c o n c w i h ihp
c ass thr ou g h a
g iv p i en o nt . Th e f e e t
of th r ee of t h es e, a nd the Op p os i te of the oth er f oot , l ie on a

i
c r cl e C
a s e o f t h e p a r a b ol a a ls o . Exa m pl es ( Ex x . 1 , 2) 92—94
i i i i
.

Th e d u a l of t he d r e c t o r c r cl e of a c on c . S et s of f ou r p o nts of on e

c on c w i h os e jio ns in or d er t ou ch a n ot h e r c o n c i 9 4— 96
 Con ten ts

C H APTER III . TH E E Q U A TION O F A LINE ,

A ND O F A CONI C
i i
P r el m n a r y r ema r k s

Th e i
c oor d n a t e s o f a po i nt in a
pl a n e
Th e e q i u a t on of a l i ne

Th e c oor di n a t e s of a l i ne . S y m b ol of a l i ne

Th e e q i u a t on o f a
po i nt

Th e e q i u a t o n of a c on c . i Th e e x p r es s o n i by a
p a r a m et e r
i l
A pa r t c u a r f or m of th e e q ua t i o n o f a c on c i . q
E u a t on o f t a n g e n ti .

i q i f
Ta n g e n t a l e u a t on o a con c i C i. on c r e f e r r e d to s el fp
-
ol a r tr i a d 1 04 -
l o7

Eq i f i l Of i
u a t on o a c rc e . c r c l e s o f co a x a l s y s t e m i . C o n d it o n i t ha t
li
two i l n es o r tw o c r c es s h ou l d c u t a t r ig h t a ng l es 1 07 —1 1 0
E m pl
xa f h lg b i es o t e a e ra c t r ea tm ent of t h e t h e or y o f c on c s i (Exx .

1 —2 9) 1 1 0 —1 5 2
Ex . 1 . Con d t ii on t ha t a pa i r of p o i n ts s ho u l d be ha r mon i c con a j
g a tes i n r eg a r d to a nother pa i r

Ex 2 A
. . r es u l t in r eg a r d to i n vol u t on s i
Ex 3 . . R ep r es en ta t i f on o a ll the p a i rs of an i n vol u t on i
Ex 4 . A g en er a l
. or t w o p a r s r es u l t f
p o n ts i f
o i
Ex . 5 . C ii
on d t on t ha t tw o c r c les , i n g e n er a l f or m, s hou ld cu t a t i
r i g ht a ng les
Ex . i
6 The r a d c a l a x is of t w o c r cles ; t he r a d ca l cen t r e of t hr ee
. i i
i
c r c les

Ex 7 . . The c om m on ta ng en ts a n d cen tr es o f s i mi l i tu d e of tw o c i r c l es

Ex 8 . . F e u er ba c h s theor e m
’
. A p ol a r tr i a ds

Ex 9 . . C i
ont nu a t on o i f t he p r eced i ng ex a mp le
Ex . 10 . H a m l ton i ’
s m od fi ca t i i on o f F eu er ba c h s
’
t heor e m . In tr o
d u ctor y r es u l ts

Ex . 11 . H a m l ton i ’
s mod fi ca t i i on o f F e u er ba c h
’
s t h eor e m

Ex . 12 . C i
on c r e e r r e d f to i ts cen t r e a nd a r e s

Ex . 13 . Con oc a l c on cs
f i
Ex . 14 . Con cs i d er i ve d f r om a con c i i n te r s e ct ng i the jo i ns o f t h r ee

po i n ts . i
B p u n ctu a l con cs i
Ex 1 5 . . ip l i
Tw o tr i a d s r ec r oca n r eg a r d to a c on c a r e i in p er Sp ecti ce

Ex . 16 Th H
. i li f h e es s a n ne o t r ee po i n ts of a c on c i
Ex 17 Th d i
. i l f e r ector c rc e o a c on c, a n d i g en er a li i s a t ons

i hi h
.

Ex . 18 E . l p f li j i i
n ve o e o a ne o n ng po i n ts o f two con cs w c are

c on u j g t i g d a e hi d n re ar to a t r ,
w th i part i c u la r a pp l i i ca t on s

Ex 19 I di i f g lin ca t on o a en e r a s a t on o i f the p r ece di g n l r es u ts

l i l i
. .

E x 20 . . O
f c or r es p on d en ces , in p a r t i cu l a r o f g en er a n vo u t on s ,

u p on a con c i
Ex 2 1 . . Re c ip r oca tion of one c on c i i n to a not he r w hen t hey ha ve a

co mmon se t/ l
p ola r tr i ad
 C on ten t s x iii

P AG ES
Ex . 22 . The d eter m i i
na t on o f t he c om m on sglf p ola r tr i ad f
o tw o
c on cs i i n g e ne r a l
Ex 23. . F u n d a me n ta l i n va r i a n ts f or tw o c on csi
E x 24
. . The a lg ebr a ca l c on d i ii t on f or one con c i to be ou tp ola r to
a nother , or to be tr i a ng u l a r ly c r cu ms cr ibed i to a n othe r 1 42 —1 46
E x 25. . E n u me r a t i on o f r ed u ced f or ms f or t he eq u a t i on s o f ar iyt wo
con cs i
Ex 26. . A p art i c u la r i i
n vol u t on o s ets o f f thr ee p o i n ts . Ap ola r tr i a ds 1
E x 27. . Thr ee i
con cs r el a ted in a part i cu l a r w a y 14
E x 28. . The d i r ector c r c le o i f a c on c i tou ch i ng thr ee l nes is i cu t a t

r ig h t a ng le s by a ci r cle , f or w h ch i the t hr ee l i n es f or m a s el f -
p ola r
tr id
a

Ex 29 . . A tr a nsf or m a t oni of con cs i t hr ou g h f ou r po i n ts i n to con cs i

ha v i ng d ou bl e con ta ct

C H A PTER I V RE S TRI C TION O F T H E A L GE BRA I C .

S Y MB OL S T H E D I S TIN C TION O F RE A L A ND .

I MA G IN A R Y ELE MENT S
Re vi w f t h d v l p m t f t h g m t R l d i m g i y
e o e e e o en o e ar u en . ea an a na r

s y m b ol s

Th e d i i i
s t n c t o n of p os i ivt e a n d n eg a t iv e f o r t he r e a l s y m b ol s

Or d e r of ma g n i t u d e f or t h e r ea l s y mb ol s
Th e r o ot s o f a
p ol y n om a l i
Th e i
e xp o n en t a l a n d l og a r t h m i i f c u n c t on s i
A s imp l e a pp l i i c a t on t o t h e d ou b l e p o i n t s of a n i l i R l it y n v o u t on . ea

of d ou bl p i e o nt s o f ivl i n o u t on de fi ne d by p i tw o a rs 1 57—1 60
G en er a l s t a t e me n t of t e h m i e a n n g of rea l d im g i
an
y p i i a na r o nt s n

a
pl a n e
S om e a
ppl ca t i i on s of fi i i Im g i
th e d e n t on . a na r y
p o i
n ts a n d l i n es

R ea l a nd im g i a na r
y c on c si
Th e i n t e r or a n i d e x t e r or i pi f l o nts o a r ea 0 0 11 1 0

Th e r ea l iy t of th e co mm p i d f on o n ts , a n o t h e c omm on s el fp -
ol a r

tr i a d , of tw o co n c s i 1 64 , 1 6 5
Ex a m pl e . C on s t r u ct o n o i f i g iv h a c on c en t ree
po i nts a n d tw o pa i rs

o f co n u g a t e j po i nts

C H A PTER PROPERTIE S REL ATI VE T O A N V .

A B S OL U TE C ONI C T H E NOTION O F D I S TA N C E . .

N ON E U C L I DE A N G EO M ETR Y -

Th e i t v l f t w p i t f l i l t i l y t tw g iv p i t f
n er a o o o n s o a ne re a ve o o en o n s o

the l i ne

An g u l a r i nt e r v al in r eg a r d t o t w o a b s ol u t e p o n t s i
I n t e r va l in re
ga rd to an a b s o l u t e c on c Me a n n g i . i of mo v em e nt
 C on ten ts

C a s e of a n ima g i n a r y c on c a s i Ab s ol u t e
i
Ap p l ca t io n t o a t r ia n g l e , 1 11 p a r t c u l a r a r g h t-a n g l e d t r i i i glan e

Th e s u m o f t h e a n g u l a r n t e r a l s f o r a t r a n g l e i v i
F or m u l a e f or a
g e n e-ra l tr i an
gle
Th e c a s e of a 1 e a l don i c as Ab s ol u t e
i ig h
,

s u m of h u e an g l es gle
'
I he of a tr an a nd a
q u a d 1 a ng l e of th r ee r t
an
g es l
C om } e
‘
ri s ou w it h t h e Lob a t s ch e w s k y Bol ya g e om e t r y -
i r e s u m ed

i
.

C a s e of d eg e n e r a t e c o n c a s Ab s ol u t e

Th e i
a r b it r a r n e s s a n d c o m p a r s o n of i the se v er a l m et h od s of m ea s u r e
m ent . E xt e n t b e t w e e n t w o l i n e s , of a tr i an
g l e, o f a c r cl e , i in
th e e lli p t c i g eo m e t r y 1 8 6 —1 8 9
P l a n e m et r i l g e om e t r y b y p r o e ct on f r om
ca j i a q u a dr c i s u r f a ce .

S ph e r i c a l g e o m e t ry E l em e n ta r y p r op e r t es
. i of a q ua dr i c s u r f a ce 1 8 9— 1 9 5
Met r i g e om e t ry in r e g a r d t o
ca l a n a b s ol u t e c o n c . i C a
yl e y
’
s m ea s u r e
i
of d s t a n c e d e d u c e d r om f L a
g u err e s
’
1 95—1 97
R ep r e s e nt a t i on o f th e or ig i na l
pl a n e u
p on a n ot h er p l a n e R e m a n n s . i ’

s p a ce of co n s t a n t cu r v a tu r e. L ob a t s ch e w s k y l n e s a s c r cl e s i i
c u tt n g a i fi xe d l i ne at r i g ht an
g l es
R em a r k , c om p a r s o n o f i the t w o c a s e s c on s id er e d

E x a m p l es of th e p r ece d i n g co ns id i
e r a t on s ( E x x 1 —9
) .

Ex 1 . . Dela mbr e s
’

f or mu l a e in s p her i ca i
l tr g on ometr y
Ex 2 . . N ap i ’
er s a n a log es i
Ex . 3 . A pa rt i cu l a r tr a ng le i c or r es p on d ng i to the d iii
v s on o f a

s p her e i n to f ou r cong r u e n t tr i a ng les 2 06—209

Ex 4 . . Gen er a l f or m o f the theor em f or the s u m o f thef oca l d i s ta n ces

of a p o nt oi f a con c i Ci. r c u l a r s ect on s a n d i f oca l l i ne s of a con e

E xx . 5, 6 .
f mp or ta n ce
P art i cu l a r theor ems o i
E x x 7, 8 Gener a l s a t on of r es u l t of E x 4
. . i i .

i i
E x 9 E l l p t c i n teg r a l f or p or s m of tw o con cs
. . i i

NOTE ON C I ERT A I N E L E MENTA R Y CON F I GU R AT I ONS AN D

O M P L ETE F I G U RE F OR P A P P US TH EORE M
.
,

ON TH E C
’

Th e sim pl er De s a r g fig
u es
’
u re 212 213 ,

Th e fig u r e of t h r ee d mi es d f p i i c
p f h d im
t et r a s o o nt s n s a ce o t r ee en

i
s on s 213 , 21 4
Th e fig u re f or m e d f ro m th r e e tr i a d s of
po i n t s w h ch a r e i in p er s p e c
tiv i e n pa i ih
rs , w t c e n t r es o f p er s p ect iv e in li ne

Th e c om p l e t e fig f ure or P a pp u s
’
t h eor e m

Th e fig ure f or m ed f r om s ix
po i nt s in f o u r d m e n s i i on s

E xx . 1 —4 . The c on figu r a t i on in s p a ce o f 11 d im i e ns ons , f or med

f r om ( n + 2 ) p o n ts , i or f r om ( n + 2 ) s p a ces of ( n 1 ) d mens i i ons ;

it is s elf p ola r -
 Co n ten ts xv

NOTE II . ON THE H E X A GR A MM U M M YS TI CU M
OF P A S CA L
I nt i
r od u c t o n , a n d a r r a n g e men t o f n ot e

Syl v e s t e r s s yn t h e m e s
’
f ro m s ix e e l m e nts . T he i
c om b n a t o r a l i id en

i i
t t y w th t h e P a s ca l fig ure 22 0—2 24
i
Th e g e o m e t r c a l n t e r p r e ta t o n o f t he i i i
r e l a t on s , in pa c e
s of fou r
i i
d m e n s on s ( s e e a l s o t h e F r o n t s p i i ece of the v ol u m e ) . S ta t e
m en t p r oo o f t h e P a s c a
a nd nc en ces f l i id
i i
D r e c t d e d u c t o n of P a s c a l s g u r e r om a c u b c s u r f a c e w t h
’
fi f i i a n od e

i
E xa m p l e s o f p a r t c u l a r p r op e r t e s o f t h e g u r e ( E x x 1 — 6 ) i fi .

Ex 1 . . i
The p a r s of conju g a te S te n er p la ne s i
Ex 2 . . i
The S te n er p la nes a n d S te n er P l u ck er l i -
i n es

Ex 3 . The s ep a r a t on o i f the comp l ete figur e i n to s ix fi g u r es

i i i
.

Ex . 4 . Tet? a d s of S te n er po n ts ea c h in thr eef old p e r s p ect ve

w ih t a tetr a d o i
f K r k ma n p o n ts i
Ex . 5 . R el a t i on of the Ca y l ey S a l mon -
l i n es a n d t hS
e a l mon p la n es
Ex 6 . . P r 00] o f the r el a t on s i by p la ne g eometr y
Re f i
e r e n c es t o th e l t er a t u r e of t h e m a t t e r

NOTE I I I I N RE G A R D TO TH E L I TER A T U RE F OR NON

.

E U C LI DE A N G EO METR Y
A DDI T I ON S
I N DE X
 P R E LI MI N A R Y

TH E RE a r e s e ve r a l m a tte rs re a dily u n d er s t o o d by t he rea d e r o f ,

V o l u m e I in r ega r d t o which w e h a v e n o t th er e n t er e d i n to the

, e

d e ta il which ma y b e d e s ira bl e f o r t h e p u r p e s o f t h e p re en t v o l u m e os s .

R e l a t e d r a n g e s o n t h e s a m e l in e I V it h t h e p u rp o s e o f .

a v o idi n g t h e u s e o f p o i n t s wh o s e e x i s t e n c e c o u ld o n l b e a s s u med
y
a ft e r t h e c o n s id e r a ti o n o f t h e s o c a ll e d im a gi n a r oi n ts w e ha ve
y p
-
,

ol I 25 ) d e fi n e d t w o r a n ge s o n t he s a m e li n e a s b i n g
( V .
pp ,
1 8 .
, e

r el a ted w h e n o n e o f th e m is in p er s p e ctiv e with a r a n g e o n a s e c o n d

,

li n e which is re l a t e d t o t he o th e r ra nge o f t he fi r s t li n e Fro m thi s .

d e fi n iti o n w e ha v e s he w n ( Vo l I p 1 60) th a t in t h e a b s tr a ct .
, .

ge o m e tr y t w o s u ch re la t e d r a n ges o n t h e s a m e li n e h a v e t w o c o rre
s o n d ing p o i n t s in c o mm o n th o u gh th e s e m a y c o i n cid e A s s mi n g u
p , .

thi s w e m a y n o w fo rm a lly pro v e th a t t w o s u ch r n ge s a l s o s a ti s fy

,
a

t h e g en e ra l d e fi n iti o n n a m e l y th a t th ey a r e b o th in p e rs p e ctiv e
,

with t h e s a m e o th e r ra n ge
o n a n o th e r li n e fr o m di ff e ,

ren t c en tre s .

L e t t h e ra n ge s ( a ) ( b) o n , ,

t h e s a m e li n e I b e s u ch th a t
, ,

s in p e r s e ctiv e w ith a
( )
a i p
ra n g e whil e ( 0) is rel a t e d
t o ( b) L e t 0 b e a p o i n t o f
.

t h e li n e l which c o r r es p o n d s 0 A 52A ?

t o it s e lf wh e th e r re ga r d e d
b el o n gi n g t o t he r a n ge ( a ) o r t o t h e r a nge let A A A b e ,,

o th e r p o i n t s o f t h e r a n ge ( a ) r e s e ctiv e l c o r r e s o n di n g t o t h e
p y p ,

oints B 3 B o f t he ra n g e L et H K b e an
y t wo o i n t s in
p ], 2, p ,

li n e with 0 ; l e t A H A K m e e t in P a n d B H E K m e e t in Q
I , 2 , I , 2

a n d l e t P A m ee t t h e li n e OH K in A T h e n t h e ra n g e 0 H K A
’
.
, , ,

is in fa ct re l a t e d t o 0 B B B F or t h e fo r m e r is in p e rs p e ctiv e
, ,, ,, .
,

fro m P with t he ra nge 0 A A A thi s is b y hyp o th es i s in p er

, , 1 , 2, , ,

s e c t i e with a r a n g e
v which is it s e lf r e l a t e d t o 0 B B B ; so
p , ,, ,,

tha t t he res ul t fo ll o w s fro m V ol I p p 2 2 —2 4 T h e n c e a s t h e .

, . .
,

ra n ges 0 H K A a n d 0 B 3 B ha v e t he p o i n t 0 in c o mm o n
, , , ,
’

, 1 , 2, , ,

th ey a r e in p er s p e ctiv e ( Vo l I p 5 8 E x 2 T h u s t he li n e QB
.
, .
, .

p a s s es thro u gh A a n d t he t w o ra n ge s ( a ) ( b) a r e in p e r s p e ctiv e
’

, ,

w ith t h e s a m e r a n ge o n t h e li n e OH K r es e ctiv e l fr o m P a nd Q
p y ,
.

T hi s is wh a t w e w e r e t o p r o v e .

It is cl e a r th a t t h e li n e P Q m ee t s t h e li n e I in a n o th er c om m o n
B . G 110
0
2 P re lim in a r y
c o rre s p on di n g p o i n t ra nge s ( a ) ( b) which ma y h o w e v er
of t he t w o , ,

c o i n cid e with 0 .

I n v ol u t io n C o n s id e r i n g .

t w o r e l a t e d ra n g e s u p o n t h e
s a m e li n e it d o e s n o t g e n e ,

r a ll fo ll o w th a t if K b e t h e
y ,

o i n t o f t h e s e c o n d r a n ge
p
c o rres p o n di ng t o a p o i n t H
o f t h e fi r s t r a n ge th en t o ,

B t h e p o i n t K c o n s id r e d a s , e

b e l o n gi n g t o t h e fi r s t r a n ge ,

th er e c o r r es p on d s t h e p o i n t
H c on s id er e d a s b e l o n gi n g t o t h e s e c o n d
,
We p r o c ee d t o s h e w .
,

h o w e v e r tha t if thi s b e t u e f o r o n e p o s iti o n F o f H a n d t h e

, ,
r , , ,

c o r r es p o n di n g p os iti on G o f K th e n it is tr u e f o r e v ery p a ir o f c o
, , ,
r

re s p o n di n g p o i n ts H K , .

F o r in a cc o r da n c e with t h e p r e ce di n g l e t t h e r a n g e s b e in p e r
, ,

s ec t i e r e s p e ctiv e ly fr o m t h e p o i n t s P a n d Q with t h e s a m e r a n g e ;
v
p , ,

l e t X b e t h e p o i n t o f thi s ra n ge which li e s o n t h e li n e P Q a n d 0
'

t h e c o mm o n c o r res p o n di n g p o i n t o f t h e t w o r a n g es a ri s i n g b y p e r
s e c t i e fr o m X
v l e t L b e t h e p o i n t o f thi s r a n g e which giv es r i s e
p ,

r e s e ctiv e l fr o m P a nd Q t o th e t w o a rtic u l a r c o r r e s o n di n g
p y p p
,

o i n t s F G o f t h e t w o r a n ges t h e p o i n t s P L F a n d a l s o t h e p o i n t s
p , , , , ,

Q L G b e i n g in li n e T h e n by hy p o th es i s t h e li n es P G Q F m e e t
, , ,
.
, , ,

in a p o i n t M o f t h e li n e X L L e t 0 b e t h e i n t e r s e cti o n o f t he li n e
, ,
.

X L with t h e o rigi n a l li n e s o th a t 0 is a l s o a c o mm o n c o rr es p o n di n g
,

o i n t o f th e t w o r a n ge s
p .

It is cl e a r fro m t h e c on s tr u cti on th a t t he p o i n t s 0 0 a e ,
'
r

ha r m o n ic c o nj u ga tes in rega r d t o F a n d G a n d th e re fo re d o n o t ,

c o i n cide with o n e a n o th e r ; u n l e s s i n de e d th ey b o th c o i n cid e e ith e r , ,

with F o r with G ( I p p 1 4
,
in which c a s e a s 0 is a s e lf
, .
, ,
'

c o rr es p o n di n g p o i n t G w ou ld c o i n cid e w ith F which w e s u pp o s e

, ,

n o t t o b e t h e ca s e T h u s wh e n t h e t w o c o mm on c o rre s p o n di n g
.
,

o i n t s o f t h e t w o giv e n ra n g e s a r e c o i n cid e n t t h e ca s e o f t w o s u ch
p ,

di ff e r en t re cipr o ca lly r e l a te d p o i n t s F a n d G a w e a r e n o w c on s

s id er in g d oe s n o t a r i s e Fu r th e r t h e p o i n ts . X a r e ha r m o n ic ,

c onj u ga te s in rega rd t o P a n d Q .

N o w l e t A B b e a n y t w o o th er c or r e s p o n di n g p o i n t s r es p e ctiv e l y
, ,

o f t h e t w o giv e n r a n g e s a r i s i n g fr o m t h e p o i n t C o f t h e li n e X L
, ,

b y p e r s p e ctiv e fr o m P a n d Q r e s p e ctiv e ly s o th a t P C A a n d a l s o , , , , ,

Q C B a r e in li n e T h e n a s 0 X a r e h a r m on i c onj u ga t es in
’

,
.
, ,
c
,

rega r d t o P a n d Q it foll o w s th a t ,
0 a r e h a rm o n ic c o nju ga t es in
r e ga r d t o A a n d B Fr o m thi s it fo ll o ws th a t P B a n d QA m ee t o n
.

t h e li n e X L a n d th e re fo r e th a t t o t h e p i n t B o f t h e fi r s t r a n ge
, , , ,
o , ,

c or r e s p on d s t h e p o i n t A o f t he s e c o n d ; a s w e d e s i r e d t o p ro v e
,
.
 P limin a r y
re 3

C o n v e rs e ly , a ny t w o p o i n t s of t h e o r igi n a l li n e which a r e h a rm o n ic
c o nj u ga t es in r e ga rd t o 0 a n d 0 a r e a a i r o f r e ci r o c a ll c o r re
'

p p y
s o n d in
p g p o i n t s o f t h e t w o r a n g es T he a gg r e ga te o f s u ch p a i r s is
.

c a ll e d a n in vol u tio n o f p a irs o f p o i n ts ; t he p o i n ts 0 a r e c a ll e d

t he d ou ble p o in ts o f t h e i n v o l u ti o n .

It is cl ea r tha t if th r ee p a i r s o f p o i n t s o f a li ne , ( A , B), ( F, G )
a n d ( U, V ), b e a irs o f a n i n v o l u ti o n , th e n t h e r a n g e A , F , G , U ,
p
c o ns i s ti ng o f t w o p o i n ts o f o n e p a i r , a n d a p o i n t fr o m e a ch o f t h e
o th e r t w o a irs , is r e l a t e d , oint t o o i n t , t o t h e r a nge B , G , F, V ,
p p p
c o n s i s ti n g o f t he r es p e ctiv e ly c o m p l e m e n t a r y p o i n ts o f t he va ri o u s
a ir s F o r w e c a n d e fi n e t w o r e l a t e d ra n g e s b t h e fa ct th a t t h e
p .
y
o i n t s A , F , U , o f t h e o n e , c o r re s o n d , r e s e ctiv e l , t o t h e i t
p p p y p o n s

B , G, V , o f t he o th er ; th e n , t o t h e p o i n t G , o f t h e fo r m er , c o rr e s p o n ds
t he p o i n t F , o f t he l a tt e r C o n v e r s e ly , if s ix p o i n t s o f a li n e b e s u ch
.

th a t t he r a n ge A , F, G , U is r e l a te d , p o i n t t o p o i n t , t o t he r a n ge
B, G, F, V , th e n (A , B) , ( F, G) a n d ( U, V ) a r e thre e p a i r s o f a n
i n v o l u ti o n A l s o , a n i n v o l u ti o n is e s ta bli s h e d wh e n t w o p a i r s a r e
.

giv e n ; f o r , if the s e b e (A , B ) a n d ( F, G ), w e h a v e o n ly t o a s s o ci a t e ,
t o a ny p o i n t U , a p o i n t V f o r w hich t h e r a n g e B , G, F , V is r e l a t e d ,
oin t t o o i n t , t o t h e r a n ge A , F, G , U
p p .

T h u s , fu r th e r , a p a i r o f p o i n t s , 0 a n d e x i s t s , w hich a r e h a r

m o n ic c onj u ga t es b o th in r e ga r d t o o n e a rbitr a r y p a ir o f p o i n ts ,
A , B , a n d a l s o in r e g a rd t o a n o th e r a r bitra r y p a i r , F, G, which l ie
in t h e li n e A B . T h e s e p o i n ts , 0 , a r e t h e d o u bl e
p o i n ts o f t h e

i n vo lu ti o n d e t e rmi n e d by t h e p a i r s A , B a n d F, G .

Fr o m thi s it fo ll o w s , a l s o , tha t if th er e b e t w o i n vo l u ti on s o f
a irs o f o i n t s u o n t h e s a m e li n e , th e r e is a a ir of i t c mm
p p p p p o n s o o n

t o b o th i n v o l u ti o n s T hi s p a i r c o n s i s ts o f t h e t w o p o i n t s which a r e
.

h a r m o n ic co nj u ga tes in re ga r d t o t he d o u bl e p o i n t s o f t h e fi r s t
i n v o l u ti on , a n d a l s o h a r m o n l c c o nj u ga t e s in r ega r d t o t he d ou bl e
p o i n t s o f t he s e c o n d i n v o l u ti on .

d e fi n iti on o f a n i n vo l u ti on o f p a i s o f p o i n ts o n a li n e m a y
T he r

b e pp r ch e d di ff e r e n tly in c o nn ex i o n with
a oa , figu r e p re vi o u s ly
a

e m lo ed
p y ( V o l I pp 76
.
, .
,
4 P re lim in a r y
L et A , B, 0, U
rbitra ry p o i n t s o f a li n e ; in a pl a n e thr ou gh
,
E be a

t h e li n e dra w t w o li n e s A L BM m e t b y a li n e th r o u gh E r es p ec , ,

t ive l y in L a n d M ; l e t U L a n d BM m e e t in S a n d GM m e et A L ,

in R L e t S R m ee t A B in P
. .

If th en P L P M re s p e ctiv e ly m e e t B 21! a n d A L in K a n d H
, , , , , ,

t h e r a n g e 0 A E P is in p e r s p e ctiv e fr o m Ill with t h e ra n g e

, , , , ,

R A L H ; thi s l a s t is in p e rs p e tiv e fr o m P with t h e ra n ge

, , ,
c , ,

S B K M a n d thi s a ga i n in p e rs p e ctiv e fr o m L with t h e ra ng e

, , , , , , , ,

U B P E A s th en t h e ra n ges 0 A E P a n d U B P E a r e p r o v e d
, , , .
, , , , , , , ,

t o b e r e l a t e d it fo ll o w s fr o m w h a t is s a id a b o v e th a t t h e p a irs
, , ,

( 0 U
, ) ( A B ) a n d ( E P ) a r e in i n v o l u ti o n
, , , .

T h u s t h e thre e p a irs o f j o i n s o f a n y fo u r p o i n t s o f a pl a n e ( in
thi s ca s e M R L S ) m ee t a n a rbitra r y li n e o f t he pl a n e in thr ee
, , , , ,

a irs o f p o i n t s o f t h e s a m e i n v o l u ti o n A s h a s b e e n r e m a r k e d in
p .

V ol 1 ( p . t h e s ign ifica n c e o f t h e fa ct th a t fi e o f th e s e p o i n ts
. v

d e t e rmi n e t h e r e m a i n i n g o n e w a s n o t e d by t h e G re e k s .

E v e r y r es u lt r e l a ti n g t o p irs o f p o i n t s o f a li n e c or r e s p on ds b y a
,

t h e pri n cipl e o f d u a lity t o a r e s u lt re l a ti n g t o p a ir s o f li n e s in a , ,

pl a n e p a s s i n g thr o u gh a p o i n t We m a y the re fo r e c o n s id e r p a i r s o f
,
.

li n es in a pl a n e th r o u gh a p o i n t for mi n g a p e n cil in i n v o l u ti o n ;
, , ,

th es e m ee t a n a rbit r a ry li n e o f t h e pl a n e n o t p a s s i n g thr o u gh t he ,

ce n tre o f t h e p en cil in p a i r s o f p o i n t s o f a r a n ge in i n v o l u ti o n
, .

I n p a r tic u l a r if fo u r a rbit r a r y li n e s b e giv e n in a p l a n e th es e

, , ,

divide d i n t o t w o p a irs in ea ch o f t h e th r ee p os s ibl e w a ys d e t ermi n e , ,

b y t h e i n t e rs e cti on s o f li n e s o f a p a i r th r ee p a i r s o f p o i n t s T h e , .

lin es which j o i n a n a rbitr a ry p o i n t o f t h e p l a n e t o th es e three p a irs

o f p o i n t s a r e thr e e p a irs o f li n e s b e l o n gi n g t o t h e s a m e i n v o l u ti o n
,
.

S y m b ol i c a l e xp r e s s i o n o f t h e p r e c e d in g r e s u l t s We h a v e .

in V o l I ( p p 1 4 0 1 54 ) rea ch e d t h e r es u lt th a t if a r a n ge o f p o i n t s
. .
,

re pre s en t e d b y s y mb o l s 0 r U f or di ffe ren t v a l u es o f a b e r e l a t e d , ,

t o a r a n ge o f p o i n t s r e p r e s e n t e d b y s y mb o l s 0 y U f o r di ff e re n t ,

v a l u e s o f y th e n th er e is a r e la ti o n o f t he fo rm
,

a m
y +
wh e re i n t h e s
y mb ol s a b c d a r e i n de p en d e n t o f a a n d
, , , y I V e a re
'
.
’
,

th ro u gh ou t a s s u mi n g P a p p u s th e o re m a n d th e r e is n o q u e s ti o n o f
’

, ,

t he c o mm u t a tivity o f t h e m u lti p lica ti o n

o f t h e s mb o l s It m y b e i n t e r e s ti n g
y . a ,

in t h e fi rs t p la c e t o o bt a i n thi s r e s u lt b y ,

r ga r di n g t he ra n ge s a s b e i n g in p er s p e c
e

tiv e fr o m di ff er en t c en tres w ith t he s a m e

, ,

ra n ge o n a n o th e r li n e .

F o r thi s l e t t h e r a n ges ,

o n a li n e 0 U b e in p e r s e ctiv e with a
'

p ,

ra n ge o n a li n e OY r e s e ctiv e l y
p , ,

fr o m ce n tre s P a n d Q L e t t h e li n e P Q .
6 P re l im in a r y
an d c o i n cid es with 0 wh a te v e r p a ir o f c o rre s p on di n g p o i nt s A a n d B
’

m a y b e T h u s 0 a n d 0 m u s t b e di ff er e n t a n d t he ge n e ra l p a i r o f
’
.
,

o i n t s o f t h e i n v o l u ti o n is a p a ir o f p o i n t s h a r m o n ic a ll c o nj u ga t e
p y
in re g a r d t o th e s e .

E x a m p l e s o f i n v o l u t i o n E x I T h e c o n diti o n th a t t he p a i r o f . . .

p o i n ts rep r e s e n te d b y O + w U 0 y U s h o u ld b e h a r m o n ic c o nju ga t e s
'

,
’
,

o f o n e a n o th e r in re ga r d t o t h e p a ir o f p o i n t s r e p r e s e n t e d b y a U ,

b U b e i n g t h e c o n diti o n th a t f o r pr o p e r s y mb o l s p q
’
0 , , , ,

—4® Kp —p ,

( w —b) (e
wy

T hi sre m a r k ( a ) giv e s t h e p a ir o f p o i n t s which a r e h a rm o n i c

, ,

c o nj u ga t e s o f o n e a n o th e r in re ga rd t o ea ch o f t w o o th e r gi v en p a i r s
of oi n ts I n
p a rtic u l a r t h e p a ir o f p o i n t s h a rm o n ica ll
y c o nj u ga t e
p .
,

b o th in r ega r d t o 0 U a n d in r e ga r d t o O a U 0 b U is giv e n
’
, ,
'

,
'

k U wh e r e ls a b It a l s o giv e t he r e l a ti o n
’

kU O
’ ?
by 0 , , . s,

f o r a p a ir o f p o i n t s b e l o n gi n g t o a giv e n i n v o l u ti o n a n d ( c ) s h e w s , , ,

th a t t w o giv e n i n v o l u ti o n o n t he s a m e li n e h a v e a c o mm o n p a ir s, ,

o f p o i n ts .

Ed 2 . Wh e n .
y U a r e a s a b o v e c o r r e s p on di n g , , ,

o i n t s o f t w o r e l a t e d ra n g e s o f which O is a c o m m o n c o rr e s p o n di n g
’

p ,

o i n t t h e r e l a ti o n c o nn e cti n g a a n d y
'

p ,

—
,

w efl e q w + h+ v nw p w + m n r
p q

is ca p a bl e o f o n e o f t he t w o fo ll o wi n g f rm s : o

y
—m y I I I
cr ’ ’
w w w A
y
I 1 1
wh ere U
A
9

p 9
a cc o rdi n g as m is n o t ze o , o r r m is ze o r . In g e n e ra l , t he r el a ti on

if t h e e q u a ti o n a s:
2
(b c ) w d 0,
f or which y a ha ve ,
two di ff e r e n t ro ot s a B , , is ca p a bl e of the form
y
— B y
— a

w —B w —a
a ’

b
2—g
( 1 2 2

t
a c
wh e re d c

but, if B a , or (b c )
2
4 a d , t he re la ti o n is c a p a bl e of t he for m
I 1
x

wh e re h »
} (b
7 c )/a .
 P re l im in a r y 7

T he gen e r a l c o n diti o n f o r a p a ir o f p o i n ts re p re s e n t e d by 0 ,
’
a U,
o be l o n g t o a n i n v o l u ti o n is o f t h e fo r m
'

0 y U t ,

If w e ch o o s e U f o r o n e o f t he t w o d o u ble p o i n ts w e h a v e a 0 If , .

th e n a l s o 0 b e t he o the r d o u bl e p o i n t w e h a v e a l s o 0 0 If 0
, ,
’

, .
'

a nd U be a n a i r o f t he i n v o l u ti o n w e h a v e 6 O
y p , .

I n ge n e r a l t he d o u bl e p o i n t s a r e giv e n b y t h e v a l u e s o f a: f or which
,

if th es e c o i n cid e ( b a c ) t he i n v o l u ti o n r e d c e t o o n e fi x e d p o i nt
?
,
u s ,

f o r w hi h a b/a t k e n in t u r n with e v e r y o th e r p o i n t o f t h e li n e
c
’
,
a .

T hi s v e ry d e g e n e r t e c a s e h a s b ee n e x cl u d e d fro m c o n s ide ra ti o n in
a

wh a t h a s p r e e d e d c .

Ex 3 If P Q a nd P Q b e a ny t w o p i r s o f p o i n ts o f a li n e
. .
,
’

,
’
a ,

b e t h e h a r m o n ic c o nj u ga t e o f P in re ga r d t o P a n d Q
’
a nd P
’
,
"
w hil e Q is t h e h a r m o n ic c o nju ga t e o f Q in r eg a rd t o P a nd Q
’ ’

” ”
t he p a i r s ( P Q ) ( P a r e in i n v o l u ti o n
’

( P Q )
,
"
, , .

F o r b y c o n s tr u cti o n P P a n d Q Q a r e p a i r s o f a n i n v o l u ti o n
, , , ,

With P Q a s d o u bl e p o i n ts a n d t h e h a r m on ic ra n ges P P P Q ”
’ ' ' ’

, , , , ,
"
Q P Q a r e r e la te d ; t he l a tt e r a n d th er e fo re a ls o t he
’ ’
a nd Q , , , , , ,

fo r m e r is re l a t e d t o t he r a n ge Q Q Q P ( Vo l I p 2 5 E x I )
, ,
"
,
'

,
’
.
, .
,
. .

”
T hi s s h e w s th a t ( P Q ) ( P Q ) a r e p a i r s o f a n i n v o l u ti o n
’ ’

( P , , , , .

If t h e p o i n ts P Q c o r re s p o n d t o t he ro o ts o f d a Q hw b 0 ,
2
’

or sa, y F 0 b e i n g giv e n b
, y 0 + a U 0 + w U wh e re x
, a a re , , , , l ,
"
,

t h e r o o t s o f thi s e q u a ti o n a n d s imil a rl y with t h e s a m e p o i n t s , , ,

o f r e fer e n c e 0 U t he p o i n t s P Q c o rre s p on d t o t h e ro ot s o f ’ ’

, , ,
"
O or s a y F 0 it m a y b e s h e w n th a t P
’ ’ ’
Qh a
’
a a:
2
b '

, Q , , , ,

c o rr es p o n d s imila r ly t o t he ro o t s o f t h e e q u a ti o n
, ,

( a b h ) F ( a h a h 2 hh ) F
' ’ ’ ’ ’ ’
0
’2
.

E x 4 If A A ; B B ; b e p a irs o f p oi n t s o f a li n e which a r e
’ ’
. .
, , ,

in i n v o l u ti o n a n d w e t a k e t he h a rm o n ic c o nj u ga t e o f e v e r y o n e o f
,

the s e in r e ga r d t o t w o p o i n t s U a n d V o f t he li ne s o o bt a i n i n g , , ,

t h e p a irs P P ; Q Q ; th en th e s e a r e a l s o p a i r s in i n v o l u ti on
,
’

,
’
.

F or a n y r a n ge P Q i s th e n r e l a t e d t o t h e o r res o n di n g r a n g e
p , c

A B thi s in t u r n is re l a te d t o t he r a n ge A B a n d thi s t o
' ’

,
'
P Q
G ive n a n y t w o p a irs o f p o i n t s o f a li n e A , B a n d A , B ,
' ’
Ex . 5 .

l e t t h e p a i r o f p o i n t s which a r e h a rm o n ic b o th in r e g a rd t o A , B
a n d in r e g a rd t o A , B , b e d e n o t e d b y ( A B , a n d , th e re fo re ,
’ '

” " "
if A a n d B b e t w o o th e r p o i n t s o f t he li n e , l et { ( AB , A B }
”

d e n ot e t h e p a ir ha r m o n ic b o th in” re ga rd t o t h e p a ir ( AB , A R ) ’ '

a n d in re g a r d t o t h e p a ir A B S h e w tha t t he thr ee p a i r s o f .

om t s
p ‘
B 1 , M B A B « A B
8 P re li m i n a r y
a re in i n v ol u ti on If A .
,
B be giv en b y f = 0, wh er e
f + 2 hwy + by
2
aw

and A , B b e giv e n b y f
’
0,
’
wh e re f ’
a n ?
Q h wy
’
by , s he w
tha t (AB , A B ) a r e giv e n b y
’ ’

a e
w
y , yx,
a h, b
f l
h, b
an d {( ,
A B B a re giv e n b y Hf H f ’ ’
h
0, w e r e , if A B
” ’ " " ”
imila rly give n b y f 0 t h e fu n cti o n H is
’ ’
be s , a b 2h h ba ,
” ” ”
whil e H a b 2 hh ’
ba .

A g ener a l a b b r evia t e d a rgu m e n t f or r el a t in g t w o ra ng es .

C o n s id e r t w o li n e s , which m a y c o i n cid e , o r , m o r e g e n e ra lly , m a y l ie

in s p a c e o f a ny n u mb e r o f dim e n s i o n s L e t 0, U b e t w o p o i n t s o f .

t h e fo rm e r li n e , a n d U b e t w o p o i n t s o f t he l a tte r li n e ; if t h e
’

li n es c o i n cide 0 a n d U will ea ch b e in s yzygy with 0 a n d U , t h e

’ ’

s mb o l s o f 0 a n d U b e i n g ea ch ex pr es s ibl e b a n d U ; if t he
’ ’

y y O
li n es i n t ers e ct the re will be o ne s yzygy co n n e cti n g t h e fo u r p o i n ts .

N o w , s u p p o s e th a t w e h a v e a g eo m e tric a l c on s tr u cti o n wh e reby

th e re is de t e rmi n e d a d e fi n ite p o i n t P , o f th e s e c on d li n e , c orre ’

s o n d in t o e ver o int P o f t h e fi r s t li n e , a n d a c o n s tru cti o n

p g y p
wh e re by w e m a y c on ve rs e ly p a s s b a ck fro m P t o t h e s a m e p o i n t P
’
.

T he c o n s tru cti o n m a y b e s u ch a s give s , wh e n w e s t a r t fr o m P , o th e r

o ints A , B , o f t h e s e c o n d li n e , b es id e P , r o vid e d th es e r e m a i n
’ ’ ’
p p
t h e s a m e f o r e v e ry p o s iti o n o f P ; a n d s imil a r ly f or t h e c o n s tru cti o n
b y which w e p a s s b a ck fr o m P t o P
’
.

F o r gre a t e r d e fi n it e n e s s w e m u s t a l s o a d d th a t t h e c o n s tru cti o n

m u s t b e a n a l o gou s t o th os e c o n s id e re d in t he T hird S e cti o n o f
C h a p I o f Vo l
.
(p . I it m u s t b e ’s u ch th a t , if t h’ e p o i n t P h a v e’
.

t h e s y mb o l 0 + w U , a n d t h e p o i n t P t h e s y mb o l 0 + a U , th e n v " ’
.

is d e t e rmi n e d fr o m a b y th o s e l a w s o f c o mbi n a ti on o f t h e s y mb o l s
'

which d o n o t i n v o lve t he s o l u ti o n o f a ny e u a ti on o f t he s e c o n d or q
high e r o rde r , t he s o l u ti o n o f s u ch a n e u a ti on n o t b e i n g with o u t q
a mbig u it
y ; a n d it m u s t b e d e te rmi n e d fro m w in a s imil a r w a y’
’
.

T h er e is th er e fo re a s i n gl e a lge bra ic e u a ti o n , c o n n e cti n g a a n d v , q '

.

o f t h e f o rm a 0, c o n t a i n i n g o n ly a fi n it e n u mb e r o f t e rm s ,
m w” ’

q
in which e v er y c o e ffi ci e n t a is u it e d e fi n it e , m a n d n b e i n g p o s itiv e
i n t ege rs T h e n , a s , t o e ve ry v a l u e o f a , th e re b e lo n gs o n ly on e va l u e
.
'

o f cc , o th e r th a n th o s e i n d e e n d e n t o f r , t h e e u a ti o n m a
’

p y b e . q
e x p e ct e d t o b e s u ch th a t t he high es t v a l u e o f t h e e x o n e n t m is I ;
p
a n d , s i m il a r l , s u ch th a t t h e high e s t v a l u e o f n is a l s o 1 C f
y ( . .

. I
C h a p V , b e l o w ) T h e re l a ti o n w o u ld th e n b e o f t h e fo rm
.

’
aw a
'
+ 0 .

Wh en we ha ve su ch a d e t e rmi n a te c o n s tru cti on we s ha ll ,

so me
 P re limin a r y 9

tim e s a s s u m e f o r t h e s a k e o f bre vity th a t it is p o s s ible t o fi n d a

, , ,

third ra n ge with which b o th t he giv en ra n ge s a r e in p e rs p e ctive ,

f r o m a ppr o pri a t e c e n t r es ; s o th a t t h e giv e n ra n ge s a r e r e l a t e d .

O f t h e d i s t in c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s o -c a ll e d r ea l a nd im a g i
n a r y p oin t s I n t he e ne a
. s us sg
r l di c i o n i n tro d u ct o ry t o Cha p 1 1 1 .

o f Vo l I ( p a n d in s o m e o th e r c a s es w e h a v e s o k e n o f t he
. .
p ,

d i s ti n cti o n b e tw ee n r ea l a n d im a gi n a ry p o i n t s in a w y w hich if a ,

d e fi n ite wh en w e a pp r o a ch t h e m a tt er fro m t he p o i n t o f vi e w o f t he
R e a l G eo m e t r y is n o t s o cl e a r fro m t he p o i n t o f vi e w t o which w e
,

d e s i r e t o rea ch It might b e p r o p e r th e n t o e n te r n o w i n t o m o re
.

d e t a il B u t w e d o in fa ct r e ga rd t h e di s ti n cti o n a s a r i s i n g in co n
.

n ex io n with a n a r bitra r limit a ti o n o f t h e o s s ibiliti es o f t h e o i n ts

y p p
which c a n e x i s t in t he s p a ce c o n s id er e d ; f o r thi s rea s o n w e p o s tp o n e
t hi s di s c u s s i o n u n til ( in C ha p I V b e l o w ) w e d e fi n ite ly a g r ee t o m a k e
.
,

thi s limita ti o n T hi s limit a ti o n is r e p r e s e n t e d b y a r e s t r icti o n in

.

t h e s ys t e m o f s y mb o l s a p p r o p r i a t e t o t he g eo m e tr ica l r es u lts
o bt a i n e d Whil e w e wi s h t o l ea v e t h e l ogica l p o s s ibiliti es a s o p e n
.

a s w e c a n w e d es i r e t o e x p ou n d a s s t e m o f g e o m e t r i h a rm o n
, y y n
y
with wha t i s c o mm o n ly a ccep t e d F o r thi s p u rpo s e w e h a v e s u g
.

ge s te d in Vo l I tha t w e m a y t a k e a s a ge o m e tr ica l p os tu la te t he
, .
,

p os s ibilit
y o f wh a t w e h a v e c a ll e d S t e i n er s c o n s tr u cti o n
’

( V o l I .
,

1 55 I n a s imil a r w a w e s h a ll in t h e firs t th r e e ch a t e r s
pp .
y p .

o f t he r es en t v o l u m e a d o pt a s a p o s t u l a t e t h e th eo r e m th a t tw o
p
c u rv es in a p l a n e which a r e con ics in t h e s en s e t o b e imm e di a te ly
,

e x pl a i n e d ha ve f ou r commo n p oin ts of w hich t w o or mor e ma y

, , , ,

c o in cid e .It w ill b e s e e n b e l o w ( in Ch a p I V ) ho w thi s w o u ld b e

.

p r o v e d wh e n t h e limit a ti o n r e fe r r e d t o is a d o pt e d C f pp 1 9 1 5 7 . . .
,

b el o w .
 C H A P TE R I

G ENE R A L PROPERTIE S OF C ONI C S

D e fi n it i o n of a C o n ic cil s o f li n es in t h e
C on s e . id r t w o p en ,

s a me l a n e o f c e n tr os e th e s e a r e r e l a t e d t o
es A a n d C, a n d
p , su
pp
o n e a n o th e r in t h e s e n s e e x l a i n e d in V o l 1 ; t o a n li n e AP of
, p y .
, ,

o ne e n cil th e e o r r e s p o n d s th e n a d e fi n it e li n e CP o f t h e o th e r
p ,
r c , , , , ,

a n d c o n v er s e l t o an li n e CP th e re c o rr e o n d s o n e li n e A P
, y y , p , ,
s ,

I h e c u rv e which I S t he l o c u s o f t h e i n t e r s e ct i o n P o f s u ch c or
'

, ,

re s p on di n g r a ys A P CP is ca ll e d a c o n ic s e cti o n o r b r ie fiy a
, , , , ,

c o n ic C o n v er s e ly it will b e s e en th a t a n y c on i c c a n b e s o o bta i n e d
.
, ,

fr o m a n y t w o p o i n t s A C o f it s e lf , , , .

B y it s d e fi n iti o n t h e c u rv e c o n t a i n s o n e p o i n t P b es id e A u p o n , , ,

a n y li n e d r a w n th r o u gh A ; th ou gh wh e n t h e li n e d r a w n thr o u gh A ,

is th a t which c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e li n e CA dra w n th r o u gh C , t h e
oin t P c o i n cid e s with A S imil a rl f o r a li n e d r a w n th r o u gh C
p y . .

C o n s id e r h o w e v e r a n y li n e n o t p a s i n g th r o u gh A n o r C T hi s li n e s .

c o n ta i n s t w o p o i n t s o f t h e c o n ic F o r t h e re l a t e d p e n cil s o f c e n tr es .
,

A a n d C d e t e rmi n e u p o n thi s li n e t w o r e l a t e d ra n ge s T h e s e h a v e
, .

t w o c o mm o n c o rr e s p o n di n g p o i n t s If th es e b e P a n d P t h e r a y .
,,

AP o f t h e o n e p e n cil c o r r es p o n d s t o t h e r a y CP o f t he o th e r
,, , ,, ,

a nd P is o n t h e l o c u s a n d i t is t h e s a m e f o r P , .

T h e re is h o w e v e r o n e c a s e which w e r e g a r d a s e x c ep ti o n a l t o , ,

which re fe re n c e s h o u ld b e m a de : It m a y b e th a t t o t h e r a y A C ,

o f t he e n cil ( A ) th e r e c o rres p o n d s t he r a C A o f t he e n cil ( C )

p , y p .

Wh en thi s is s o th e l o cu s c o n i s t s o f a li n e o f t he p l a n e t o g e th er
,
s ,

with t h e li ne A C it s elf F o r if P a n d P b e th e n n y t w o p o i n t s .
, , , ,
a

o f t h e l o c u s n o t l i n g o n t h e li n e A C a n d t h e li n e P P m ee t t h e
y , , , ,

li n e A C in B t he t w o re l a te d p en cil s (A ) ( C) d e t e rmi n e o n t h e li n e
, , ,

P P t w o r e l a t e d ra n ge s h a vi n g three c o mm o n c o rr es p o n di n g p o i n t s
, ,, ,

na m el P P a nd B T h e s e t w o r a n ge s th u s c o i n cid e a n d e v e r
y
y , .
,

p o i n t o f t he li n e P P i s a p o i n t o f t he l o c u s If th e re we re a ny
, .

p o i n t P o f t h e p l a n e n o t ly i n g o n t h e li n e P P o r t h e li n e A C
, , , , , ,

which w a s u p o n t he l o cu s th e n t he j o i n o f P t o a n y p o i n t o f P P , , ,,

w o u ld b y wh a t h a s b e e n s a id b e a li n e o f which e v e r y p o i n t w a s a
, ,

o i n t o f t h e l o c u s ; a n d i n th a t c a s e e v e r y p o i n t o f t h e p l a n e w o u ld
p
b e a p o i n t o f t he l o c u s Th e c o m p l e t l o u s th u s c o n s i s t s o f t h e
. e c

li n e P P a n d o f t he li n e A C o f w hich e v e 1 y p o i n t e vid en tly

, , , ,

s a ti s fi e s t h e d e fi n iti o n G n v e 1 s e l y a ny t w o li n e s o f t h e p l a n e m a y
. o ,

be re ga rde d a s c o n s tit u ti n g a d eg e n e 1 a t e c o n ic d e t e r mi n e d by ,
 D efi n it ion f
o a c on i c 11

re l a t e d e n c ils w h o s e c e n t e a r e a n y t w o p o i n ts o f n e o f t he li n es
S u h a geg e n e r a t e o n ic m a y b e p o k e n o f a s a li n e p a ir I n V o l I
r s o .

c c s . .

(p . w e h a v e s e e n th t t w o r e l t e d r a n g es o n t w o i n t e r s cti n g a a e

li n es which a e u h th a t t he i n t e r s e cti o n f t he li n e s i c o mm o n
,
r s c o s a

c o rre s p o n di ng p o i n t a r e in p er s p e ctive T he a ggr ega t e o f t he li n es

, .

o i n i n g c o r e s p o n di n g o i n ts o f t he t w r a ng e s c n s i s t s th e n o f a
j p r o o

e n cil o f l i n e t o g e th e r w ith v e r y li n e thr o u gh t h e c o mm o n i t

p s , p o n e

o f t h e r a n g es T hi s is t he r e s u lt d u a ll y c o rre s p o n di n g t o th a t h e r
. e

r e m a rk e d .

I n w h a t f ll o w s w e s h a ll in g e n e r a l s u pp o e th t t o t h e r a y A C
o , , s a , , ,

o f t he
p e n il ( A ) th e r e o r r e s p n d s a r a y CB o f t h e p e n cil ( C )
c , c o , , ,

which d o e s n o t o i n cide with CA T t he r y c . o a

CA o f t h p e n cil ( C ) w ill th e n c o r r s p o n d a
,
e ,
e

ra A B o f t he e n cil ( A ) m ee ti n g t h e f r m e r
y , p , ,
o ,

sa in B A s th s A C CB m e e t in C a n d
y , r
y
. e a , ,

t he ra y s CA A B m e e t in A t he l o c u s c o n t a i n s
, ,

t he p o i n t s A a n d C .

T h e li n e s CB A B s a y r e s p e ctiv e l y 0 a n d a , , , , ,

a r e d e t e r mi n d w h e n t h e la te d
e e n cil s re
p e r a

giv e n C o n e r s e l v if th e s e li n e b e giv e n n d
. v s ,
a ,

o n th e m re e cti v e l t h o i n ts C a n d A
u
p p y ,e
p s , ,

a nd a ls o a oi nt P o f t h e l o c u s b e giv e n th e n t h e r e l a t e d p e n cil s
, p , , , , ,

a r e d e t e r mi n e d ; f o r t h e th r e e r a s A C A B A P o f t h e o n e th e n
y , , , , ,

c o rres p o n d r e s p e ctiv e l y t o t he th ee r a ys CB CA CP o f t he
, , r , , ,

o th e r T h e s e li n e s 0 a c o n t a i n n o o th e r p o i n t o f t h e l o u b e s id e
.
,
c s ,

res p e ctive ly C a n d A F o r if AP CP m e e t c a n d a r s p e cti v ly

, .
, , ,
e e ,

in Q a n d R th er e a r e t w o r e l a t e d r a n g e s o n c a n d a in which t he
, ,

o i n t s C B Q o f t h e o n e c o r es o n d r e s e tiv e l t o t he
p o i n ts
p , , p , p y ,
r ,
c ,

B A R o f th e o th e r ; if th e n t h e p o i n t P f t h e l o c u l ie o n c
, , , , ,
o s , ,

t h e p o i n t R will b e a t B a n d th e r e fo r e Q a n d h e n c e a l s o P w ill , , , , ,

b e a t C Mo r e o v e r if f o r a m o m e n t w e limit o u r s e lv e s t o o n l y r ea l
.
, ,

p o i n t a n d t a k e a fu r th er p o i n t P o f th e l o u f o r which t he
s , ,
’

,
c s,

c o r r es p o n di n g Q s a y Q is e p a r a t e d fr o m B b y Q a n d C th e n
,
’

,
s ,

t h e c o r re s p o n di n g R s a y R w ill b e s e a r a t e d fr o m A b a nd B
’

p , y R ,
.

W e th er e fo r e s p k o f t h e l o c u s s h a vi n g t w o coin cid en t p o i n t s
ea a

a t C ; s imil a r l it h a s tw o o i n id e n t i n ts a t A T h e li n es 0
y , p c c o .

a n d a a r e c a ll e d ta n e n ts o f t he c o n ic r es e ctiv e l a t C a nd A It
g p y ,
.

will a pp ea r th a t th r o u gh v e ry p o i n t o f t he o n i a li n e ca n be
, e c c

dra w n c o n ta i n i n g o n ly thi p o i n t o f t he l o c u ; thi s li n e will b e ca ll e d s s

t h e t a n ge n t a t t h e p o i n t .

We h a v e r e m a rk e d th a t if t h e p o i n t s A C a n d t h e t a n ge n ts a c , , , ,

a t th es e p o i n t s nd a ls o a oin t P o f t h e l o c u s b e giv e n t h e r e
a
p , , , , ,

l a t e d p e n cil a n d th e r e fo r e l s o t h e co n ic a r e de t e rmi n e d M o re
s , , , a , ,
.

ge n er a lly if t h e p oi n t A C a n d th r e p o i n t s P P P ( f whi h
,
s , , e ,, ,, 3 o c

we su o e a t m o s t o n e b u t in g e n e ra l n o n e t o l ie o n t h e li n e A C )
pp s , , , ,
12 C h ap ter I

be give n ,
the c on ic
d e te rmi n e d ; f or w e h a v e o n ly t o m a k e the
is
ra ys CP CP CP o f t he p e n cil ( C ) c o rre s po n d re s p e ctiv e ly t o
,, ,, ,, , , ,

t h e ra y s A P A P AP o f t h e p e n cil ( A ) wh e r e b
,, ,, y
3, t h e p e n cil s a r e ,

rela t e d T h u s a c o n ic ca n b e d e s crib e d th r o u gh fi e p o i n ts o f the

. v

pl a n e o f ge n e ra l p os iti o n ; wh e n three o f thes e a r e in li n e t he co n ic

, ,

be c o m e s a li n e pa ir ; wh e n fo u r o f the m a r e in li n e th e c on ic is n o t
d e te rmi n e d .

It h a s b ee n s ta t e d th a t t h e p o i n ts A C in t he d e fi n iti on o f t h e , ,

c o n ic ma y b e re p l a c e d b y a n y o th e r t w o p o i n ts o f t h e l o c u s s a y A
, ,
’

a nd C T hi s is e a s y t o p r o v e L e t 0 be a n y
'

. .

p o i n t o f t he co n ic a n d l e t a n y li ne d ra wn , ,

thro u gh 0 m e e t t h e c o n ic a ga i n in a p o i n t P , .

L e t t h e li n e s AA CC m e e t t he li n e OP
’ ’

, ,

re s p e ctiv e ly in X a n d Y a n d t h e li n e s A C , ,
’

A C m e e t thi s li n e r e s p e ctiv e ly in D a n d E
’

, , .

T h e n t he p e n cil o f c e n tre A fo r m e d with , , ,

li n es j o i n i n g thi s p o i n t t o A C 0 P is b y ’
'
’
, , , , ,

hyp o thes i s r e la t e d t o t h e p e n cil o f c en tre C , , ,

fo r m e d with li n es j o i n i n g thi s p o i n t t o t h e
s a m e fo u r
p o i nts W h e r e fo r e t h e r a n g e X .
, ,

D 0 P is re l a t e d t o t h e ra n ge E Y 0 P , , , , , ,

a n d th e r e f o r e a l s o t o t he ra n g e Y E P
, , 0 T h u s ( P r e limi n a ry , , , .
,

a bo ve t h e th r e e p a i r s o f o i n t s X Y ; D E ; 0 P a r e in
p , .
p , , ,

i n v o l u ti on T o pr o v e n o w th a t the c on ic d e fi n e d with r e la t e d
.
, ,

p e n cils o f c en tres A a n d C t o p a s s th r o u gh t he p o i n ts A C 0
’ ’
, , ,

a l s o p a s s es thr ou gh P wh a t e v e r p oi n t o f t h e o rigi n a l c o n ic P m a y
,

b e w e r e q u i r e o n ly t o s h e w th a t t he p e n cil o f li nes j o i n i n g A t o
’

A C 0 P is r e l a t e d t o t h e p e n cil o f li n es j o i n i n g C t o th e s e s a m e
’
, , ,

p o i n ts res p e ctiv ely T hi s will be s o if t h e r a nge X E 0 P is

, .
, , ,

r e l a t e d t o t h e ra n g e D Y 0 P ; which w ill b e s o if t he ra nge

, , ,

X E 0 P is re l a t e d t o t he ra n ge Y D P 0 T he c o n diti o n f o r
, , , , , , .

thi s h o we v e r is t h e s a m e a s be fo r e th a t t he pa i r s o f p o i n t s X Y ;
, , , ,

D E ; 0 P s h o u ld b e in i n v o l u ti o n
, , .

T h e r es u lt is th e re fo re e s t a bli s h e d T h e r e by th e r e is a l s o d e fi n e d .
, ,

a t e ve r p o i n t o f t h e c u r v e a li n e c a ll e d t h e t a n g e n t m e e ti n g t h e
y , , ,

cu rve o n ly a t thi s p o i n t .

I nv o l u t ion on a l in e by c o n ic s h a vin g f ou r c om m on

p oin t s I n cide n ta lly th er e a p p ea rs fr o m t he p r e ce di n g p r o o f a

.

th eo re m w hich is o f grea t im p o r ta n c e : If fo u r p o i n t s (A C A C ) , ,
’

,
’

b e ta k e n o n a c o n ic a n d t w o p a irs o f li n e s ( A C A C a n d A A CC )
’ ’ ’
, ,

o f which e a ch p a ir c o n t a i n s t he fo u r p o i n t s th e n a n a rbitra ry li n e ,

is m e t b y th e s e li n e p a i r s a n d b y a ny c o n ic p a s s i n g thro u gh t h e
,

fo u r p o i n t s in th r ee p a i r s o f p o i n ts b e l o ngi n g t o t h e s a m e in
,

v o l u ti o n We ha ve s een th a t a c o n ic ca n b e d ra wn thro u gh fi e
. v

ge ne ra l p o i n t s s o th a t a n i n fi n ite n u mb e r o f c o n ics ca n b e dra wn

,
14 Ch a p ter I

t he th e r in s ix w a y s ; th u s fr o m s ix give n p o i n t s o f a c o n ic ca n
o , ,

b e d e d u ce d s i x t y di ff e r e n t li n es e h c o n ta i n i n g thre e s u ch p o i n t s ,
ac

o f i n t e r s e cti o n a s th o s e h er e r e m a r k e d Whe n t he c o n ic c o n s i s ts o f .

t w o li n es o n e c o n t a i n i n g t h e p o i n t s A B C t he o th er t h e p o i n ts
, , , ,

A B C P a s c a l s T h e o re m b e c o m e s th a t which in V o l 1 w e h a v e
’ ' ’ ’

, , , , .
,
"
a ll e d P u s th e o re m
c
pp a .

Th e c on s tru cti on a t o n c e giv e s t h e t a n ge n t o f t h e c o n ic a t t h e

o i n t A : If t h e li n e A C m e e t t h e li n e It in N , a n d t he li n e N 0
p O 0

m e e t t h e li n e h in T th e n A T is t h e ta n ge n t a t A S o if A C m e e t , .
,

h in M a n d M 0 m e e t k in U th e n C U is t h e t a n g e n t a t C T h e
O, 0 , .

ta n gen t a t A th u s a p p e a rs a s t h e p o s iti o n o f t h e li n e AB wh en B ’ ’

is a t A o r e q u a ll y a s t h e r a y o f t h e p e n cil o f c e n t r e A which cor

, , ,

r e s o n d s t o t h e r a y CA o f t h e p e n cil o f c e n tr e C ; n d s imil a r l f or a
p y
t h e t a n ge n t a t C T o fi n d t h e p o i n ts B o f t h e c o n ic w hich l ie
’
.
, , ,

o n a n a r bit r a ry li n e it is n e c es s a r y t o s o lv e t h p r o bl e m c o n s id er e d in
,
e

V o l I p p 1 55 ff o f fi n di n g li n e s th r o u gh th r e e giv e n p o i n t s wh o s e
.
, . .
,

i n ter s e cti o n s l ie o n th r ee giv en li n es .

R a n g e s of p oin t s o n a c on ic S i n c e t h e p e n cil s o f fo u r li n e s .

which j o i n ny fou r giv e n p o i n ts o f a c o n ic t o o th e r p o i n t s o f t h e

a

c o n ic a r e a l l r e la t e d t h e d fi n iti o n o f a c on ic a s r ib es a d e fi n it e ,
e c

ch a ra ct e r t o fo u r p o i n ts o f t he c u r ve in r e l a ti on t o a ny o th e r fo u r
o i nts t w o s u ch s e t s o f fo u r p o i n t s o f t h e l o c u s m a b e s a id t o b e
p :
y
r e l a t e d t o o n e a n o th e r w h e n t h e p e n cil o f fo u r li n es j o i n i n g t h e ,

firs t s e t o f fo u r t o a n y p o i n t o f t he c o n ic is re la t e d t o t he p en cil ,

o f fo u r li n e s j o i n i n g t h e s e c o n d s e t o f fo u r p o i n t s t o a n oint of
y p
t h e c o n ic T h u s giv e n a ny t w o t r i a d s o f p o i n t s o f t h e o n ic s a y
.
, c ,

A B C a n d A B C w e c a n t o a n y p o i n t D o f t h e c o n ic d e t er
’ ’ ’

, , , , , , , , ,

mi n e a p o i n t D o f th e c u rv e s u ch th a t in t he s en s e e x p la in e d
,
’

, , , ,

t h e r a n ge A B C D oi n ts o f t he o n ic s h a ll b e r e l a t e d
’
of
’ ' ’

p
-
, , , ,
c ,

t o t h e r a n g e A B C D T h e r e e x i s t s th e re fo r e a th e o y o f r e l a t e d
, , , .
, , r

r a n g e s o f p o i n t s o f t h e c o n ic p r e ci s e ly lik e th a t o f r e l a t e d r a n g e s o f

p o i n t s o f a li n e .

I n v o l u ti o n o f p a i rs o f p o i n t s o f a c o n i c I n p r tic u l a r th e re . a ,
‘
is a th e o ry o f p a irs o f p o i n t s o f t h e c o n ic which a r e in i n v o l u ti o n ,

o n e fo rm o f t h e c o n di ti o n th a t th re e p i r s o f p o i n t s o f t h e c o n ic a ,

P P ; Q Q ; R R b e in i n v o l u ti o n b e i n g a s in t h e c s e o f p o i n t s
’ ’ ’
, , a
, , , ,

o f a li n e ( P r e limi n r y a bo ve th a t t h e r a nge P
’

p a Q R ,
R ,
.
, , ,

s h o u ld b e r e l t e d t o t h e r a n g e P Q R R T hi s c o n diti o n h o w
’ ’ '

a , , , .
,

e ver is c a p a bl e o f v r y s im p l e g eo m e t r i a l i n t e r p re t ti o n
,
e T he c a :

n e c e s s a ry a n d s u ffici e n t o n diti o n th a t t h e th r e e
p a irs o f
p o i nts f
c o

t h e c o n ic P P ; Q Q ; R R s h o u ld b e in i n v o l u ti o n is th a t t h e
’ ’ ’

, , , , , ,

li n e s P P Q Q R R h o u ld m e et in a p o i n t
’

,
’

,
’
s .

T hi s fa ct is e a s y t o p r o v e fr o m w h t w e h a v e s e e n a b o v e T a k e a .

an
y
th r e e p i r s o f p oi n ts o f t h e c o n i
a P P ; Q Q nd R R ; le t c, ,
’

,
’
a ,
’

t h e li n e R R m ee t t h e li n e P P in U a n d m e t t he li n e Q Q in V ;
’ ’ ’

,
e
 R a ng es o f p oin ts o n a con ic 15

fu r th er l e t t he li n e P Q a n d P Q m e e t t he li n e RR in L a n d M
,
s
’ ’ ’

By w h t w e h a v e s e e n n t h e li n e R R t h e a ir s o f o i n ts R R ;
’ ’
a
p p , o ,

U V a n d L M a re in i n v o l u ti o n ; th e r e fo re
, , ,

t h e r a n ge U L R R is re l a t e d t o t he r a n g e
’

, , ,

V M R R T he fo r m e r ra n g e U L R R
’ ’

, , , .
, , , , ,

is h o w e v e r t he e cti o n by t h e li n e R R o f
’
, ,
s , ,

t h e p en cil o f li n e j o i n i n g t o P t he p o i nt s P
’
s ,

Q R R o f t h e c o n ic T h e o n diti o n th a t t he
’
, , . c

a i r s of o i n t s o f t h e c o n ic P
’ ’
P Q Q a nd
p p ; , , ,

s h o u ld b e in i n v o l u ti o n is th a t t h e
’
R R , , ,

e n cil j o i n i n g P oint of
’

p Q R R t o an
y p , , ,

t he c o n ic h o u ld b e r e l a t e d t o t h e p e n cil j o i n i n g
s

Q R R t o ny p o i n t o f t he c o n ic T h e li n e s j o i n i n g t o P
’ ’ ’
P , , , a .
, ,

th e s e l a s t fo u r p o i n t s m e e t t he li n e R R in r e s p e ctive ly U M R R ,
’
, , , ,
’
, .

T h e c o n diti o n is th e n th a t t h e r a n g e U M R R h o u ld b e r e
’

, , , , , s

l a te d t o t he ra n ge U L R R ; thi s h o w e v e r w e h a v e re m a r k d , , ,
’

, , e ,

is r e l a t e d t o t h e ra n g e V M R R T he c o n diti o n th e r e fo r e is
’

, , , .
, , ,

tha t t he ra n ges U M R R a n d V M R R s h ou ld b e re l te d , ,
’
, , ,
'
, ,
a ,

o r th a t V s h o u ld c o i n cid e w ith U T hi s is t he c on diti o n th a t t he .

li n e s P P QQ R R s h o u ld m e e t in o n e p o i n t a s w a s s ta te d
,
’

,
’

,
’

, , .

P a s ca l ’
s t h e or e m a nd r el a ted r a ng es of p oin t s u p on a

c onic Fr o m t h e e i s t e n c e ‘o f r e la te d ra n ges u p on a c on ic w e ca n
. x ,

a t o n c e d e d u c e P a s ca l s th e o r e m A nd a n
’
.

o th e r r o o f o f the r e c e di n g th eo r e m in
p p ,

r e g r d t o i n v o l u ti o n s o f o i n ts u on t h e
a
p p
c on ic o ff e r s its e lf imm di a te ly
,
e .

L e t A B C A B f C b e a n y s ix p o i n ts U
’ ’

, , , , ,

o n t h e c o n ic ; l e t L b e t h e i n t e r s e cti on
u
p
o f t h e li n e s B C B C a n d s imil a rly M
’ ’
, , , ,

t he p o i n t ( C A C A ) a nd N th e p o i n t
’ ’

( A B A
’
B, ) W e c a n w e h a v e s e e n d e te r
’
.
, ,
m i n e t w o r e l a t e d ra n ges f p o i n t s u p o n t h e c o n ic b y t h e c o n diti o n o .

th t th e p o i n t s A B C o f o n e o f th e s e c o r e s p o n d r e s p e ctiv e ly
a
’
,
’
,
’
, ,
r , ,

to t h e p o i n t s A B C o f th e o th er T h es e r a n ge s will h a v e t w o
, , .

c mm on c or res p on di n g p o i n t s ; l e t th e s e he U a n d V which f o r
o , ,

t h e p r es e n t w e u p p o e n o t t o c o i n cid e
,
sT h e n t h p e n cil o f li n e s
s . e

j i n i n g t he p o i n t s U V A B t o a ny p o i n t o f t he c on ic is by hy p o
o , , , ,

the s i s re l a te d t o t h e p en cil j o i n i n g re s p e ctiv e ly U V A B t o

, , , , ,
’

,
’

o i n t o f t h e c u rv e If e fo r m e r o i n t be t a k en t o b e A
’
an
y p t h p a nd
.
,

t h e l a tt er t o b e A a n d w e c o n s id e r t he s e cti o n o f th es e p e n cil s
,
s

b y t h e li n e U V s o o bta i n i n g t w o s e ts o f fo u r p o i n t s o f which th r e e
,

a r e t h e s a m e in b o th w e i n fe r a t o n c e th a t t h e o i n t N is o n t h e
p ,

li n e U V S imil a r ly M a n d L l ie o n thi s li n e ; th u s L M N a r e
.
, , , ,

in li n T hi s is P a s c a l s th e o r e m
’
e . .

T h e c o n diti o n th a t t h e ra n g es U V A B n d U V A B s h o u ld
’ ’

, , ,
a , , ,
16 C h a p ter I

be l t e d is t he s a m e a s th a t U V A B a n d V U B A s h ou ld b e
re a , , , , ,
’

,
’

re la te d T hi s h o w e v e r is t he s a m e a s th a t th e p a i r s U V ; A B
.
, , , ,
’

a nd A B o f p o i n t s o f t he c o n ic s h o u ld b e in i n v o l u ti o n f or thi s
’

, , , ,

the n t h e li n e s U V AB a n d A B m u s t m e e t in a p o i n t C o n
, ,
’ ’

, .

ve r s el a s c a l s th e o r e m is e q u iv a l e n t t o s a i n g th a t if A B C
’

y P , y , , , ,

A B C b e a ny s ix p o i n t s o f t h e c o n ic t h e th r e e i n v o l u ti o n s
’ ’ ’

, , ,

de te rmi n e d res p e ctiv e ly b y t he t w o p a irs B C a n d B C ; by t h e

, , ,
’

t w o p a irs C A a n d C A ; a n d b y t he t w o p a i r s A B a n d A B
’ ’ ’

, , , , ,

h a v e a p a i r c o mm o n t o a l l thre e i n v o l u ti o n s ( t he pa ir U V ) .

If H K b e ny t w o p o i n ts o f t h e ra nge A B C
,
a o f p o i nts , , ,

o f t h e c on ic a n d H K b e t h e re s p e ctiv e ly c o rres p o n di n g p o i n ts o f
’

t he re l a t e d ra n g e A B C t h e li n es H K H K ca n s imil a rl y
’ ’ ’ ’
, , ,

b e s h e wn t o m e e t o n t h e li n e U V T hi s li n e m a y b e c a ll e d t h e .

r ela tion o f th e s e t w o r a n g e s or t h e a x i s o f h o m o gra ph

a x is o
f y; ,

of V o l I p 5 8
. .
, . .

P a s c a l s th e o re m re m a i n s e q u a lly tr u e wh e n t h e p o i n t s U V
’
-

c o i n cide T he li n e U V is th en rep l a c e d b y t h e t a n ge n t o f t h e
.

c o n ic a t U .

C o nv e r s e of P a s c a l s t h e o r e m It is ea s y t o pr o v e fr o m t h e
’
.

di r e ct th e o r e m th a t if A B C A B C b e s u ch s ix p o i n ts o f
, , , ,
’

,
’

,
’

t h e pl a n e th a t t h e three i n t e rs e cti o n s ( B C B C ) ; ( CA C A ) a n d
’ ’ ’ ’

, ,

(AB A B ) a r e in li n e th en t h e s ix p o i n t s a ll l ie o n a c o n ic
’ ’

, , .

I n t r o d u c t i on o f t h e a l g e b r a ic s y m b ol s We h a ve th u s o b .

t a in e d m a n y o f t h e fu n d a m e n t a l th eo re m s f o r a c o n ic imm e di a t e ly
fr o m t h e d e fi n iti on It is o u r p u rp o s e t o m a k e t he ge o m e trica l
.

th eo ry c o mpl et e in it s e lf B u t it m a y b e i n t e re s ti n g a t t he s a m e
.
,

tim e t o co n s id e r t he a p p lica ti o n o f t he a lge bra ic s y mb o ls

,
.

R e tu rn i n g t o t h e d e fi n iti o n t h e p o i n t P o f t h e l o c u s b e i n g , , , ,

t h e i n t e rs e cti o n o f t he c o r re s p o n di n g r a ys A P CP o f t w o r e l a t e d ,

p e n cil s o f c e n t r e s A a n d C l e t AP m e e t in Q
, ,

t h e t a n ge n t CB a t t h e p o i n t C a n d CP m e e t ,

in R t h e t a n ge n t A B a t t h e p o i n t A T h e n Q R .
,

d e s crib e re l a t e d ra nges o n t he li n es CB AB o f , ,

Q which t h e p o i n t s C B o f t he fo rm e r c o rr es p on d , , , ,

res p e ctiv e ly t o t h e p o i n t s B A o f t h e l a tt e r , , , .

If th e n w e re p r es en t t h e p o i n t Q by t he s y mb ol
C 9B wh e re 9 is a n a lg e bra ic s y mb o l w e c a n
, , ,

a b s o r bi n g a r o p e r m u lti li e r in t h e s mb o l A r e re s e n t R b t h e
p p y p y ,

s mb o l B 9 A T h e n c e t h e p o i n t P is giv en b t h e s mb o l
y .
y y

an d a ll p o i n t s f t h e c o n ic a r e gi ve n b y thi s , f o r di ff e r e n t s y mb o l s 9
o
—1 0
.

I n p a rtic u l a r , t h e p o i n t s A a n d C a ri s e , re s p e ctiv e ly , f o r 9 a nd

q
We might e u a lly, h o we v e r, h a v e r e pre s e n te d t he p o i n t Q
b y C + m 9B , wh e re m is a n a rbitra r y a lg e bra ic s y mb o l ; t o fi x t he
 In terp r eta tion b y th e a lgeb r a ic symb ols 17

s
y mb o l 9 f or e ver
y p o i n t o f t h e c o n ic it is n e c e s s a ry t o fi x it f o r ,

o i n t b e s id e A a n d C ; s a b s p e cif i n g t he
p o i n t o f t h e c u rv e
o ne
p y y y ,

f o r which 9 I .

T h a t a l o c u s o f which e v e r y p o i n t is gi ve n b y a s y mb o l s u ch a s
,

tha t h e r e r e p r e s e n ti n g P c o n t a i n s t w o p o i n t s o f a n a rbitra r y li n e
, ,

is cl e a r b y r e m a rki n g th a t t h e p o i n t
,

ml A g B l alC X ( m2 A y B Z 2 2C ) ,

of li n e j o i n i n g th e give n p i n ts m A
the o l g l B l , m2 A y B z z zC,

will b e a p o i n t o f t h e c o n ic if a n d o n ly if , ,

$1 NZ g ’ '
0 (y 1 Xy z) 0 2
(3 1 X3 2 );
by limi n a ti o n o f 7x fro m th e s e t w o e q u a ti o n s We o bt a i n a q u a dra tic
e

e q u a ti o n f o r 0 .

T he r e s u lt th a t t he c o n ic s th r o u gh fo u r p o i n t s A C A C m e e t
’ ’

, , , , ,

a n a r bit r r li n e in i of o i n t s in i n v o l u ti o n which w a s r o ve d
y a
p p a rs
p ,

in o r d e r t o s h e w th a t t h e t w o p o i n t s A C u s e d in t h e d e fi n iti o n o f , ,

t h e c o n ic m a y b r e p l a c e d b y a n y o th e r t w o p o i n t s A C o f t h e
’ ’

,
e , ,

c o n ic m a y b e o bta i n e d thu s : ther e is a s w a s p r o v e d o n e co n ic

, , ,

thr o u gh t he fo r p o i n t s A C A C a n d n r bitr a r y p o i n t P of
u , ,
’
,
’
a a , ,

t h e li n e T hi s c o n ic will m e e t t h e li n e in a n o th e r p o i n t s a y P
’

,
. .

T h u s t o a n y p o s iti o n o f P o n t h e li n
,
th er e c o r r e s p o n d s o n e a n d e,

onl o s i ti o n o f P o n t h e li n e o n v er s e l h e c o n ic thr o u gh
’

y one
p C y t .
,

A C A C a n d P m e e t s t h e li n e in P T he d e te rmi n a ti o n o f P
’ ’ ’ ’
.
, , ,

fr o m P o r o f P fr o m P is b es ide b y a r a t io n a l a lge bra ic e q u a ti o n

,
“ ’

, , , .

T h u s ( s e e t h e r e m a r k s a b o v e P r e limi n a r y p ( a ) t h e r a n ge s ( P )
, , .
,

o n t h e li n e a r e r e l a t e d ( 6) wh e n P a s s u m e s t h e p o s iti on P
’

, , ,

the n P a s s u m e s t h e p os iti o n P H en ce t h e p a i r s P P be l on g t o
’
.
,
’

a n i n v o l u ti o n .

T h e e x i s t e n c e o f re l a te d ra n ge s o f p o i n ts o n t h e c o n ic fo ll o w s fr o m
t h e e xp r e s s i o n o f t he p o i n t s o f t h e c o n ic b y m e a n s o f t h e p a r a m e t e r 9 .

I n fa ct t h e li n e j o i n i n g t h e a r bit r a r y fi e d p o in t H o f t h e c o n ic
,
x , , ,

f o r which t he s y mb o l is 01 A a B + C t o th e
p oint P
2
o f s mb o l
y , , ,

OA 2
GB C c on t a i n s th e p o i n t
, 9a ) B ( 9 a ) C th a t i s
2 2 ?
,
’

“
t h e p o i n t a 9B ( 0 a ) C o f t h e li n e CB P u tti n g M B a C , .
1
,

f o r t h e s y mb o l o f a d e fi n it e fi x e d p o i n t o n t h e li n e CB t h e p o i n t ,

in q u e s ti o n is 9M + C S imil a r l y t h e li n e j o i n i n g t h e fi x e d p o i n t
.
,

K o f s y mb o l K
, BA BB C t o t he p o i n t P m e e ts t h e li n e CB in
2
, ,

t h e p o i n t 9N C wh e r N = B ,
C is t he s y mb o l o f a n o th e r
e ,

fi x e d p o in t o f th e li n e CB The p e n il o f li n es j o i n i n g H t o fo u r . c

o i n ts P i th u s r el te d t o t h e e n cil o f fo u r li n e s j i n i n g K t o
p , ,
s
p a o

th e e s a m e fo u r p o i n ts F r th er
s r a n ge o f v a r i o u s
.
puo s iti o n s o f , a

o i n t s P o f t h e c n ic e x r e s s e d b v a r i o u s v a l u es o f t he a a m e te r 9
p p y o , p r ,

is r e l a t e d t o a n ge o f
pa o iti o n s
r Q e x p r e s s e d by va l u e s o f (p wh en
s , , ,

th er e is a c o n diti o n o f t he f r m o

B . G . H .
18 Ch ap ter I

in w hich a i nde p en de n t o f 9 a n d
, b, c, d T h e p a irs o f c o rr e
a re

s o n d in os iti o n s P Q th e n b e l o n g t o a n i n v o l u ti o n wh e n in thi s
p g p , , , ,

c o n diti o n 0 b I n o th e r w o rd s p o i n t s P Q o f re s p e ctive p a r a m e t e r s
,
: .
, , ,

9 , fo r m a p a i r o f a n i n v l u ti o n o f p o i n t s o n t h e c o n ic wh en 9 4> o
, ,

a re n n e ct e d b a n e q u a ti n
co
y o

a 9gb
Wh en thi s is s o, w e a t o n e s ee c th a t
( 4m 6) ( 9 A 2
9B C) ( 9a b) ( cj A fl
b
g B C)
is e q ltua o
(d ) 9) ( dA bB a C ),
so th a t li n e P Q p a s s e s th r o gh t h e fi x e d p o i n t d A bB a C
t he u .

B u t t h e fa ct th a t t h e li n d r a w n thr o u gh a n r bitra ry p o i n t 0
,
es a , ,

of the
p l a n e m ee t t h e c o n ic in
, p a irs o f
p o i n t s P Q o f a n i n v o l u ti o n , , , ,

is cl e a l s o b y r e m a r ki n g ( a ) th t w h e n P is gi ve n Q is de t er
r, a , , ,
a , ,

mi n e d with o t a mbigu ity b y t he li n e OP which m e e t s t he c on i

u , , c

a g i n in Q ; a n d th a t P is s imil a rl d e t er mi n e d wh e n Q is giv e n t h e
a
y ,

d e t e rmi n a ti o n b e i n g b y a r a ti o n a l a lge b r a ic e q u a ti o n c o n n e cti n g

the pa r a m e te r s o f P a n d Q n d ( b) th a t wh e n P t k e s t h e
p os iti o n a a

Q th e n Q t a k e s t h e p o s iti o n P T he c o n v e r s e re s u lt tha t if P P ;
, .
, , ,
’

Q Q a n d R R b e p a i rs o f p o i n ts o f t h e c o n ic which a r e in in o l u
’ ’

, , v

ti o n t h e li n e s P P Q Q R R m e e t in a p o i n t fo ll o ws fro m thi if
,
’
,
’

,
’

, s

w e r e c a ll th a t a n i n v o l u ti o n is d e t er mi n e d b t w o o f it s a irs
y p .

P a s c a l s th e or e m c a n a l s o b e p r o v e d a t o n c e with t h e s y mb o l s
’
.

F o r l e t A B C A B C b e s ix p o i n t s o f t h e c o n ic ; a n d l e t U V
’ ’ ’
, , , , , ,

b e t h e c o mm o n c o r r e s p o n di n g p o i n t s o n t h e c o n ic o f t he t w o r e l a t e d ,

r a n g es A B B C I n t h e fi r s t i n s t a n c e s u pp o s e
’ ’
a nd A
’

, , , , ,

U a n d V n o t t o c o i n cide L e t t h e t a n ge n t s a t U a n d V m ee t in W; .

t h e p o i n t s o f t h e c o n ic ca n th e n b e r e p r e s e n t e d a s a bo v e in t e rm s , ,

a r a m e t er 9 b a fo r m u l a 9 U + 9 W+ V et a B y a
’

B y
’ ’
of a
p y ,
L 2
.
, ,
r
, , ,
r

b e t h e p a r a m e t e r s f o r A B C A B C r e s p e ctiv e ly F o r c o r re
’ ’ ’

, , , , , .

s o n d in o i n ts with a r a m e te r s 9 o f t he t w o r e l a t e d r a n g es
p g p p , , ,

the r e will b e a c o n diti o n o f t he fo r m

p 9 9 + 9 — g 9 + r = o
’ ’

wh e r e p q r a r e t o b e d e t e rmi n e d b y t h e fa ct th a t thi s e q u a ti on is
, ,

s a ti s fi e d b 9 = a b a nd b
y y , y
By hyp o th e s i s h o w e v e t h e e q u a ti o n
,
r,

P¢
2
+ ( 1

which giv e s t h e c o mm o n c o r r e p on di n g p o i n t o f t he r a n ges is s s ,

‘
s a ti s fi e d b
y p
( O ( t t h e
p o i n t V ) a n d b y 0 a
( a t t h e p o i n t U) ,
1
.

T hus p O a nd 0 T h e r e fo r e f o r a p r o p e r v a l u e o f q w e h a v e
r .
, ,

B
' ’ '

a
y ou
as «
y 97
T h es e re l a ti o n s s h e w tha t li ne s m ee t li ne
’
the AB a nd AB t he
’

on
 Th e n u m ber o f p oin t s comm on to t w o c on ics 19

U V , n a m e ly in t h e p o i n t wh o s e s
y mb ol is g a BU V . F or thi s is
’

aB U V, or
W BW
’ ’

[ V) (B U
Q
a a a

d thi s p o i n t , th e r e fo r e , li e s o n t he li n e A B ; a n d it s imil a r l y li es
’

an

By t h e s a m e a r g u m e n t t he li n es B C , B C m e e t o n t h e li n e
’ ’ ’
on A B .

U V , a s d o t he li n e s CA , C A T hi s es ta bli s h es P a s ca l s th e o r e m
’ ’ ’
. .

If t h e c o mm o n c o r’r e s p o n d i n g p o i n ts o f t he t w o r e la te d r a n ge s ,
A , B, C , a nd A , B , o n t he c o n i c b e c o i n cid e n t , s a
’

,
y in U ,
w e ma
y t a k e a n a r bit r a r
y p o i n t , V , o f t he c u r v e , a n d , as b e fo r e ,

re p r e s e n t a n y p o i n t o f t h e c r ve b y a y mbo l 9 U 9 W V T he
u s
2
.

q
e u a ti o n ,
p d)
?
( 1 9 ) r O , f or t h e c o mm o n c o r r e s o n di n g
p ‘
o i n ts o f t h t el t d r g i t b e s a ti s fi e d b O
y p
w w 1
e o r a e a n e s s n o o
p , , c

( a t t h e p o i n t U ) , tw ice over ; th u s p O a nd g l T h e r e l a ti o n f o r .

t h e c o r r es p o n di n g p o i n t s o f t h e t w o r a n ges is , th er e fo r e , 9
’
9 r

a —r , ,8 —r , y y —r T he li n e A B n o w c o n t a i n s
,

s o th a t a
’ ’
B ’
r r .
’

t h e p o i n t , o f t h e li n e U W, giv e n b y
V) ;
thi s is t h e p o i n t giv e n b y ( a ) U W , B
or ( a
’
r) U W B — .

By t h e s y mm e tr y o f thi s fo r m , t h e li n e A B a l s o p a s s es thr o u gh thi s

’

oint imil a rl e i n t e r s e cti o n o f t h e li n e s B C , B C , a n d t h e

’ ’

p . S y t h
i n ter s e cti on o f t he li n es CA , C A , l ie o n thi s li n e U W, which is t he
’ ’

ta ngen t o f t h e c o n ic a t U .

\V e h a v e s ta t e d , in t h e P r e limi n a r y ( a b o v e , p th a t , in t he .

fi r s t th r e e ch a p t er s o f thi s v o l u m e , w e p r o p o s e t o a s s u m e th a t t w o
c o mic s in t h e s a m e l a n e h a v e fo u r c o mm o n o i n ts It m b
p p a
y e .

d e s i r a bl e t o r e m a r k o n t h e r e p re s e n t a ti o n o f thi s fa ct in t e r m s o f
t h e s y mb o l s T h e e x p r e s s i o n f o r a p o i n t o f a c o n i c , 9 A + 9B + C , is
.
2

in t er m s o f t w o p o i n t s A , C , l y i n g o n t h e c o n ic , a n d t h e i n te r s e cti o n ,
B, o f t he ta n ge n t s o f t he c o n ic a t th e s e t w o p o i n t s If U, V , W b e .

th r e e a r bitr a r y p o i n t s o f t h e p l a n e , t he p o i n t s A , B, C will b e
a 2 V + a 3 W,
e x r e s s ibl e in t e r m s o f th es e b
p y for u la e A = a l U
m
B bl U s b3 W, C c2 V cs W ( V o l T h u s in I
'

el U , p . .

te rm s o f U, V , W, a p o i n t o f t h e c on ic will h a ve a r e pres e n ta t i on
( 9 b1 9 ) U ( 9 b 9 ) V ( 9 b9 0)W
z 2 2
al cl a 2 c a , g 3 3 3 .

If n o w th er e b e a n o the r c on ic t h e p o i n ts o f thi s m a y s imil a r ly

, , ,

b e r e p r e s e n t e d in t e r m s o f U V W t h e e p r e s s i o n b e i n g o f t h e fo r m
, , ,
x

+ 72 ) U 1 ( g
l b g m ¢
g
n ) V 2 4
772 ) n
) W
, 3 , ,

w h er e ( is the a r a me t e r A o i n t c o mm o n t o t h e t w o c o n ic s
p p t
. a-

p ,

t h e th r e e fu n cti o n s
b, 0 a ) ,

f or r =l m u s t b e e q u a l t o o n e a n o th e r Fro m t he t w o e q u ti on s
,
2, 3 , . a

which ex p r es s thi s fa ct w e m y e limi n a t p ; t h e r e s u lt is a t o n ce

a e (

s ee n t o b e a q u a rtic e q u a ti o n t o b e s a ti s fi e d b 9 T h e a s s u m ti o n
y p .

2 —2
20 Ch a p ter I

to be m a de 1 8 th e n e q u iv a l e n t t o t h e a s s u m p ti o n th a t thi s eq u a ti o n
h a s fo u r r o o t s Fr o m a n y o n e o f th e s e t h e c o r r es p o n di n g v a l u e o f
.
,

c a n b e fo u n d with o u t a mbig u ity

4 ; .

With the s e i n dica ti o n s w e n o w l ea v e t h e u s e o f t he s y mb o l s

, .

T h ey will b e e m p l o y e d a ga i n in Ch a p t e r 1 1 1 .

G e om e t r ic a l t h e or y r e s u m e d P ol a r l in e s We s a w th a t . .

an
y li n e o f t h e pl a n e c o n ta i n s t w o
p o i n ts o f t h e c o n ic W e now .

s h e w th a t thro u gh a n o i n t 0 o f t h e pl a n e n o t l i n g o n t h e c u r e
yp , y , , v ,

t w o t a n ge n t s o f t h e c u r v e p a s s L e t li n e s b e d r a w n th r o u gh 0 a ch
.
,
e

m ee ti n g t h e cu r v e in a pa i r o f p o i n ts s a y P a n d P T he p a i r s P P , .
,
’

h a ve b een s h e wn t o b e l o n g t o a n i n vo l u ti o n o n t h e cu r ve ; l e t M
a n d N b e th e o i n t s o f t h e c u rv e which a r e t h e d o u bl e o i n ts o f
p p
thi s i n v o l u ti o n T h e li n e CM will th e n m e e t t h e cu r ve o n ly a t M
.
,

in t w o c o i n cid e n t p o i n t s a n d will b e t h e t a n ge n t o f t h e c u r v e
,

at M . S o t h e li n e ON is t h e t a n g e n t a t N A n d th e r e is n o o th e r .

ta n ge n t p a s s i n g thro u gh 0 s i nc e t he i n v o lu ti o n h a s o n ly t w o do u bl e
,

o i n ts
P .

M o r e o v e r a n i n v o l u ti on is b y d e fi n iti o n fo rm e d b y t h e a ggre ga te
, , ,

o f t w o r e l a t e d ra n g e s o f p o i n t s w hich a r e s ch th a t t w o c orr e s p o n d u

in g p o i n t s o n e fr o m e a ch r a n g e a r e i n t e h a n g ea bl e T h u s if
, ,
rc .
,

th r o u gh th e p o i n t 0 b e dr a wn va l i ons li n e s OP P OQQ ’ ’

m e e t i n g t h e c o ni c r e s p e ct ive ly m P a n d P in Q a n d Q in R a n d
, , ,
’ ’

k a nd P Q R
, , ,

t h e ra n g es P Q R a r e re la te d a n d M N
’ ’

R
a re the c o mm o n c or r e s p o n
, , , .
, , , ,

di n g p o i n t s o f th es e t w o ra nge s T h s
, , ,

. u ,

b y wh a t ha s b ee n pr o v e d in p a rtic u l a r b y P a s c a l s th e o re m t h e
’

, ,

li n e s PQ
’
Q m ee t
,
P
’
li n e M N s a y in H a s d o t he li n e s P Q
on the , , , ,

f o ll o w s th a t t h e li n e M N c a n b e o n t r u ct e d
”
P Q sa
y in K
,
It . c s

wh en t he fou r p o i n t s P P Q Q a 1 e giv e n ; it a l s o fo ll o w s tha t t he

,
’

, ,
’

li n e P P is m e t by M N m a p o i n t which 1s t h e h r m n ic c onj g t e
’
a o u a

o f 0 l n r e ga l d t o P a n d P T h e li n e Q Q is s imil a r l y m e t b y M N
’ ’
.

in a p o i n t which 1 8 t he h a rm o n ic c o nj u g a t e o f 0 1 n r e ga rd t o Q a n d
22 Ch ap ter I

D u a l d e fi n it i o n of Wh e n o n e figu re is th e d u a l o f
a c on ic .

a n o th e r it fo ll o w s fr o m t h e o r igi n a l d e fi n iti o n o f r e l a t e d r a n g e s
, ,

b y m e a n s o f i n cid e n c e s a s d e v e l o p e d in V o l 1 a n d t h e fa ct th a t
, .
,

P a pp u s t h e 0 1 e m i n v o lv e s t he d u a l p i o p o s it ion which c o r re s p on d s
t o it ( V o l 1 ch a p 1 a n d p .
, th a t r e l a t e d
.
, .

ra n ge s give r i s e t o r e l a t e d p e n cil s a n d r e l a t e d ,

p e n cil s giv e 1 is e t o 1 e l a t e d r a n ge s H e n ce a s w e .
,

d e fi n e d t h e c o n i c a s a l o cu s o f p o i n t s b y t he ,

i n t ers e cti o n o f c o r r es p on di n g r a y s o f t w o 1 e l a te d
e n cil s s o e q u a ll w e ll w e c o u ld h a v e d e fi n e d
p y , , ,

t he a g r e ga t e o f t h e t a n g e n t s o f t h e c o n ic a s
g
t h e jo i n s o f c o rre s p o n di n g p o i n t s o f t w o r e l a t e d
r a n ge s I n o th er w 0 1 d s if t h e ta n gen t a t a n y
.
,

oin t P o f t h e c o n ic m e e t t h e t w o t a n ge n t s
p , , ,

a t the o i n t s A a n d C r e s e ctiv e l In T a nd U
p p y , , ,

t he ra n ge o f p o i n t s T u p o n A B is r e l a t e d t o t h e r a n g e o f p o i n t s
, , , ,

U u p o n B C t h e p o i n t U b e i n g a t B wh e n T is a t A a n d a t C
, , ,

wh e n T is a t B .

I n fa ct t h e ra n g e o f p o i n t s U wh e r e t h e t a n ge n t CB a t a fi x e d
, , , , ,

o i n t C o f t h e c u rv e is m e t b t h e t a n g e n t a t a v a r i a bl e p o i n t P
p , , y , t, ,

i s re l a t e d t o t h e e n cil o f li n e s o i n i n g th e oi n ts P t o a n y fi x e d
p j p
oi n t o f t he cu r v e T o r o v e thi s if A P m ee t t h e t a n g e n t CB 1 11 Q
p p.
, ,

t h e p o i n t A b e i n g a n y fi x e d p o i n t o f t h e c u r v e it is s u ffici e n t t o ,

p r o v e th a t t h e r a n ge o f p o i n ts U is 1 e l a te d t o t h e r a n ge o f p o i n t s Q .

T h a t thi s i s s o fo ll o w s b y t he a bb r e vi a t e d a i g u m e n t r e fe1 1 e d t o “
a bo v e P r e limi n a r F wh U i giv e n P 1 5 d e t e r mi n e d
( y p , o r . e n s , ,

w ith o u t a mbig u it a s the o i n t o f c o n t a ct o f t h e t a n g e n t o th e r

y , p ,

th a n U C which ca n b e dra w n fr o m U t o t h e c on ic ; a n d wh e n P
,

is giv e n Q is fo u n d b y t h e li n e A P
, C o n v er s e l y wh e n Q is giv e n
.
,

P is fo u n d a n d th e n c e U fo ll o w s A s h o w e v er thi s a r g u m e n t
, , , .
, , ,

a s w e h a v e s t a t e d it i n v o lv e s a t a cit r e f e i e n ce t o t h e s mb o l s we
, y ,

m a giv e a n a lt e r n a tiv e o n e I n fa ct t h e p o i n t s Q C a r e h a r m o n ic
y .
, ,

c o nju ga t e s o f o n e a n o th e r in re ga r d t o B a n d U th a t 1 8 b y p e r 3 , ,

s e c t i e fr o m P if t h o i n t o f i n t e r s e cti o n o f T U a n d A C b e L
p v
,
e
p
t h e li n e B P m e e ts A C in a p o i n t w hi c h is t h e h a r m o n ic c o nj u g a t e
o f L in r e g a rd t o A a n d C ; in o th e r

w o r ds B P is t h e p o l a r li n e o f L ; f o r a s
L li e s o n t he t a n ge n t a t P a n d o n t he ,

o l a r o f B th e o la r o f L a s s e s th r o u gh
p p p ,

Y P a n d th r o u gh B ,
We h a ve th en t o .

s h e w th a t if Q U b e va i ia b l e p o i n t s o f
, ,

t h e li n e j o i n i n g t w o fi x e d p o i n ts B a n d C ,

s u ch th a t B U a r e h a r m o n ic c o nj u ga t e s
Q U C ,

o f o n e a n o th e r in 1 e ga 1 d t o Q a n d C cD ,

th en t he ra nges ( Q) ( U ) a r e rel a te d F o r thi s t a ke a n a r b it i a ry

,
.
,
 S elf p -
o arl tr i a d f
o tw o con ics 23

fi xe d p o i n t R a n d a n a r bit ra r y li n e BXY p a s s i ng th r o gh B a n d
, , , , u

m ee ti n g R C R Q s p e tiv e ly in Y a n d X th u s Y is a fi x e d p o i n t ;
, ,
re c ,

if th en Q Y CX m t in D t he li n e R D p a e s thr o gh U a n d t h e
,
ee , ss u ,

li n e B D is fi x d li n e m ti ng Y C in t he ha r m o n ic c o nj u g t e o f R
a e ,
ee a

in re ga r d t o Y a n d C T h e r n g e ( Q ) b y p e rs p e ctive fr o m Y i
. a , ,
s

th n rel a te d t o t h e r a nge ( D ) o n thi s fi x e d li n e B D a n d t he r a n ge

e ,

D
( ) yp p b ,
e r s e ctiv e fr o m R is r l a t e d t o t he r n g e ( U ) T hi
, s m a k es
e a .

t he r es u lt cl ea r .

H a vi n g p o v e d th a t t h e ra n g e o f p o i n t s U
r n t h e t n g e n t CB , ,
o a

o f t h e c o n ic is r e l a t e d t o t h e p e n cil o f li n e s jo i n i n g A t o t h e p o i n t
, s ,

P o f t h e c o n ic ; n d th e n s imil a r l y th a t thi p n cil is r e l a t e d t o

,
a , , ,
s e

t h e r a n g e o f p o i n t s T o n t h e t n g e n t A B it fo ll o w s th a t th es e
, ,
a ,

r n ge s ( U ) ( T ) a r e r e l a te d T h e re i n t o t h e p i n t B r ega rd e d s a
a ,
.
,
o , a

o i n t o f A B c o rr e s p o n d s t h e p o i n t o f c o n t a t C o f t h e c o n ic with c
p , , ,

B C a n d t o B r e ga d e d a s a p o i n t o f B C c o r r e s p o n d s t h e p o i n t o f
, ,
r ,

c o n ta ct A o f t he c o n ic w ith B A T hi s is e x ctly t he d u a l o f wh a t
, ,
. a

w a s t h c s e wh e n t h e p o i n t s o f t h e c o n ic w e r e d e te rmi n e d by r e l a t e d
e a

p e n c il s .

E xa mpl es of th e a p p l ic a t io n of t h e f or e g oin g t h e or e m s .

We m a y n o w re ga rd o u r s elv e s a s h a vi n g giv e n t he i n di s p en s a bl e
fu n da m e n ta l p r o p o s iti o n s o f a th e o ry o f c o mics We p r o c ee d t o m a k e .

a
pp
lica ti o n s o f th e s e in v a r i o u s di r e c ti o n s ,
.

E ar 1 f p T he f p
o l a r t r ia d o o in ts
s el f or co n ic s thr ou h
-
g f ou r
—
. .

o in ts ; the s elf p o la r tr ia d (f lin es f or co nics to u ching f ou r li n es

p
.

It h a s a pp ea r e a P, P ,
’
, d th t if
, be o u r p o n s of a on , Q Q f ’

i t c ic
a n d the th
r ee
p a rs of nes w i
con a n li es e
p o n s n er s e hich t i th i t i t ct
r ctiv l
in the o n s 0 , H a n d K, i t
en t h e n e H K is t h e o ar th li l
es e
p e
y p p

of 0 ; s imil ar yl t h e li n e O H is t h e
p o l a r f K ; a n d th e r e f o r e th o , ,
e

li n e 0K c o n ta i n i n g t he p o l e s o f H K a n d H 0 i t h e p o l a r o f H
, ,
s .

F or thi r e a s o n t
s h e tri a d O H K is c a ll e d a s e lf p o l a r t r ia d
,
in
,
-
,

re ga rd t o t h e c o n ic T h e s a m e tr i a d cl ea r ly a r i s es f or a l l c o n ic s
.
24 C h ap ter I

which c on t a i n t h e fo u r p o i n t s P P Q Q We s a w tha t th e c o n ic s ,
’
, ,
’
.

thro u gh th e s e fo u r p o i n ts m e e t a n a r bitr a r y li n e in p irs o f p oi n ts a

in i n v o l u ti o n ; thi s i n v o l u ti o n h a s t w o d o u bl e p o i n t s T h e c o n ic .

thro u gh t he fo u r p o i n ts a n d o n e o f th e s e will n o t i n te rs e ct t he li n e ,

a g a i n ; thi s li n e will th e re fo r e b e t h e t a n ge n t o f t he c o n ic a t thi s

, ,

oint I n o th e r w o rd s t w o c o n ic s ca n b e d r a w n thr ou gh fo u r p o i n t s
p .
,

t o h a v e a giv e n li n e a s t a n ge n t .

It w a s re m a rk e d th a t a ta n ge n t o f t he co n ic m ee t s t he c u rv e in
t w o c o i n cid e n t p o i n t s It will b e fo u n d i n de p e n de n tly tha t if thi s
.
,

is u n d e rs t o o d th eo r e m s in r e ga rd t o fo u r p o i n t s o f t h e c u r v e c o n
,

t in u e t o h o ld wh e n th e s e a r e n o t a ll di s ti n ct F or i n s t a n c e if C A B .
, , ,

b e thr ee p o i n t s o f t h e c u rve a n d a li n e m e e t CA CB res p e ctiv e ly in

, ,

L a n d M m e e t t h e t a n ge n t a t C a n d t h e li n e A B r es p e ctiv e ly in , ,

T a n d R ; a n d m ee t t he c u r v e in X a n d Y th e n it ca n b e p r o v e d ,
-

th a t t he p a i r s L M ; T R ; X Y be l o n g t o a n i n v o l u ti o n Or a ga i n
, , , .
,

if A a n d C b e t w o p o i n t s o f t he c u r v e a n d a li n e m e e t A C in 0 ; ,

m ee t t he t a n gen ts a t A a n d C re s p e ctiv e ly in T a n d R ; a n d m eet

t h e c u rv e in X a n d Y ; th e n 0 is o n e o f t he d o u bl e p o i n t s o f t h e
i n v o l u ti o n de t e r mi n e d b y t h e p a i r s T R ; X Y T h e o th er d ou ble , , .

p o i n t U is t h e ha rm o n ic c o nj u ga t e o f 0 in r e ga rd t o T a n d R o r
, , ,

X a n d Y I n thi s l a tte r ca s e o n ly o n e c o n ic ca n b e d a w n t o p a s s
.
,
r

thro u gh A a n d C a n d h a ve a t the s e p o i n t s f o r t a n gen t s t h e giv e n , ,

li n e s A T CR which s h a ll t o u ch t h e give n li n e OU It t o u ch e s thi s

, , .

at U . A d e g e n e ra t e c o n ic h a vi n g t w o c o i n cid e n t p o i n t s a t A a n d ,

a t C which a l s o h a s t w o c o i n cid e n t o i n t s o n OU c o n i s t s o f t h e s
, p ,

li n e OCA t k e n twice o ver

a .

D u a ll y t h e a ggr e ga t e o f t h e t a n g e n t s o f a c o m c c o n s 1 s t s o f
0

li n e s p wh o s e i n te r s e cti on s with t w o giv e n li n e s a 0 fo rm t w o

, , , , ,

r e l a t e d ra n g e s th er eo n T h e l 1 n e s a c a r e ta n g e n t s.
,

o f thi s c o n ic If t h e ra n ges h a v e th e p o i n t o f
.

i n te r s e cti on F o f th e li n e s a c f o r a s lf c o r
, , , ,
e -

re s p on di n g p o i n t th e y a r e in p e s p e ctiv e s a y ,
r , ,

fr o m a c en t r e G I n thi s ca s e w e m a y rega r d t he .

e n v e l o e a s c o n s i s ti n g o f a ll l i n e s thr o u gh G t o
p ,

ge th r with a ll li n e s thro u gh F ; it is s o m e tim e s

e

s a id t o d e ge n e ra t e i n t o a p o i n t p a ir F a nd G , .

Al l thi s h a s b ee n r e m a rk e d a b v e ( p In t h e o .

ge n e r a l c a s e s u ch a c o n ic e n v e l o p e a n b e fo u n d h a vi n g fi e a rb i
,
c v

t r a r y li n es o f ge n er a l p o s iti o n f o r t a n ge n t s
,
L e t fo u r t a n g e n t s o f .

s u ch a n e n v e l o e b e p p c o r r e s p o n di n g t o t h e th r e e w a s
’

p q q , , , y
o f dividi n g th e s i n t o t w o p a irs w e h a v e th r e e p a i r s o f p o i n t s o f
e ,

i n t er s e cti o n o f t h e fo r li n e s L e t 0 h k b e t h e j o i n s o f th es e p a irs
u .
, ,
.

T h e n a s t he re s u lt d u a lly c o r r e s p o n di n g t o th a t a b o v e a ny t w o
, ,

o f t h e li n es o h k i n t e r s e ct in t h e p o l e o f t h e r e m a i n i n g li n e a n d
fo r m wh a t w e m a y ca ll a s e lf—
, , ,

o l a r t r i a d o f li n e s in r e ga r d t o t he
p
 B r ia n ch on
’
s t h eor em 25

en v e l op e T h e r e is a n i n fi n it e n u mbe r o f c o n ic e n ve l o p es t o u chi ng
.

t he fo r li n e s 19 p g g ; a m o n g th s e th e r e a r e three p o i n t p a i r s t h
’ ’
u , , , e e
,

a i r s r e fer r e d t o b o ve T h a i rs o f t n ge n t s th a t ca n b e d
a w
p e
p . n a ra ,

fr o m a n a r bitr r y p o i n t f t he p l a n e o n e p a i r t o e a ch c n ic t o u chi ng
a o , o

t he fo u r li n e s p p g g fo r m a p e n cil in i n v o l u ti o n ; f th e e p a i
’ ’
, , , , o s rs ,

th r e e a r e th o s e which j o i n t h e a bitr r y p o i n t t o o n e o f t he p o i n t r a

a i rs r e fe r r e d t o n a m l h a ir s of i t a nd (
’
s (
p y t e
p , p o n
p p e
) , g , ,

d ( p g ) T hi s p e n cil in i n v o l u ti o n
’

( p g ) a nd ( p
’

(p q )
’

, a n, , , .

ha s t w o d o u bl e r y s ; th e r e a e th u t w o c o n ic s which c a n b e d r a w n
a r s
,

t o t ou ch t he f u r li n e s p p g g a s s th r o u gh a rbit r a r
’ ’
o nd a
p n ,
y , , a

oi nt o f t he l a n e ; t h e t a n g e n t s o f th e s e c o n ic s a t thi s oi n t a r e
p p p
t h e t w o d o u bl e r a y s o f t he p e n cil in i n v o l u ti n r e fe r r e d t o o .

I n p a rtic u l a r o n ly o n e p r o p e r c o n ic ca n b e d w n t o p a s s th r o u gh ra

a n a rbit r a r oint 0 a n d t o u ch ea h o f t w o giv e n li n e s which

y p , , c
,

i n t e r s e ct in B a t give n p o i n ts A C T he t n ge n t f thi c o n i a t
, , , . a o s c

0 m e e t s t h e li n e A C in t he h r m o n ic c o nj u ga t e w ith r e s p ct t o A a , e

a nd C o f t he o i n t wh e r e t he li n e B 0 m ee t s A C A d g e n er t e
, p . e a

c o n ic with t he de fin iti n give n c o n s i s ts o f t h p o i n t B ta k e n twice o , e

o v er th a t is o f t h e a gg r e ga te o f a ll li n e s th r o u gh thi
,
p o i n t ta k en s ,

t w ic e o v e r .

a s ca l s t heor em o P a s c a l s th e o r e m th e e is
’

f
’
Ex 2 D a l o . . P u T . r

a d u a ll c o r r e s o n di n g o n e k n o w n a s Br i n c h o n s th e o r e m hi ’

y p T , s a .

m a y b e s ta t e d b y s a y i n g th t if a b c a b c
’ ’ ’
a , , , , , ,

b e a ny s ix t a n ge n t s o f a c o n ic t he th r e e li n e , s

j o i n i n g t h e p o i n t ( b c ) t o t h e p o i n t ( b c) t h e
, ,
’ ’

, ,

p o i n t ( c a ) t o th e p i n t ( c a ) nd t he p in t
,
’
o
’

, ,
a o

( a b, ) t o
’
t h e
p o i n t ( a b ) a r e th ee li n e s which
’

, ,
r

m e e t in a p o i n t T a ki n g th e s ix li n e s in t he .

o d er a b b c w e m a y s p e a k o f t h e li n e s
’ ’ ’

r c a , , , , , ,

which a r e s t a te d t o m e e t in a p o i n t a s th os e ,

j o i n i n g o pp o s it e a n g u la r p o i n t s o f a h e x g on a ,

or s di a g o n a l s o f thi s
a .

W e s a w tha t t a n ge n t o f a c o n ic r ga r de d a ,
e

s a l o cu s o f o i nts m b e r e g r d e d a s m e e ti n g
a
p y ,
a a

t h e o n ic in t w o c o i n cid e n t p o i n t s
c D u a ll y f o r .
,

a c o n ic e n v e l o e t h e o i n t o f c o n t a ct o f a n
p p , y
ta nge n t m a y b e r ega r d e d a s t he i n t er s e cti o n o f
t w o c o i n cid e n t t a n g e n t s S u p p o e th e n th a t in t h g e n e r a l figu r e
. s , e

f or Br ia n ch o n s th e o r e m t h e t w o t a n g e n t s b a n d c c o i n cid e
’
W ’

. e

th e n i n fe r th a t if a b c a a nd b o r c b e fi ve ta n ge n t s o f a c o n ic
’
, ,
’
, ,

t h e p o i n t o f c o n ta ct o f t h e l s t li n e li es o n t h li n e j o i n i n g t h e a e

p o i n t o f i n t e r s e cti o n ( b c ) t o t h p i n t wh e r e t he j o i n o f t h e p o i n t
,
’
e o s

(a , ( a b ) m e e t s
’

,
t h e j o i n o f t he
p o in ts ( a
( a W e h a ve ,
’
,

giv e n a b o v e in c on n e x i on with P a s ca l s th e o r e m
, c o n s tr u ti o n ’

,
a c

f or t h e ta ng e n t a t a n y o ne o f t h e fi ve p o i n t b y which a c o n ic i s s
26 Ch a p ter I

d e t e rmi n e d ; it ma y b e s e e n tha t t he p r e s en t c on t r u cti o n f o r t h e s ,

p o i n t o f c o n t a ct fo ll o ws f o m thi s by t h e p r i n ci p l e o f d u a lity A
,
r .

a rtic u l a r c a s e wh e n b a n d c c o i n cid e s u gges t s t h e r e s u lt th a t if

’

p , , ,

A B B C CD DA b e fo u r t a n g e n t s o f a c o n ic th e j o i n o f t h e p o i n t s
, , , ,

o f c o n t a ct with A B a n d CD p a s s e s th r ou gh t h e i n t e r s e cti o n o f A C

a nd BD .

We m a r k e d t h e ex i s te n ce giv e n s ix p o i n ts o f a c on ic o f s i x ty
re , ,

P a s c a l li n e s T h e r e a r e s imil a ly giv e n s ix t a n g e n t s s i x ty B r ia n ch o n
. r , ,

o ints T h e p r o p e r ti e s o f t h e P a s c a l li n es which a r e ex tre m e ly

p .
,

c u r i o s h a v e b e en m u ch s t u di e d It w ill b e s ee n be l o w in N o te II
u , .
, ,

pp . 2 1 9 f f th a t th e s e
.
,
r
p po e rti e s c a n b e s u mm a r i s e d a n d gra s e d
p
m os t e a s ily b y re ga r di n g t h e fig u r e a s o bta i n e d b y p r oj e cti o n fr o m
a fig u r e in s a c e o f th r e e o r b e tt e r s till o f fo u r dim e n s i o n s
p , , , , .

E tc 3 . T he d ir ector con ic of a g iven co n ic in r esp ect of tw o a r bi

.

tr a r y p oin ts L e t S b e a gi v e n c o n ic , a n d P , Q b e t w o giv e n p o i n t s ,
.

n o t l i n g o n t h e c o n ic , in g e n er a l L et a n li n e , l , b e d r a w n th r o u gh
y y .

P , a n d , th e n , t he li n e , m , b e dr a w n th r o u gh Q which c o n t a i n s t he
p o le o f t h e li n e I in re ga r d t o S T h u s t h e li n e l a l s o c o n t a i n s t h e
.

o l e o f m ; a n d t he li n e s I, m a r e a a i r o f li n e s , r e s e ctiv e l th r o u gh
p p p y
P a n d Q , ea ch o f which c o n t a i n s t h e p o l e o f t h e o th er ; t w o s u c h
li n e s a r e ge n er a lly s p o k en o f a s cory u g a te t o o n e a n o th er , in r ega r d
'

t o t he c o n ic W e p r o v e th a t t h e li n e s I, m i n t e r s e ct in a p o i n t whi c h
.

de s cr ib e s a n o th e r c on ic ; thi s c o n ic c o n t a i n s P , a n d c o n ta i n s t he
p o i n t s o f c o n ta ct o f t h e t w o t a n gen ts which ca n b e d r a w n fr o m P
t o t o u ch t h e giv e n c o n ic S it a l s o c o n ta i n s Q , a n d t h e t w o p o i n t s
o f c o n t a ct o f t h e t a n g e n t s fr o m Q t o t h e giv e n c o n ic Fu r th e r , t h e .

ta n ge n ts a t P a n d Q , o f thi s c o n ic , m e e t in th e p o i n t , H , which is
t h e p o l e o f t h e li n e P Q in r e ga r d t o t h e giv e n c o n ic F o r r ea s o n s .

which will a pp ea r , thi s n e w c o n ic m a y b e ca ll e d t h e d ir ector c o n ic o f

t h e giv e n c o n ic , in r e g a rd t o P a n d Q .

I n fa ct , t h e p o l e s , in r e g a r d t o t h e c o n ic S , o f a ll li n e s d r a w n
thro u gh P , l ie u p o n a li n e , t he p ol a r li n e o f P in r e ga r d t o S a n d
th e y c o n s tit u t e a ra n ge u p o n thi s li n e which is r el a t e d t o t h e p en cil
o f li n e s , s o k e n o f , d r a w n th r o u gh P T hi s fa ct is , a t o n c e , t o b e
p .

r o v e d di r e ctl , b r e m a r ki n g th a t t h e ole of a n li n e , l , th r o u gh
p y y p y
P li e s o n t h e p o l a r o f P , in r e g a r d t o S , a n d th a t t h e h a r m o n i c
c o nj u ga te o f thi s p o l e , in r e ga r d t o t h e t w o p o i n t s wh e r e t h e p ola r
o f P c u t s t h e c o n ic S , li e s o n t h e li n e I ; o r t h e fa ct fo ll o w s fr o m

wha t w a s r e m a r k e d a b o v e , th a t , in t w o d u a lly c o r r es p o n di ng figu r e s ,

a ra n g e o f o i n t s , o f o n e fig u r e , i s r e l a t e d t o t h e c o r r e s p o n di n g
p
p e n cil o f li n e s , o f t h e o th e r figu re T h e re fo r e t he li n e s 772, th r o u gh
.

t h e p o i n t Q , ea ch dra w n t o t h e p o l e o f a li n e l , fo r m a p e n cil re l a t e d
t o t h e p e n cil o f li n e s I ; a n d th u s t h e p o i n t o f i n t e r s e cti o n o f c o r r e
s o n d in g
p li n e s o f th e s e
p e n cil s d es c r ib es a c o n ic c o n ta i n i n g t h e

p o i n ts P a n d Q E ith e r o f t h e t a n ge n t s dra w n t o t h e c o n ic S fr o m
.
 Tr i a d s r ec ip r oca l to on e a n oth er 27

t he p o i n t P i a p a r tic u l a li n 1 wh o s e p o l e is it s p o i n t f c o n ta t
, s r e ,
o c

w ith S th u s t he r e s p o n di n g li n e m c o n t a i n thi s p o i n t o f c o n ta ct
cor s ,

w hich 1 s th e f r e o n t he c n i d e ib e d S imila r ly f o r t h o th e r
re o o c s cr . e

th ee p o i n t s o f o n ta ct f whi h w e h a v e s p o k e n If H b e t he p o l e
r c o c .

o f t h e li n e P Q in r e g r d t o S t h p o l e f t h e li n e P H is o n t h e
, a , e o

li n e P Q ; thi s li n e is th e n t he li n e th o gh Q which c rr e p n d s t r u o s o o

t h e li n e P H th r o gh P ; th u b y wh a t w a s e e n a b o v e P H is t he
u s , s ,

t a n gen t o f t h e n e w c o n ic a t t h e p o i n t P S o Q H is t he t a n g n t a t Q . e .

It is e a s y t o s ee th t if t h e li n e P Q t o u ch e s t he c o n ic S t he
a
,

di r e cto r c o n ic b r e a k s u p i n t o P Q n d n oth er li n e a a .

E r4 T he p ol a r s of thr ee p oin ts d eter min e a tr ia d o

. .

f p o i n ts i n

p per s ect ive w ith th e o r i i n a l tr ia d

g A s an a lic ti
pp a id
o n o f t he ea s in .

v lv d
o e d fi iti c ic
in t h e e n o n o f a o n , w e m a y p r o e v th t if B a , A, , C be
th r ee a r bitra r y
p i t w
o n s, h os e l
p g d
o a r s , in r e a r tc ic
o a on lia r e t he n es

r
a , b, 0, e s e c
p tiv l
e
y , a n d t he p i t i t cti
o n s o f n er s e o n ( b, c ) , ( c , a ) , a , b
( )
b e, r e s pe ctiv l c ll d
e
y , a e A B
, th
, C ,
’
li
e n t he BB
’

n es A A ,
’
m t’

, CC
’
ee
’

in a p o n i t . i t
T he p o n s A , B , C
’
r
a re , ctiv l
es e
p e
y
’

,
lt h e
p
’
o e s o f t he

li n e s B C, CA , A B , a n d t h e fig u r e ma t t f m th
y s ar ro es e .

k
T a e the p o n s i t B ,
C, A , C ; th li
e s e fi x t he l
’

n e BA , th e
p
’
o ar
’
o f C , a nd fi x t he li ’
n e A B , t he lp o a r of C O li
n the
’
t k
ne B A , a e .

v i
a r ou s
p os iti
on s o f A , t o w hich c d v i
o r r e s on
p a r ousiti p os ons o f
’ ’
C B , t he p l r
o a o f A , a nd , h c v i
en e , a r ou s

p os iti ons of B , t h e
p l
o e o f CA
’
L BB
et .
’

a n d AA
’
m t
ee in P p cil f m d
T he e n or . e by
v i
the a r o u s li j i i g
nes o n n
’
A t o P , o r , s a y,
t he p e n cil is th r l t d
en e a e t o t he
g
r a n e (A ) ; thi g d t mi d
s r a n e, e er ne by t he
p en cil C A
( ) , o f li n es which a r e lp o a r s o f
v ri
t he a o u s p os iti ons of B l t d
, is r e a e t o t he
’

ra n eg on the fi d li
xe ne A B
’
F o r in
’
.

t w o d u a lly c o r r e s p o n di n g fig u e s r n ge r ,
a a

of o i n t s is r e l t e d t o t h e c o r r e s o n d in g
p p
a

e n cil o f li n e s a s h s b ee n r m a r k e d A nda e
p , .

t h e r a n ge ( B is d e t e r mi n e d b y t h e p e n cil B ( P ) T h e p e n cil s A ( P )
’
.

a n d B ( P ) a e th u s r e l a t e d a n d t h e p i n t P d e s c r ib e s a c o n ic
r ,
B t o . u ,

whe n A is t B t h e p o i n t B is a t A s o th a t th e r a y A B of t he
a ,
’ ’

,
’

for m er p e n cil c o rre s p o n d t o t he r y B A of t h e l a tte r The c on ic

s a
’

which is t he l o c u s o f P th u s brea k s u p i n t o t he li n e A B a n d a n
,
’

o th e r li n e If h o w e v e r t he li n e s C A a n d CA m e e t A B in X a n d
.
, ,
’ ’ ’

T r e s p e ctiv e ly it is a t o n c e s e e n th a t wh e n A is a t X t he p o i n t P
, , , ,

n d w h e n A is a t T t h e o i n t P is a t C T h us P C C
’
is a t C
’

,
a , p ,
.
, ,

a r e in li n e A n d it is thi s which it w a s d e s i r e d t o p r o v e A n o th e r
. .

pro o f o f thi s r e s u lt is giv e n be l o w E x 1 0 [A d d ] , . .

t w o p o in ts conju g a te in a rd
E x 5 A con s tr u ction
. .
f or re
g to a

con ic T w o p o i n t s which
. a re su ch th t
a t he o a r o f e p l ith e r c o n ta i n s
28 C h ap ter I

t he th e r a r e s a id t o b e c o nj u ga te in l ega rd t o t h e c on ic T he
o .

fo ll o wi n g s im p l e p r o p er ty s ee m s t o d e s e rv e r e m a rk If P X Y b e .
, ,

thre e p oi n ts o f a c o n ic t he li n es P X P Y a r e m et b y a ny li n e
, ,

dra w n thro u gh t he po l e o f t he li n e XY in
o i n t s which a r e c o n u ga t e in r e a i d t o t h e
p j g
c on i c .

L e t T b e t h e i n t e rs e cti o n o f t he ta n ge n t s
o f t h e c o n ic a t X a n d Y t h e ole o f X Y ;
p ,

l e t a n y li n e d r a w n th r o u gh T m e e t t h e c o n ic
in Q a n d Q a n d m e e t P X P Y r e s p e tiv e ly
’

, , , c ,

in H a n d K T h e p a ir o f p o i n t s Q Q o n a
’

.
, ,

li n e th r o u gh T is a p a ir o f a n i n v o lu ti on o f
,

p o i n ts o f t he c o n ic o f which X a n d Y a r e ,

t h e d o u bl e p o i n ts T h u s m t h e p e n cil f o r m e d
.
,

b y li n e s j o i n i n g t h e p o i n t P o f t h e c o n ic t o X Y Q Q t h e r a ys
’

, , , , , ,

P X P Y a r e h a rm o n ic c o nj u ga t e s in r e g a r d t o t h e ra y s P Q P Q
’

, ,

T h e r e fo re o n t h e li n e T H t h e p o i n t s H K a r e h a rm o n ic c o n ju g t e s
, ,
a

in re g a rd t o Q a n d Q
’
. Wh re fo re t h e p o l a r o f H c o n ta i n s K or H
e ,

a n d K a r e c o nj u ga t e p o i n t s in r g a d t o t h e c o n ic
e i .

T h e d u a lly co r i es p o n d ing th eo re m is th a t if a y p b e thre e ,

'

, ,

ta n ge n ts o f a c o n ic a n d n y ,
a

o n t o f t h e li n e t which
i oi ns
p j , ,

t h e p o i n t s o f c o n t a ct o f a a n d :

b e j o ined b li n es h a n d k
g y, , ,

t o t he p o i n t s wh e r e p m ee t s a '

a nd r e s e ctiv e l th en t h e
g p y , ,

li n es h k a r e c o nj u ga te t o o n e
,

a n o th e r in r e ga rd t o t h e c o n ic .

T he r e s u lt w a s r e m a r k e d b y
o n S t a u dt a n d pre vi o u s l
v b
y y , ,

S ey d e wit z .

E x 6 R a ng e d eter mi n ed by a con ic, a n d by the j o ins of thr ee

. .

n e d r a w n thr ou h a fix ed p o in t of the
p o in ts
of the con ic, u o n a n
p g
l i g
co n i c L e t A , B, C, C
. O b e fo u r fi x e d p o i n t s
o f a c o n ic L e t a ny li n e d r a w n th 1 o u gh 0
.

m ee t B C, CA , AB , r e s pe ctive ly, in D, E
a n d F , a n d m e e t t h e c o n i c a g a i n in I T he n .

t h e l a n g e D , E , F, I 1 8 1 e l a t e d t o t h e p e n cil
which t he p o i n t s A , B, C , 0 s u bte n d a t a ny
o i n t o f t he c o n l c
p .

F o r l e t B E m e e t t h e c o n ic a g a i n in B T h e r a n g e D , E , F, I , .

b y p e r s p e ctiv e fr o m B , giv es t h e l a ng e C ” B I c o n ic
’

, ,
A ,
o n t h e .

B u t , a s t h e li n e s OI , A C , BB m ee t i n E , t h e p a i r s o f p o i n t s OI ,
’

A C , BB b e l o n g t o a n i n v o l u ti o n o f p o i n t s o n t h e c o n ic ; th e re fo r e
’

t he ra n ge C , B , A , I , o f p o i n t s o f t h e c o n ic , is r e l a t e d t o t h e ra n ge
’
30 Ch ap ter I
S u p p o s i n g L , M , N t a k e n , r es p e ctiv e l y , u p o n
’ ’
y s a r e 01 , OJ
’
ra .

B C , CA , A B , t h e th e o r e m t o b e p r o v e d is , th a t L , M , N a r e i n
’ ’

li n e .

L e t OI m e e t B C CA AB r e p e ctiv e ly in D E F a n d OJ m e e t
, , ,
s , , , ,

th es e r e s p ctiv e ly in D E F By wh a t w a s s e en in E x 6 t he
,
e ,
’
,
’

,
’
. .
,

r n ges D E F I a n d D E F J a r e re l a t e d W h e r e fo re t h e th r ee
’ ’ ’
a , , , , , , .
,

o i n t s o f i n t e r s e cti o n JD li
’

(
’

p ( I D ) I E JE ) a e i n , ne , , , r

( Vo l 1 p . l e t th es e p o i n t s b e n m e d r e s p e ctiv e ly X Y a n d Z
, . a , , , .

Of th e s e t he p o i n t X is e vid e n tly o n t h e li n e OL be i n g t h e h a r
’

, ,

m on ic c o nj ga t e o f O in r ega 1 d t o t he p o i n t L a n d t he p o i n t wh e e
u ,
’
r

OL m e e t s I J S imil a 1 1y Y a n d Z a r e y on OM a n d
’
es e ct i e l
’
v
.
p , ,
1 ,

ON a n d th e r e I S a c o r i e s p o n d in g h a r m o n ic r e l a ti o n If th en t h e
’

, .

li n e X Y Z m e e t I J in T t he p o i n t s L M N l ie 0 11 a li n e thr o u gh ,
’

,
’

T thi s b e i n g t h e h r m o n ic c o nju ga t e o f t h e li n e TI J in re ga rd t o
, a

t h e li n e s T O a n d TX Y Z [A d d ]
. .
‘
E x 9 T he H es s ia n lin e of thr ee p o in ts Qf a con ic T he H es s ia n
.

p o i nt o
f thr ee ta n e n ts o
g f a con ic If t h e t a n g n t s a t t h e p o i n ts . e

A B C o f a c o n ic m e e t B C CA A B r es p e c , , , , , ,

t i e l y in P Q R th e n th e s e p o i n t s a r e in
v , , ,

li n e .

B y P s ca l s th e o r e m if A B C A B C
’ ’ ’ ’
a , , , , , ,

b e s ix p o i n t s o f a c o n ic t h e th r e e p o i n t s o f ,

i n ter s e cti o n (AB A B ) ( B C B C ) CA C A ) ’

,
’

,
’

,
’

a e i n li n e S u p p o s e n o w th a t B c o i n cid e s
’
r .

w ith A a n d A with C a n d C with B T hen

’ ’
, , .
,

i n s t e a d o f t he li n es AB B C CA th er e will ’

,
’
,
’
,

b e t h e t a n g e n t s o f t he c o n ic a t A B a n d C re s p e ctiv e ly ; a n d , , ,

i n s tea d o f t he li n e s A B B C C A th e r e will b e t he li n e s B C CA
’

,
’
,
’
, , ,

A B re s p e ctive l y T he th e r e m in q u e s ti o n th u s e x p re s s es t h e f a ct
, . o

th a t P a s c l s th eo r e m c on ti n u e s t o h o ld wh en th es e c o i n cide n c es
a
’

o cc u r W e c a n in fa ct p r o v e it di r e ctly in t he s a m e w a y a s P a s ca l s
.
, ,
’

th e o re m F o r g o i n g ba ck t o t he o r igi n a l d e fi n iti on o f a ta n gen t

.
, ,

w e s ee th a t t h e th e o re m e x r e s s es th a t if t w o r a n g e s o f o i n ts o f
p p
t he c o n ic b e r e l a t e d t o o n e a n o th e r b y t h e o n diti o n th a t t h e p o i n t s c

A B C o f t h e o n e c o r r e s p o n d re s p e ctiv e ly t o t h e p i n t s C A B
, , , , , , o , , ,

o f t h e o th e r th e n t h e c o mm o n c o r r e s p o n di n g p o i n t s o f th es e ra n g e s
,

a r e o n a li n e c o n t a i n i n g t h e
p o i n ts P Q R wh e r e t h e t a n ge n t s a t , , , ,

A B C m e e t r es p e ctiv e ly t h e o p p os it e j o i n s ( cf V o l I p 1 7 4
, , , , . .
, .
,

Ex . We s h a ll s p ea k o f t h e li n e P Q R a s t he H es s i a n li n e o f t he
t r i a d A B C in rega r d t o t he c o n ic
, ,
.

If t h e t n gen t s o f t h e c o n i c a t B C m e t in A t h e li n e AA is
’
’
a ,
e ,

the p o la r o f P Th e th re e li n es s u ch a s A A th u s m ee t in a p o i n t
’

.
,

which is t h e p o l e o f t he li n e P Q R .

D u a lly w e h a v e t h e re s u lt th a t if a c o n ic t o u ch t he j o i n s V W
, , ,

WU U V o f a n y thr e e p o i n t s U V W re s p e ctive ly in A B C
, , , , , , , , , ,
 S elf -
conju g a te tetr a d in re ga r d to a c on i c 31

th e n th e A U , B V , C W m e e t in a p o i n t W e s h a ll c a ll thi s
li n es .

t h e H e s s i a n p o i n t o f t h e th r ee t a n ge n t s in r e ga r d t o t h e c o n ic .

If B C m e e t V W in D , th e n D is t he p o l e o f U A T h u s t he th r e e .

o i n t s s u c h a s D a r e in li n e
p .

E x 1 0 P o la r tr ia d s in r eg a r d to a con ic H es s e s theor em T he
’
. . . .

r e c e di n g r es u lt is a a r ti c u l a r c a s e o f a n o th e r , o f w hich a r o of
p p p
h a s a lre a d y b ee n giv e n ( E x 4 , a b o v e ), w hi c h w e m a y s ta t e a s
.

fo ll o w s : T h e p o l a r li n e s , in r ega rd t o a c o n i c , o f a ny th r e e p o i n ts
A , B , C , m e e t t h e j o i n s B C , CA , A B r e s p e ctiv e l y , in th r ee p o i n t s
.

w hich a r e in li n e If t h e p o la r s o f B a n d C m e e t in A , t he p ol a r s
’
.

o f C a n d A m ee t in B , a n d t h e o l a r s o f A a n d B m e e t in C , t he
’ ’

p
re s u lt w ill fo ll o w, b y D e s a r g u es th e o r e m o f p er s p e ctive t r i a d s , if
’

r o v e th a t t h e li n e s AA , BB , C C m e e t in a oi n t u t if BB
’ ’ ’
B
’
we
p p .

a n d CC m e e t in D , a n d w e n o tic e th a t B is t h e o l e o f CA a nd C
’ ’ ’

p
t h e p o l e o f A B , thi s is t h e s a m e a s s a y i n g th a t , if A , B , C , D b e
a n
y f ou r
p o i n t s s u ch th a t o n e
p a ir o f j o i n s o f th e s e , A C a n d B D ,

b e c o nj u g a t e li n e s in r e g a r d t o a c o n ic , a n d a l s o a n o th e r p a i r o f
o i n s o f th es e , A B a n d C D , b e c o nj u ga t e li n e s in r e g a r d t o thi s
j
c o n ic, th e n a l s o t h e thi r d p a i r o f j o i n s o f th e s e , B C a n d AD , a r e
c o nj u g a t e li n e s in r e g a r d t o thi s c o n ic . T hi s r e s u lt m a y b e c a ll e d
H e s s e s th e o re m ; it is o f im p o r ta n c e in t h e s e u e l
’
q .

I n d u a l fo r m , thi s th e o r e m is th a t , if a n y fo u r li n e s a , b, c, d b e
d ivid e d i n t o p a irs in e a ch o f t h e th r e e p o s s ibl e w a ys , a n d t he p o i n t s ,

Y Y o bt a i n e d by t he i n t er s e cti o n o f t h e p i r a , c a n d b y t h e
,
’
,
a ,

i n ter s e cti o n o f t he p ir b d b e c o nj u g te p o i n t s l n reg r d t o a

a , ,
a a
32 C h ap ter I
c o n ic ; a nd t he s a m e b e tru e o f t h e p o i n t s Z Z o bta i n e d b y , ,
’
,

t h e i n te r s e cti o n o f t h e p a ir a b a n d b y t h e i n t e rs e cti o n o f t h e p a i r , ,

c d
,
th e n t h e p o i n ts X X t h e i n te r s e cti o n s r es p e ctiv e ly o f b
, ,
’

, , ,

a n d c a n d o f a a n d d a r e a l s o c o nj u ga t e o i n t s in r e ga r d t o t h e
, p ,

c o n ic W e p r o v e thi s b y s h e wi n g th a t t he p o i n ts in which t h e c o n i c
.

m ee t s t he li n e XX a r e h a rm o n ic c o nj u ga t es o f o n e a n o th e r in re ga r d
’

to X a nd X
’
.

L e t t h e c o n ic m ee t t h e li n e Y Y in Q a n d Q ; s i n c e t h e p o l a r
’ ’

of Y a s s e s th r o u gh Y e p o i n t s Q Q a r e h a r m o n ic c o nj u ga t e s o f
’ ’

p t h , ,

o n e a n o th e r in r e g r d t o Y a n d Y
T h e p o i n t s R a n d R in whi h
’ ’
a .
, ,
c

t h e c o n ic m e e t s t h e li n e Z Z a r e s imil a r l y h a r m o n ic c o nj u g a t es o f
’
, ,

o n e a n o th e r in r e g a rd t o Z a n d Z L e t Q R a n d Q R m e e t in 0
’ ’ ’
. .

A s t he c o n ics thr o u gh t h e fo u r p o i n t s Q R Q R m e e t t h e li n e
’ ’
, , ,

XX in p a i r s o f p o i n t s b e l o n gi n g t o a n i n v o l ti o n t h e give n co n i c
’
u ,

wil l b e s h e wn t o m ee t XX in p o i n t s h a r m o n ic in re ga r d t o X a n d ’

X if th e r e b e fo u n d t w o o th er c o n ics thr o u gh t he fo u r p o i n ts
’

, ,

Q R Q R h a vi n g thi s p ro p e rt y ; t h e p o i n t s X X will th en be
’ ’ ’
, , , , ,

t h e d o u bl e p o i n t s o f t he i n v o l u ti o n B y t h e o r igi n a l d e fi n iti o n .

o f t h e h a r m o n ic r e l a ti o n ,t h e li n e a ir QQ
’ ’ ’ ’

p R R or Y Y a nd Z Z , , ,

is o ne s u ch c o n ic I n fa t t h e li n e p a ir OQ R OQ R is a n o th e r s u ch
’ ’
. c ,

c on ic F o r t h e thr e e li n e p a irs j o i n i n g O t o t h e p o i n t p a irs Y Y

.
,
’

Z Z a n d X X a r e in i n v o l u ti o n ( p 4 a b o v e ) a n d t h e li n es OQ R
,
’
,
’
.
, , ,

OQ R a r e h a r m o n ic in r e g a r d t o OY OY a n d a l s o in r e ga r d t o
’ ’ ’
, ,

OZ OZ a s w e h a v e s ee n ; th e y a r e th e r e fo re t h e d o u bl e r a y s o f
’
, , , ,

thi s p e n cil in i n v o l u ti o n o f ce n tr e 0 a n d a r e th u s h a r m o n ic in , , ,

r e g a rd t o OX a n d OX T h u s OQ R OQ R a r e a s s t a t e d a s e c o n d
’ ’ ’
.
, , ,

c o n ic thro u gh t he fo u r p o i n ts Q R Q R w hich c u t s XX in o i n ts ’ ’ ’

h a rm o n ic in re ga r d t o X a n d X ; t h e re s u lt re q u i r e d [A dd s
, , ,
’
.

W e h a v e s e e n in E x 1 a bo v e tha t t h e ta n g e n t p a i r s fro m t he
, .
, , ,

o i n t 0 t o c o n ic s which t o u ch t h e fo u r li n e s a b c d a re a e n cil
p , p , , , ,

in i n v o l u ti o n o f which OY OY a r e a p a i r o f r a y s a s r e OZ OZ ;
’ ’

, , , a ,

t he li n e s OQ R OQ R b e i n g a s w e h a v e j u s t r e m a rk e d t h e d o u bl e
' ’

, , ,

r a s o f thi s e n cil a r e th e n h a r m o n ic in r e g a r d t o t he t a n g e n t s
y p ,

fr o m O t o a n y s u ch c o n ic N o w t w o p o i n ts which a r e h a rm o n ic .
, ,

in r e ga r d t o t h e t w o p o i n t s in which th e ir j o i n m e e t s a c o n ic a r e ,

c o nj u ga te p o i n t s in r e ga rd t o t h e c o n ic ; a n d d u a lly t w o li n e s , , ,

w hich a r e h a rm o n ic in r e g a r d t o t h e t a n g e n t s d r a w n t o a c o n i c

fro m th e ir i n t er e cti o n a r e co nj u ga t e li n es in r ega r d t o t h e c o n ic

s , .

T h u s t h e li n e s OQR OQ R a r e c o nj u ga te li n e s in r e ga rd t o a n y
’ ’

, ,

c o n ic t o u chi n g t h e fo u r li n e s a b c d T he li n e s Y Y a n d Z Z , , , .
’ ’

h a v e a l s o b ee n s ee n ( E x 1 a b o v e ) t o b e c o nj u ga t e t o o n e a n o th e r
.
,

in r eg a d t o a n y s u ch c o n ic T h e li n e p a i r s OQ R OQ R a n d Y Y
’ ’ ’
r .
, ,

Z Z ( o r Q Q R R ) a r e t w o o f t he th r e e li n e p a i s c n ta i n i n g t h e
’ ’ ’

,
r o

o i n ts Q R Q e d u a l o f t h e th e r e m o v e d in thi s
’

b
’

p R , ; y,
t h , p o r

e x a mpl e it fo ll o w s s i n c e t w o o f th e s e li n e p a irs a r e c o nj u g a t e li n es
, ,
 Ou tp ol a r con ics 33

‘
in re ga r d t o a ny p r ti u l a r o n ic 2 t ou chi ng a b c d th a t t he
a c c , , , , , ,

third li n e p a i r Q R Q R c o n t a i n i ng th e s e p o i n ts a r e a l s o co nju
,
’

,
’

, ,

ga te in rega r d t o S V e h ve th u s p r o v e d a th eo re m w hich ma y . a

b s ta t e d th u s
e L e t a b c d b e a n y fo u r t a n ge n ts o f a c o n ic 2 ;
: , , , ,

l e t t w o ( a n d th e re fo e t h thi r d ) o f t he p o i n t p a i r s o f i n t e rs e cti o n
,
r ,
e

o f th e s e t a n g e n t s ( Y Y a n d Z Z ) b e c onj u ga t e p o i nt s in re ga r d ’ ’
, ,

t a n o th e r c o n ic S T h e r e is th e n a s e t o f fo u r p o i n t s o f t h e c o n ic S
o , .

na m el s u ch th t ea ch li n e a ir c o n t a i n i n g th e s e is
’ ’

( y Q R Q R ,) , , p a
, ,

a a i r o f c o nj u ga t e li n es in r e g a rd t o 2
p .

L e t Q R Q R b e fo u r p o i n t s o f a
’ ’
E x 1 1 O tp ol a r con ics
. . u .
, , ,

c o n ic S which a r e s u ch th a t t w o ( a n d th e re fo r e t he thi r d) o f t he
, , , ,

li n e p a irs c o n ta i n i n g the s e s a y Q R Q R a nd Q Q RR a r e p a irs , ,

’ ’ ’

,
’

o f c o nj u g a t e li n e s in r e ga r d t o a n o th e r c o n ic 2 S u ch a figu re is , .

not
p o s s ibl e f o r a n
y t w o c o n ic s S E a rbitr r il
y giv en W h e n it , , a .

is p o s s ibl e w e s h a ll s p ea k o f t h e c o n ic S a s b e i n g ou tp ola r t o 2
, .

D u a lly wh e n th er e a r e fo u r t a n g e n t s o f 2 wh os e th r e e p o i n t p a i r s
,

o f i n t er s e cti o n a r e p a irs o f c o nj u ga t e p o i n t s in r e g a r d t o S we ,

s h a ll s p e a k o f 2 a s b e i n g i np ola r t o S T he r es u lt o bt a i n e d a t t h e .

c o n cl u s i on o f t h e p re ce di n g e x a m p l e m a y th en b e s ta te d b y s a y i ng
tha t w h en 2 is in p ol a r t o S th en S is o u t p o l a r t o 2 By d u a l , .

rea s o n i n g it fo ll o w s t h a t wh e n S is o u t p ol a r t o 2 the n 2 is in , ,

ol a r t o S
p .

P r o c e e di n g n o w with t he h yp o th e s i s m a d e a t t he b e gi nn i n g o f

‘
thi s exa mpl e th a t t h e li n e p a irs Q R Q R a n d QQ R R a r e c o n ’ ’ ’ ’

, , , ,

j u ga t e li n e s in re ga rd t o 2 ta k e th e p ol a r li n e o f Q in rega rd , ,

t o 2 a n d l e t thi s m ee t t h e c o n ic S
, , ,

c o n ta i n i n g t h e p o i n t s Q R Q R in , ,
’

,
’

th e p oi n ts M a n d N 0 11 M N t a k e t h e .

o le N a l s o in r e ga r d t o 2
’
o f Q ZV I s o
p , , , ,

th a t M is t h e p o l e o f Q N T h e li n e ’
. s

QM R N a r e the n c o nj u ga te in r e g r d
’ ’
a
,

t o t h e c o n ic 2 ; a n d t h e li n e s Q N R M
’ ’

a r e a l s o c o nj u g a t e in r e g a rd t o 2 No w .
,

w hen a n li n e s a r e dra w n th r o u gh Q
y ,

th e ir p o l e s in re ga r d t o 2 l ie o n t he
, ,

o l a r li n e M N o f Q in r e g a rd t o 2 a n d R
p
t h e li n e s j o i n i n g R t o th e s e p o l e s fo rm a p e n cil r e l a t e d t o t he
’

ra n ge o f th e s e p o l e s a n d th e r e fo re re l a te d t o t he p e n cil o f li nes
,

dra wn thro u gh Q T h u s t he p en cil Q (M N Q R ) is r e la t e d t o t h e

.
,
’
,
’
,

e n cil R ( N M a n d h e n c e t o t h e pe n cil R ( M N
’ ’ ’
’
R Q R)
p , , , , , , , ,

f o r t h e li n e s Q Q R R w e r e giv e n t o b e c o nj u ga t e li n es in rega r d
’ '

t o E a s w er e Q R a n d R Q
,
It foll o w s th a t t h e s ix p o i n ts Q Q ’ ’
. ,
’

R R M N l ie o n a c o n ic ; thi s is th er e for e t h e s a m e a s t h e
’ ’

, , , , ,

c on ic S ; a n d t he p o i n t N n o t c o i n cidi n g with M in gen er a l

,
’

, ,

c o i n cide s with N T h e p o i n t s Q M N w e re c o n s tr u ct e d t o for m a

.
, ,
’

B . G. 1 1 .
3
34 Ch ap ter I
se lf p o l a r tri a d in re ga rd t o 2 t he p o i n ts Q M N th u s fo rm s u ch
-
, ,

a tri a d We h a v e th e re fo re s h e w n th a t w h e n t he c o n ic S is o u t
.
, ,

p o l a r t o 2 a s c o n ta i n i n g fou r p o i n ts wh o s e li n e p a i r s o f j o i n s a r e
,

c o nj u ga te pa irs in re ga rd t o 2 th en a tri a d o f p o i n t s ca n b e fo u n d,

o n S which a r e a s e lf p o l a r tri a d in r e ga rd t o 2 And o n e p o i n t o f

-
.

thi s tr i a d is a n o n e o f t he fou r gi ve n p o i n t s o f S [ A d d ] .

C o n v e rs e ly e t a tri a d o f p o i n t s o f S s a y Q M N for m a s e lf
, , , , ,

o l a r tri a d in r e ga rd t o 2 t a k e u p o n S t w o o th e r q u it e a r bitra r
p , y ,

p o i n ts R a n d R ; dr a w a l s o t h e li n e QQ th r o u gh Q which is
,
’

, ,
’

c o nj u ga te t o t he li n e RR in r e ga r d t o 2 a n d dr a w t he li n e R Q
’
,
’ ’

thr o u gh R which is co nj u ga te t o Q R in r e ga r d t o 2 ; l e t th es e
’

li n es m ee t in Q It ca n th en b e p ro v e d a s a b o ve tha t t he p o i n t
’
.
, ,

Q li es o n t h e c o n ic S T he r e a r e th e n fo u r p o i n t s Q R Q R o f
’ ’ ’

.
, , , , ,

t he c o n ic S s u ch th a t t he li n es Q R Q R a r e c o nj u g a t e in r e g a rd
’ ’

, ,

t o 2 a s a l s o a r e t h e li n e s QQ a n d RR ( a nd th e re fo r e a l s o Q R
’ ’ ’
, , ,

T h e c o n ic S is th u s o u t p o l a r t o 2 T h e r e fo r e b y wh a t
’
a nd Q R ) . .
,

was
p r o v e d a b o v e if t h e p o l a r o f R in r e g a r d t o 2 b e t a k e n thi s
, ,

will m ee t S in t w o p o i n t s which with R fo r m a tr i a d o f p o i n ts , ,

o f S which is s e lf p o l a r in r e ga rd t o 2
-
T h e p o i n t R w a s a n a r bi .

t r a r y p o i n t o f S s u ch tr i a d s ex i s t th er e fo r e in i n fi n it e n u mb e r o f , , ,

which o n e p o i n t is a rbitra r y .

H e n c e if t w o c o n ic s S 2 b e s o r el a t e d th a t th e r e is o n e tri a d
, ,

o f p o i n t s o f S which a r e a s e lf p o l a r tri a d in r e ga rd t o 2 th e re is
-
,

a n i n fi n it e n u mb e r o f s u ch tri a d s o n e o f t h e three o i n ts b e i n g
p ,

a rbitra r T h e r e is th e n a l s o a n i n fi n it e n u mb e r o f s e t s o f fo u r
y .

p o i n ts o f S which a r e s u ch tha t ea ch o f t h e li n e p a i r s c o n ta i n i n g
,

the m is a p a ir o f c o nj u ga t e li n es in re ga rd t o 2 ; o f s u ch a s e t ,

three o f t h e p o i n t s m a y b e t a k e n a rbitra r ily u p on S .

If t w o o f s u ch a s e t o f fo u r p o i n ts u p o n S b e c o nj u ga t e t o o n e
a n o th e r in r e ga r d t o 2 th e n t h e s e t c o n s i s t s o f a t r i a d which is s e lf
,

p o l a r in r e ga rd t o 2 ( co n s i s ti n g o f th es e t w o p o i n ts a n d a n o th e r) ,

t og e th e r with a fo u rth p o i n t F o r l e t A B C D b e s u ch a s e t t he
.
, , , ,

li n e s AB CD b e i n g c o nj u ga t e in r ega rd t o 2
, ,

a s a l s o A C B D whil e B a n d C a r e c o nj u g a t e , ,

in re ga rd t o 2 ; a n d s u pp o s e A B C a r e n o t , ,

a s e lf o l a r tri a d in r e ga r d t o 2 T h e n t he
p
-
.

p o l e o f AB is s o m e p o i n t o f CD s a y C a n d , 1,

C is n o t a t C T h e p o l a r o f C b e i n g AB a n d
1 .
1 ,

t h e p o l a r o f C p a s s i n g th r o u gh B it fo ll o w s ,

t h a t B is t h e p o l e o f t h e li n e C C o r CD I n a s imil a r w a y C is t h e ], .

o le o f B D T h u s B C D a r e a s e lf p o l a r t r i a d in r e ga r d t o E
-

p ,
.
. ,

C o n v e r s e ly if B C D b e p o i n t s o f S fo rmi n g a s e lf p o l a r tri a d in
, , ,
-

rega rd t o 2 a nd A b e a ny o th e r p o i n t o f S t he fou r p o i n t s A B
, , , ,

C D h a v e t h e pro p e rty th a t e v er y li n e p a ir c o n t a i n i n g th e m c on s i s t s
,

o f c o nj u g a t e li ne s in r e ga rd t o 2 .
 Ou tp ol a r con ics 35

By wh a t b ee n s a id it fo ll o w s a l s o th a t if th e re a r e three
ha s , , ,

o i n t s o f S fo rmi n g a s e lf o l a r t r i a d in r e a r d t o 2 th e n t he
p
-
g
'

p , ,

c o n ic 2 b e i n g in p o l a r t o S th e r e a r e s e ts o f th r ee t a n ge n t s o f 2
,

fo rmi n g a s e lf p o l r t r i a d o f li n e s in r e ga r d t o S
-
a .

A n im p o rta n t c o n s e q u e n c e o f wh a t h a s b ee n s a id is th a t if S ,

b e t w o c o n ic s which a r e b o th o u t p o l r t o co n ic 2 th e n
’
a nd S a a ,

t h e fo u r c o mm o n p o i n ts o f S a n d S a r e s u h a s e t o f fo u r p o i n t s
’
c

a s h a s be en s p o k e n o f e v er
y li ne ir w hich c o n t a i n s th es e fou r
p : a

o i n t s c o n s i s t s o f li n e s which a e c o nj u g a t e t o o n e a n o th e r in r e g a rd r
p
to 2 . A n d th u s e v e r y c o n ic thro u gh t h e fo u r c o mm o n p o i n t s o f S
, ,

is a l s o o u t p o l a r t o 2
’
a nd S .

F o r l e t A B C b e th e e p o i n t s c o mm o n t o S a n d S ; if th e e
’

, , ,
r s

form a e lf p o l a t r i a d in r ega r d t o 2 the n thes e w ith t he fo u r th

s -
r , ,

i n t e rs e cti o n o f S a n d S fo r m s u ch a s e t o f fo u r p o i n ts ; n d e v er y
’

, a ,

c on ic th r o u gh A B C i o u t p ol r t o 2 Wh en A B C d o n o t
, ,
s a .
, ,

fo rm s u ch a s e lf p o la r tr i a d by dra wi n g f o m B t h li n e B D
-
, ,
r ,
e ,

c o nj u ga t t o A C in r ega rd t o 2 a n d dr a wi ng fro m C t he li n e
e , , , ,

CD c o nj u g te t o AB in r eg r d t o 2 w e d e t e rmi n e a p o i n t D B y
,
a ,
a , .

wha t ha s b ee n p r o v e d a b o v e thi s p o i n t D li e s b o th o n S a n d S ,
’
.

T h e r e is a d u a ll y c or re s p o n di n g th e o r e m in r e g a r d t o t h e fo u r
c o mm on t a n ge n t s o f t w o c o n ic s 2 2 which a r e bo th inp o la r t o ,
’

a c o n ic S .

Ex 12 . T w o s elf p o l a r tr ia ds of on e con ic a r e s ix p oin ts of

.
-

a n o ther co n ic On e i n cide n t a l c o n s e u e n c e o f t h e th e o r y o f t h e
. q
pre c e di n g e x a m p le is , th a t if t w o tr i a d s , A , B , C a n d A , B , C , ’ ’ ’

b e b o th s e lf p o l a r in r e ga r d t o a c o n ic , 2 , th e n t h e s ix p o i n t s A ,
-

B, C , A , B , C l ie o n a n o th e r ’c o n’ic F o r t he c o n ic , S , which is
’ ’’
.

dra wn t o c o n ta i n A , B, C a n d A , B , is o u tp ol a r t o 2 , a s c o n ta i n i n g
A B a n d C T h e r e for e , b y wh a t h a s b ee n s h e w n , t h e p o l a r li n e o f
.

A in re ga rd t o 2 , m e e t s S in t w o p o i n t s which , with A , a r e a s e lf
’

o l a r t r i a d in r e ga rd t o 2 n e o f th e s e o i n t s is B ; t h e o th e r is
’

p O p .

o le of A B n r e g a rd t o 2 ; it is th e r e fo re C
’ ’ ’
i
’
o n B C , a n d is t h e
’

p .

T he dire ct p r o o f, which is e u iv a l e n t q
t o a r e p e titi o n , m a y b e giv e n T h e li n es .

AB , A C , A B , A C a re e vid e n tly c o nju

’ ’

ga te , ih r e ga rd t o 2 , re s p e cti v e l y , t o
T h u s t h e p e n cil
’ ’ ’ ’
A C, A B , A C , A B
’ ’
.

A ( B , C , B , C ) is r e l a t e d t o t h e p e n cil
’ ’

A ( C, B, C , a n d h e nce , a l s o, t o the
’ ’

A
en cil A ( B , C , B , h t he s ix
’
T
’
us
p
p o i n ts lie o n a c o n ic .

By t he d u a lly c o r r e s p o n di n g p ro o f, w e
ca n s h e w th a t t he s ix li n e s B C , CA , A B , B C , C A , A B a l l t o u ch
’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’

t he s a m e c o n ic .

We s ha ll ( E x 2 1 ) pro ve , c on v e rs e ly, tha t , if A , B, C, A , B , C

’ ’ ’

—2
.

3
36 Ch ap ter I

be an
y p i t o f a c o m e th e r e ex i s t s a n o th e r c o n ic in r e ga r d
s ix o n s

t o which b o th A B C a n d A B C a r e s e lf p o l a r tri a d s B y c o m
’ ’
-
, , , .

bi n i n g thi s with t h e th eo r e m h e r e w e s ha ll thu s h a v e a n o th e r ,

p r o o f o f a th e o r e m giv e n a b o v e ( E x th a t if A B C a n d A .
, ,
’
,

B C b e p o i n t s o f a c o n ic th e re is a n oth er c o n ic which t o u ch es a l l
’
,
’
,
’ ’ ’
f B C , CA , AB a n d B C , C A , A B
’ ’ ’
o .

o
Ex 1 3 . P a r ticu l a r ca s es (y ou tp ola r , or of inp ol a r , con ics
. A .

a rtic u l a r c a s e o f a c o n ic , S , o u t o l a r t o a r o p er c o n ic , 2 , is a
p p p
a i r o f li n e s which a r e c o nj u g a t e in r e ga r d t o 2 A a rtic u l a r c a s e
p p .

o f a c o n ic , 2 , in o l a r t o a pr o p e r c o n ic , S , is a a ir o f p o i n t s which
p p
a r e c o nj u g a t e in re g a rd t o S I n t h e ge n e ra l c a s e , w hil e t he c o n ic S
.

is re ga r d e d a s t h e l o c u s o f it s p o i n t s , t h e c o n ic 2 is r e ga r d e d a s t h e
e n v e l o e o f it s t a n g e n t s ; th u s , a b e tt e r s t a t e m e n t o f t h e l a tt e r c a s e
p
is , th a t t h e d e ge n e r a t e c o n ic , 2 , c o n s i s t s o f a l l li n e s thro u gh o n e o f
t h e t w o p o i n t s c o nj u ga t e in r e ga r d t o S A li n e p a ir m a y a l s o b e .

s p o k e n o f a s in o l a r t o a c o n ic , S , wh e n t h e li n e s i n t e rs e ct a t a
p
p o i n t lyi n g o n S B u t thi s p o i n t is t o b e re ga r de d a s a p o i n t p a ir
.

o f which t h e o i n t s c o i n cid e ; t h e c o n ic 2 c o n s i s t s th e n o f a l l li n e s
p
throu gh thi s p o i n t S imila r ly a li n e , ta k e n twic e o v e r, m a y b e
.

s p o k e n o f a s o u t o l a r t o a c o n ic 2 wh e n t h e li n e t ou ch e s 2
p .

T h e s e s ta t e m e n t s m a y b e v e r ifi e d ge o m e t r ica lly Fu rth e r co n .

fi r m a t io n will a ri s e b e l o w wh e n t h e m a tt e r is trea t e d with t h e h e lp

o f t h e a lge bra ic s mb o l s ( Ch a p 1 1 1 , E x
y . .

E x 1 4 T he j oin s of f ou r p oin ts (f a conic a nd the in ter s ections

. .

a n en ts a t thes e o in ts T h e co mm on
of t h e t g p p o i n ts , a n d the common
.

ta ng en ts , (f tw o con ics We h a v e s e en ( E x 1 ) tha t t he i n t e rs e cti on s

. .

o f t h e thr e e li n e p a ir s , which c o n t a i n fou r o i n t s o f a c o n ic , fo rm a

p
s e lf o l a r t r i a d in r e ga r d t o t h e c o n ic D u a ll , t h e li n e s which j o i n
p y
-
.

t h e thre e p o i n t p a irs , th r ou gh which fo u r t a n ge n ts o f t h e c o n ic

p a s s , a r e a s e lf p o l a r tri a d o f li n e s in r e ga r d t o t h e c o n ic
-
W h en .

t h e fo u r p o i n t s a r e t h e p o i n t s o f c o n t a ct o f t h e fo u r t a n ge n t s c o n
s id er e d , t h e t r i a d o f li n es c o n s i s t s o f t h e j o i n s o f t h e tri a d o f oints
p .

I n o th e r w o rd s , t h e t a n g e n t s a t fou r p o i n t s o f a c o n ic m ee t in p a i r s
o n t h e j o i n s o f t h e thr e e p o in t s w h ich fo r m t he c o mm o n s e lf o la r
p
-

tri a d o f a l l c o n ics p a s s i ng thr o u gh t h e fo u r p o i n ts We ha v e s ee n , .

in E x 2 , th a t , e ff e ctiv e l y, t he re s u lt fo ll o w s dire ctly fr o m Bri a n

.

ch o n s th e o r e m
’
.

L e t t h e li n e p a irs c o n t a i n i n g t h e p o i n t s A B C D o f a c o n ic , , ,

i n te rs e ct r es p e ctiv e ly in E F a n d G T he ta nge n t s o f t he c on ic a t
, , , .

A a n d B m e e t in t h e p o l e o f t h e li n e A B ; a s A B p a s s es th r o u gh
o n e o f t h e p o i n t s E F G s a y thr o u gh F t he o l e o f AB li e s o n
, , , p , ,

t h e p o l a r o f F th a t is o n t h e li n e E G I n t he s a m e w a y t he p o i n t
, , .
,

o f i n t e r s e cti o n o f t h e t a n g e n t s a t a n y t w o o f t h e p o i n t s A B C D , , ,

is o n o n e o f t h e li n e s F G GE EF , , .

We h a v e s een th a t if w e h a ve t w o c on ics t he i n t ers e cti ons of

, ,
38 Ch ap ter I
o ne a no th e r in re ga rd t o t h e t w o p o i n ts in which t h e li ne P P ’

m e e t s e ith er o f th e s e c o n ic s ; th ey a r e th e e fo re t he d o u bl e p o i n t s
, r ,

o f t h e i n v o l u ti o n d e t e r mi n e d o n thi s li n e b t h e t w o p a i r s o f i n t er
y
s e cti o n s o f thi s li n e with th es e t w o c o n ic s A s a ll t h e c o n ics m e e t
.

thi s li n e in p a i r s o f p o i n t s be lo n gi n g t o thi s i n v o l u ti o n t he p o i n t s ,

P P
,
’

,
be i n g h a r m on ic c o nj u ga tes in re ga r d t o a n y pa i r o f t he in
v o l u ti on a r e c o nj u ga te p o i n t s in re g rd t o a ny o n e o f t he o n ics
,
a c .

T h u s t he p o l a r o f P in re g a r d t o n y o n e o f t h e c o n ic s p a s s es
a

thro u gh P ’
.

I n p a rticu l a r if E b e t he i n t e r s e cti o n o f o n e o f t h e li n e p a irs

,

thr o u gh t he f o u r p o i n ts t h e li n e s E P E P a r e h a r m o n ic c o nj u ga te s
,
’

o f o n e a n o th e r in r e ga r d t o thi s a ir o f li n e s T h us if F b e t he
p .
,

i n te rs e cti o n o f a n o th er o f t he li n e p a irs thr o u gh t he fou r p o i n t s ,

t he p o i n t P m a y b e c o n s tr u ct e d fr o m P b y j o i n i n g P t o E a n d
’

dra wi n g a fo u rth h a rm o n ic li n e thro u gh E a n d j o i n i n g P t o F,

a n d d r a wi n g a n o th e r s u ch fo u r th h a r m o n ic li n e th r o u gh F T he .

p o i n t P is t he i n te r s e cti o n o f th es e It li e s o n t h e s imila r fo u rth

’
.

h a r mon ic li n e which ca n b e dra wn th r o u gh th e i n te r s e cti on o f t h e

re m a i n i n g li n e pa ir c o n ta i n i n g t he fou r p o i n t s .

D u a lly t he p o l es o f a n y li n e in re ga rd t o a ll c o n ic s t o u chi n g
,

f o u r giv e n li n e s l ie 0 11 a n o th e r li n e T hi s c a n b e c o n s tr u ct e d b y
, .

j o i n i n g p o i n t s d e te r mi n e d a s fo u rth h a r m o n ic p o i n t s o n t he li n e s ,

c o n ta i n i n g t h e p o i n t p a irs thro u gh which t h e fo u r giv e n li n e s p a s s .

E x 1 6 A p oin t to p oin t cor r esp ond en ce in r eg a r d to j b u r g iven

. .

e t w o p o i n ts P , P o f t h e pre c e di n g e x a mpl e , e ith e r

’

p o in ts . O f t h
d e te rmi n e s t h e o th e r with o u t a mbigu ity, wh en t h e fo u r p o i n t s A ,
B, C , D a r e give n ; a n d t h e re l a ti o n is r e cip r o ca l or i n v o l u t o ry,
in t h e s e n s e th a t , if P ta k e t h e p o s iti o n o f P , th e n P t a k e s t h e
’ ’

o s iti o n o f P T o thi s s t a t e m e n t , h o w e v er , th e r e is a n e x c e pti o n :

p .

L e t E , F, G b e t h e i n t e r s e cti o n s o f t h e li n e p a i r s c o n ta i n i n g A , B,
C , D T h e n wh e n P is o n t h e li n e F G, t h e p o i n t P is a t E ; th u s ,
'
.

t o t he p os iti o n E , f or P , t he c o rr e s p o n di n g p o s iti o n o f P is u h
’

de t e rmi n e d , b e i ng a ny wh e re o n t he li n e F G S imil a r ly wh en P is
.
'

a t F or G .

It ca n b e s h e w n th a t , if P d es crib es a ny li n e , th e n’ P d es crib es ’

a c o n ic p a s s i n g thr ou gh E , F , G ; a n d , c o n v e r s e l , if P d e s crib e s a n
y y
c o n ic p a s s i n g th r o u gh E , F, G, th e n P d e s cr ib es a li ne E vide n tly , .

c o n ic s p a s s i n g thro u gh three fi x e d po i n t s E , F, G, a r e in s o m e s e n s e
a n a l o g o u s t o li n e s ; in th a t a n y t w o s u ch c o n ic s h a v e o n e p o i n t
o f i n t e r s e cti o n , b e s id e E , F , G, whil e s u ch a c o n ic c a n b e dra w n

thro u gh t w o a rbitra ry p o i n t s , o the r th a n E , F, G T he r e la ti on .

n o w in q
u e s ti o n e n a bl e s u s t o p a s s fr o m th eo r e m s r e l a ti n g t o li n es

t o th e o r e m s re l a ti n g t o s u ch c o n ic s , o r c o n v e r s e ly .

T o p r o v e t h e s ta t e m e n t m a de : w h e n P d e s c r ib e s a ny li n e , t h e
p en cils o f li n es j o i n i n g E a n d F t o P , o r s a y E ( P ) a n d F ( P ) , a r e
 Co n ics th r ou gh tw o p o in t s t o tou ch th r ee lines 39

l t d A h o we ve r t h e li n e s E P E P a e h a r m o n ic in r e ga r d t o
re a e . s , , ,
’
r

t he li n e p a i r i n t e r s e cti n g in E t h e p e n cil s E E ( P ) a r e re l a t e d , .

S imil a r l y s o a r e t h e p e n cil F
, F ( P ) T hu s t he p e n cil s E ( P s .

F ( P ) a r e r e l t e d T h u s P d e s c r ib e s a c o n ic o n ta i n i n g t he p o i n t s
’ ’
a .
, c

E a nd F T hi s c o n i c o n t a i n s G ; f o r thi s is t he p o s iti o n o f P
’
. c

w h e n P is 0 11 t h e li n e E F a t the i n t wh e re thi s is m e t b t h
p y e , o

li n e o n w hich P li e s .

No w s p p o e th a t a n y p o i n t s E F G a r e giv e n a n d a l s o a n y
u s , , ,

o th e r t w o
p o i n ts I J W e s h e w th t
p o i n t,s A B C D. c a n be a
, , ,

fo u n d s o th a t ( a ) t he p o i n t s E F G a r e t he i n t e rs e cti on s o f t h e
, , , ,

li n e p a irs c o n ta i n i n g A B C D ( b) t h e p o i n t s I J a r e p o i n t , , , , , ,
s

c o r r e s p o n di n g t o o n a n o th er in e ga r d t o A B C D in t he s e n s e
e , r , , , ,

j u s t o n s ide r d T he c o rre s p o n de n ce in q u e s ti o n ca n th en b e r e
c e

ga r d e d a s d e te r mi n e d b y a n a bit r a r y tri a d o f p o i n t s E F G a n d r
, , , ,

o n e giv e n a ir o f c o r r e s o n di n g oint
p p p s .

I n fa ct t w o li n e s E B A F OD r e d e t e rmi n e d b
, y t h e c o n diti n s , , a o

tha t th ey h a ll b h a r m on ic c o nju ga t es
,
s e

o f o n e a n o th e r in r eg a rd t o t h e giv e n

li n e s F E F G a n d s ha ll a l s o b e ha r
, ,

m o n ic c onj ga te o f o n e a n o th e r in
u s

r e ga r d t o t h e giv e n li n e s F I F J A nd ,
.

t w o li n es GDA GCB a r e d e t e r mi n e d
, , ,

b y t h e c o n diti o n s th a t th e y s h a ll b e ,

h a r m o n ic in rega rd t o GE CF a n d , ,

a l s o h a r m o n ic in r ega r d t o G1 GJ , .

T h e s e li n e d e t e r mi n e fo u r p o i n t s A B
s , ,

C D W e h a v e t o s h e w th t A C B D m e e t in E a n d a r e h a r m o n ic
,
. a , ,

in r e ga rd t o E 1 E J I n fa ct A C a n d B D m u s t m ee t o n t h e li n e
, .
,

thr o u gh G w hich is t h e h a r m o n ic c o nj u ga te o f GF in rega r d t o

,

t he li n es GCB a n d GU A a n d th e y m u s t lik e wi s e m e e t o n t h e li n e , ,

t hro u gh F w hich is t h e h a r m o n ic co nj u ga t e o f F G in rega r d t o t h e

li n e s F B A a n d F CD ; th er e for e A C B D m e e t in E An d th en it , .

foll o w s b y w h a t w a s s a id a b o v e t h a t E C EB a r e ha rm on ic in
, ,
'

r e ga d t o E 1 a n d E J
r .

E x 1 7 F ou r co n ics ca n be d r a w n thr oug h tw o g iven p oin ts to

. .

tou c h thr ee g iven lines We h a v e p r o ve d a bo ve tha t t w o c on ic s c a n

.

b e d r a w n thr o u gh a giv e n p o i n t t o t o u ch fo u r giv e n li n es We .

c o n s id e r n o w t h e c o n ic s tha t ca n b e dra wn throu gh t w o gi v e n p o i n ts

to t ou ch thr e e give n li n es .

F or thi s n o tic firs t th a t if FM F N b e t h e ta n g e n t s dr a w n

,
e, , , , ,

fro m a p o i n t F t o a c on ic o f which I J a r e t w o p o i n ts a n d C b e
, , , ,

t h e p o l e o f t h e li n e I J th e n t h e i n v o l u ti o n d e t e rmi n e d b y t h e t w o
,

p a irs o f ra y s FM F N a n d F 1 F J h a s F C f o r o n e d o u bl e r a
, , In , ,

fa ct if M N a n d IJ m ee t in 0 thi s is t h e p o l e o f t h e li n e F a n d
, ,

it s h a rm o n ic c o nj u ga t e s b o th in r ega rd t o t h e p a i r I J a n d in , , ,
40 Ch a p ter I
rega rd t o t he p a ir M , N , l ie on FC . T h u s th e li n e s F 0, F C a re

h a rm on ic b o th in r ega r d t o FM
, ,

F N a n d in r e ga r d t o F 1 F J
, , .

T a k e n o w t h e figu r e o f t he p r e
ce di n g e x a mpl e W e de s i r e t o fi n d .

c o n ic s p a s s i n g thr o u gh I a n d J
which s h a ll t o u ch t h e li n e s E F ,

F G, GE .

On e c o n ic ca n b e dr a w n thr o u gh
I a n d J, t o h a v e CI , CJ a s t h e
t a n gen t s a t th es e p o i n t s w hich ,

s h a ll t o u ch F G ( A n o th e r d e .

ge n e ra te c on ic which c o n t a i n s
t w o c o i n cid e n t p o i n t s o f CI a t I t w o c o i n cid en t p o i n t s o f CJ a t J
, ,

a n d t w o c o i n cid e n t p o i n t s of F G c o n s i s t s o f t h e li n e I J
, ta k e n ,

twice o v e r S ee E x 1 . .
,

a bo ve ) T hi s c on ic d o e s.
,

in fa ct t o u ch F E a n d GE , ,

a nd is th e re fo r e s u ch a
c on ic a s is d es i r e d T o .

r ove th at thi s c o n ic
p ,

which t o u ch e s F G a l s o ,

t o u ch es F E w e u s e t he ,

r e m a r k m a de a b o ve s h e w ,

in g th a t t h e i n v o l u ti on
which is d e te rmi n e d
t h e p a ir o f li n e s F] ,
F a n d t he d o u bl e r a F C
y ,

c on ta i n s t h e li n es F E F G ,

a s a p a ir . F o r thi s w e h a v e o n ly t o n o tice th a t F C F B a r e ha r ,

m o n ic in re ga rd t o F E F G a n d a l s o h a r m o n ic in r e ga r d t o F 1 F J
, , ,

( b y t h e pr o p e rty o f I J in rega rd t o A B C D ) ; t he li n es F C F B
, , , , ,

a r e th u s t h e d ou bl e r a s o f a n i n v o l u ti o n o f which F I F J a n d F E
y , ,

F G a r e p a ir s . T hi s is th e n t h e i n v o l u ti o n s p o k e n o f By a s imil a r .

a r g u m e n t t h e c o n ic d e s c r ib e d t o u ch e s GE .

A n o th e r c o n ic thr o u gh I J t o u chi n g E F F G GE is th a t
, , , ,

d es cribe d t o t o u ch DI DJ res p e ctiv e ly a t I J a n d t o t o u ch F G

, , , , .

A third t ou ch es A I A J a t I a n d J a n d a fo u r th t ou ch e s BI B J
, ,

a t I a nd J .

No o th e r c o n ic s ca n b e dra w n th r ou gh I J t o t ou ch E F F G GE , , , .

F o r b y t h e r e m a rk m a d e a b o v e if F E F G b e t he t a n g e n ts f o m F
, , , r

t o a c o n ic which c o n t a i n s I a n d J o n e o f t h e d o u bl e r a y s o f t he
,

e n cil in i n v o l u ti o n d e t e rmi n e d b t h e a irs P I F J a nd F E F G

p y p , , , ,

m u s t c on t a i n t h e p o l e o f I J in re ga r d t o thi s c o n ic T he p o l e o f .

I J m u s t th en l ie e ith e r o n t h e li n e F A B or t h e li n e F CD It m u s t .
,
 Th e l
e even -p oin t con ic 41

s imil a r ly ,
ith e r o n GCB o r o n C DA It m u s t th er e fo r e b e a t
l ie e .

o ne o f A B C D , , , .

T he d u a l o f thi s p r o p o s iti o n is th a t fo u r c o n ic s c a n b e dra wn

throu gh three give n p o i n t s t o t ou ch b o th o f t w o giv en li n es Of .

thi s a pro o f which th e n a l s o p ro v es t h e di r e ct p ro p os iti o n fo ll o ws

, ,

a t o n c e fr o m t h e c o r r es p o n d e n c e e x p l a i n e d in t h e p r e c e di n g e x a mpl e

( E x . T hi s c o rre s o n d e n c e tra n s fo r m e d c o n ic s
p p a s s i n g thr o u gh

three giv en p o i n ts i n t o li n e s a n d li n e s i n t o c o n ic s p a s s i n g th r o u gh
,

th es e three p o i n t s It ther e fo r e ch a n ge s a c o n ic which t o u ch es a

.

li n e i n t o a li n e t ou chi n g a c on ic t h e t w o c o mm o n p o i n ts o f th e s e
,

b e i n g c o i n cid en t in b o th c a s e s T h u s a c o n ic p a s s i n g thro u gh t h e
.

thre e giv e n p o i n t s a n d to u chi n g t w o giv en li n e s be c o m e s a li n e ,

t o u chi n g t w o c on ic s which p a s s throu gh t he thr ee giv e n p o i n ts .

T h e r e s u lt t o b e p r o v e d is th e re fo r e th a t t w o c o n ic s h a v e fou r
, , ,

c o mm o n t a n gen t s T hi s w e k n o w a s t h e d u a l o f t h e res u lt a s s u m e d
.
,

( P r e limi n a r
y a bo ve
p, 9 ) th a t t w o c o n ic s h a v e fou r c o mm o n
, .
p o i n t s .

Ex 18 . . T he p oles f
o a l in e, in re
g ard to con ics w ithf ou r c om mon
p oin ts , lie We ha v e r e m a rk e d tha t the
on a con ic .
p o l e s o f a li n e in

rega rd t o c o n ics with fo u r c o mm o n ta n gen t s l ie o n a li n e . We m a y ,

h o w e v e r c on s ide r t he p o le s o f a li n e in re ga rd t o co n ics with fo u r
,

c o mm o n p o i n ts T h e s e l ie o n a n o th er c o n ic which is o f imp o r ta n ce
.
, .

Of thi s c on ic e l e v e n p o i n t s c a n b e s p e cifi e d a t o n c e fr o m t h e figu r e ; ,

it is th e re fo r e s o m e tim e s c a ll e d t h e e le v en p o i n t c o n ic -
.

L et A , B, C , D b e t h e fou r c o mm o n p o i n t s o f t h e c o n ics c on
s id e r e d . T h es e d e t e r mi n e ,
o n t h e giv e n li n e , a n i n v o l u ti o n o f p a ir s

of
p o i n t s ; l e t I ,
J b e t h e d o u bl e
p o i n t s o f thi s i n v o l u ti o n L et .

E , F , G b e t h e i n t er s e cti o n s o f t h e li n e p a i r s c o n t a i n i n g t h e fo u r
giv en p o i n t s A c o n ic ca n b e dra w n thro u gh t h e fi ve p o m t s E , F,
.
42 C h ap ter I
G I J ; w e s h e w th a t thi s c o n t a i n s t he p o l e o f t he giv en li n e in
, ,

re ga r d t o e v e r y c o n ic thro u gh t h e fo u r giv e n p o i n t s .

F or I J a r e h a rm o n ic c o nj u ga t e s in r e ga rd t o t he p o i n t s in
, ,

which a n y p a r tic u l a r c o n ic S thro u gh A B C D m ee ts t he li n e , , , , , ,

I J th e p o l a rs o f I a n d J in r e g rd t o thi s p a rtic u l a r c o n ic S th u s
,
a
,

a s s r e s e ctiv e l y th r o u gh J a n d I T h e r e fo re if th e s e p o l a rs m e e t
p , p , .
,

in T t he p o i n t s T I J a r e a s e lf p o l a r t r i a d in r e ga r d t o S We
, , ,
-
.

h a v e s h e wn th a t E F G a r e a s e lf p o la r t r i a d in r e ga rd t o a n y
, ,
-

c o n ic S ( E x We h a v e a ls o s h e wn th a t a ny t w o tr i a ds o f p o i n t s
.
,

which a r e b o th s e lf p o la r in rega r d t o a c o n ic l ie o n a n o th e r c o n i c
-
,

( E x . T h u s T li es o n t h e c o n ic c o n t a i n i n g I J E F G B u t T , , , , .

is t h e p o l e I J in re ga r d t o t h e c o n ic S T hi s p r o v es t he s t a t e m e n t .

m a de .

N o w l e t t h e li n e I J m e e t A D in L ; a n d l e t M b e t he h a rm o n ic
,

co nj u ga t e o f L in r e ga rd t o A a n d D Fu r th e r l e t M C m e e t t he .
,

li n e I J in H a n d l e t C b e t he h a rm o n ic c o nj u ga t e o f C in r ega r d
,
’

to M a nd H If the n w e c o n s ide r t h e p a r tic u la r c o n ic thro u gh

.

A B C D which c o n t a i n s t h e p o i n t C t he p o l a r o f M in r e g a rd t o
’

, , , ,

thi s c o n ic c o n t a i n s b o th t h e p o i n t L a n d t he p o i n t H T hu s M is .

t he p o l e o f t h e li n e I J in r e ga rd t o thi s p a rtic u l a r c o n ic Wh e r e .

fo r e M is o n t h e c o n ic o bt a i n e d a b o v e which is t he l o cu s o f t he ,

o l e s o f t h e li n e I J in re ga r d t o a ll c o n ic s thr o u gh A B C D B
p y , , , .

c on s id e ri n g t h e i n t e rs e cti o n s o f t he li n e I J with t he j o i n s o f e v e r y
p a ir o f t he fo u r p o i n t s A B C D a s w e h a ve j u s t c o n s id er e d t h
, , , , e

i n t e rs e cti o n L with t he j o i n A D a n d ta ki n g 0 11 ea ch j o i n t he fo u r th ,

h a rm o n ic in re ga rd t o t h e t w o p o i n t s a s w e h a v e t a k e n M o n A D , ,

w e fi n d in a ll s ix o i n t s o f t h e c o n ic in q u es ti o n A n d w e fo u n d
p .

tha t it c o n t a i n e d t h e fi e p o i n t s E F G I J v , , , , .

D u a ll y t h e p o l a r s o f a p o i n t in r e g a r d t o a ll c o n ic s t o u chi n g
, ,

fo u r giv e n li n e s t o u ch a n o th e r c o n ic which will a l s o b e fo u n d t o b e

, ,

o f imp o r t a n c e ( 9 0 b elo w )
p .
, .

Ex . 19 . T wo con ic s
o f w hic h t he ta n
g en ts a t their co mmon p oin ts
meet, in fli u r s , S u p p o s e th a t t h e fo u r p o i n t s c o mm o n
a t tw o p o in ts .

t o t w o c o n ic s a r e I , J a n d H , K ; a n d th a t t h e ta n ge n t o f o n e
c o n ic , a t t h e p o i n t H , p a s s e s thro u gh t h e i n t e rs e cti o n o f t h e
t a n ge n t s o f t he o the r c o n ic a t t h e p o i n ts I a n d J F or di s ti n ct n e s s , .

l e t t he firs t c o n ic b e ca ll e d ( I) , a n d t h e s e c o n d b e c a ll e d Q , a n d l e t
t h e ta n ge n t s o f Q a t I a n d J m ee t in 0 It ca n th e n b e s h e w n th a t .

t h e t a n ge n t o f t h e fi r s t c o n ic , ( I) , a t t h e p o i n t K, a l s o p a s s es thro u gh
0 , which is th e n a p o i n t th r o u gh which fo u r o f t h e t a n ge n t s o f t h e
c on ics p a s s ; a n d tha t t he t a n ge n t s o f t he s e c o n d c o n ic , Q , a t t h e ,

o i n t s H , K, a s w e ll a s t h e t a n ge n t s o f t h e fi r s t c o n ic , ( I) , a t I a n d
p
J, a l l p a s s th r o u gh a n o th e r p o i n t .

E vid e n tl y , wh e n t he c o n ic Q is gi ve n , a n d t h e p o i n t s I , J , H , K
th e r eo n , t he c o n ic (I) m a y b e d e fi ne d a s tha t p a s s i n g thro u gh t he
 Tw o c on ics in a sp ec ia l r ela ti on 43

p i
o n s t I J,
H K, a n d h a vi n g H O f r it s t a n g e n t a t H
, W o bt a i n o . e
it s o m e wh a t d iffere n tly .

L e t Q b e a n y giv e n n ic I J H K a ny p o i n t s the re o n t he
co , , , , ,
t a ngen ts a t I J m e e ti ng in 0 D ra w th r o u gh 0 a ny li ne m e e ti n g .

Q in P n d P ; l e t P H P K m e t in Q a n d
’ ’
a , e ,

P K P H m e e t in R We n s id e t he l o c u s
’
, . co r

o f t he o i n t Q ; which will b e fo u n d t o c o n t a i n
p
t he p o i n t R T h p a i rs o f p o i n t s P P o f t h e ’
. e
,

c o n ic fo rmi ng a n i n v o l u ti o n th e r e o n t he ,

e n cil s o f li n e s H ( P ) K with c tr es a t
p , e n ,

H a n d K a r e r e la t e d
, T hi s s h e w s th a t t h e .

l o c u s o f Q is a c o n ic s a y Q p s i n g th r o u gh , ,
as

H a n d K ; a n d a s P P a r e i n t r ch n ge a bl
’

, , e a e,

thi s c o n ic Q c o n ta i n s R W he n P is a t H .
’

t h e li n e H P b e c o m es t h e li n e H O a n d t h e li n e ,
~

KP b e c o m es KH th u s H O i t h e t a n ge n t o f
’

, s

t h e c o n ic Q a t H Wh e n P is a t K t h li n
.
, e e

H P b e c o m e s t h e li n e H K a n d t h e li n e KP b e c o m es t he li n e KO
’
, ,

which is th u s t h e t a n ge n t o f t he c o n ic Q a t K Wh e n P is a t I .
’

,
s o a l s o is Q T h e c o n ic Q th u s p a s s e s th r o u gh I a n d s imil a rl y it
.
, ,
a s s e s th r o u gh J
p .

N o w l e t T b e t h e i n t e r s e cti o n o f t he t a n g e n t s o f t he c o n ic Q a t
I a n d J We s h e w tha t t he t a n ge n ts
.

of Q a t H a nd K a s s th r o u gh T Let
p .

H O m e e t I J in F a n d TH m e e t [ J ,

in G . T h e p o i n t F is o n t h e p o l a r o f
T in re ga rd t o Q s o th a t it s
p o la r
,

c on ta i n s T ; t h e p o l a r o f F a l s o p a s s e s

thro u gh H s i n e t he t a n ge n t o f Q a t
,
c

H p a s s e s th r o u gh F T h u s t h e li n . e

TH G is t h e p o l o f F in r e g a r d t o Q ;
ar

a n d G is t h e h r m o n ic c o nj u ga t e o f F
a

in r ega rd t o I a n d J If h o w e v e r t he .
, ,

t a n ge n t o f Q a t H m ee t I J in G t he ’

o la r o f G n r e ga rd t o Q
’

p i , p a s s es ,

thr o u gh H a n d p a s s e s thr o u gh 0
, ,

which is t h e p o l e o f I J in r e ga rd t o Q T h u s H 0 is t he p o l a r o f G .
’

in r e ga rd t o Q Wh er e fo r e G a n d G a r e t h e s a m e a n d TH is t he
.
’
,

t a n ge n t o f Q a t H S o TK is t he t a n gen t of Q a t K
. .

It a p p ea r s th u s th a t t h e r e l a ti o n o f t he c on ic s Q Q is m u t u a l
, , , ,

a n d e ith er m y b e d e fi n e d fr o m t h e o th e r
a A n d t he c o n ic Q m a y .
,

e q u a ll b e d efi n e d b dr a wi n g v a ri a bl e li n e s th r o u gh t h e
p oi nt T
,y y
t o m e e t t h e c o n ic Q s a y in X a n d X a n d th e n fi n di n g t h e l o c u s
’
, , , , ,

o f t h e i n t er s e cti o n o f t h e li n e s IX a n d J X
’
.

I n t h e d e fi n iti on o f t he c o n ic Q fr o m Q t he p o i n t s Q R o f Q a r e , , ,
44 C h a p ter I
conj u ga t e to th e r in r ega r d t o a ll c o n ic s th r o u gh t he p o i n t s
one a n o

P P H K ( E x 1 a b o v e ) a n d t h e li n e Q R which is t h e p o l a r o f
’

, , , .
, , ,

t h e i n te rs e cti o n o f t h e li n e s P P a n d KH c o n t a i n s t h e i n te rs e cti o n
’
, ,

T o f t h e t a n ge n t s o f t h e c o n ic Q a t H a n d K T h e t w o c o n ic s
, .
,

Q Q a r e th e re fo r e s u ch th a t a ny li n e d r a w n th r o u gh T m ee ts o n e
, , , ,

o f t he c on ic s s a Q i n t w o p o i n t s which a r e h a r m o n ic a ll c o nj u g a t e
y , , y
in re ga rd t o t h e t w o p o i n t s in which t h e li n e
m e e t s t h e o th er c on ic Q T he s a m e is th“e re .

for e t r u e o f a n y li n e d r a wn throu gh t h e
p o in t 0 .

If Q b e giv e n a n d o n a n y li n e dra wn , ,

thro u gh t h e i n te rs e cti on O o f t h e t a n gen t s , ,

of Q at an t wo o i n ts I J o f thi th e re s,
y , p , , ,

b e t a k e n t w o p o i n t s A B c o nj u ga t e t o o n e , , ,

a n o th e r in r e ga r d t o Q th e n a n y c o n ic Q , , ,

th r o u gh t he fo u r p o i n ts I J A B is r e l a te d
Q t o Q a s in t he a b o v e I n fa ct I B JB a s s
, , , ,

p .
, ,

th r ou gh t he fu rthe r i n te r s e cti o n s C D o f Q , , ,

with AJ AI r es p e ctiv e ly a n d CD p a s s es
, _
, ,

thr o u gh t h e i n t e rs e cti o n o f t h e t n ge n ts o f Q a t I a n d J Or a n a .

i n d e p en de n t p r o o f m a y b e gi v e n .

E x 2 0 A con ic d er ived f om t w o g iven co n ics

. . r I n c on n ex i o n .

with t h e l a s t ex a m p le t h e fo ll o wi n g r e m a rk s th o u gh a n a n tici p a
, ,

ti on o f res ul ts giv e n b e l o w ( in Ch a p 1 1 1 p m a y b e m a de
.
, . .

G iv e n n y t w o c o n ic s Q Q w e m a y c o n s id e r a l l li n e s o f t h e pl a n e
a , ,

wh o s e i n te rs e cti o ns with o n e o f t h e o n ic s a r e h a rm on ic c o nj u ga t es c

in r e g r d t o t he i n t e r s e cti o n s o f t h e li n e
a

with t h e o th er c o n ic Of s u ch li n es t w o .
,

ca n b e d r a w n th r o u gh a n p o int P o f one
y , ,

o f t h e c o n ic s Q th o s e na mel j oin
sa
y ; y , , ,

in g P t o t h e p o i n t s Q R in which thi s , , ,

c o n ic Q is m e t b y t he p o l a r o f P in
, ,

r e g a rd t o Q It m a y th e r e fo r e be e x .
, ,

ec t e d th a t t h e lin e in q u e s ti o n t o u ch a s
p
c o n ic ; a s will b e fo u n d t o b e t h e ca s e
( p p 1 2 5 1 3 5 b e l o w ) If thi s b e a s s u me d it
.
, , .
,

is a t o n c e cl e a r th a t thi s thi r d c o n ic t o u ch e s t he e ight li n e s w hich

a r e t h e t a n g e n t s o f t h e giv e n c o n ic s Q Q a t th e ir fo u r in t e r s ec , , ,

ti on s Th e t w o p a r tic u l a r c o n ic s Q Q c o n s id e r e d in t h e p re c e di n g
. , , ,

ex a m p le ,a re s o r e l a te d tha t thi s third c o n ic re ga r d e d a s a n ,

e n ve l o p e ,
d ege n e ra te s i n to a p o i n t p a ir c o n s i s ti n g o f t he p o i n ts ,

0 a nd T . It ca n b e s h e w n fu r th e r th a t t h e p o i n t s o f c o n t ct o f
, ,
a

th e s e p a rtic u l a r c o n ics Q Q with th e i r fou r c o mm o n t a n gen t s l ie

, ,

o n t w o li n e s fo u r o n e a ch ; a n d th a t t h e t a n g e n t s
,
fr o m a ny p o i n t ,

o f e ith e r o f th es e li n es dra wn t o Q a r e h a rm o n ic c o nj u ga t es in
, ,
46 Ch ap ter I
in p o i n t s which a r e h a r m o n ic c o nj u ga t e s in r e ga r d t o P a n d E T h e .

c o n ic w e s ee k t o c o n s tr u ct m u s t th e n if it ex i s t p a s s thro u gh X , ,

a nd Y ‘
T w o . o th e r p o i n t s th r o u gh which s u ch a c o n ic m u s t p a s s
a r e t he o i n ts U V o n CD which a r e h a rm o n ic c o nj u g a t es b o th in
p , , ,

re ga r d t o C D a n d in r ega r d t o Q E It fo ll o w s fr o m t h e fu n da
, , .

m en ta l p r o p er ti es o f t he h a r m o n ic r e l a ti o n th a t t h e li n es XU Y V ,

m e e t o n t h e li n e L M s a y a t T ; a n d a l s o th a t t he li n es X V Y U
, , , , ,

m ee t o n L M s a y a t K C o n s id er i n g a n y fo u r li n e s w e h a ve s e en
, , .
,

( E x 1 0 a b o v e ) th a t if o f t h e thre e p o i n t p a irs thro u gh which a ll

.
, ,

t h e fou r li n e s p a s s t w o p a irs c o n s i s t e a ch o f ‘
, o n s w hich a r e co n
p i t
j u ga te t o on e a n o th e r in ega r d t o a c o n ic s o d o e s t h e third p a ir
r , .

I n t h e p r e s e n t c a s e f or t h e fou r li n e s T U X T V Y U K Y V KX
, , , , ,

t h e thre e p o i n t p a i r s th r o u gh w hich a ll t h e li n e s p a s s a r e X Y ; ,

U V a n d T K o f th e s e t h e t w o fo rm e r c on s i s t o f c onj u ga t e p o i n t s
, , ,

in re g a r d t o t he giv e n c o n ic c o n t a i n i n g t h e t w o t i a ds L A B ; r , ,

M C D ; wh er e for e K a n d T a r e c o nj u ga te in r e ga r d t o thi s c on i c
, , .

T h u s T a n d K a r e h a r m o n ic c o nj u ga t e s in r e ga r d t o L a n d M T h e .

h a rm o n ic c onj u ga te o f T in r e ga r d t o t h e p o i n t s U a n d X is h o w ,

e ver the , p o i n t in which U X is m e t b

y E K T h u s it fo ll o w s th t . a

t h e li n e s M U L X m ee t o n E K ; a s d o f or a s imil a r r ea s o n M V
, , , ,

L Y I n t h e s a me w a y t he li n e s V M L X m e e t o n E T a s d o UM
.
, , ,

a nd L Y W hen c e w e s ee th a t a c o n ic c a n b e d e s cribe d th r ou gh
.

X Y U V ha vi n g M U M V a n d LX L Y a s ta n ge n ts ( E x 1 4
, , , , , .
,

a bo ve) .

F or thi s c on ic L A B a n d M C D a e s e lf p o l a r t i ds It is
, , , , ,
r -
r a .

the re fo re s u ch a c o n ic a s w e d e s i e d t o c o n s tru ct A n d the re ca n b e r .

n o o th e r ; f or w e h a v e s ee n th a t s u ch a c o n ic m u s t a s s th r o u gh
p
X Y U V ; a n d th a t L m a y b e t h e p o l e o f A B in e ga r d t o t h e
, , , , r

c on ic it s t a n ge n t s a t X Y m u s t m ee t in L ; it s t a n ge n ts a t U V
, , ,

m u s t lik e wi s e m e e t in JVI .

E x 2 2 T o con s tr uct a co n ic f or w hich a g iven tr ia d of p oin ts

. .

s ha l l be a s elf p ol a r tr ia d , a nd a g ive n p o in t a nd l in e s ha l l be p ol e
-

a nd ol a r L e t L , A , B b e t he t r i a d , M t h e o i n t a n d C D t he li n e
p .
p .

D ra w a n y c o n ic th r o u gh L , A , B , M ; l e t it cu t t h e li n e in p o i n t s
C , D C o n s tr u ct , b y t h e fo re g o i n g e x a m p l e , t h e c o n ic h a vi n g L , A , B
.

a n d M , C , D a s s e lf p o l a r tri a d s T hi s is s u ch a c o n ic a s is d e s i r e d
-
. .

It is , in fa ct , t h e o n ly o n e ; f or , th o u gh C , D m a y va r y , th ey a r e
p a i r s o f t h e i n v o l u ti o n d e ter mi n e d 0 11 t h e li n e CD b y a l l c o n ic s
thro u gh L , A , B, M ; a n d t h e p o i n ts U, V , o f t h e c o n ic d es crib e d ,
q
a r e u n i u e , be i n g t h e d o u bl e p o i n t s o f thi s i n v o l u ti o n .

E x 2 3 T o con s tr u ct a c on ic f o r w hich a g iven tr ia d of p oin ts

. .

s ha ll be s elf -p o la r , to p a s s t hr o ug h t w o g i ve n p o in ts L e t A , B, C b e .

t he tri a d , a n d I , J t h e t w o o th er p o i n t s T h e r e e x i s ts a p o i n t , D , .

s u ch th a t t h e li n es B C , A D , t h e li n es CA , B D , a n d t h e li n es A B , C D ,

m e e t t h e li n e [ J in thre e p a irs o f p o i n ts o f a n i n v ol u ti on o f which

 P l
o a r re c ip r oca l of a c o n ic 47

I,J a re d o u bl e p o i n t s T hl s is t he p a r tic u l a r c a s e o f H e s s e
t he .
’
s

th e o re m ( E x 1 0 a b o v e ) w hich a r i s e s wh e n t he c o n ic th e r e r e fe r e d
.
, , , r

t o b e c o m e s a p i n t p a i r ; it is o bvi o u s a t o n e by fi n di n g D
,
o o c , ,
s

tha t B D a nd CA m ee t I J in p o i n ts h a r m o n ic in r ega r d t o I J n d , , a

tha t CD a n d A B m e e t I J in s u ch p o i n ts ; th e n I J a r e t he d o u bl e ,

o i n t s o f t he i n v o l u ti o n d e t e r mi n e d o n t h e li n e I J b t h j i ns o f
p y e o

t he p o i n t s A B C D s o th a t A D a n d B C m e e t I J in p o i n ts h a r
, , , ,

m o n ic in rega rd t o I a n d J .

T h e r e is th en b y t he p e c e di n g e x a m p l e n e c o n ic h a vi n g A B C
,
r ,
o
, ,

f o r a s e lf p o l a r tri a d a n d h a vi n g t he p o i n t D a n d t he li n e I J a s
-
,

p o l e a n d p o l a r o f o n e a n o th e r F o r thi c o n ic t he p o i n ts A a n d D . s

a r e th e o l es r es e ctiv e l o f B C a n d I J a n d t h e li n e A D is t h
p p y, , , e

o l a r o f th e p o i n t wh e r e B C m e e t s I J T h u s t h e c o n ic m e e t s t h e
p .

li n e I J in p o i n t s w hich a r e h a r m o n ic c o nj u ga te in r ega r d t o t he s

p o i n t s w h e re I J is m e t by B C a n d A D T h e r e is a s imila r s ta te m e n t .
-

f o r CA a n d B D a n d f o r A B a n d CD T h e c o n ic th e e fo re p a s s e s
,
.
, r ,

th r o u gh I a n d J a n d is t h e c o n ic w e d e s i r e d t o c o n s tru ct T he
, .

t a n gen t s a t I a n d J a r e t he li n e s DI a n d DJ T he r ea d e r will co m .

a r e thi w o r k w ith th a t o f E x 1 7
p s . .

E x 24 .T he p ol a r
. r eci
p r o ca l f
c o n e c on ic in re
g a rd to a n other .

A p a r ticu la r ca s e It fo ll o w s f o m w h a t ha s b ee n s a id a b o v e in
. r

r e g a rd t o d u a lit w ith re s e ct t o a c o n ic a n d t h e d u a l d e fi n iti o n

y p ,

of a c o n ic ( p th a t if w e h a v e t w o co n ics S a n d Q a n d
.
, ,

ta k e t he p o l a rs in r e ga rd t o Q o f a l l t h e p o i n t s o f S th es e p o l a r s
, , ,

t o u ch a n o th e r c o n ic s a y S A ny t w o p o i n ts o f S th u s give t w o
,
’
.

ta n gen ts o f S a n d t h e p o l a r s in r ega rd t o Q o f t he p o i n ts o f th e i r
’

, , ,

j o i n be c o m e t h e li n e s p a s s i n g th r o u gh t he p o i n t o f i n t er s e cti o n of
,

th es e t w o c o r r es p o n di n g t a n ge n t s o f S I n p r tic u l a r t he p o l e in ’
. a
,

r e ga r d t o Q of a n t a n gen t o f S i oint of S h ’
s a T u s S ca n b e
y , p , .

o bt a i n e d fr o m S b y t h e s a m e r u l e a s w a s S fr o m S T w o s u ch
’ ’
.

c o n ic s S S a r e c a lle d p o la r r e ci p r o ca ls in r ega r d t o Q Co n ve r s e ly
,
’
.
,

it will b e s ee n b el o w in Ch a p 1 1 1 tha t giv en t w o a r bitra r y c o n ic s

, .
, ,

S S th e r e a r e in g e n e r a l fo u r c o n ic s Q in r e ga r d t o which S a n d
’
, , , ,

S a r e p ol a r r e ci p r o c a l s .

N o w c o n s id e r t w o c o n ic s S a n d S which a r e s u ch th a t th er e is a
’
, ,

tr i a d o f p o i n ts o f S s a y A B a n d C f o r which t he j o i n s B C CA AB
, , , , ,

a r e t a n g en t s o f S If th en w e d r a w fr o m a ny p o i n t P o f S t he
’

, ,
.
,

t w o ta n ge n ts t o S a n d th e s e m e e t S a g a i n in Q a n d R
’

, t he s ix ,

li n es B C CA AB P Q P R a n d Q R a l l to u ch a c o n ic ( a b o v e E x
, , , , , .

a n d thi s is t h e c o n ic S b e ca u s e S t o u ch e fi e o f th es e li n e s I n
’ ’

,
s v .

o th e r w o r d s a n i n fi n it e n u mb e r o f t r i a d s o f o i n ts P Q R ca n b e
, p , ,

fo u n d o n S f or which t he j o i n s Q R RP P Q to u ch S T a k e n o w
, , ,
’
.

o n e o f th e s e t r i a d s P Q R By wh a t is pro v e d bo v e in E x 2 1
, , , . a , .
,

th er e is a co n ic s a y Q f o r which b o th A B C a n d P Q R a r e s e lf
, , , , , ,

p o l a r tri a ds Co n s ide r t he c on ic w hich is t he p o l a r re ci p r o ca l o f S

.
48 Cha p ter I
in rega rd t o Q T hi s t ou ch es t h e s ix li n e s B C CA AB Q R RP P Q
.
, , , , ,

( which a r e t h e p o la r s in r e ga r d t o Q o f t h e p o i n t s o f t h e tri a d s ) ; ,

it is th e r e fo re t he c o n ic S It fo ll o ws fro m thi s th a t if P Q R b e ’
.
,
’
,
’
,
’

a n o th e r tri a d o f p o i n t s o f S f o r which Q R P Q t o u ch S
’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’
R P , , ,
th e n P Q R m u s t b e a s e lf p o l a r tr i a d in r ega rd t o Q
’
,
’

,
’
-
.

T o p r o v e thi s l e t t he p o l a r o f P in re ga rd t o Q m e e t S in Q
’

, , , 1

a n d R ; th e n if t h e p o l a r o f Q
1 , in r e ga rd t o Q ( which p o l a r p a s s es ,

throu gh m ee t Q R in R a c o n ic c o n ta i ns A B C P Q R
, 1 2, , , ,
’
, ,, 2

1 a bo ve ) which is th e r e fo re S ; th u s R c o i n cid es with R

( E x . 2 , , , 1 ,

Q R is a s e lf p o l a r t r i a d in r ega r d t o Q T h er e fo re a s
’
a nd P , U 1
-
.
,

Q R a r e p o i n ts o f S t he li n es P Q P R Q R a r e ta n ge n t s
’ ’ ’
P , ,, I , 1
‘
of the o l a r r e cip r o c a l S en c e Q a r e t he s a m e a s Q
’
H R
’

p , R 1, I , .

W e h a ve th e re fo re a n i n fi n it e n u mb e r o f tri a ds o f p o i n t s o f S o f ,

which t h e j o i n s t o u ch S which a r e s e lf p o l a r in r ega r d t o Q ’

,
-
.

T h e r e a r e in fa ct a s h a s b e e n r e m a r k e d thre e o th e r c o n ic s
, , ,

b es ide Q f or which S a n d S a r e p o l a r r e ci p r o c a l s T h es e h a v e n o t ’
.

t h e s a m e p r o p e rty in r eg a rd t o t h e t r i a d s P Q R A n d in ge n e ra l , , .
, ,

wh en S a n d S a r e p o la r re cipro ca l s in r ega r d t o a c o n ic Q it is
’

n o t t h e c a s e th a t tri a d s o f p o i n t s o f S a r e s e lf p o l a r in r e g a rd t o Q -
.

Th e m a tt e r a ri s es a g a i n f or c on s id e r a ti o n in C h a p 1 1 1 ( E x . .

A c o n ic S which c o n t a i n s tri a d s o f p o i n t s A B C f o r which t he , ,

j o i n s B C CA AB a ll t ou ch a n o th e r c on ic 2 m a y b e s p o k e n o f a s
, , ,

t r i a n gu l a r l y circ u m s crib e d t o 2 L et S S b e a s e t o f c o n ic s .
1 , 2,

a ll tri a n g u l a rl circ u m s crib e d t o 2 L et Q b e t h e c o n ic b which

y y .
1

S is t h e p o l a r re cipr o ca l o f 2 t h e t r i a d s s p o k e n o f b e i n g s e lf p o l a r
I ,
-

in re ga rd t o Q ; l e t Q s imil a rly a ri s e fr o m S a n d 2 a n d s o o n
1 2 2 , .

T he s e t o f c on ics Q Q a r e th e n a l l o u t o l a r t o 2
,, .

S imil a r l y if w e h a v e a s e t o f c o n ic s E
, a l l tri a n g u l a r l
y 2,

i n s cr ib e d t o a c o n ic S w e ca n fi n d a s et o f c on ics Q Q , a l l in

p o la r t o S .

E tc 2 5 Ga s k in s theor em f b r co n ics thr ou g h t w o fi x ed p oin ts ou t

’
. .

ol a r to a i ven con ic L e t Q b e a giv e n c o n ic , a n d I , J b e t w o

p g .

giv en p o i n t s We h a v e d e fi n e d ( E x 3 , a b o v e ) t h e dire ct o r c o n ic o f
. .

Q in r e ga rd t o I a n d J We h a v e c o n s id e r e d t w o c o n ics s u ch th a t
.

t he t a n ge n t s a t th e ir fo u r c o m m o n p o i n t s i n t e r s e ct , in fo u rs , in t w o
p o i n ts ( E x 1 9, a b o ve ) We h a ve d e fi n e d a co n ic a s o u t p o l a r t o Q
. .

wh e n th e re a r e tri a ds o f p o i n t s o f t h e c o n ic which a r e s e lf p ol a r in -

re ga rd t o Q ( E x We n o w p r o v e th a t a l l c o n ics o u t p ol a r t o Q
.

pa s s i n g thro u gh t h e p o i n t s I , J , a r e in t h e s p e ci a l re l a ti on with t h e
di r e ct o r c o n ic which w a s c on s id er e d in E x 1 9 S u ch a n o u t p ol a r . .

co n ic is o bt a i n e d b y ta ki n g a ny tri a d which is s e lf p o l a r in r ega rd -

t o Q , a n d dra wi n g t h e c o n ic th r o u gh I , J which c o n t a i n s t h e p o i n t s
o f thi s tri a d W e h a v e p ro v e d ( E x 1 1 ) tha t a ny c o n ic thro u gh t h e
. .

c o mm on p o i n t s o f t w o c on ic s which a r e b o th o u t p o l a r t o Q is a l s o
ou t o l a r t o Q ; in p a rtic u l a r a ny o n e o f t h e li n e p a ir s thr o u gh
p
 Ga skin s th eor em
’
49

th e sec o mm o n p o i n ts c n s i s t s o f t w o li n e c o nj u ga te t o o n e a n o th e r
o s

in r e g r d t o Q a T h u s if a ny t w o c o n ic s o u t p o l a r t o Q b e d e
.
,

s c r ib d th r o u gh t h e o i n t s I J a n d X Y b e t h e r e m a i n i n g i n t er
e
p , , ,

s e cti o n s o f th e s e th e n t h e li n e X Y as s th r o gh t h e o le o f I J
p , p se u

in r e ga d t Q ; thi s p o l e w e d e n o t by 0 We d n o te a l s o b y A
r o e . e , , ,

t he i n t e r s cti o n o f t h e li n e s I Y a n d JX a s th es li n e s a re c o nj u ga te
e e

in r e g d t o Q t h e p o i n t A is 0 11 t h d i r e ct o r c n ic o f Q in r e g a r d
ar , e o

to I a nd J S imil ly t h e p i n t B in whi h t h e li n s IX J Y
. ar , o , c e ,

i n t er s e ct is o n t h e di r e t o r c o n ic T hi s di re t o c o n ic p s s e th u gh
,
c . c r a s ro

I a nd J a n d s w e h a ve r e m k e d ( E x
, ,
a t he t a n g n t a t I J o f ar . e s , ,

thi n ic m e t in t he p o l e O o f t he li n e I J t k e n in r ega d t o t he
s co ,
e , , a r

c n ic Q
o .

N o w d r a w a n y li n e th r o u gh 0 a n d c o n s id e r t h e i n v o l ti o n o f , u

pa i r s o f p o i n ts d e te r mi n d th er e o n b y a l l c o n ic s th r gh t he f u r e ou o

p oi n t Is J X ,
Y W e
, p o v e th a t
, . r

t h e d o u bl e p o i n t s o f thi s i n v o l u ti o n
o i n ts a nd L
’
ar e the
p sa
y L in , ,

which thi s li n e m e e ts t h e di r e ct o r
c o n ic One p a i r o f thi s i n v o l u ti o n
.

c o n s i s ts o f t he p oi n t 0 nd t h e a

oint T in which t h e li n e m e e t s
p , ,

IJ . A s O is t h e p l e o f I J in o

r e g a r d t o t h e di r e ct o r c o n ic the ,

oint 0s a nd T r e h a r m o n ic c o n a
p
u a t s in r e g a rd t o L a n d L
’

jg e L et .

t he li n e d r a w n th r o u gh 0 m e e t
, ,

t h e li n e s I Y a n d J X r e s p e ctiv e ly , ,

in M n d M A s th es li n e s j o i n
’
a . e

t he p o i n t A o f t h e di r e ct o r c o n l c t o t h e p o i n t s I J o f thi s a n d O
, , ,

is t h e p o l e o f I J in r e a r d t o t h c o n ic it fo ll o w s ( E x 5 a b o v e )
g 1s ,
.
,

th a t M M a r e c o nj u ga t e p o i n t s in r eg r d t o t h e di r e ct o r c o n ic
,
’
a ,

r e th e r e fo r e h a m o n ic c o nj u g a t e s in r e g a r d t o L
’
a nd a , ,
r nd L Th a . e

p o i n ts M M a r e h o w e v er
,
a n o th er
’

p a ir of
, p o i n t s d e t e r mi n e d o n
, ,

t h e li n e OL L b y a c o n i c th r o u gh t h e fo u r p i n ts I J X Y ; thi
’
o s
, , , ,

p a i r ,
t o g e th e r with O a nd T d e t e mi n e t h e i n v o l ti o n It is ,
r u .
,

th er e for e s h e w n th a t L a n d L a r e th e d o bl e p o i n t s o f thi s in o
,
’
u v

l u t io n .

H e n ce , t h e c o n ic d r a w n th r o u gh I J , X , Y t o c o n ta i n L h a s , f o r
it s t a n ge n t a t L , t h e li n e OL L ; a s thi s p a s s e s th r o u gh t he p o l e , O,
’

o f I J in r e g a r d t o t h e di r e ct o r c o n ic , t h e c o n ic I J X Y L is r e l a t e d

t o t he di r e ct o r c o n ic a s w e r e t h e c o n ics in E x 1 9 T he c o n ic I J X Y L . .

w a s o bt a i n e d a s a s s i n g th r o u gh t h e i n t er s e cti o n s o f a n
y t w o c o n ic s
p
thro u gh I , J w hich a r e o u t p o l a r t o Q , a n d th r o u gh a ny p o i n t L o f
t h e di r e ct o r c o n ic It is , th e re fo r e , in e ff e ct , a n y c o n ic th r o u gh I , J
.

n d th u s w e h a v e r o v e d t h e r e s u lt
o u t ola r t o Q
p A p .
[ A d d ] .

B . G . 1 1. 4
50 Ch ap ter I
T he r e s u lt w a s giv e n by G a s ki n ( G eome tr ica l con s tr u c tion of a con ic
ve con d ition s , C a mbridge , 1 852 , p 3 3 , P r o p
s ectio n s u b j ec t to
fi . .

E x 2 6 T w o r ela ted r a ng es up on a con ic o bta in ed by comp os itio n

. .

o in vol u tions R e f e rr i n g f o r a m o m e n t t o t h e s mb o lic r e re

o
f t w .
y p
s e n t a t io n , in o r d e r t o e x p l a i n t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e r e s u lt t o which

a s s , w e h a v e r e m a rk e d r e limi n a r , a b o v e , E x th at
w e n ow
p ( P y .

t w o r e l a t e d ra n ges o f p o i n t s , 0 + a U , O + y U , a r e giv e n b y o n e o f
'

t he t w o re l a ti o n s

y I

y a a
'

y a a
:
a 7x

C o n s ide r i n g t he fo rm e r if w e t a k e
, p . a rbit ra r y ,
a nd ta k e 3 so tha t
e e
—a °

z —a
y
—B —B
th e n we ha ve — a —
z a
y
T h e fi r s t o f th e s e e x p re s s e s th a t t he p o i n t s 0 + a U O z U a r e a ,
'

, ,

a i r o f a c e r t a i n i n v o l u ti o n ; t h e s e c o n d ex r e s s e s th a t O + z U
p p ,

O y U a r e a p a i r o f a n o th e r i n v o l u ti o n .

S imil a rly t h e l a tt e r e q u a ti o n is o bt a i n e d b y t he c o mp o s iti o n o f

t he t w o ,

x —a 2
’

y
—a z —a
wh e re i n v is a r bitr a ry ; a n d e a ch o f th e s e e s a p a ir o f p o i n t s c o n n ct
b e l o n gi ng t o a n i n v o l u ti o n .

N o w c o n s id er t w o r e l a t e d ra n g e s u p o n a c o n ic t h e g e n e a l p o i n t ,
r

o f o n e ra n g e b e i n g P t h e p o i n t o f t h e o th e r r n g e c or r es p o n di n g
,
a

t o thi s b e i n g P S u p p o s e th a t t he p a irs P P d o n ot b e l o n g t o
’ ’
.
, , ,

a n i n v o l u ti o n ; a n d in t h e firs t i n s t a n c e th a t t h e c o mm o n c o r
, ,

r e s p o n di n g o i n t s o f t h e t w o r a n g e s a r e n o t c o i n cid e n t It is to be
p .

s h e w n th a t w e ca n in a n i n fi n it e n u mb e r o f w a s fi n d a r a n ge o f
, y ,

o i n ts P u o n t h e c o n ic s u ch th a t t h e a irs P P fo rm a n in o v
p I p p , , , ,,

l u t io n a n d t h e p a i r s P P a l s o fo rm n i n v o l u ti o n T h u s w e m a y
’
, , , a .
,

in a n i n fi n ite n mb e r o f w a y s r eg r d a c o rr e s p o n d e n c e o f re l a t e d
u
,
a

ra n ges u p on a c o nic a s c o mp ou n d e d o f t w o i n v ol u ti on s
,
.

L e t U V b e t h e c o mm o n c o r r e '

o n d in o i n t s o f t h e t w o re l a t e d
s
p g p
ra n ge s a n d o n t h e li n e U V ta k e a n , , ,

P a rbit r a r oi n t H L e t t h e li n e s
y p , .

j o i n i ng H t o a ny t w o c o r r es p o n di ng
o i n ts P a n d P o f t h e t w o ra n g e s
’

p , , ,

m ee t t h e c on ic a ga i n r es p e tive ly in ,
c ,

P a n d Q T h en a s P v a r i es I
i n ce.
.
, ,
s
 P j c tivity b y co mp os ition of tw o i n vo lu tion s
'

ro e 51

th e li n es P P Q P U V m e e t in a p o i n t t he p i r P P ; Q P ; U V
, ,
’

, , a s ,, ,
’

be l o n g t o a n i n vo l u ti n T he re fo re t h e r a n ge P Q U V is rel t e d o .
, , , ,
a

t o t h e ra n ge P P V U a n d is h e n c e r l a t e d t t h r n g e P P
’ ’
,, , , , , ,
e o e a , ,,

U V Wh e e fo r e in t h e t w o o r igi n l re l a te d r a n ges t o t he p o iti o n

, . r , a ,
s

Q o f t h e
p o i n t P c o re
p o n d s t he
p os iti o n P
, o f t h er
p o i n t P
s
,
’
.

T h e r a ng s ( P ) a r e r e l a t e d ; f or a P P a r e p a i s o f a n
’

e ,
s r

i n v o l ti o n t he ra n ge ( P ) i r e l t d t o ( P ) a n d thi s by t he o r igi n l
u , , s ~
a e ,
a

hyp o th es i s i r e l te d t o ,
s A n d wh e n P i a t P t h e p o i n t P
a , , s
’

, ,

b y t h e c o n s t r u cti o n is a t Q T o thi s p o iti o n o f P h o w e v e r w e

, . s , ,

h a v e s h e w n c o r e s p o n d s t he p o iti n P f o r P N a m ly in t h e t w o
,
r s o ,
’
. e ,

r ela ted r ng s wh e n P is t P t he p i n t P is t P ’ ’
a e , a , o a , .

T h u s ( P r e limi n a r y a b o v e p t he t w o e l t d r a n g
, ( P , . r a e es

t ge th e r f r m a n i n v o l u ti o n T he r e fo r e t h e li n e P P p a s s e
o ,
o .
, ,
’
s

thr o u gh a fi x e d p o i n t s a y K T hi s p o i n t is 0 1 U V ; f o r w he n P , ,
. 1

is t V th e n P is a t U n d P is a t V
’

a , , a .

We ca n the r e f r p s f o m t he r a n ge ( P ) t o t he r a n g
,
o e, as by r e

fi rs t pa s s ing to w her e P P a re
p i r o f a n i n v o l u ti o n t h e , , a s ,

li n e s P P m e e ti n g U V in a fi e d p o i n t H
,
x , ,

which is a rbit r a r y o n thi s li n e n d th e n ,

a , ,

p a s i n g fr o m ( P ) t o
s t h e p a i s P P fo r m
, r
’

in g a n o th er i n v o l u ti o n t he li n e s P P m ee ti n g , ,

U V in a n o th er fi x e d p i n t K wh o s e p o s iti o n o , ,

d e p e n d s u p o n th a t t a k e n f o r H C l e a r ly K .

m a y b e t k e n a r bitr a r ily 0 11 U V if pre fer r e d

a , ,

a n d H d e t e r mi n e d a cc o r di n gl
y .

T he th e o e m a n d t h e p r o o f a r e e s s n ti ll y
r , , , e a ,

u n ch a n g d wh e n t h e o i n t s U V c o in c id e T h e
e
p , .

li n U V is th e n r ep la ce d b y t he t a nge n t a t U
e .

T h e p r o p o s iti o n will b e o f u s e l a t er in di s c u s s i n g t he c o m p o s i , ,

ti o n o f t w o ge n e r a l s c r e w m o ti o n s F o r thi s a n d o th e r p u p o e s .
,
r s ,

it is d e s i r bl e t o s ta t e it in t er m s o n ly o f p o i n ts which l ie o n t he
a

c o n ic with o u t H a n d K If L a n d L b e t he p o i n t s o f o n t ct with
, .
’
c a

t h e co n i f t h e t w o t a n ge n t s w hich c a n b e d r w n fr o m H th e n
c o a , ,

thi n ki n g fi r s t o f U a n d V a s di s ti n ct t h e p i n t L a n d L a s p o i n t s ,
o s
’

o f t he c o n i a r e h rm o n ic c o nj u g t e s in r e g a d t o U a n d V ; f o r
c, a a r

t he li n es j o i n i n g L t o H a n d L a r e h a r m o n ic c o nj u ga t es in re ga rd
’

t o t h e li n es L U L V
S imil a ly L a n d L a r e h a r m o n ic c o nj ga t e
’
r ,
u s
, ,

in ga r d t o P n d P T h u s in p l a c e o f t a ki n g H a bit r ily o n
re , a .
,
'

r ar

U V w e m a y t a k e n y t w o p o i n t s L L o f t h c n ic w hi h a e
’
a e o c r
, , , ,

h a m o n ica lly co nj u ga t e o n t he c o n ic in r ega r d t o U a n d V T h e n

r , ,
.

P will b e o bt a i n e d fr m P b y t h e fa ct th t
, p o i n ts o f t h e c o n i
o a ,
as c,

P a n d P a r e h a r m o n ic c o nj g t e s in r e g a r d t o L a n d L T he re
’

, u a .

w ill th e n b e t w o o th e r fi x e d o i n ts e c o n ic s a M a nd M
’

p f t h y o , , ,

a l s o h r m o n ic c o nj u g a t es in r e ga r d t o U a n d V in r e g
a d t o which ,
ar

P a n d P a r e h a r m o n ic c o nj u ga t es T h e p o i n t s M M a r e t he
’ ’
, .
,
52 Ch a p ter I
p o i n t s o f c o n ta ct o f th e ta n ge n ts fr o m K Wh en U a n d V o n e . c i cid ‘ ,

in U w e a r e s imil a r l y t o t k e a q u ite a r bitra r y p o i n t L o f t h e

.
, , a , ,

c o n ic a n d d e t e r mi n e P a s t h e h a r m o n ic c o nj u ga t e o f P in re ga r d
, ,

t o U a n d L ; th e e will th e n b e a n o th e r fi x e d p o i n t M o f t h e
r
, ,

o n ic s u ch th a t P a r e h a r m o n ic c o nj u g a t e s in r e g a r d t o U
’

c ,
a nd P ,

a nd M .

E x 2 7 T hr ee tr ia ds of p oin ts of a co n ic a r e a l l in p er sp ective
’

. .

w ith a n other tr ia d o f p o in ts of t he co n ic If A , B C.
; A
’

,
B ,
C
’
,, a nd
’

”
A , B , C , b e a n y thre e tri a d s o f p o i n t s o f a c o n ic , w e ca n fi n d
” ”

a n o th e r t r i a d o f o i n t s o f t h e c o n ic , A B C which i i
p , , , , s n
p er s ec
p
tiv e with e a ch o f the thr e e giv e n t r i a d s ,’fr o m thre e p r o p e r ly ch o s e n
c e n t r es F or if w e re ga r d A , B, C a n d A , B , C a s de t e r mi n i n g t w o
.
’ ’
~

re l a te d r a nge s u p o n t h e c o n ic , wh er e i n t he p o i n ts A , B , C , o f t h e
firs t ra n ge , c o r re s p o n d , r e s p e ctiv e l y , t o t h e p o i n t s A , B , C , o f t he
’ ’ ’

s e c on d , th es e ra n g e s will h a v e t w o c o mm o n c o r r e s o n di n g o i n ts o n
p p
t h e c o n ic , wh o s e j o i n i n g li n e is t h e a x i s o f re l a ti o n o f t h e t w o
ra n ge s , c on t’a i n i n g a l l s u ch c r o s s i n t e r s e cti o n s a s th a t o f A B a n d ’

By t a ki n g t h e th r ee t r i a d s in p a i r s , w e
’
A B , o f B C a n d B C, e t c
’
.

h a v e , th u s , thre e s u ch a x e s o f re l a ti o n , wh o s e i n t e r s e cti o n s a r e th r e e
in n u mb e r T h e s e i n t e r s e cti o n s a r e t he c e n t r e s o f p e r s p e ctiv e
.

s po k en o f T hi s fo ll o w s fr o m E x 2 6 t h e r a n g e ( A , B , C ) is re l a t e d
. .

to t he r a n ge (A , B , C ) b y m e a n s o f t w o i n v o l u ti o n s , o n e o f th e s e ,
’ ’ ’

with th e p a i r s A , A B, B , ; C , C, , w ith t h e u s e o f o n e o f t h e
c e n tr e s o f p e rs p e ctive , t h e o th e r, with t he p a i r s A A ; B, B ; C, , C ,
’ ’ ’

with t h e u s e o f a n o th er o f t h e ce n tre s o f er s p e ctiv e A n d s o o n

p
. .

T h o u gh o u t o f l ogic a l o r d e r , it m a y e a s w e ll t o r e m a r k th a t
thi s r e s u lt is c o n n e cte d with o n e th a t , in t he l a ng u a ge o f m e trica l
ge o m e try , which w e c o n s id e r l a t e r ( C h a p v , b e l o w ) , is e x p re s s e d b y
.

s a i n g th a t th r e e c o n g r u e n t fig u r e s in a pl a n e m a b e r e ga r d e d a s
y y
im a ge s , by re fl e x i o n , o f t h e s a m e fig u r e , in th r e e s u ita bly ta k e n
m1r r o r s .

E x 2 8 T he en velop e o
. .
f the l in e j oin ing t w o cor r esp on d ing p o in ts
o
f t w o r e la ted r a n es o n a con ic
g W e h a v e s e e n th a t t h e j o i n s o f
.

a ir s of o i n t s o f a n i n v o l u ti o n 0 11 a c o n ic , a l l a s s th r o u gh a oint
p p p p .

A l s o , th a t t h e j o i n s o f c o r r es p o n di n g p o i n t s , o f t w o r e l a t e d r a n ge s
of o i n t s , o n t w o li n e s , a r e t a n g e n t s o f a c o n ic I n g e n e ra li s a ti o n o f
p .

th e s e w e n o w p r o v e th a t t h e j o i n s o f t w o c o r r e s p o n di n g p o i n t s , o f
t w o r e l a t e d r a n ge s o f p o i n t s o n a c o n ic , a r e t a n ge n t s o f a n o th e r
co n ic , whi c h t o u ch es t he o r igi n a l , a t t h e t w o ( gen e r a lly di s ti n ct )
o i n t s which a r e t h e c o mm o n c o r r e s p o n di n g p o i n t s o f t h e t w o
p
ra n ge s .

L e t t h e c o r r es p o n di n g p o i n t s b e P , P ; l e t 0 b e a n a r bitra r y
’

o i n t o f t he l h er e a r e t w o o f t h e li n es P P which
’

p p a ne T .
p ass

th r o u gh 0 F o r , l e t t h e r e l a ti o n b e tw e en t h e r a n ge s ( P ) , ( P ) b e
.
’

giv e n , a s in E x 2 6, b y m ea n s o f li ne s , P P , , p a s s i n g thro u gh a fi x e d
.
54 Ch a p ter I
t ive l y in D D ,
’

, in E , E
’
, a nd in F F
,
’
. T h es e s ix p o i n ts th e n l ie on

a no he r
t c on

L e t B E , CF m e e t in O, a n d A O m ee t B C in M ; l e t B E , CF
’ ’

m ee t in O , a n d A O’ m e e t B C in M L e t E F m ee t B C in N , a n d
’ ’ ’ ’
.

E F m ee t B C in N
’
.

We h a ve s h e w n th a t t h e t a n gen t s fr o m a n a r bitr a r y p o i n t t o t he
c o n ic s t o u chi n g fo u r li n e s a r e a p e n cil i n i n v o l u ti o n ; a n d o f s u ch

c o n ics th e re a r e th r ee p o i n t p a i r s , th r o u gh e a ch o f whi c h th e fo u r
li n e s p a s s F o r t h e fo u r li n e s c o n s titu t e d b y t h e ta n ge n ts t o t h e
.

c o n ic Q fro m B a n d C , t w o o f th e s e p o i n t p a i r s a r e B, C a n d O, O ’
.

H e n c e w e s e e th a t t h e p a irs D , D ; M , M ; B, C, l y i n g o n t a n ge n ts
’ ’

fr o m A , a r e in i n v o l u ti o n .

T he p o i n t N is , h o w e v er , t h e h a r m o n ic c o nj u ga t e o f M in re ga r d
t o B a n d C , a n d t h e p o i n t N is t h e h a r m o n ic c o nj u ga t e o f M , in
’ ’

r e s e ct o f t h e s a m e T h u s ( s ee P r e limi n a r , a b o v e , E x t h e
p .
y .

p o i n ts N , N a l s o be l o n g t o t h e i n v o l u ti o n s p o k e n o f
’
.

N o w t h e c o n ic s dra w n thr o u gh t h e fo u r p o i n t s E , E , F, F m e e t
’ ’

t he li n e B C in p a i r s o f p o i n t s b e l o n gi n g t o a n i n v o l u ti o n ; o f thi s
i n v o l u ti o n , h o w e v er , B, C a n d N , N a r e t w o p a i r s ; s o th a t thi s is
’

t h e s a m e i n v o l u ti o n a s t h e fo r m e r .

Wh er e fo r e , t h e c o n ic thr o u gh E , E , F , F whi c h is d r a w n thr ou gh

’ ’

q
D , e u a lly c o n t a i n s D A n d thi s is wh a t w e d e s i r e d t o p r o v e
’
. .

If thi s c o n ic b e ca ll e d 2 , t h e r ea d e r m a y p r o c e e d t o p r o v e th a t
th e re is a co n ic , th r o u gh th e i n t e r s e cti o n s o f Q a n d S , which t o u ch e s
B C, CA , A B .

A p a r tic u l a r c a s e o f t h e r e s u lt p r o v e d , a ri s e s w h e n t h e c o n ic Q is
a o i n t p a ir O f thi s a ga i n a a r tic u l a r c a s e is th a t , if A D , B E , CF
p .
p
m e e t in a p o i n t , th e n a c o n ic e x i s ts t o u chi n g B C , CA , A B , r es p e c t
iv e l y , a t D , E , F A n d t h e th e o r e m s l ea d , b y d u a lity , t o o th e r
.

th e o r e m s w o r th n o tic e ( S ee a l s o C h a p 1 1 1 , E x
. . .

E x 8 0 T w o ta ng en ts of on e con ic m eet t w o ta ng en ts of a n o ther

. .

”
in f o u r p o in ts ly ing o n a co n ic thr ou g h the co mmon p oin ts g the t w o
o n ta c t a r e in l in e L e t a li n e j o i n i n g
con ics ,
if t he f ou r
p o in ts of c .

t w o p o i nts , A a nd A , o f
’

o n e c o n ic , Q , m e e t a n

o th e r c o n ic , Q , in B a n d

B L e t a ny l i n e th r o u gh
’
.

A m e e t Q in P , Q , a n d
an
y li n e th r o u gh A m e e t
’
’

Let P P ,
’ ’
Q in P , Q .

ee t t h e li n e AA ,
’ ’

y Q Q m
r e s e ctiv e l , in X a n d Y
p y .

T h e p a irs o f p o i n t s A , A ; B , B ; X , Y th e n b e l o n g t o t he in
’ ’

v o lu ti o n d e t e r mi n e d o n t h e li n e AA by a ll c o n ic s thro u gh t h e fo u r
’

o i n t s P ,Q , P , Q n d a s thi s i n v o l u ti o n is d e t e rmi n e d b y t h e
’ ’

p A .
C on ic th r ou gh i n ter s ection s of ta n g en ts of tw o con ics 55

firs t t w o p a i r s it is t he s a m e a s t he i n v o l u ti o n de t er mi n e d o n
, t he
li ne AA b y a l l c n ic s th r o u gh t he c o mm o n p o i n ts o f t he o rtics Q
’
o c , Q .

T o thi s l a tte r i n v o l u ti n th e r e fo th e p a i r X Y b e l o n g
o , re, , .

By s u p p o s i n g A t o c o i n cid e with A
’

a nd P with P a n d Q with Q w e r e ch
’

,
’

, a

t h e r e s u lt th t if a ny li n e d r a w n
a , ,

th r o u gh a p o i n t A f t he c o n ic Q , ,
o
,

m ee t t he c o n ic Q in P a n d Q a n d t h , e

t a n ge n t s a t P Q m e e t t h e ta n ge n t a t
,

A in X a n d Y th e n th e s e l a s t a r e , a

a ir o f t h e i n v o l u ti o n d e t e r mi n e d o n
p ,

t h e t a n ge n t a t A b y t h e c o n ic s whi h , c

a s th r o u gh t h e fo u r c o mm o n o i n ts
p s
p
of Q a nd Q .

N o w l e t t h e li n e A P Q m e e t t he c o n ic
Q a ga i n in C , a n d l e t t he t a n ge n t s a t P a n d Q m e e t t h e t a n g e n t a t
C in Z a n d T T h e n , b y p a r ity o f re a s o n i n g , t a ki n g P o n Q i n s t e a d
.

o f A o n Q , a n d A , C o n Q i n s t e a d o f P , Q o n Q , w e i n fe r th a t t h e

c o n ic dr a w n th r o u gh t h e i n t e r s e cti o n s o f Q a n d Q t o c o n t a i n X
a l s o c o n ta i n s Z ; fr o m wh a t w a s s a id , thi s c o n ic c o n t a i n s Y By a .

s imil a r a r g u m e n t , t h e s a m e c o n ic c o n t a i n s T .

T hi s is t h e r e s u lt e n u n ci a t e d , t h e p o i n t s A , C , P , Q b e i n g in li n e .

D u a ll y , if fr o m a n a r bit r a r y p o i n t t h e t w o p a i r s o f ta n g e n t s b e
d r a w n t o t w o c o n ics , t he fo u r j o i n s , o f t h e p o i n t s o f c o n ta ct o n o n e
c o n ic , t o t he p o i n t s o f c o n ta ct o n t h e o th er c o n ic , a r e a ll t a n ge n t s
o f a c o n ic which t o u ch e s t h e fo u r c o mm o n t a n g e n t s o f t h e t w o c o n ic s .

Fr o m t he c o mbi n a ti o n o f th e s e th e o r e m s m a n y i n t er e s ti n g r e s u lt s
c a n b e de d u c e d It will b e p r o ve d in Ch a p 1 11 , tha t , if t h e t a n ge n t s
. .

o f t h e c o n ic s Q , Q , r e s e ctiv e l a t A a n d P , m ee t in X , a n d t h e
p y
c o n ic , th r o u gh t h e c o mm o n p o i n t s o f Q , Q , which c o n t a i n s X, b e
S , whil e th a t , t o u chi n g t h e c o mm o n t a n g e n t s o f Q a n d Q , w hich
t o u che s A P , b e 2 , th e n , t o a n o th e r p o s iti o n o f o n S , th e r e c or r e X
S o n ds , b t h e s a m e c o n s t r u cti o n , a n o th er t a n ge n t , s u ch a s A P of 2
p y .

P on celet s theor em , f or s ets of p oin ts A B , C , f

’
Ex 3 1 . . o on e ,

ou ch o ther x ed
co n ic, o
f w h ich the
j o in s A B , B C , s e a r a tel
p y t fi
co n ics , a l l the co n ics ha v in
gf ’ p
ou r o in ts in common .

T h e r e fe re n c e is t o P o n ce l e t s P r op r iétés P r oj ecti ves , P a r i s , 1 8 65 ,

t 1, 3 1 6 ’
il
. .

L e : A , A , B , B b e fo u r p o i n t s o f a c o n ic , S , s u ch th a t t h e li n e s
’

A B A B t o u ch a n o th e r c o n i c , S , r e s p e ctiv e l y , in P a n d P
’ ’
L et
’ ’
.

P P m e e t AA , BB , r e s p e ctive ly , in H a n d K We s h e w , fi r s t , th a t
’ ’
.

a c o n ic c a n b e d r a w n , thr o u gh t h e c o mm o n o i nts o f S a nd S , t o
’

p
t o u c h AA in H , a n d BB in K
’ ’
.

F o r c o n s id er t h e fo u r p o i n t s c o n s i s ti n g o f P r e p e a t e d a n d P r e
’

e a t e d ; a n d t h e i n v o l u ti o n d e t e rmi n e d o n A A by t h e c o n ic s th r o u gh
’

p
56 Ch a p ter I
th es e fo u r p o i n ts T hre e p a i r s o f thi s a r e
. t he p o i n ts A A o n ,
’
,

t h e c o n ic S t h e p o i n t s in which t he c o n ic S m ee ts A A
’ ’

, t he ,

p o i n t H r e p ea te d T h e p a i s (2 ) s he w . r

th a t thi s is t he s a m e i n v o l u ti o n a s tha t
d e t e r mi n e d o n AA b y t h e c o n ics thro u gh ’

t h e c o mm o n p o i n t s o f S a n d S Of thi s
’
.

A i n v o l u ti o n th e n H is a d o u bl e p o i n t a n d , , ,

is th u s a p o i n t o f c o n t a ct with A A o f a
’
, ,

c o n ic s a y T thro u gh t h e c o mm o n p o i n t s
, , ,

of S a nd S We p r o ve n o w tha t thi s ’
.
, ,

c o n ic T t o u ch es BB a t K T hi s w e d o b y
, ,
’
.

s h e wi n g fr o m t h e p r e c e di n g e x a m p l e th a t if T m e e t H K a ga i n
, , ,

in K t h e t a n ge n t o f it a t K p a s s es thro u gh B a n d B By th a t
’

, ,, .

e x a m l e g t h e c o n ic s S b e i n g m et b a li n e in P a nd H K
’ ’

p T , y P , , ,,

t h e t a n g e n t s a t P P m u s t m e e t t h e t a n ge n t s a t H K in fo u r
’
, , ,,

p o i n t s lyi n g o n a c o n ic p a s s i n g thr o u gh t h e c o m m o n p o i n t s o f S ’

a n d T which a r e t h e c o mm o n o i n ts o f S a n d S h e s e fo u r o i n ts
’

, p T p .

o i n t s w h e r e t h e t a n gen t K m e e ts AB a n d
’
a re A A nd t he t
, ,
a
p a ,

A B ; t h e t w o fo rm e r p o i n t s id e n tify t h e c o n ic th r o u gh th e m a s S
’ ’
.

T hi s p ro v e s th t t he t a n g e n t a t K p a s s e s th r o u gh B B ; s o th a t
’
a , ,

K, is K .

It fo ll o ws , of c ou rs e ,
sa me
th a t if P P m ee t A B a n d
in t h e wa y,
’ ’

A B in L a n d M a c o n ic
’

thro u gh t h e c o mm o n p o i n t s
of S a nd S t o u ch es the s e li n es ’

in L a n d M .

If t h e o th e r t a n ge n t fr o m
A t o S t o u ch thi s in Q a n d
’

t h e o th e r t a n g e n t fr o m A t o
’

S t o u ch thi s in Q it fo ll o w s
’ ’

s imil a rl th a t P Q m ee t AA
’

y , s

in a p o i n t H w hich is a l s o a
’

, ,

oint of o n t a ct with A A o f
’

p c

a c o n ic th r o u gh t h e c o mm o n

o i n ts o f S a n d S h ’ ’

p T us H .
,

is t h e o th e r d o u bl e p o i n t o f
t h e i n v o l u ti o n s p o k e n o f a n d ,

is t h e h a rm o n ic c o nj u ga t e o f H in r e ga r d t o A a n d A B u t th e n
’
.
, ,

b y t he s a m e a r g u m e n t Q Q m e e ts AA in t h e h a r m o n ic c o nj u g a t e
’ ’

of H
’
th a t is in H ; a n d s o P Q p a s s e s th r o u gh H
, , , ,
’ ’

N o w t a k e a fu r th e r c o n ic S p a s s i n g thr o u gh t h e c o mm o n
, p o i n ts

o r b r e vit a c o n ic o f t h e s s t e m ( S
’
o f S a nd S or s a f L et
y , , y , y ,
”
,

e ith e r o n e o f t h e t a n g e n ts dra w n fr o m B t o S m e e t S a ga i n in C ,
”
t o u chi ng S in B It fo ll o w s th e n fr o m wh a t h j u s t b ee n s a id
.
, ,
as ,

tha t it is p os s ibl e t o pa i r with thi s s u ch a n o n e o f t h e t w o t a nge n ts

 P o n e et c l s th eor em f or’
in scr ib ed p o lyg on s 57

fro m B t o S t o u chi n g S in R th a t t he li n e R R h a ll p a
’ ’

,
’
s ss

thro u gh K ; thi s p i n t K i o n e o f t he t w o p o i n t s o f p o s s ible o , , s

c o n ta ct w ith BB o f c o n i o f t h e s ys te m ( S
,
’

, If the a p p r o cs ,

r ia t e t a n g e n t m e e t S g a i n in C e li n e R R will m e e t CC in
’ ’ ’

p t h a ,

oi n t J in w hich t h c o n ic ( S which t ch s BB at K
’
a
p , , o u e e , ,

t u ch e CC
o s
’
.

T h e re a r e n o w t w p i r s o f p o i n t s o f S t he p a i s A A a n d C C
’ ’
o a , r , , ,

s u ch th a t t he li n e A A a n d C C b o th t o u ch t h e s a m e c o n ic o f t h
’ ’
s e

s s te m (S r e s e ctiv e l a t H a nd J C ll thi c ic 2 B
y p y , a s n y . o .

a
p ypl i n g t o t h e li n e s AA CC a n d t h e c o mi S a n d 2 t he r g u
’

,
’

, cs ,
a

m e n t w e o r igi n a lly a pp li e d t o t he li n e s AB A B a nd t he c o n ic s S ,
’ ’

a nd S a n th n i n fe r th a t t h e li n e s A C A O r e b o th t o u ch e d
’ ’ ’
we ,
c e , a

b y a fu r th er c o n ic S o f t he
y s t m (S t h e, p o i nt o f c o n t a ct s e , s

be i n g 0 11 t he li ne J H .

It i th u s p o s s ibl e t o h a v e a n i n fi n ite n u mbe f t i a d s A B C ;

s r o r , ,

A B C ; o i nts of S o r w hich t h e j o i n s B C B C
’
’ ’

of f
’ ’
, p , , ,

CA C A ,
AB A B
’ ’
t o u ch r e s p e ctive ly th r e e fi x e d o n ic
,
’ ’

, , ,
c s
”
o f t he s s te m (S g u m ent a n cl ea l
’
S S ,
S , y T h e
y b e ,
a r c r

e x t e n d e d t o t h e c a s e wh e n t h e o i n ts o f a s et a r e n ot tr i d b t of a s, u
p
a n
y g e t e r n u mb e r
r a .

A p a tic l a r ca s e o f t h e for e g o i n g a ri s es wh e n with fo u r p o i n t s

r u , ,

A A B B o f t h e c o n ic S o f which A B A B m e e t in a p i n t 0
’ ’ ’ ’

, , , , , ,
o ,

w e h a v e i n s te a d o f t h e r o n ic S a i r o f li n e which i n t er
’
o er a
p p
, p c , s

s e ct in 0 T h er e a r e th e n n o di ti n ct p o i n t s o f c o n t a ct P P with
. s ,

w hich t o d e t e r mi n e t h e o i n t s H K o f AA a n d BB o int
’ ’

p B ut a
p , .
,

H ca n b e d e t e r mi n e d o n AA a s o n e o f t h e t w o which a r e h a m o n ic
’

,
r ,

b o th in r ega r d t o A A a n d in r e ga r d t o t h e t w o p o i n ts in which ,
’

A A is m e t b y t he li n es o f t h e li n e p i r S T h e li n e H O th e n
’ ’

a ,
:

m e e t s BB in a p o i n t K which is o n e o f t h e t w o which a r
’

, , ,
e

h m o n ic c o nj u ga t e s b o th in r e g r d t o BB a n d in r e ga r d t o t h e
ar ,
a
’
,

t w o p o i n t s in which BB is m e t by t h e li n e s o f t he li n e p ir S
’ ’

a , .

A c o n ic o f t h e s y s te m ( S S ) c a n th e n b e dr a w n t o t o u ch AA a t H
’ ’

, ,

a nd t t o ch BB t K o u
’
a .

If in t he p r e c e di n g the o r y w e s t r t w ith t w o p r o p e r c o n ic s S
, ,
a ,

a li n e a ir o f t h e s s t m ca n i n t e r s e ct o n l
’
a nd S S i
p , y ( , y n a e ,

o i n t 0 which is o n e o f t h e th r e e p o i n t s o f t h e c o mm o n s e lf o la
p p r
-
, ,
”
t r i d o f t h e s ys te m S u ch a li n e p a i r c n th e n r e p l a ce S r
a . a o

I n p a r tic u l a r w e m a y h a v e t r i a d s A B C o f p o i n t s o f S s u ch
, , , , , ,

tha t A B B C t o u ch t w o p r p er c o n ics S S o f t he y s te m ( S
,
o ,
’

,
s ,

r es p e ctive l y in P n d Q s a y whil e CA p a s s e s thro u gh o n e o f t h e a , ,

th r e e p o i n ts 0 o f t h e s e lf p o la r t r i d o f ( S , ,
It will pp ea r ( in -
a ,
a

C h p 1 1 1 ) th t in thi s ca s t he li n e P Q is a t a n ge n t o f
a . a ,
fi x d o n ic e, a e c ,

which t o u ch es t h e c o mm o n t a n ge n t li n es o f S a n d S ; a n d tha t ’ ”

t he li n e p a ir o f ( S S ) which m e e t in O a r e h a r m n ic c o nj u ga t e s in
’
o
,

r e g a r d t o t h e li n e OP OQ s . .
58 Ch ap ter I
A v e ry p a r ticu la r ca s e is t h e i n te r s e cti n g s im p l e re s u lt th a t t r i a d s
A B C e x i s t o n a c o n ic o f which t h e j o i n s B C CA AB p a s s
, , , , , ,

r e s p e ctive l e a ch thr o u gh o n e o f t h e p o i n t s o f a n giv t r i a d which

y , y e n

is e lf p o l a r in r e ga rd t o t h e c o n ic
s -
.
( Cf E x 5 p
. .
, .

‘
E x 3 2 C ons tr u ction of a f ou r th ta ng en t, w ith i ts p o in t of
. . con ta ct,

a co n ic tou c hing thr ee l in es a t g iven p o in ts

o
f .

T h e p r e s en t e x a m p l e , which , in e ff e ct , c o ll e ct s v a r i o u s r es u lt s
a lr e a d giv e n , is i n t r o d u c e d in vi e w o f t h e fo ll o wi n g e x a m l e
y p .

R e s p e cti v e l y 0 11 t h e j o i n s B C , CA , A B , o f th r e e p o i n t s A , B , C,
l et D, E , F b e p o i n t s s u ch th a t t h e li n e s A D , B E , CF m e e t in a

p o n i t L e t t h e li n e s DE , D F , r e s e ctiv e l , m ee t a n
.
p y y li n e, dra w n

th r o u gh A , in R a n d Q L e t CQ , B R m ee t AB , A C, r e s p e ctiv e l y , in M
.

a n d N t h e li n e s C Q , B R i n t e r s e cti n g in P
, We p r o v e th a t t h e li n e s
.

Q R , M N , B C m e e t in a p o i n t ; a n d th a t t h e li n es M N , DP , E Q ,
F R , m e e t in a p o i n t ; w hil e P is o n E F A l s o th a t M N is a t a n g e n t
.

o f t h e c o n ic which ca n b e d r a w n t o t o u ch B C, CA , A B , r e s e ctiv e l ,
p y
a t D , E , F, wh o s e p o i n t o f c o n t a ct is o n D P , a s w e ll a s o n E Q a n d F R .

I n fa ct F E m ee t s B C in t h e p o i n t h a r m o n ic t o D with r e s p e c t
t o B a n d C ; th u s F , E a r e h a r m o n ic with r e s p e ct t o t h e p o i n t s in
which F E is m e t b y DA a n d B C T h e re fo re , Q, R a r e h a r m o n ic
.

w ith r es e ct t o A , a n d t h e
p p o i n t wh e r e Q R is m e t b y B C T hi
. s

s h e w s th a t QB, R C m e e t o n A P s o th a t t h e t r i a d s Q llI B , R N C a r e
,

in p e r s p e ctive , t h e li n e s Q R , JiI N , B C m e e ti n g in a p o i nt T h a t P .

”
li e s o n F E is a di r e ct a p p lica ti o n o f P a p p us th e o r e m f or t he t w o
 H a m ilton s ex ten s ion of F eu er b a ch s th eor em
’ ’
59

t r i a d s Q A R a n d B D C T h a t Q E F R m e t o n M N i th n
, , , , .
,
e s , e ,

a l s o a c o n s e q u e n e o f P a p p u s th e o e m a pp li e d t t he t w t r i d
c
”
r , o o a s

Q A R n d F P E T o h w th t DP p a es thro u gh t he p i n t
, ,
a , , . s e a ss o ,

G wh e r e M N is m e t b
sa
y , , y Q o r F R it is n e c e a r y t o p r v e th a t
E , ss o

E F a r e h a r m o n ic in re ga r d t P n d t he o i n t w h e e Q R m eet o a r s
,
p ,

E F ; o r th a t A P A R a r e h a m n i in re g r d t o A E A F which
, , r o c a , ,

fo ll o ws b e c a u e QB R C m e e t o n A P Fi n a lly th t t h e c n ic which
s , .
, a o

( E x 2 9 ) ca n b e d a w n t o t u ch B C CA A B a t D E F r es p c
. r o , , , , ,
e

t i ly t o u h e s M N o n D P f ll o w s fr o m E x 1 4 a bo v e ; o r ca n b
ve ,
c , ,
o .
,
e

d e d u e d i n d e p e nd e n tly b y c o n s id e i ng with fi x e d p o i n t D E F
c , , r ,
s , , ,

v a i o u li n e s Q A R givi n g r i s e t r e l a t e d r a n ge ( III ) ( N ) o n A B
r s , o s , , ,

A C I n r e ga r d t o thi s c o n ic P Q R w ill b e a s e lf p l r t i a d
.
, , ,
-
o a r .

It is cl ea r th a t B a n d N a r h a m o n ic c o nj ga t e in r ega d t o P e r u s r

a nd R ; a nd fu rth e r if Q P m e e t D E in Y tha t D a n d E a r e
, , ,

h a rm o n ic c o nj u ga t e s in r e ga r d t o Y a n d R .

E x 3 3 H a milton s ex ten s ion of F e u e ba ch s theor e m ( S e a l

’ ’
. . r . e ,
s o,

p .

With t he r e s u lts o f t he p r e vi ou s e x a m p l e in mi n d c o n s ider t w o ,

c o n ic s On e o f th e s e Q is t o b e a ny c o n ic h a vi n g P Q R f o r a
.
, , , ,

s e lf ol a r t r i a d T h e o th e r 2 is t o b e t h e c o n ic th r o u gh D E F
p
-
.
, , , ,

which m e e t s t he li n e M N in t h e p o i n t s in w hi c h it is m e t b y Q .

We p r o v e th a t th e s e c o n ic s m e e t fu r the r o n t h e li n e whi c h w e ca ll ,

I which c o n t a i n s t h e th r e e i n t e rs e cti o n s ( B C E F ) ( CA FD ) (A B
, , , , , ,

DE ) T hi s is t he li n e which f o r t h e c o n ic t o u chi n g B C CA A B
.
, , ,

at D E F w e h a ve ca ll e d t he H es s i a n li n e o f D E F ( E x
, , , In , , .

fa ct t he c o n ic Q m ee ts t he li n e DR in p o i n t s h a r m o n i c in r ega r d
,

t o Y a n d R ; t h e c o n i c 2 a l s o m e e t s t his l in e in p o i n t s D a n d E .
, ,

h a r m o n ic in re ga r d t o Y a n d R Wh e r e fo r e t h e c o m m o n c h o r d .

M N o f Q a n d 2 a n d t h e li n e j o i n i n g t h e o th e r t w o c o mm o n
, ,

o i n t s o f th e s e c o n ic s m e e t DR in o i n t s h a r m o n ic in r e g a r d t o Y
p p ,

a nd R T h e p o i n t h a r m o n ic t o th e i n t e r s e cti o n o f M N with DR
.
,

w ith r e s e ct t o Y a n d R is h o w e v e r w e h a v e s e e n t h e o i n t wh e r e
p p , , , ,

MB m e e ts DR T hi s is a p o i n t o f t he li n e I s p o k e n o f A n o th e r
.
, , .

o i n t o f t h e c o mm o n ch o r d o f Q a n d 2 o th e r th a n M N is p r o v e d
p , , ,

s imil a r l
y t o b e 0 11 l b
y c o n s id e ri n g t h e li n e D Q in
, , p l a c e o f DR , .

T hi s is a s light e x t e n s i o n of a r e s u lt a s c r ib e d t o S ir W R . .

H a milt o n ( Sa lm o n s C on ics 1 8 7 9 p F o r wh a t fo ll o w s w e
’
, , .

ta k e f o r Q a n y c o n ic t o u chi n g B C CA AB a n d t o u chi n g M N s a y , , , ,

at K thi s will h a ve P Q R f o r a s e lf p o la r t r i a d ; th e n 2 will b e , ,

-

t h e c o n ic th r o u gh D E F whi c h t o u ch e s M N a t K T h e r e s u lt is , , .

th a t t h e j o i n o f t h e t w o re m a i n i n g i n t er s e cti o n s o f th e s e t w o c o n i cs
, ,

is t h e li n e I .

Co n v e r s e ly l e t A B C b e a ny p o i n t s a n d l a n y li n e L e t D o n
, , , ,
.
,

BC b e t h e h a r m o n i c in r e g a r d t o B a n d C o f t h e p o i n t wh er e l
, , ,

m eet s B C ; a n d m a k e a s imil a r c on s t r u cti o n f o r E a n d F L e t Q b e .

60 C h a p ter I
an
y c o n ic t o u hi n g B C C A A B L e t it s i n t e r s e cti o n s with I b e
c , ,
.

I a n d J T h e n t h c o n ic 2 d e fi n e d a s th a t c o n t i ni n g D E F I J
. e , a , , , , ,

t o u ch e s Q T hi s is t h e th e o r e m d e s ir d
. e .

T h e p o i n t o f c o n t ct o f 2 with Q m a y b e d e fi n e d s t he p o i n t o f a a

c on t t with Q o f t h e fo u rth o mm o n t a n ge n t o f Q with t h e c o n ic

ac c

which t o ch e s B C CA A B a t D E F r e s p e ctive ly B u t it m a y b e
u , , , , , .

d efi n d with o t thi s c o n ic F o r if Q t o u ch B C CA A B r es p ec
e u .
, , ,

t i e ly a t D E F t h e p o i n t P ( o n e o f t he thr e e p o i n t s o f t h e
’ ’ ’
v , , ,

c o mm on e lf p o la r t r i a d o f Q a nd t h e c o n ic which t o u ch es B C CA
s ~

, ,

A B a t D E F ) is t h e i n t e r s e cti o n o f E F a n d E F b y wh t w e
’ ’

, , ,
a

h a v e s ee n H en c e t h e p o i n t M N c n b e c o n tr u ct e d a s in t h
. s ,
a s ,
e

r e c e di n g e x a m l e b y t he li n e s CP B P ( a l s o the oi n ts Q nd
p p a
p, ,
s a

R ) T h e p i n t K r e q u i r e d is th e n t h e i nt er s e cti o n o f D P with
’

. o , , ,

M N ( which l s o li es o n E Q a n d F R ) I n cid e n t a lly giv e n t h e ’

’

a .
,

o i n ts o f o n t ct o f t w o c o n ic s w ith B C C A A B w e th u s c o n s t r u ct
p c a , , ,

th e ir re m i n i n g c o mm o n ta n ge n t a n d it s p o i n t s o f c o n ta ct with t he
a ,

t w o c o n ic s .

W h e n t h e p o i n t s A B C I J a r e giv e n w e ca n ( E x 1 0 a b o v e ) , , , , , .
,

fi n d a p o i n t T s u ch th a t e ch o f t h e li n p i r s A T B C ; B T CA
, , a e a , , ,

C T A B m e e t t h e li n e I J in p o i n t s which a r e h r m o n ic in r e ga r d
, , a

t o I a n d J T h e c o n ic 2 will th e n b e ( E x 1 8 ) t h e l o c u s o f t h e
. .

o l e s o f t h e li n I J in r e g a r d t o a l l c o n ic s th r o gh A B C T
p e u , , , .

L e t th e n A B C T b e fo u r r bit r a r y p o i n t s a n d l e t I J b e a n y
, , ,
a , ,

t w o p o i n t s o nju ga t e t o o n e a n o th e r in r e g a r d t o a ll c o n ic s th r o u gh
c

A B C T Fo u r c o n ic s s u ch a s Q c a n ( E x 1 7 ) b e c o n s t r u t e d
, , , .
, , . c ,

t o p a s s th r o u gh I J a n d t o u ch t h e j o i n s o f th e o f t h e fo u r p o i n t s
, , re

A B C T A l l t h e s i x t e e n c o n ic s s o bt a i n e d a r e t o u ch e d b y t h e
, , , . o

c o n ic w hich is t he l o c u s o f t h e p o l e s o f I J in r e g r d t o t h e c o n i s a c

th r o u gh A B C T , , , .

Fe u e r b a ch s th e o re m in it s o r igi n a l fo r m will b e r e fe r e d t o in
’
r

t h e n ex t C h a p t e rs ( S ee p p 7 5 8 9 1 1 3 . .
, , ,

E ar 3 4 T heo em in r eg a d to t he r ema in ing c ommo n ta ng en ts of

. . r r

thr ee co n ics iw hich tou ch thr ee

ven lin es
g .

If th r e e c o n ics , S , , S , , S , , a ll t o u ch t h e li n e s B C , CA , A B , t h e
o i n t s o f c o n t a ct b e i n g , in t h e c a s e o f S , , r e s e ctiv e l y D , , E , , F , ,
p p
w ith a s imil a r n o t a ti o n f o r t h e o th e r s , a n d , if t h e r e m a i n i n g c o mm o n

t a n ge n t o f S 2 a n d S 3 m e e t B C in T , , w ith a s imil a r n o t a ti o n f o r t he
o th e r a i r s , th e n t h e a i rs T, , D T D T D a r e in i n v o l u ti o n
p p , , , ; , , 3 .

F o r , b y wh a t h a s b e e n s a id , in t h e t w o p r e c e di n g e x a m p l es , t h e
r e m a i n i n g c o mm o n t a n g e n t o f S 2 a n d S 3 m e e t s A B , A C , re s e c tiv e l ,
p y
in M , a n d N , , wh e r e N , a n d M , a r e , r e s p e c tiv e l y , 0 11 t h e li n e s j o i n
in g B a n d C t o t h e p o i n t , P , , in w h ich F 2 E 2 i n t e r s e ct s F 3 E 3
'

T h u s t he p o i n t T , , w h e r e M , N , m e e t s B C, is t h e h a r m o n ic c o n
u g a t e , in r e g a r d t o B a n d C , o f t h e o i n t in which A P , m e e ts B C
j p .

T h e p o i n t D , is a l s o t he h a r m o n ic c o nj u g a t e in re ga r d t o B a n d C ,
62 Ch ap ter I
L e t th e i giv e n p o i n ts b e d e n o t e d b y 1 , 2 ,
s x 5 , 6, t h e o th e r
o i n t b e i n g 0 , t he c o n ic c o n t a i n i n g t h e fi ve p o i n t s 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 b e
p
S , , e t c , t h e p o l a r o f O in r e ga rd t o S , b e i n g p , , e t c A n y t w o o f
. .

t h e c o n ic s h a v e fo u r p o i n t s in c o mm o n , a n d a fu r th e r , a u x ili a ry ,
c o n i c c a n b e d r a wn th r o u gh O a n d the s e fo u r p o i n ts A s t he p o l a r s .

o f O, in r e g a r d t o c o n ic s th r o u gh fo u r o i n t s , m e e t in a o int
p p
( E x 1 5 , a b o v e ) , t h e p o la r s o f O in r e ga r d t o t he t w o c o n ics m e e t
.

o n t h e t a n g e n t , a t O, o f t h e a u x ili a r
y c o n ic s p o k e n o f .

C o n s id er th e n t h e i n t e r s e cti o n s o f p 5 with p , , p , , p , , T h e s e l ie ,
b y wh a t ha s b e e n s a id , o n t he t a n g e n t s , a t 0 , r e s p e ctiv e ly o f t h e
fo u r c o n ics c o n ta i n i n g t he p o i n t s

T h es e h o w e v e r a r e c o n ic s thro u gh t h e p o i n ts 0 a n d 6 c n t a i n i n g , ,
o ,

r e s e ctiv e l t h e v a r i o s s e t s o f th r e e o i n t s which c n b e ch o s e n
p y , p u a

fr o m t he fo u r 1 2 3 4 By t he r e s u lt o f t he p r e e di n g ex a mple
, , , . c ,

it fo ll o ws th a t t h e r a n ge o f f u r p i n t s in whi h p is m e t b y o o c 5

p p p p (
,, ,, th e s e
,, p o i n t4s l y i n g o n t h e t a n g n t s a t O o f t he fo u r e

c o n ics j u s t n a m e d ) i re la t e d t o t h e p e n cil o f li n e s j o i n i n g O t o t h e
s

p o i n t s 1 2 3 4 T h a n ge in w hich p is m e t by p p p p i
, , , . e r 6 ,, ,, ,, 4 s ,

s imil r l
y ar e l a t e d t o thi s p e n cil
,
W h e n e t h e s ix
p o l a r li n t o u ch . c es

a com e .

b v i t ti g p f f T yl t h m i d i v d f m t h t g i v ’
Th e a o e n er es n roo o a or s e or e s er e ro a en
by M S G S l C l l g i J L S H tt P i ip l ’
r f th E t L oa d o e as on on o e e, n a on s r nc es

j P j ti G m t y C m b i d g 1 9 1 3 p 2 9 9
. . . .
,
.

o r o ec ve eo e r ,
a r e, ,
. .

Fr o m thi s d e m o n s t a ti o n w e n t t e t he th e o r e m : G iven s ix r ca s a

a r bitr a r
y p f p l a n e , the r e ex is ts , cor r es on d in
o in ts o
p a
g t o an
yf ur ther

a r bitr a r
y p o in t, 0 ,
of t he
p l a n e , a con ic , a n d , u on th is con ic , s ix
p
o
o in ts s u bte n d in , a t a n oin t (g the con ic , a n cil w hich is r el a ted
p g y p p e

to tha t o f t h e l in es w hich
j o in 0 to the s ix
g i ven a r bitr a r
y p o in ts .

i t
F o r t he p o n s o f o n ac t ct of with
p,, p, , p , p , c ic
the on a re a s a ,

g
ra n e o n t h e c ic l t d
on , re
a e g d t mi d th t g t
t o t he r a n e e e r ne by es e a n en s

o n t he t g t
a n en
p5 .

If v i t t k ch
a en , a nd ea t v
u r n o m 1 t te d , t he s e e n
0

s e en o n s be m
p
c on ic s o bta i n e d h a v th r e e c o mm o n ta n ge n ts e .

E x 3 7 L e t A B C A B C D b e s e v e n giv e n p oi n t s a n d p
’ ’ ’
. .
, , , , , , ,

a giv e n li n e th r o u gh D A n y c o n i thr o u gh A B C D m ee t s p in . c , , ,

a fu r th e r o i n t 111 n d th e r e is a s e c o n d c o n ic thr o u gh A B ’ ’ ’

p , ,
a C , ,

D M T h e ch o r d o f th e s e t w o c on ics o th er th a n p p a s s es th r o u gh
, .
, ,

a fixed oint
p .
 C H AP T E R I I
P R OPE R T I E S R E L A T I VE T O T WO P OI NT S OF
R E F E R E N CE

I nt r od u c t ory m u lti p licity o f m e tr ic a l r e u lt s o ft e n fo u n d

. T he s

in b o o k s o n G e m e t r y a r e in f ct r e l a ti o n s o f t h fig u e w hi h is
o a e r c

c o n s id er e d e ith e r t o t w o p o i n t s o f e fe r e n ce r g r d e d a s give n o r
,
r , e a , ,

m o r e ge n e r a lly t o a co n ic f r e fe r e n ce r e g r d e d a s giv e n T hi s i
, o ,
a . s

o n e o f t h e s t i i kin g di s c o v r i e s e s s e n ti a ll d u e t o P o n ce l e t o f t he
y e , ,

ea rl a r t of t h n i n e t ee n th c e n t u T h f ct 1 8 g n e r a ll r r o ve d e a
y p e
y y p e

b y b e gi n n i n g o n t h e b s i s o f E u clid s ge o m e tr y w ith t h e m e t i ic l
’

,
a , a

r e l a ti o n s a n d g r a d u a ll s h e wi n g h o w th e s e c a n b e s u mm a r i s e d u n d r
, y e

m 0 1 e ge n e r a l p o i n t s o f vi e w We d o p t t h e c o n v e r s e p i o ce d u r e
. a .

With o u t s s u mi n g t he m e tr ic a l b a s i s a n d a s c o n s q u e n ce o f th e
a ,
e s

fo u n d ti o ns whi h h a ve b e n e x p la i n e d w e o bt i n a n u mb e r o f
a c e . a

re s u lt s which a r e e a s ily re o g n i s e d a c o nt a i n i n g th o e s u a lly d e

c s s u

v e l o e d a s c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e n o ti o n o f di s t a n c e Fi n ll f rom a
p y .
,

thi a n d Cha p t e v i t s h o u ld e m er ge q u it cl ea r ly tha t di s t a n ce 18

s 1 ,
e

o nl a s e ci a l w o f u s ing th a l e b 1 a ic s mb o l s ; a n d th a t it is a n
g e
y p y a
y
a rb 1t1 a 1
y limit a ti o n t o r e g a r d it a fu n da m e n ta l s .

F0 1 t h e s a k e o f cl ea r n e s s w e s ha ll e m p l oy t he t e r m s s u ch a s ,

er en d i u l a r c ir cl e r ecta n lar h er bol a a n d s o on w hich

p p c , g yp,
u re , ,
a

c u r re n t i n m e trica l g o m e t y T h ey h a v h e r e h o w e e l a m o r e
e r . e , v ,

ge n e a l m e a n i n g d e p en di n g o n t he ch o ic e o f t he a b s o l u t e p o i n t s o f
1 ,

r e f e 1 e n ce .

M id d l e p oin t s , P e r p e n d ic u la r l in e s , C e n t r oid , O rt h o
c entr e .S u pp o s e th a t t w o p o i n t s o f r e fe r e n c e a r e giv e n ; th ey m a y
b e c a ll e d t h e A b s o l u t e p o i n t s , a n d will o ft e n b e d e n o t e d by I a n d J .

If a n y li n e , AB , m e e t t he li n e I J in K, t h e p o i n t , s a y C , whi c h
is t h e h a r m o n i c c o nj u ga t e o f K in r e g a 1 d t o A a n d B , m a y b e c a ll e d
t h e m id dle p o in t o f A B , i n 1 e g a r d t o I a n d J A n y t w o li n e s wh o s e .

in t e i s e c t io n is o n t h e li n e I J m a y be s a id t o b e p a r a ll el t o o n e
a n o th e r , l n 1 e g a 1 d t o I a n d J A n y t w o li n e s which m e e t t h e li n e
.

I J 1 11 t w o p o i n t s which a 1 e h a r m o n ic c o nj u ga te s o f o n e a n o th e r, l n
r e ga r d t o I a n d J , m a y b e s a id t o b e a t r ig ht a ng les , o r , t o b e
er en dicu l a r in r e g a r d t o I a n d J
p p W ith th e s e d e fi n iti o n s , a ll t h e
i
.

th e o r e m s o f i i c id e n ce i n v o lvi n g th es e t e r m s r e m a i n t r u e T h u s , f o r
i n s ta n c e t w o li nes which a r e b o th p a r a lle l t o a third li n e a r e
, , ,

a r a ll e l t o o n e a n o th e r ; a l l li n e s w hich a r e a t r ight a n gl e s t o a
p
li n r e p ra ll e l t o o n e a n o th e r ; if a s i es o f p a r lle l li n e s b e
e a a er a

dra w n m e e t i n g a ny t w o li n e s s a y a a n d b t he fo rm e r in A a nd
, , ,
64 Ch ap ter II
t he l a tt e r in B t h e middl e p o i n t o f AB li e s o n a d e fi n ite li n e
,

thr o u gh t h e i n te r e cti o n o f a a n d b s .

Or p a s s i n g t o s o m e wh a t l e s s o bvi o u s re s u lt s t he o rdi n a r y co n
, ,

s t u c t io n s f o r t h e c e n t r o id
r n d f o r t h e o rth o c e n t r e o f th r e
,
a give n ,
e

p o i n t s A B C ca n b e c a r ri e d o u t th es e w o rds b e i n g d e fi n e d a s w e
, , , ,

no w e xp la i n .

F o r t h e cen tr o id thi s is d e fi n e d a s t h e i n t e r s e cti o n o f t h e l in es

,

j o i n i n g A B C r e s p e ctive l y t o t he middl e p o i n t s o f B C CA AB
, , , , , , .

If t h e li n e I J b e m e t b y
B C CA A B r e s p e ctiv e l y , , , ,

in D E F a n d D b e
’ ’ ’
, , ,

t h e h a r m o n ic c o nj u ga t e
o f D in r e g a r d t o B C
’

, ,

whil e E is s imil a rly d e

J fi n e d fr o m E b y m e a n s ’

o f C a n d A a n d F fr o m ,

F b y A a n d B w e ha v e ’
,

onl t o s h e w th a t A D
y ,

B E CF m e e t in a p o i n t , .

I n fa ct it is cl e a r fr o m , ,

t he c o n s tr u cti o n th a t E , ,

F D a r e in li n e ; a s lik e ,
’

wi s e a r e F D E a n d D E F ; a n d h e n c e th a t t h e li n e j o i n i n g
, , ,
’

, ,
’
, , ,

A t o t h e i n te rs e cti o n o f B E a n d CF p a s s es th r o u gh D , .

F o r t h e or thocen tr e w e a r e t o s h e w th a t t h e li n e s dra w n th r o u gh
, ,

A B C r e s p e cti ve l y p e r p e n dic u l a r t o B C CA AB m ee t in a p o i n t
, , , , , , .

A s b e fo r e l e t D E F b t h e p o i n t in which I J is m e t b y B C
’ ’ ’
, , , e s ,

CA A B r e s p e ctiv e l y ; a n d l e t U V W b e t h e h a rm o n ic c o nj u g a t e s
, , , , ,

in r e ga r d t o I a n d J r e s p e ctiv e l y o f D E F ,
We a r e t o s he w ’
,
’
,
’
.

th a t A U B V C W m e e t in p o i n t
, ,
a .

If A U C W m e e t in P t he i n v o l u ti o n de t er mi n e d o n t h e li ne I J
, ,

b y t he j o i n f A B C P s o , , ,

( P re limi n a r y b o v e p is ,
a , .

d e te r mi n e d b y t he t w o p a i r s

D U a n d F W I n r e ga r d ’

,
’

,
'

t o th es e p a i r s I J a r e ha r , ,

m o n ic c o nj ga t e s ; th e s e a r e u

th e n th e d o u bl e p o i n t s o f t he
i n v o l ti n a n d th u s A C BP u o , ,

m e e t t h e li n e I J in p o i n t s h a r
m o n ic in r ega r d th e r e t o T h u s .

B V p s s e s th r o u gh P E a ch o f a .

A B C P is th e n t h e o r th o , , ,

c en t r e o f t he o th er thre e in
rega rd t o I a n d J .
 D efi n i tion f
o a cir cle 65

Co n s id e r i n g I J a s a d ege n e r a t e c o n ic re ga rd e d a s a n en v e l o p e
, ,

( a bo ve p , t h th e o r e m o f t h e o r th o c e n tre is e vid e n tly a p a rti

. e

c u l r c a s e o f t h e th e o r e m
a
( a b o v e p 3 1 ) th a t if o f t he li n e p a irs , .
, ,

c n ta i n i n g fo u r p o i n t s t w o p a i r s c on s i s t o f li n es which a r e c on
o ,
.

j u ga t e in re ga r d t o a c o n ic s o d o es t h e third p a ir [ Ad d ] , .

C ir c l e s A ny c o n ic which p a s s e s thr o u gh t h e t w o a b s o l u t e
.

o i n t s o f r e fe r e n c e I J w ill b e s o k e n o f a s a ci r cl e in r e ga rd
p p , , ,

t o I a n d J o r s im p ly a s a ci r cl e , B y t he cen tr e o f t he ci r cl e will
, , .

b e m e a n t t he p o l e in r e g a r d th e r e t o o f t h e li n e I J A s a c on ic is
, , .

d e t er mi n e d b y fi e p o i n t s a v ,

ci r cl e is d e t er mi n e d by th r e e
o i n ts b e s id e I a n d J
p , .

If t h e t a n gen t a t a p o i n t ,

P o f a ci r cl e wh o s e c e n t r e
, ,

is C m e e t t h e li n e I J in T
, ,

thi s p o i n t T lyi n g o n t he T I , ,

o la r of C a n d o n t he t a n
p ,

g en t a t P is t he p o l e o f t h e ,

li n e P C T h u s P T P C m e e t
.
,

I J in p o i n t s which a r e h a r
m o n ic in r ega rd t o I a n d J .

I n o th e r w o r d s t h e t a n ge n t a t a n y p o i n t o f a ci cl e is a t right
, r

a n gl e s t o t h e li n e j o i n i n g thi s o i n t t o t h e c e n tr e o f t h e ci r cl e
p .

T w o ci r cl es will h a v e t w o p o i n t s o f i n t e rs e cti o n b e s id e I a n d J ,

T h e t a n ge n t s o f o n e o f t he ci r cl e s a t th es e t w o p o i n t s m e e t o n t he , ,

li n e j o i n i n g t he c e n t e s r

of t he ircl es F o r ifc .
,

th es e t w o p o i n t s b e d e
n o te d b A a nd B a nd
y ,

D E F b e t he i n te r
, ,

s e cti o n s re s p e ctiv e ly o f
, ,

I J , AB , o f I A , JB , a n d
o f I B , J A , t he l
o a r , in
I
p
rg
e a rd t o e ith ci cl
er r e , o f t he p i tD
o n ,
li b v p
is t h e n e E F ( a o e , .

a nd thi li c t i
s ne on a ns t he i t cti b th
n er s e on, o o f the t g t
a n en s a t A ,

B , a nd
o f t he t g t
a n en s a t I J,
hi li
T s n e , E F , is th u s the li
ne .

j i i g
o n n c t
t h e e n r es o f t h e t w o ci cl
r es .

S u pp o s e th t
a , a t o n e o f t he c mm
o on
p i t
o n s , A, of t w o ci cl
r es ,

t g t
th e a n en s o f t h e ci clr es a r e a t right gl an th r
e s t o on e a n o e , in

g rd
re a to I a nd J t g t
A s the a n en of a circl e at an
.
y p i t
o n is at

right a n gl e s t o t h e li n e j o i n i n g thi s p o i n t t o t h e c en tr e it fo ll o w s ,

th a t t h e t a n ge n t a t A o f e ith e r ci r cl e p a s s e s thro u gh t he c en tre

, , ,

o f th e o th e r T h e n e a s t he t a n ge n t s o f e ith e r circl e a t t h e p o i n t s
. c , ,

A B m e e t o n t h e li n e j o i n i n g t h e c e n tr es o f t h e circl e s it fo ll o w s
, , ,

th a t t h e t a n gen t a t B o f e ith e r ci r cl e p a s s es throu gh t he c en tre of , ,

B . c . 11. 5
66 Ch ap ter II
the o th e r circl e Wh e re fo re t h e t a n ge n ts a t B o f t h e t w o circl es
.
, ,

a r e a t right a n gl es T w o s u ch circl es a r e s a id t o cu t a t r ig ht a ng les

.
,

o r o r tho on a lly ; th e y a r e s u ch a p a ir o f a s s o ci a t e d c o n ic s a s w e r e
g
c on s ider e d be fore ( Ch a p 1 E x 1 9 a b o ve p .
, It fo ll o w s fro m
.
, , .

wh a t w a s th en s a id th a t a n y li n e dr a wn thro u gh t h e ce n tr e o f
, ,

e ith e r o f t w o circl e s which c u t a t right a n gl e s m ee t s t h e t w o ci r cl e s , ,

res p e ctiv e ly in t w o p a i r s o f p o i n t s w hich a r e h a r m o n i in rega rd

,
c

t o o n e a n o th e r ; a n d c o n v e r s e ly th a t if o n a ny li n e dra w n thr o u gh
, , ,

t h e c en tre o f a circl e th e re b e t a k e n t w o p o i n t s which a r e h a r m o n ic

,

c onj u ga tes o f on e a n o th e r in r e ga r d t o t h e p o i n t s in w hich t h e li n e

c u ts t h e circl e th en a n y ci r cle dra w n thr ou gh thes e t w o p o i n ts c u t s
,

t h e giv e n circl e a t right a n gl e s It fo ll o ws a l s o th a t t w o p o i n t s

.
, , ,

which a r e s u ch th a t e ve r y ci r cl e p as s i n g thr o u gh th e m cu t s a , ,

giv en circl e a t right a ngle s m u s t b e c onj u ga t e p o i n t s in rega r d t o

,

thi s circl e a n d lie o n a line thro u gh it s c e n tr e

,
.

C o a xi a l c ir c l e s T h e c o mm o n ch o r d A B o f t w o circl es o th e r
.
, , ,

th a n I J m a y b e ca ll e d t h e r a d ica l a x is o f t he t w o i r cle s ; C ircl es

,
c

a s s i n g thr o u gh A a n d B th a t is c on ic s thr o u gh A B I J ma y
p , , , , , ,

b e s a id t o b e coa x ia l .

Of s u ch c o n ic s b e s id e t h e li n es I J B A th e re a re t w o which a r e
, , ,

l i n e p a ir s t h e p a ir I A J B m e e ti n g s a y in E a nd t h e p a ir I R J A
, , , , , , , ,

m ee ti n g s a y in F T h e p o i n t s E F m a y b e ca lle d t he l im iting
, , .
,

oin ts o f t h e c o a x i a l circl es thr o u gh A a n d B T h e li n e E F c on t a i n s

p .

t h e c en tr e s o f a ll t h e c o a x i a l circl e s ; a n d E F a r e c o nj u ga t e p o i n t s ,

in re ga rd t o a ny o n e o f th es e circl e s T he tri a d o f p o i n t s s e lf con .

-

u ga t e in r e g a r d t o a l l t h e c o a x i a l ci r cl es c o n s i s t s o f t h e limiti n g
j
p o i n t s E F t oge th e r with th e p o i n t D wh e re t he r a dica l a x i s
, , , ,

i n t e r s e ct s t he li n e I J T h u s b y wh a t w e h a v e s a id a b o v e a ll circl es
.
, ,

thro u gh t he limiti n g p o i n t s E F cu t e ve ry circl e o f t he c oa x i a l

, , ,

s s t e m a t right a n gl e s ; th es e circl e s fo rm a s e c o n d c o a x i a l s y s t e m
y ,
-
o f which A a n d B a r e t h e limiti n g p o i n t s th e ir c e n t r es b e i n g o n ,
 In ver s ion in re ga r d to a c ir cle 67

t he ra dica l a x i s AB o f t he fi r s t s ys te m Co n v e rs e ly a circl e wh o s e
, , .
,

c e n tre is a t a ny p o i n t 0 11 t he r a dica l a x i s A B o f t he firs t s ys te m , ,

o f circl e s c a n b e d a w n t o cu t a l l t h e ci r cl es o f thi s s s t e m a t right

, r
y ,

a ngl e s ; it p a s s e s thr o u gh t h e limiti n g o i n ts

p .

I n v e r s i on in reg a rd
p c to
es s whicha c ir c l e . T h er e is a ro ,

h a s b e e n m u ch e mpl oye d b y which w h e n w e a r e giv e n a circl e in , ,

a
p l a n e w e ca n
, p a s s fr o m a n y
p o in t o f t he
p l a n e t o a n o th e r
p oint .

It will s u b s e q u en tly b e fo u n d in d ea li n g with t h e re l a ti on s o f g e o ,

m e try in t w o a n d in th r ee di me n s i o n s tha t t h e pro c es s ca n b e ,

r e g a rd e d fr o m a v e r s impl e p o i n t o f vi e w It ca n a l s o b e s h e w n
y .

th a t in it s e ff e ct t he p ro ce s s d o es n o t di ff e r fro m t h e tr a n s fo r m a ti o n
, ,

e x pl a i n e d in C h a
p 1 E x 1 6 (a bo ve
.
p ,
W e giv e .h o we ve r , .
, ,

s ome r o vi s i o n a l r e s u lt s o bt a i n e d f o m t h e p res e n t o i n t o f vi e w r
p p .

T w o p o i n t s P a n d P a r e s ai d t o b e i n v e r s e s o f o n e a n o th e r in
’

, ,

r e ga rd t o a giv e n circl e wh e n ( a ) th ey a r e c o nj u ga t e in r ega rd ,

t o t h e ci r cl e a n d ( b) th e ir j o i n p a s s es
, ,

thr o u gh t h e c en tre o f t h e circl e W h e n .

thi s is s o it fo ll o ws b y wh a t h a s a lr ea dy
, ,

b en re m a r k e d in t he p r e c e di n g cha pt er
e

( E x . 5 a b,
o v e
p ,
th a t t h e li n es
.
I P ,

J P m e e t in a p o i n t s a y L ly i n g o n t h e
’
, , ,

circl e a n d t h e li n e s I P JP a l s o m ee t in a
,
’
,

p o i n t o f t h e ci r cl e s a y M T he r e la ti on , , .

oint s e vid e n tl r e ci r o c a l
’
o f t he P P i
p s , y p .

T h e d e fi n iti o n ca n b e h e ld t o i n cl u d e t he
i n v e rs e o f a p o i n t in re ga rd t o a li n e which , ,

t a k en with t h e li n e I J m a y b e r ega r de d a s ,

a d e ge n r a t e ci r cl e ; t h e i n v e r s e o f P in r e
e

ga rd t o t h e li n e s a y P will b e s u ch th a t
, ,
’
,

P P is a t r ight a n gl e s t o t h e li n e a n d t h e mid p o i n t o f P P is
’ ’
-
,

o n t h e li n e .

Wh e n P d e s crib e s a ny l o cu s P will de s cr ib e a co rres p on di n g ,

’

l o c u s T he m os t im p o rt a n t c a s e is th a t wh en P des cribes a ny
.
,

—2
5
68 C h a p ter II
ci r cl e th en P a l s o de s cr ib es a circl e Of thi s a p a r tic u la r c a s e
,
’
.

a r i s es wh e n P d es c r ib e s a ircl e which p a s s es th r o u gh t he c e n tre 0 c

, ,

o f t h e giv e n ci r cl e b y which w e d e fi n e t h e i n v e r s i o n th en t h e circle

d e s cr ib e d by P d e ge n e r a tes i n t o a li n e ta k en with t h e li n e I J
’
, .

C o n v e r s e l y w e m a y s a y th a t t h e i n v e s e o f a li n e is a ci r cl e p a s s i n g
,
r

th r o u gh t h e c e n tre of t he fi x e d ci r cl e o f i n v e rs i o n T h e s e s ta t e m en t s .

t o pr o v e : W h e n P d e s crib e s a n c o n ic a s s i n g th r ou gh I
a r e ea s
y y p
a nd J t h e p e n cil s I ( P ) J (P ) a r e re l a t e d ; th es e h o w e v e r giv e
, , , , ,

r e s e tiv e l t h e ra n g es ( L
) ( M ) o f t h e giv e n fu n d m n t l c ic
p c
y , a e a
, o n , ,

whi h a r e th e r e fo re a l s o r e l a te d T h u s P t he i n t er s e cti n o f JL
c , , .
’
, o

a nd I M d es c ib es a n o the r c on ic p a s s i n g th r o u gh I a n d J tha t is
,
r , ,

a circl e While if P o n it s l o c u s ca n t a k e t he p o s iti o n 0 t he

.
, , , ,

o i n t s L M t a k e th e n r e s e ctiv e l t h e o s iti o n s I a n d J th en
p , p , y p , , ,

t h e r a y I J o f t h e p e n cil I , co rr e s p on ds t o t he r a y JI o f t h e ,

p en cil J a n d t h e l o cu s o f P d ege n er a t es ( a b o v e p 1 0) i n t o ’

, .

t h e li n e I J a n d a n o th er li n e C o n v e r s e l y if P d e s c r ib e s a li n e t h e
’
.
, ,

e n il s I J a r e r l a t e d ; s o th e n a ls o a r e t h e p e n cil s
e
p c , , ,

I ( P ) J ( P ) ; thu s P d es crib e s a c on ic p a s s i n g thro u gh I a n d J

, .

B u t in p a r tic l a r t o t h e p o i n t P which is o n I J c or r e s p on d
’
,
u , ,

o s iti o n s o f L a n d M r e s e ctiv e l a t I a nd J t h e c o r r s o n di n g e
p , p y , p
o s iti o n o f P is th e n a t O T h e l o c u s o f P is th u s a ci r cl e a s s i ng
p .
p , ,

thro u gh t he c e n tr e 0 o f t he ci r cl e o f i n v e r s i o n , , .

E x a m p l e s of inv e r s io n in r eg a r d to a g iv e n c i r c l e .

Ex 1 L et t h e
. . p oin t
ci r cle i n v e r t i n t P, i tof on e , o t he
p o n P
’
,

o f t h e i n v e r s e circl e ; a n d l et t he

t a n gen t s o f th e s e circl e s r es p e ct ,

i e ly a t P a n d P m e e t t h e li n e I J v ,

in T a n d T ; l e t t h e li n e OP P
’ ’

m ee t I J in X T h e n X is a d ou bl e .

p o i n t o f t h e i n v o lu ti on de te rmi n e d
by t he p a i r s I J a nd T T
’
C O11 , , .

s id e r firs t t w o p o i n t s P a n d Q :

, , ,

a n d th e i r i n v e r s e s r e s p e cti ve ly P ,

L e t P P a n d Q Q m ee t I J
’
a nd Q
’ ’
.
,

re s p e ctiv e ly in X a n d Y whil e P Q , ,

a nd P Q m ee t I J in T a n d T ’ ’ ’
.

T h e n b y wh a t h a s b ee n s a id a b o v e , ,

t h e c o n ic d ra w n thr o u gh I J P Q P a l s o c o n t a i n s Q ; o r t h e
’ ’

, , , , ,

o i nts P e o n a circl e c u tti n g t h e circl e o f i n v e r s i o n

’ ’

p Q P Q li , , , ,

a t r ight a n gl es T h u s t he p a i r s X Y ; T T ; I J b e l o ng t o t h e
’
.
, , , ,

i n o l u ti o n o f p o i n t s on I J d e t e rmi n e d b y c on ic s thr o u gh P Q
v , , , ,

P
’
, Q W h ’
e n .
Q c o i n cid e s with P a n d Q with P thi s l ea d s t o ,
’ ’

t h e r e s u lt s t a t e d .

Ex 2 T he ci r cl e s which a r e t he i n v e rs es o f t w o ci r cl e s which
. .

c u t a t r ight a n gl es a r e t w o circl es which a l s o c u t a t r ight a n gl e s .

70 Ch ap ter II
an dK i n v e rs es o f o n e a n o th e r in re ga r d t o S T he i n v e rs e o f K
a re .

( in r e g a r d t o t h e ci r cl e o f i n v e r s i o n ) is h o we v e r 0 T h us 0 C a re , , .
,
’

in v e rs e p o i n t s in r e ga rd t o S I n p a r tic u la r wh en S is a li n e it’
.
,
’

p a s s es thr o u gh t h e middle p o i n t o f OC a n d is a t right a ngl es t o thi s ’

.

E x a m p l e s in r e g a r d t o c ir c l e s Ex 1 If a n y three circl es . . .

b e t a k e n a n d t h e c o mm o n ch o r d o th e r th a n I J o f ea ch o f t he
, , ,

thre e p a irs o f th es e circl e s th e s e thr e e c o mm o n ch o rd s m ee t in a

,

p o i n t L et th e circl e s b e S U V ; c o n s id e r t h e c o mm o n p o i n ts o f
.
, ,

S with U a n d a l s o o f S with V ; l e t t h e fo rm e r b e P P a n d t h e
, , , ,

la tte r b e Q Q a n d l et t h e ch o rd s P P QQ m ee t in T By wh a t
,
’
,
’

,
’
.

h a s be e n s e en a circl e c a n b e d es crib e d with T a s c e n tre t o c u t

, ,

t h e circl e S a t right a n gl e s ; it is t he c o n ic t o u chi n g TI a n d TJ ,

re s p e ctive ly a t I a n d J which p a s s es th r o u gh o n e ( a n d th e r e fo r e
,

t h e o th e r) o f t h e p o i n t s o f c o n t a ct o f t h e t a n g en t s dra wn fro m T
Th e p o i n t s P P b e i n g o n S a r e i n v e rs e in r e ga rd t o thi s
’
to S .
, , ,

circl e a s a l s o a r e Q Q T hi s circl e th e re fo re c u ts U a n d V a l s o
, ,
’
.
, , , ,

a t right a n gl e s I t s c e n tre T is th e re fo r e o n t h e c o mm on ch o r d
.
, ,

o f U a nd V F o r if H b e o n e o f t h e c o mm o n p o i n t s o f U a n d V
.
, ,

a n d TH m ee t U a n d V a ga i n r e s p e cti v e l y in L a n d M it fo ll o ws , , ,

th a t L a n d M a r e b o th i n v e r s e s o f H in re g r d t o t he circle o f ,
a

c en tre T a n d th e re for e c o i n cid e

, , , .

E x 2 L e t A B C b e a n y thr e e p o i n ts ; a n d D E F b e a ny
. .
, , , ,

thre e p oi n t s ly i n g r e s p e ctiv e ly o n B C o n CA a n d o n AB T h r o u gh , .

t h e three p o i n t s F B D ( b es id e I , , ,

J) a circle ca n b e dr a wn ; thro u gh
t h e thre e p o i n t s E C D a n o th e r , ,

ci r cl e T h es e b e s id e D ( a n d I J ) .
, , ,

w ill h a v e c o mm o n a fu r th e r oin t 0
p .

T hi s p o i n t li es o n t h e ci r cl e p a s s i n g
thr o u gh A E F ( Mi q u e l L iou v J , , .
, .

in, 1 83 8 )
D e n o t e t h e p o i n t s in which t he
li n e I J is m et b y B ’C, CA , AB , r e .

s e c t iv e l , b
p y y A , B , C
’
; a n d t he
’

p o i n ts in which t h e li n es OD, OE , OF , r es p e ctiv e l’y , m ee t I J , by

D , E , F The n t h e p a irs o f p o i n t s I , J ; A , F ; C , D a r e in
’ ’ ’
.
’ ’ ’

i n v o l u ti on , tha t de te rmi n e d o n I J b y t h e c o’ n ics thro u gh t h e fo u r

o i n t s F , B , D , 0 ; s o th a t t h e r a n g e C , F , J , I is r e l a t e d t o t h e
’

p
ra n ge D , A I , J A’ga i n , b y c on ic s th r o u gh E , C , D , O, t he pa i r s
’ ’
.

1, J ; A , E B , D a r e in i n v o l u ti o n ,’ a n d’, the re fo r e , t h e ra n ge
’ ’

D , A , I , J is r e l a te d t o t h e ra n ge B , E , J, I , a n d is , h en c e ,
’ ’

re la te d t o t h e r a n ge E , B , I , J B u t , th en , t h e ra n ge s , C , F , J, I
’ ’
.
’ ’

a nd E , B , I ,
’ ’
,
J
be i n g re l a t e d , t h e p a irs 1 , J ; B , F ; C , E a r e ’ ’ ’ ’

in i n v o l u ti o n T hi s s h e w s th a t a circl e p a s s es thr o u gh t h e p o i n t s
.

A , E , F , 0 [ A dd ] .
 E xa mp les in re a rd g to c ir cles 71

Ex . 3 . W h e re fo re
p p o s i n g t h e p o i n t s D E F t o b e in
, by su , ,

li n e w e i n fe r tha t if fo u r li n es b e ta k e n in a pl a ne a n d fr o m
, , , ,

e ve r
y th r ee o f th e s e li n e s b y i n t e r ,

s e cti o n s o f a i r s a tri a d o f oints b e

p p ,

d e fi n e d th e n t he th r e e ci r cle s d e t e r
,

mi n e d b y th r e e o f th e s e t r i a ds h a v e
a c o mm o n oint T h e re fo re b s m
p y y .
,

m e try o f r ea on i n g t h e f o u r ci r cl e s s , r
d e t e rmi n e d by t he fou r tri a d s h a v e a
p o i n t in c o mm o n .

C o n v e r s e ly l e t p o i n t s D E F , , , , ,

lyi n g r e s p e cti ve ly o n t he thre e j o i n s

, ,

B C CA AB b e s u ch th a t t h e cir l e
, , ,
c

A B C c on t a i n s t he p o i n t o f c o n c u r
re n c e O o f t he thre e circl es AE F
, , ,

B F D CDE wh o s e e x i s t e n c e is p r o v e d
, ,

in E x 2 T h e n t h e p o i n t s D E F
. .
, ,

a r e in li n e F o r l e t t he li n e E F m e e t B C in P
.
,
T h e p o i n t 0 is .

d e t ermi n e d by t he i n te r s e cti o n o f t h e circl e s AE F a n d AB C a n d ,

t h e ci r cl e E P C p a s s es thr o u gh 0 B u t thi s ci r cl e ha s with t h e .

,

circl e CDE t h e p o i n ts E O C I J in c o mm on a n d th u s c o i n cide s

, , , , , ,

with it H e n ce P c o i n cid e s with D

.

‘ .

T he ci r cl e A B C m a y th u s b e r e ga r d e d a s t h e l o c u s o f t h e p o i n t
o f i n te r s e cti o n o f t h e ci r cl e s AE F B F D CDE wh e n D E F a r e , , , , ,

d e t e rmi n e d b y a v a ry i n g li n e .

Ex 4 .A p a rtic u l a r c o ro lla ry fro m thi s is t h e fa ct ( a l r e a dy

.

p r o ve d Ch a p 1 E x 8
, ) th a t if fr. o m
, a
p o i n t 0 . o f t h e circl e A B C
, , , , ,

li n es b e dra wn a t right a n gl e s t o B C ,

CA A B m ee ti n g th e s e r e s p e ctiv e l y in
, , , ,

D E a n d F th en the s e p o i n t s D E F
, , , ,

a re in li n e F o r t h e p e n cil o f li n es
.
,

E ( I J O A ) b e i n g h a rm o n ic is r e l a t e d
, , , , ,
.

t o t h e p e n cil F ( I J O A ) T h u s a circl e , , , .

c a n b e d r a w n thr ou gh 0 E F A I J , , , ,
, .

S imil a rl y circl e s c a n b e dra w n thr o u gh

,

0 F B D a nd O D C E
, , , , , , .

If t he li n es OD OE OF m e e t t h e , ,

li n e I J res p e ctiv e ly in D E F ; a n d
, ,
’

,
’
,
’

L b e t he h a r m o n ic c o nj u ga te o n t h e ,

li n e OD o f t he p o i n t 0 in re ga rd t o D
,

nd D s o th a t D is t h e middl e
p oin t of
’
a ,

OL ; a n d s imil a r ly M , b e t a k e n o n OE OF r es p e ctiv e ly s u ch
, , , , , ,

E is t he middl e p o i n t o f OM a n d F t he middl e p o i n t o f ON , ,

it fo ll o w s th a t L M N a r e in li n e , , .

E x 5 If in t he pre c e di n g e xa mpl e th e re b e fo u r li n es i n s t ea d
. .
, , ,
72 C h a p ter II
o f on ly t h e three B C CA A B a n d 0 b e t he p o i n t o f c o n c u rre n c e o f
, , ,

t he fo u r circl es d e t e rmi n e d a s in E x 3 b y e v e r y th r ee o f th es e
, , .
, ,

th e re will b e o bta i n e d fo u r p o i n ts L M N P ly i n g in li n e T he , , , , , .

r u l e f or th es e is th a t t h e middle p oi n t o f OL li e s o n o n e o f the
,

fou r giv en li n e s th e li n e OL b e i n g a t right a n gl e s t o thi s li n e

, .

N o w a p ply t h e th e o ry o f i n v e rs i o n e x p l a i n e d a b o v e t o thi s fig u re
, , ,

th e ci r cl e o f i n v e rs i o n b e i n g a n y ci r cl e o f which 0 is t h e c e n tr e .

T h e fou r giv e n li n e s th e n i n v e r t i n t o circl e s p a s s i n g th r o u gh 0 ;

t h e c e n tres o f th es e circl es will ( E x 4 a b o v e in r e ga r d t o i n v e r s i o n )
.
, ,

b e t h e p o i n t s o bt a i n e d b y i n v e rs i on o f L M N P T h es e c e n tre s , , , .

will the n l ie o n a circl e p a s s i n g thro u gh 0 I n t he o rigi n a l figu re .

,

t he p o i n t 0 w a s o bt a i n e d a s a p o i n t o f c o n c u r r e n c e o f fo u r ci r cl es ;
o f th e s e e v e r t w o h a v e a n i n t e r s e cti o n b e s id e O which is a l s o a n
,y ,

i n t e rs e cti on o f t w o of t h e giv en li n es T h es e circl e s will i n v er t i n t o .

fou r li n es s a y a b c d T he o rigi n a l fig u re ca n th e n b e o bta i n e d

,
’
,
’

,
’
,
’
.
, , ,

b y i n v e r s i on fro m fo u r a rbitra ry li n es a b c d a n d a n a rbitra ry

’ ’ ’ ’

, , , , , ,

oi n t 0
p , .

We thu s i n fe r a fu r th e r prop erty o f t h e fo u r circl es c o n s id er e d in

E x 3 a b o v e ( giv e n with o th e r p r o p e rti e s b y S t e i n er Ges Wer ke
1 p 2 2 3 ) —n a m e l
.
, , , .
,

, .
y th a t th e ir c e n tr es l ie o n a ci r cl e which p a s s es
,

thro u gh 0 T hi s re s u lt m a y a l s o b e re ga r d e d a s b u ilt u p fr o m
.
, ,

t he th e o r e m s imil ar ly o bt a i n a bl e fr o m E x 4 b y i n v e r s i o n th a t
, .
, , ,

if thr ee ci r cl es with a c o mm on p o i nt b e s u ch tha t t h e o th er three

p o i n ts of i n t e rs e cti o n o f t he p a irs of th es e l ie in li n e then t h e .
,

ce n tres o f t h e three circl es l ie o n a circl e p a s s i n g thro u gh th e ir

p o i n t of c on c u rren c e .

E x 6 I n t h e fig u re o f E x 3 w e h a v e fou r li n e s a n d fo u r ci r cl e s
. . .
, ,

which m ee t in O T hi s a ros e fr o m t h e fig ur e o f E x 2 in which th e re

. .
,

w e re three li n e s a n d thr ee c o n cu rren t circl es T he re is a g e n er a l is a

,
.

ti on o f imp o rta n ce in which t h e l m e s a r e re pl a c e d by C i rcl e s

, ,
.

L e t a ny fo u r circl e s which w e s u pp o s e c o n s id e re d m a d e fi m t e
,
 E x a mp les in re ga r d to c ir cles 73

or de r b e d e n o t e d r e p e ctiv el y b y 1 2 3 4 L e t t h e p a i r s o f
, ,
s , , , , .

i n t er s e cti o n s ( o th er th a n I J) o f t he s u cc e s s iv e p a i r s o f th es e , ,

circl e s b e d e n o t d r es p e ctiv e ly a s fo ll o w s
, e , ,

f or 1 2 b y T A ; fo r 2 3 by C E ; f or 3 4 b y D O ; f o r 4 1 b y B F
, , , , , , , , .

T h e n it c a n b e s h e w n th a t if t h e f u r p o i n t s T C D B l ie o n a , o , , ,

ci r cl e s a y S t he fo u r re m a i n i n g p o i n ts A E O F a l s o l ie o n
, , , , , , ,

a ci r cl e s a
’

y ,
S .

T hi s r e s u lt is o bta i n a bl e b y i n v er s i o n in r eg a r d t o a n y circl e
o f c e n tre T wh e re by w e a r e l e d b a ck t o
,

Miq u el s th e o re m o f E x 2 B u t a s will
’
. .
,

b e s ee n b e l o w in d ea li n g with t h e r e l a ti o n s
,

o f g eo m e tr in t w o a n d th ee dim e n s i o n s
y r ,

thi s is n o t t he s impl es t w a y o f r e ga r di n g
t h e th eo r e m .

E x 7 T h r ee circl e s 1 2 3 m e e t in a
. .
, , , ,

p o i n t 0 T h e ta n gen t s a t 0 re s p e ctive ly
.
,

o f t h e ci r cl es 2 a n d 3 m e e t t he ci r cl e 1 in ,

Q a n d R ; t h e p o i n t s o f i n t er s e cti o n o f th e
ci r cl es a r e A or ( 2 B or ( 3 C or , ,

(1 ,
P r o v e th a t OA QB R C m ee t in a , ,

p o in t .
( C h a p I Ex .
, .

E x 8 If a p a i r o f c o mm o n ch o rd s o f
. .

t w o c o n ic s which m e e t in E m ee t t w o
, ,

c o mm o n t a nge n t s o f t he c o n ic s r e s p e ctive ly in X a n d M t h e , , ,

li n e X M pa s s es thr o u gh o n e o f t h e t w o p o i n t s F which with E , , ,

an d a noth e r p o i n t G fo r m t he c o m m on s e lf p ol a r tri a d o f t he t w o
,
-

c o n ic s T he p o i nt s X M b e l on g t o t h e i n v o lu ti on d e t e rmi n e d o n
.
,

t h e li n e X M b y t h e t w o c o n ic s t h e d o u bl e o i n t s o f thi s i n v o l u ti o n
p ,

b e i n g t h e p o i n t F a n d t h e p o i n t o f X M which li es o n E G ; t he
,

o i n ts R R n which t h e li n e X M m e e t s t h e o th er t w o t a n ge nt s
’

p , i , ,

c o mm o n t o t h e c o n ic s a l s o b e l o n g t o thi s i n v o l u ti o n , .
74 Chap ter II
T h e r e s u lt fo ll o w s a t o n ce fro m t h e fa ct re m a rk e d ( C h a p 1 , E x . .

th a t t he figu re c on s i s ts o f p a i r s o f p o i n t s which a r e h a rm o n ic im a ges

o f o n e a n o th er in r e ga r d t o t h e li n e E G a n d t h e oi n t F
p .

E x 9 I n t he ca s e o f t w o circl e s , t he c o mm o n s e lf p o l a r tri a d
. .
-

c on s i s ts of t h e t w o limiti n g p o i n t s , F, G, a n d t he p o i n t , E , in which
t h e c o mm o n ch o r d , AB , m ee t s t h e li n e I J L e t o n e o f t he fo u r
.

c o mm on ta n ge n t s o f t h e circles b e ca lle d t, a n d c on s ider, with thi s ,

t he c o mm on t a n gen t i n t e rs ect s t on t h e li n e o f c en tre s F G , ,

o f t h e t w o ci r cl e s ; l e t X b e t h e i n t e rs e cti o n o f thi s l a tt e r t a n g e n t
with t h e c o mm o n ch or d A B A n o th e r c o mm on ta n ge n t p a s s e s
.

thro u gh t he i n t e rs e cti o n o f t he li n e E F with t ; l e t thi s m ee t t h e

li n e I J in M t h e li n e X M p a s s i n g thro u gh t he li miti n g p o i n t F
, .

T h e r e m a i n i n g c o mm o n t a n g e n t p a s s e s th o u gh t h e i n t e rs e cti on o f
r

t h e li n e E G with t a n d m ee t s t h e li n e I J s a y in N
, , L et X M
, .

m e e t t he t a n gen t t a n d t h e t a n ge n t thro u gh N res p e cti ve ly in R

, ,

a nd R
( C f t h e di a gra m o f E x
’
. . .

If th e n R X m e e t E G in F th e re is o n t h e li n e R X a n i n v ol u ti on
’

o f which F a n d F a r e t h e d o u bl e o i n t s o f which X M a n d R R
’ '
p , , ,

a re tw o a irs a n d t w o o th e r a irs a r e t h e i n t e r s e cti o n s o f t he li n e

p , p
X R with t h e t w o circl es ( E x . .

N o w a ci r cl e Q c a n b e d r a w n w ith c e n tre X t o c o n t a i n t h e
, , ,

limiti n g p o i n t s F G b y wh a t w e h a v e s h e w n a b o v e ; thi s will c u t

, ,

b oth t h e giv e n ci r cl e s a t r ight a n gl e s a n d will th e r e fo re p a s s

, , ,

thro u gh t h e p o i n t s o f c o n ta ct with t he ci r cl e s o f t h e c o mm on
t a n gen t c on t a i n i n g X A s M is o n t he p o la r I J o f X in r ega r d
.
, , ,

t o thi s circl e a n d X M a r e h a rm o n ic in r ega rd t o F a n d F thi s

’
, , ,
 F eu er b a ch s th eor em b y in ver s ion
’

, 75

circl e p th r o u gh F
a s s es T h
a sol
u s t he p o i n t s R R a r e i n v e r s e ,
’
s

o f o n e a n o th e r in r e g a r d t o thi s circl e Q I n t he s a m e w a y if X C , .
,

m ee t t he t a n ge n t t a n d t he ta nge n t thro u gh M re s p e ctiv e ly in S

, ,

a nd S it fo ll o w s th a t S S a r e i n v e r s e s o f o n e a n o th e r in re ga r d
’

, ,
’

t o thi s s a m e circl e Q T he li n e s X F X C lik e wi s e m e e t t h e giv en

, .
, , ,

ci r le s in p o i n t s which a r e i n v e r s e s o f o n e a n o th er in rega rd t o thi s

c

ci r cle Q , .

If w e n o w i n ve rt t he fig u r e in r ega r d t o thi s ci r cl e Q b o th t h e , ,

give n ci r l es i n v e rt i n t o th e m s e lv e s b u t t he c o mm on t a n ge n t t
c ,

i n v e rts i nt o a ci r cl e p a s s i n g thro u gh t h e p o i n t s X R S which

, ,
’

,
’
,

t o u ch es b o th t h e giv en circl es .

C o n v e r s e ly s u p p os e th a t t he th r e e li n e s which a p p ea r h e re a s
, ,

t he c o mm o n t a n g e n t s c o n ta i n i n g re s p e cti v e l y X M N a r e giv e n , , , .

It c a n b e s h e w n th a t th e r e r e fo u r ci r l es t o u chi n g th e s e th r ee a c

li ne s ; t he pro o f ha s in fa ct b ee n giv en ( Ch a p 1 E x Als o a s .

, .
,

F F a r e h a rm o n ic in r e ga rd t o X M a n d X F m e e t s t h e t a n gen t
,
’
, ,

IU S o n I J whil e X C m e e t s t he t a n ge n t N R a l s o o n I J it fo ll o w s
’ ’
, ,

e a s il th at X R a r e t h e mid p o i n t s in r e g a rd t o I J o f t h e
’

y S , , , ,

a ir s o f o i n t s fo r m e d b t h e i n t e rs e cti o n s o f t h e th r ee giv e n li n e
p p y s .

T h u s t h e ci r cl e X R S is d e te rmi n e d b y th e s e li n e s H e n c e th es e fo u r
’
.

circl es a r e a l l t o u ch e d by a n o th e r circl e ( S ee a l s o Cha p 1 E x . .

, .

Th p e t p f ( lly b d m t i l
r es en r oo i d ti h
us ua t t il i d)
ase on e r ca c on s er a ons er e n o u se
w as g iv b y J P T yl
en Q t ly J . . l f M th m t i
a or , m u a r erp 1 97 ; ou r n a o a e a cs , x .

an d by F t é N ll
on e n A l W ou ve es
p Th t h m i
n n a ee, I e e or e s c on
d g i
, .

s id er e i Ch p
a a n, b l w n a . 1 11 , e o .

A n g l e p r op e r t ie s f o r a c ir c l e .I n t he p re s e n t v o l u m e , n o u s e
is m d
a e of a n
y m r
ea s u e o f a n a n gl e u n til Ch a p v is r ea ch e d I n . .

Eu clid tr tm t circl g
’
s ea en of es rea t u s e is m a d e o f th e fa ct th a t t he
a n gl e s in a n s e gm e n t o f a circl e a r e e q u a l t o o n e a n o th e r ; it will
y
b e c o n v e n i e n t t o giv e h e re a c o n diti o n u n de r which w e m a y if w e ,

d es i r e p e a k o f t w o a n gl es a s b e i n g e q u a l I n E u clid s th e o r y if
,
s .
’

t w o a n gl e s a 8 be r e s p e ctiv e ly e q u a l t o t w o a n gl e s a B th e n a n
’ ’

, , , ,

a n gl e fo r m e d b t h e s m o f t h e t w o fo rm er is r e ga r de d a s b e i n g
, y u ,

e qu a l t o t h e a n gl e fo r m e d b t h e s u m o f t h e t w o l a tt e r T hi s is a
y .

s t e p w hich w e d o n o t t a k e b e fo r e C h a v is r e a ch e d t h e s u m o f
p .
,

t w o a n gl e s b e i n g a t p r e e n t u n d e fi n e d s .

L e t OA OB b e t w o li n e s m e e ti n g in a p o i n t 0 ; a n d l e t O A
’ ’

, , , ,

O B b e t w o o th e r li n e s m e e ti n g in O
’ ’
We m a y s a y th a t in ,
’
.
,

rega rd t o t he fu n da me n t a l p o i n ts I J t h e li n e OB m a k es with , ,

OA a n a n gl e e q u a l t o th a t m a d e with O A b y O B if t h e p e n cil
’ ’ ’ ’

O ( B A I J ) b e r e l a t e d t o t h e p en cil O ( B A I J) If OB OA
’ ’ ’

, , , , , , .
,

m ee t t h e li n e I J re s p e ctiv e ly in Q a n d P w hil e O B O A m ee t
, , ,
’ ’
,
’ ’

I J in Q a n d P r es e ctiv e l
’

p y t h e r a n ge s
’

(
, Q P I J ) ( Q P I J ) , , , , ,
’

,
’

, ,

a r e th e n r e l a t e d .
76 C h a p ter II
It ma y b ere m a r k e d th a t wh e n w e a r e d e a li n g with r e a l p o i n t s
, n ,

if B b e a p o i n t o f t h e li n e OQ s e p a r a te d
’

fr o m B b y O a n d Q thi s p r o vi s i on a l d efin i ,

ti o n w oul d r e n d e r t h e a n gl e m a d e b y OB ’

with OA e q u a l t o t he a n gl e m a de w ith OA
b y OB T h es e h o w e v e r a r e in g en e ra l
.
, , , ,

di ff er e n t fr o m t h e n gl e m a d e by OA with a

OB o r with OB Th e a n gl e m a de b y OB
’
.
,

with OA is e q u a l t o t h e a n gl e m a de b y 0A
with OB wh e n OA OB a r e h a r m on ic co n
, ,

u a t e s in r e ga rd t o I
jg J ; ,
th a t is in t h e p hra s e o l o gy h e r e u s e d
, ,

wh en OA OB a r e a t right a n gl e s i n reg a r d t o I J
, , , .

Fro m thi s de fi n iti on if t he p o i n t s 0 O A B l ie o n a circl e ’

t he a n g l e which 0 B ma k es with O A I s e q iia l t o t he a n gl e which

, , , , ,
’ ’

OB m a k e s with OA A n d , w h e n t h e li n e AB a s s e s thr o u gh t h e
.

p
c e n tr e , C , o f t h e ci r cl e , m which ca s e t he li n e s j o i n i n g O t o A a n d
B a r e h a rm on ic c onj u ga te s in r e ga rd t o OI , OJ , t he li n e s OB , OA
a re a t right a n gl e s .

Ex . If t he t a ngen t s a i t
t tw o po n s , P , , of a
Q circl e m e e t in T ,

gl m d
t he a n e a e b
y Q T w ith Q P is e q u a l
gl m d
a e b P w ith P T ; a n d
t o the a n e y Q ,

if R b e a n y o th e r p o i n t o f t h e circle thi s ,

is e q u a l t o t h e a n gl e m a d e b y R Q with R P .

F o r if P Q b e a n y o th er t w o p o i n t s o f
’ ’

, ,

t he ci r cl e t h e r a n g e P Q I J o f fou r
’ ’

, , , , ,

o i n t s o f t h e circl e giv e s r e l a t e d e n cil s

p p ,

w hen j o i n ed t o a n y t w o p o i n ts o f t h e
ci r cl e T h u s t he p en cil s Q ( Q P I J)
.
,
’

,
’

, , ,

P (Q P I J) a r e r e l a te d R e ca lli n g
’

,
’
, , .
,

w ha t ha s a e a r e d in t h e d e fi n iti o n o f a
pp
c o n ic th a t t h e t a n gen t c o n ta i n t w o c o
,
s

i n cide n t po i n t s o f t h e c o n ic w e s e e b y , ,

su p p os i n g ’
P to be a t P a n d Q t o b e a t Q th a t t h e p e n cil s
,
’

Q (T ,
P, I , J ), P ( Q , T , I J ) a r e re la te d Fu r th e r t h e p en cils
,
.
,
78 C h a p ter II
p o i n ts X Y Z
, ,
th en it fo ll o w s b e ca u s e t h e li n es A YX AZ T
,
T; , , ,

sa
y a re h a r m o n ic , in r e ga rd t o

A C A B a n d t h e li n e s B Z Y B TX
, , , ,

s a e h a r m o n ic in r e ga rd t o B A
a r
y , ,

B C th a t t h e li n e s X Z T Y s a y
, , , ,

m ee t in C A n d th en a s t he li n e .
, ,

I J is divid e d h a r m o n ica lly b y t h e

li n e p a i r A Y X AZ T a n d a l s o b y , ,

t h e li n e p a ir B Z Y B T X it is , ,

divid e d h a r m o n ica lly b y t h e li n e

a ir X CZ Y C T ( a bo ve p so
p , , .
,

lik e wi s e is t h e li n e S S Wh er e ,
’
.

fo re t he li n es X CZ Y CT a r e t he ,

d o u bl e li ne s o f t h e i n v o l u ti on c o n ta i n i n g t h e li n e p a irs CI CJ ,

CS CS ; CA CB T h u s t h e r e l a ti o n o f S S is th a t o f t w o p o i n t s
’ ’

, , .
,

which a r e c o nj u ga te t o o n e a n o th e r in rega rd t o a l l c o n ic s pa s s in g
thr o u gh X Y Z T ( a s in E x 1 6 o f C ha p
, , ,
. a n d I J a r e c on u
j.
,

ga te t o o n e a n o th e r a l s o in r e ga r d t o s u ch c o n ic s T hu s wh e n S
, , .

d es crib e s a li n e S d es c r ib es a c o n ic p a s s i n g thr o u gh A B C ; a n d
,
’

, ,

c o n v e rs e l y .

A p o i n t D c a n b e t a k e n s o th t I J is d 1 1 d e d h a r m o m ca ll y
0

a v

b y A C B D a n d b y BC A D ; it w ill th e n ( a b o v e p 4 ) a l s o b e
, , , .

d ivid e d h a rm o n ica lly b y A B CD Th e p o i n t D will b e t h e o r th o

, .

c e n t r e o f A B C in , , ,

r e ga r d t o I J a nd I J , ,

will b e c onj u ga te t o on e
a n o th e r in r e ga r d t o a ll

c o n ics th r o u gh A B C D , , , .

L e t t h e c o n ic ( circl e ) b e
dra w n th r o u gh A B C , , ,

I J a n d l e t 0 b e t he , ,

i n t e rs e cti on o f t he t a n
g e n t s o f thi s c on ic a t I J , ,
t h e c e n t r e o f thi s c o n ic
We s h e w th en th a t wh en
.

S is a t D th e n S is a t O
’

, .

F o r l e t CO CD m ee t t h e ,

c on ic A B C I J a ga i n , , , , , ,

r e s p e ctiv e l in U V a nd
y , ,

l e t B A J I m ee t in W A s , .

t he p o i n t s I J a r e s e a r
p ,

a t e d h a r m o n ic a ll
y b y t he
li n e s A B a n d CD whil e , ,
a s p o i n t s o n th e c o n ic U a n d C a r e h a rm o n ic c o nj u ga t e s in rega r d
,

t o I a n d J it fo ll o w s th a t V U p a s s es th r o u gh W T h u s t he li n e
, .
 C onf o a c l con ics 79

p a ir s CI C ,
J C A CB ; CO C D a r e in i n v o l u ti o n
,
B y a s imil a r
,
.

a r g u m e n t t h e li n e p a irs j o i n i n g A t o t h e p o i n t p a irs I J ; B C ; , ,

O D a r e in i n v o l u ti o n ; a s a l s o th os e j o i n i n g B t o I J ; C A O D
, , , , , ,
.

T hi s s h e w s th a t O D a r e r e l a te d a s w a s s ta t e d
, .

C o n f o c a l C o n ic s A s ys t e m o f c o n ic s h a vi n g t h e s a m e f o ci is
.

c a ll e d a c on fo ca l s ys te m It is t he s a m e a s a s ys te m o f c o n ic s with
.

fo u r co mm o n ta ngen ts o f which t w o m e e t in t he p o i n t I a n d t h e
, ,

o th e r t w o in t h e p o i n t J Th e fo u r f ci a r e in p a irs o n t w o li n e s
. o ,

w hich m e e t in t h e c e n tr e o f t h e c o n ic ; if o n e o f th es e p a ir s b e
c o mm o n t o t w o c on ic s s o a r e t he o th e r p a ir , .

If t he t w o p a irs f fo ci b e d e n o te d a s a b o v e b y S S a n d H H ;
o , , ,
’

,
’

a n d if P T P T b e t h e t a n g en t s t o o n e c o n ic o f t h e c o n fo ca l s s t e m
’
, y , ,

dra w n fr o m a n a r bitra r y p o i n t P it is k n o wn ( a b o v e p 25 ) th a t , , .

t h e fo u r p a irs o f li n e s P T P T ; P I P J
’ ’
P S P S ; P H P H a re
’
, , , , ,

in i n v o l u ti o n T h e d o u bl e li n es o f thi s i n v o l u ti on a r e h a rm o n ic in
.

re ga rd t o t he li n es o f e a ch p a ir ; in p a rtic u l a r in re ga r d t o P I P J , ,

a n d s o a r e a t right a n gl e s T h e s e d o u bl e li n e s a r e h o w e v e r t he
.
, ,

ta ngen ts a t P o f t he t w o c o n ic s which ca n b e dra wn th r o u gh P

, , ,

t o t o u ch t he fou r li n e s I S I S JS JS ( a b o ve p T hu s
’ ’

, , , , .
,

thr o u gh a n y p o i n t P ca n b e d r a w n t w o c o n ics o f t he c on fo c a l s ys te m ,

a n d th e s e cu t o n e a n o th e r a t right a n gl es a t t h e p o i n t P It ca n b e , .

s h e w n s imil a rl th a t th e a l s o c u t a t right a n gl es a t e a ch o f th e ir
, y y ,

o th e r three o i n t s o f i n t e r s e cti o n
p .

Fu rth e r if w e re fe r a ga i n t o t he p ro vi s i o n a l phra s e o l ogy in rega r d

,

t o e q u a l a n gl es t he a n gl e m a d e b y P S
’

with P T is e q u a l t o t he a n gl e which
’

P T m a k es with P S F or a s t h e p a i r s .
,

o f li n es
’
PS PS ; P T P T ; PI PJ
’

, , , ,

a r e in i n v o l u ti o n t h e e n cil s P ( S
’

p ,
T ,

I J ) P ( S T J I ) a r e r e l a t e d a n d t he
, , , , , ,

s e c o n d is r e l a t e d t o P Al s o ,

if o n e o f t he d o u bl e ra ys o f thi s in vo
l u t ion b e P M t h e p e n cil s P ( M S I J
, , ,

P ( S M I J) a r e r e l a t e d ; s o th a t t h e
, , ,

a n gl e m a d e b M with is e q u a l
’

y P P S
t o t h e a n gl e m a d e with P M b y P S .

I n p a r tic u l a r wh e n P is o n t h e c o n ic
, ,

t h e a n gl es S P M M P S a r e e q u a l
’
, .

A p a r tic u l a r s e t o f c o n fo c a l c on ic s is a s e t o f c o n fo c a l p a r a b o l a s ,

th a t is c o n ics a ll t o u chi n g t he li n e I J a t t he a m e p o i n t a n d
, s ,

h a vi n g t w o o th e r c o mm on ta n gen t s I S JS [A d d ] , , .

C o m m o n c h o r d s o f a c i r c l e w it h a c o n i c If t he a x es o f a .

c on ic m ee t th e li n e I J in X a n d Y a s t h e a x es m e e t in t h e ol e ,

o f t h e li n e I J a n d a r e a t right a n gl e s a n d c o nj u g a t e in r e ga r to
t he c o n ic t h e p o i n t s X Y a r e t he d o u bl e p o i n t s o f t he i n v o l u ti on
, ,
80 C h ap ter II
d e te r mi n e d b y t he t w o p a irs c o n s i s ti n g o f I J a n d t h e p o i n t s F , ,

F in which t h e c o n ic m e e t s I J thi s is t h e i n v o l u ti o n d e t e rmi n e d

,
’

, ,

o n t h e li n e I J b y t h e c o n ic a n d a n ci r cl e If th p ir of
y e n a a .
, ,

ch or ds L M L M of t he c o n ic a n d t h e circl e m e e t I J in P a n d
, ,
’ ’

, ,

P t h e p a i r P P will b e l o n g t o thi s i n v o l u ti o n Wh e re fo re t h e
’ ’

, , .
,

ra n ges P X I J a n d X P I J a r e r e l a t e d T h u s t h e a ngl e
, , , , ,
’

, , , .
,

m a d e b y t h e c o mm o n ch o r d L M o f a c o n ic a n d a n y circl e with , , , ,

e ith e r a x i s CX is e q u a l t o t h e a n gl e m a d e b y thi s a x i s with t h e

, ,

c o mpl e m e n ta ry c o mm o n ch o rd L M o f t he c o n ic a n d circl e ,
’ ’

, .

T h e d ir e c t o r c i r c l e o f a c o n ic T h e d ir e c t o r c i r c l e s o f
.

c o n i c s t o u c h in g f o u r l i n e s hi c ic a r e c o a x ia l T s is t h e o n .

w hich h a s b ee n d e fi n e d ( C h a p dir ct r c ic . 1 , E x 3 ) a s th e . e o on in
re ga rd t o I a n d J Fr o m it s de fi n iti o n it is t he l o cu s o f p o i nt s
.

fro m which t h e t w o t a n ge n t s t o t he c o n ic a r e a t right a n gles ; it

p a s s e s thro u gh t he p o i n t s in which t h e c o n ic is m e t b y t he p o l a r
of a n o n e o f t h e fou r fo ci ; a n d it s c e n t r e c o i n cid es with t h e c e n tr e
y
o f t h e c o n ic A s ha s b e e n s h e w n ( Ch a p 1 E x
. if thro u gh three .
, .
,

p o i n t s which fo rm a s e lf p o la r t r i a d in r e ga rd t o t h e c o n ic t he
-
,

c ircl e b e d r a w n thi s c u t s t h e dire ct o r ci r cl e a t r ight a n gl e s

, .

Fu rth e r t h e di r e ct o r ci r cl es o f a ll c o n ics which t o u ch fo u r given

,

li n es h a ve t w o p o i n t s in c o mm on b e s id e I a n d J th a t is a r e , , ,

c oa x i a l s ys te m o f circl e s F or l e t P b e o n e o f t he i n t e r s e cti o n s o f
.
,

t he dire ct o r circl es o f t w o p a r tic u l a r c o n ic s t o u chi n g th e s e fo u r

li n es T h e p a ir s o f ta n gen t s fr o m P t o a ll th es e c on ics a r e
.
, , a

e n cil in i n v o l u ti o n ( a b o ve p a n d th es e m ee t t h e li n e I J
p , .
,

which is s u pp o s e d t o h a v e n o s p e ci a l r e l a ti on t o t h e fou r li n e s ,

in p a irs o f p o i n t s in i n v o l u ti o n Of thi s i n v o l u ti o n h o w e ve r t he .
, ,

p o i n ts I J a r e t h e d ou bl e p o i n t s ; f or t h e t a n gen t s fro m P t o e a ch
, ,

o f t h e t w o s e l e ct e d c o n ic s a r e a t right a n gl e s a n d a n i n v o l u ti o n is ,

de te r mi n e d b y t w o o f it s p a irs Wh e re fo r e t h e t a n ge n t s fr o m P .
,

t o a n y o th e r o f t h e c o n ic s a r e a t right a n gl e s a n d P li e s 0 11 t h e ,

dire ct o r circl e o f thi s c o n i c Fr o m thi s t h e s ta t e m en t m a de fo ll o w s

.
, .

P a r t ic u l a r d eg e n e ra t e c o n ic s t ou chi n g t he fou r li n e s a r e t h e
, , ,

p o i n t p a i r s three in n u mbe r thro u gh w hich t he li n es p a s s in p a irs

, , .

I f A C b e s u ch a p a ir t h e li n es P A P C a r e t he t a n g e n t s t o thi s
, , ,

fro m a p oi n t P a n d t h e c o r re s p o n di n g di r e ct or circl e is t h e l o c u s
,

o f P wh e n t h e li n es P A P C a r e a t right a n gl es T h e c e n tre o f .

thi s ci r cl e is t he middl e p o i n t o f A C in re ga r d t o I a n d J If B D .
, ,

a nd E F b e t h e o th e r p o i n t p a irs t h e middl e p o i n t s o f A C B D
, , , , ,

E F l ie on a li n e t h e li n e c o n t a i n i n g t h e c e n tres o f a l l t he c o a x i a l
,

di r e cto r ci r cl es which a r e t he c en tres t he p ol es o f I J in re ga r d t o

, , ,

t h e c o n ic s t ou chi n g t h e fo u r li n es .

On e c o n ic ca n b e dr a w n t o u chi n g t h e fou r li n es which a l s o t o u ch e s

I J T h e dire ct o r ci r cl e o f thi s a s w a s r e m a rk e d d eg e n e r a t es i n t o
. , ,

t h e li ne I J a n d a n o th e r li n e ; if t he o th e r t w o t a n g e n ts which c a n
 E lem en ta r y p r o er tie
p s of a p a ra b ola 81

b e dra w n , fr o m I , J , t o thi s c o n ic , m e e t in S , t he li n e in u e s ti on q
is t h e p o l a r o f S in r e g a r d t o thi s c o n ic .
( C f E .x 5 o f Ch a p . .

T hi s li n e is th e n t h e r a dic a l a x i s o f a l l t h e d i r e cto r ci r cl e s , a n d is
a t right a n gl e s t o t h e li n e o f c e n t r e s o f t h e c o n ic s [ A d d .
]
P a r a b ol a s T h e d ir e c t r ix o f a p a r a b o l a
. .A c o n ic t o u chi n g
t h e li n e I J is c a ll e d a p a r a bo l a If thi s t o u c h I J in S , a nd if S’
.

b e t h e i n t e r s e c ti o n o f t h e t a n ge n ts fr o m I , J , t h e fo u r fo ci o f t h e
a r a bo la a r e S , S a nd I , J o l a r o f S in r e g a r d t o t h e
’

p T
. h e
p p a ra

bo la is ca ll e d t h e d ir ectr ix ; it w a s thi s n a m e which s u gges t e d , t o

G a s ki n , t o c a ll t h e di r e ct o r ci r cl e o f a n y c o n ic , t h e d ir ector A s a .

a r tic u l a r c a s e o f wh a t h a s b e e n s a id , s i n c e a li n e c u t s a ci r cl e a t
p
r ight a n gl e s o n l if it a s s e s th r o u gh t h e c e n t r e o f t h e ci r cl e , it
y p
fo ll o w s th a t t h e ci r c l e d r a w n thro u gh three p o i n t s , which a r e a
s e lf— o l a r t r i a d in r e g a r d t o a a ra b o l a , h a s it s c e n tr e o n t h e
p p
di r e ctr i x o f t he p a r a b o la .

T h e dire ct r i x o f a p a r a b o l a a l s o p a s s es th r o u gh t h e o r th o c e n t r e
of a n
y th r e e p o i n t s wh o s e j o i n s a r e th r e e t a n g e n ts o f t h e
p a r a bola .

T hi s fo ll o w s a t o n c e fr o m B r ia n ch o n s th e o re m F o r l e t A , B, C
’
.

b e thr e e p o i n t s s u c h th a t B C , CA , A B
t o u c h t h e p a r a b o l a l e t CB , CA , r e s p e c
t iv e l y , m e e t t h e dir e ct r i x in P a n d Q ;
l e t t h e o th e r t a n g e n ts fr o m P , Q , t o t h e
a r a b o l a , m ee t I J r e s e ctiv e l i n T
p , p y ,

a nd U A s th e n , b y d e fi n iti o n , t h e t a n
.

g e n t s ,
P T ,
C B ,
a r e a t right a n gl es , t h e

li ne A T is t h e li n e d r a w n fr o m A a t
right a n gl es t o B C S o B U is th e li n e .

dr a wn fr o m B a t r ight a n gl e s t o A C .

T h e p o i n t o f i n te rs e cti o n o f th es e li n es
is t he 0 1 t h o ce n t r e o f A , B, C ( a b o v e ,
b B i ia n c h o n s t h e or e m ( C h a
p .
y p 1,
.
I U
E x 2 ) thi s p o i n t o f in t e i s e c t io n i s o n
.

t he di r e ctri x P Q C o n v e rs e ly , it m a y b e s e e n th a t a p a r a b o l a ca n
,

b e d r a w n , t o t o u ch th r e e giv e n li n e s , t o h a v e f o r di r e ct r i x a ny li n e
thr o u gh th e o r th o c en tr e of t h e p o i n t s fo rm e d by t he i n t e r s e cti o n s
o f t h e li n e s .

E x a m p l e s in r e g a r d t o a p a r a b o l a .Ex 1 . If A , B, C b e
.

thr e e p o i n ts s u ch th a t t he li n e s B C, CA , AB t o u ch t h e p a r a b o l a ,
th e c ii c l e th r o u gh A , B , C c o n t a i n s a l s o t e fo c u s , S , o f t h e p a l a
h
b o l a F o r , a s t he li n e s j o i n i ng S t o t h e p o i n t s I , J a r e , b y the
.

defi n iti o n o f S , t a n g e n t s o f t he p a r a b o la , a n d t he li n e I J i s a l s p
a t a n g e n t , thi s is t h e th e o r e m ( Ch a I E x 7
)(h l 7e j
t t v h n the Sl
‘
[ lg
e
p: , .
,

li n e s , which a r e t h e j o i n s o f t h e p a i r s o f e a ch o t w o tri a d s
o i n t s , t o u ch a c o n ic , t h e t w o t r i a d s a r e o i n t s o f a n o th e r c o n ic
q
p p .

E x 2 If w e h a v e fo u r li ne s , a ny th r e e o f th es e , b y th e ir i n t er
. .

B . G. U .
82 Ch ap ter II
se cti o n s p a irs giv e r i s e t o a t r i a d o f p o i n t s th r o u gh which the re
in , ,

p a s s e s a ci r cl e Th e fo u r circl es s o o bta i n e d m ee t in a p o i n t n a m e ly
.
,

t h e fo c u s o f t he p a r a b o l a whi h c a n b e d r a w n t o t o u ch t h e fo u r c

li n ( bes id e t he li n e I J ) T hi s is a re s u lt o bt i n e d a b o v e ( p
es . a .

It will b e s ee n la te r th a t t he the o r e m is e q u iv a le n t t o Mo e bi u s ’

the or e m o f th e ih a n d ci r c u m s cr ib e d t e tr a d s ( V l 1 p o .
, .

A c o n ic S c o n t a i n i n g a t r i a d o f p o i n t s wh o s e j o i n t o u ch a n o th e r
, ,
s

c o n ic 2 ( a n d th e r e fo r e a n i n fi n it e n u mb e r o f s u ch t r i a d s ) m a y b e
, , , ,

o k e n o f a s tri a n g u l a rly circ u m s crib e d t o 2 T h us an i r cl e c

s
p y .
,

a s s i n g th r o u gh t h e fo c u s o f a p a ra b o l a is tri a n g u l a rl circ um
p y
s c r ib e d t o t h e p a ra b o l a .

Ex 3 .L e t t h e li n e j o i n i n g t h e fo u s S o f a p r a b o l a t o t h e
. c , ,
a ,

oin t S n which t h e c u r v e t u ch e s I J m ee t t h e c u r v e a ga i n in A
’

p i, ,
o , .

T h e n A m a y b e c a ll e d t h e v e r t e x It c a n b e s h e w n th a t t h e li n e .

dra w n th ro u gh t h e fo c u s S a t r ight a n gl s t o a n y ta n gen t o f t h e , ,

e

cu rv e m e e ts thi s ta n ge n t a t a p o i n t ly i n g o n t h e ta n g e n t a t t he
,

v e rt ex A , .

F o r t a k e a n y p o i n t P o f t h e di re ctri x t h e p o l a r o f S
,
Dr a w , .

fro m P th e t w o ta n gen ts o f t h e c u rve ; l e t th es e m e e t t h e li n e I J ,

re s p e ctiv el y U a n d T a nd m e e t t h e ta n gen t a t A res p e cti ve ly

, in
’
, , ,

in T a n d U s o th a t a s is ea s o p r o ve S U U a r e in li n e a n d
’ ’

y t , , , , , ,

S T T a r e in li ne T h e n U T a r e h a rm o n ic c o nj u ga t e s in r e ga r d
’ ’

, ,
.
,

t o I a n d J T h a t is t h e li n e S T d r a w n fr o m S a t ri g ht a n gl e s t o
.
, ,

t h e t a n ge nt T U m e e ts thi s t a n g e n t in a p o i n t T o f t h e t a n ge n t
, , ,

a t t h e v r tex (eC f E x 5
p . . .
, .

C o mbi n i n g with t h e l a s t e x a m p l e w e i n fer th a t t h e li n e s dra w n ,

f r o m t h e M i q u e l p o i n t o f fo u r li n e s th e re o bta i n e d e a ch a t r ight
, , ,

a n gl es t o o n e o f t h e li ne s m e e t th es e li n es re s p e ctiv e ly in p o i n ts
,

which \a r e , in iq e A l s o t he o r th o ce n tre s o f t h e fo u r t r i a ds d e t er
’ .
, ,

mi n e d by eac set o f th ee o f t he li n e s a r e in li n e Fu r th e r t he r , .
,

p e d a l li n e o f a
p o i n t 0,o f a ci r cl e in r e g d t o th r e e
, p o i n t s o f t he ,
ar

circle o f which t he of th ocen t r e is K p a s s es thro u gh th e m iddle

, ,
 D efi n it ion o f a re cta ng u la r h yp er b ola 83

p o i n t o f OK .
( Cf . E x 8, . o f Ch a p . 1 ; an d Ex 4, . a b o ve re ga r di n g
,

t he circl e ) .

Ex 4 . li n e d ra w n thr o u gh t he
. A ny
o rth o nt e ce K f th r e e p o i n t s A
r , ,
o , ,

B C o f c i c l e m e e t s B C CA A B
, ,
a i , , , ,

ec t i el i n t he
v o i n ts D E F
re s
y p ,

t h e li n es A K B K CK ni e t t h e
, , ,

an , , e

ci r cl e a g i n 1 e p ec t ive ly 1 n P Q R
a , s , , ,

P v e th a t t he li n es DP E Q F R
ro , ,

m ee t in a p o i n t S o f t h e i l e , , c rc .

A n d th a t thi s is t he f o c u of th s e

p a r a b o l a which a s h s b e n r e m a r k e d ca n b e d e s c r ib e d t o t o u ch
,
a e
,

B C CA A B n d h a v e t h
, ,
a e

gi ve n li n e a s di r e ctr i x .

Ex 5 .T h e j o i ns 0 1
.

th e e p o i n t s A B C
r , , , ,

which fo r m a s e lf p o l a r -

t r i a d in r ga rd t o a c o n ic e ,

m e e t a ny t a n g e n t o f t he
c o n i re s p e ctiv e ly in D
c, ,
’

E F ; o n th es e j o i n
’ ’
,
re s a

ta k e n D E F s u ch th a t , ,

D D a r e h r m o n ic c o n
,
’
a

es in r e ga r d t o B C
jg
u t a , ,

a nd so on P r o v e th t . a

t h e li n es E F FD DE , ,

a r e ta n g e n t s o f t h e c n ic o .

T h u s if A B C b e a s e lf
, , ,

c onj ga t e t r i a d in r ega r d
u

t o a p a r b o l a t he a i le ,
c rc

th r o u gh t h e m iddl e p o i n ts o f CA A B c o n t a i n s t h e fo c u s o f ,

t he p a r a b o l a .

D e fi n it i o n o f a r e c t a n g u l a r h y p e r b o l a A c o n ic whic h m e e t s .

t h e li n e I J in t w o p o i n t s which a r e h a r m o n ic c o nj u ga t e o f o n e s

a n th e r in r ega d t o I a n d J is c a ll e d a ec ta n u l a h e r bol a in
o r
g yp ,
r r

r ga r d t o I a n d J
e I n p a r tic u l a r a d e ge n e r a t e r e ct a n g u l a r h yp e
.
,
r

b o l c o ns i s ts o f t w o li n e s which a l e a t r ight n gl e s A c o n ic which

a a .

t o u h e t he li n I J a t o n e o f t h e t w o p o i n t s I J is b o th a p a ra b o la
c s e , , ,

a n d a r e ct a n g u l a r h er b o l a
yp [ A dd ] .

B y c o n s id e r i n g t h e i n v o l ti n o f p a irs o f p o i n t s d e t e r mi n e d o n u o

t he li n I J b y t h e c o n ic s whi h p a s s th r o gh t h fo u r i n t e rs e cti o n s
e c u e

o f t w o r e ct n g u l a r h e rb o l w e s e e th a t a l l th e s e c o n ic s a r e
yp a a s,

re ct a n gu l r hy p er b l a s I n p a r tic u l a r if K b t he o r th o ce n tr e o f
a o .
, e

a tr ia d of o i n t s A B C a l l c o n ic s th r o u gh A B C K a e r e ct r
p , , , , , , ,

a ng u l a r h e rb o l a s ; c o n v e r s e l if an r e ct a n g u l a r h p e rb o l d r a wn
yp y y y a

—2
,

6
84 Ch ap ter II
thro u gh A B C m e e t t h e li n e which is d r a w n thr o u gh A a t r ight
, , ,

a n gl e s t o B C in t h e fu th e o i n t K th li n e B K is a t r ight a n gl e s
, p r r , e

t o CA th u s n y re cta n gu l a r hyp e r b o l a a

d a w n th r o u gh A B C a l s o c o n ta i n t h e
r , , s

o rth o c e n t r e .

T h e c e n t r e C o f a r e ct a n g u l a r hyp e r , ,

b o l a a n d t h e p o i n t s I J fo m by de fi n iti o n
, , , r , ,

a s e lf o l a r tri a d in r e g a r d t o t h e r e ct a n g u l a r
p
-

h y p er b o l a T h e li n e s P I P J wh e n P is .
, ,

o i n t o f t h e li n e CI a r e th u s c o n u
an
y p j ,

ga t e in r e ga r d t o t h e u v e a n d a r e th e r e c r , ,

fo r e h a rm o n ic in r ega d t o t h e t a n ge n t s
, r ,

P T P U which c n be d r a wn fr o m P t o
, ,
a

t h e c u r v e T h e s e t a n ge n t s a r e th e re fo r e a t
.

r ight a n gl e s T h u s w e s e e th a t t h e di r e ct o r
.

ci r cl e o f a r e ct n gu la r hy p er b o l a d e g e n e a

r a t es i n t o t h e li n e a ir j o i n i n g it s c e n t r e t o t h e o in ts I a n d J
p p .

E x a m p l e s in rega r d to a r e ct a n g u la r h y p e rb ol a . Ex 1 . .

An y p a ir o f li n e s CP CD dr a w n th r o u gh t he ce n tre C o f a re ct
, , , ,

a n g u l a r h p e rb o l a which a r e c o nj g a t e li n es in r e g a r d t u t h e cu r v e o
y , ,

a r e h a r m o n ic in r e ga r d t o t h e t a n g e n t s o f t h e c u r v e CL a n d CM , ,
“
a t t he o i n t s L a n d M wh er e t h e c u r v e m ee t s t h e li n e I J I n
p , , .

pa rticu l a r CI CJ a r e s u ch a p a i r o f c o nj u ga t e li n e s If CP m e e t
,
.

the c u r ve in P a n d t h e t a n ge n t a t P m e e t CL CM in L a n d M
’ ’

, , ,

th e n P is t he middle p o i n t o f L M in r ega r d t o I J A l s o t he ’ ’
.

a n gl e w hich CD m a k es with CL is e q u a l t o t h e a n gl e which CL

m a k es with CP .

E x 2 If t he li n e s j o i n i n g a ny p o i n t P o f a r e ct a n g u l a r hyp e r
. .
, ,

b o la t o t h e p o i n t s I a nd J m ee t , ,

t h e c u r v e a ga i n re s p e ctiv e ly in , ,

A a n d A t h e li n e A A p a s s e s
’ ’
,

th r o u gh t h e ce n t r e C o f t h e , ,

c u r v e a n d is a t r ight a n gl e s t o ,

t h e li n e CP I n f ct t h e li n e s . a

A I A J P C m e e t in a p o i n t o f
’

, ,

t h cu r ve e .

Fu rth e r if th e t n g e n t s o f t h e , a

c o n ic a t A a n d A i n t r s ct in T ’
e e

( w hich w ill l ie o n I J ) a n d a n y li n e thr o u gh T m e t t h e

,
e cta n g u l a r e r

h y p er b o l a in M a n d N p r o v e tha t P M P N a r e a t r ight a n gl e s in
, , ,

re g rd t o I a n d J
a .

I n ge n e r a l f o r a n y c o n ic n o t n e c e s s a r l ly r e ct a n g u l a r hyp e r b o l a
0

a
, , ,

if th r o u gh a fi x e d p o i n t P o f t h e c o n ic li n e b d r a w n a t right
, , ,
s e

a n gl e s m e e ti n g t h e c o n i
,
a g a i n r e s p e ctiv e l y in M
c n d N t he
, p a irs ,
a ,

M N s o a r i s i ng b el o n g t o a n i n vo l u ti o n o f p o i n t s o f th e c o n ic
, , ,
.
86 C h ap ter II
d th e p o i n ts C, S , giv e n Fu rth e r a s t he li n e Z L p a s s es ’
an are .
,

th r o u gh t he p o l e o f I J in r ega r d t o Q t h e p o i n t s Z L a r e a s ,
’

, ,

p o i n ts o f t h e c o n ic Q h a r m o n ic c o nj u ga t es in re ga rd t o th e p o i n ts
,

I J o f Q ; th u s t he li n e S R is t h e li n e thr ou gh S dra w n t o t he
, ,

p o i n t o f t h e li n e I J which is t h e h a rm on ic c o nj u ga t e in r e g r d
, , ,
a

t o I a n d J o f t h e p o i n t U w h e re t he t a n g e n t R L o f E m e e t s
, , , , ,

the li n e I J If w e s u p p o s e t h e p o i n ts S I J t o b e giv e n thi s

.
, , ,

s h e w s h o w w e m a y d e t e r mi n e ith e r f t h e c o n ic s E Q wh e n t h e
e o ,

o th e r is giv e n T h e li n e s Z R L Z m e e t o n I J th u s if w e t a k e
’
.
, ,

t he p o i n t S which is t h e h r m o n ic c nj u g a te o f S in
’
, of S C, ,
a o ,

reg d t o C a n d t h e p o i n t w h er e S C m e e t s I J th e n t he li n e s S L Z
ar ,
’

a n d RL will m e e t t h e li n e I J in p o i n t w hich a r e h a r m o n ic c o n
s

u a t es o f o n e a n o th er in r e g rd t o I a n d J
jg a .

If w e n o w rega r d I J a s t h e a b s o l u te p o i n t t he c n ic Q w ill
,
s ,
o

be a i cl e o f w hich C is t h e c e n tr e T h e c on i 2 will th en a l o
c r , . c s

h a e C f or c en tr e a n d S S f o r fo ci T h e ci l e Q is th e n t he
v , ,
’
. rc , , , ,

l o c u s o f th e fo o t o f t h e p e rp e n dic u l a r dra wn f o m S ( o r fr o m r

t o a t a n g e n t o f 2 ; o r c o n v e rs e l y 2 is th e re by d e t e r mi n e d fro m Q
, , .
 P ed a l cir cle of a p o in t f or hr ee lin es
t 87

T he circl e Q is th a t ge n e r a lly ca ll e d the a ux ili a ry circl e of t he

c o n ic 2 .

Ex I . If w e b e give n a fi x e d p o i n t S a n d a li n e ;
.
, ,

a n d fr o m a v a r i a bl e oi nt N o f thi s li n e t he li n e
p , , ,

b e d r a w n a t r ight a n gl e s t o S N th e n thi s li n e e n ,

velo e a a b o la which t o ch es t h e giv e n li n e N

p p s ar ,
u .

Ex 2 . If t w o c o n ic s E Q h a v e t w o p o i n ts o f
.
, , ,

c on ta ct a n d a va r i a bl e t a n ge n t o f o n e o f th e e 2
, s , ,

m ee t Q in P a n d Q t he fu r th r ta n gen ts fro m P a n d , e

Q dr w n t o 2 m e t in p o i n t T wh o s e l o c u s is a
,
a ,
e a ,

fu rth er c o n ic t o u chi n g b o th o f 2 a n d Q a t th e ir t w o
o i n t s o f c o n t a ct
p .

E x 3 If A B C 0 b e fo u r p o i n t s a n d t h e li n e s dra w n f o m O
. .
, , , , r

a t right a n gl e s t o B C C A A B m e e t th e s e r e s p e cti v e l in D E F
, y , , , , ,

t h e circl e D E F is g e n e ra lly c a ll e d t he p ed a l cir cle o f O in r e ga d

, , r

to A B C , It is o bvi o u s ly t h e a u x ili a y ci r cl e o f t h e c o n ic which

, . r

ca n b e dra w n with O a s fo c u s t o t o u ch B C CA A B , , .

L e t a ny c o n i b e gi n o n which 0 is a fi x e d p o i n t a n d A B C
c ve , , , ,

a r e v a ri a bl e
p o i nts W e
p r o v e th a t t h e
p.e d a l ci cl e
p a s s e s thr o u gh r

a fi ed poi nt
x .

F o r thi s l e t t he li n e s OI OJ m e e t t h e giv e n c o n ic a ga i n r e
, , ,

s e c t i e l y in M a n d N
v T h er e is th e n a s t h e s ix o i n ts 0 M N
p , p
.
, , ,

a n d A B C a r e o n t h e c o n ic a n o th e r c o n ic t o u chi n g B C CA AB
, , , , , ,

OM ON n d M N ( C h a p 1 E x
, a T hi s will b e t h e s a m e a s t h e
.
, .

c on ic h a vi n g 0 f or fo cu s which t o u ch es B C CA AB ; which c o n ic , , ,

the r e fo re t o u h e s M N T h e r e fo r e t he p e d a l circl e o f O in rega r d

,
c .
,

t o A B C p a s s e s th r o u gh t h e fi x e d p o i n t in which M N is m e t b y
, ,

t h e li n e d r a w n fr o m O a t right n gl e s t o M N a .

I n p a r tic u l a r w e h a v e r e m a r k e d ( E x 2 p 8 4 ) th a t w h e n t h e
, .
, .
,

c o n ic is a r e cta n g u l a r hyp e b o l a thi s p o i n t is t h e c e n tre T h u s r ,

.

t h e p e d l ci r cl e o f a ny p i n t o f a re ct a n gu l a r h yp e rb o l a in r e ga rd
a o ,

t o n y o th e r three p o i n t s o f t he c u r v e p a s e s thr o u gh t h e c e n tre

a , s

o f t h e r e ct a n g u l a r h e rb o l a
y p .

Wh en t he co n ic is a ci r cl e o r p a s s e s thr o u gh t h e p o i n t s I J it , , ,

h a s b ee n s ee n ( C h a p 1 E x 8 a n d p 7 1 b o v e ) th a t t h e p e da l
.
,
.
, .
,
a

ci r cl e d efi n e d with r e fe ren c e t o I a n d J d egen er a tes i n t o a li n e

, , ,

t o ge th e r with t he li n e I J It ca n h o we v er b e s h e w n in thi s ca s e .
, , ,

( s ee b elo w C h a
p 1 1 1 , p th a t if
. w e c o n s,
id e r th. r ee v i a bl ,
ar e

o i n t s A B C o f t h e ci r cl e w hich a r e a s e lf o l a r t r i a d in r e g a rd
p p
-
, , , , ,

t o a n o th e r fi x e d c o n ic ( w hich m u s t th n b e t a k e n s o th a t thi s is e

o s s ibl e b e i n g in o l a r t o t h e circl e ; s e e C h a 1 Ex th en t he
p , p p .
, .

e d l li n e o f a fi x d p o i n t o f t h ci r cl e in r e g a rd t o th es e o i n ts A
p a e
p e ,

B C p a s s e s thr o u gh a fi x e d p i n t
, ,
o .

T h e ed a l ci r cl e o f a p o i n t 0 in r ega rd t o thre e p o i n t s A B C , , , ,

b e i ng t e a u x ili a ry circle o f a c on ic h a vi n g 0 f or f o c u s which , ,

88 C h a p ter II
t o u ch e s B C CA A B a l s o a i s es a s th e p e d a l ci r cl e in r ega r d t o
, , ,
r
,

A B C o f n o th e r p o i n t O t he c o nj u ga t e fo c u s o f thi s c o n ic
’

, ,
a , ,
,
.

We h a v e h e w n a b o v e ( p s th a t wh e n 0 d e s crib e s a ny c o n ic .

p i ng thro u gh A B C th e n 0 d es c r ibe s a li n e ; a n d th a t wh e n
a ss , , ,
’

0 is a t t h e o r th o c e n t r e o f A B C th e n 0 is a t t h e c e n t r e o f t h e
’

, , ,

c i r cl e th r o u gh A B C T h u s wh e n t he p o i n t 0 is o n a r e cta n gu l a r
, , .
,

hyp e b l a thro u gh A B C which th en a l s o p a s s e s thro u gh t h e

r o , , ,

r th o n tr e ( a b o ve oint O li e s o n a li n e th r o u gh
’
o ce
p t h e
p , .

t h e c e n tre o f t h e ci r cl e A B C We th u s h a v e t he res u lt th a t , , .
, ,

if a p o i n t 0 de s cr ibe a ny d e fi n ite li n e p a ss i n g th r o gh t h e c en tre

’
u

o f t h e ci r cl e A B C t h e e d a l ci r cl e o f O in r e g a rd t o A B C
’

p , , , , , ,

a s s es thr o u gh a fi x e d o i n t which is in fa t t h e c e n tr e o f t h e r e ct
p p ,
c

a n g u l a r h p e r b o l a th r o u gh A B C w hich c r r e s o n d s t o t h e li n e
y p , ,
o .

It will b e s e e n b e l o w th a t thi s p o i n t is t h e middl e p o i n t in r e ga r d

, , ,

t o I J o f t h e t w o p o i n t s c o n s i s ti n g o f t h e o th o c e n tr e a n d t he
, ,
r ,

fo u r th i n t er s e cti o n o f t he hyp e r b o l a with t h e ci r cl e A B C , , .

Ex 4 If a c i r cl e b e d e s c r ib e d with c e n t r e a t a p o i n t 0 o f a
. .
, , ,

re cta n gu l a r hy p e r b o l a t o m e e t thi s in A B C D a n d D O m e e t , , , , ,

t h e ci r cl e a ga i n in S p r o v e th t t h e p e d a l li n e o f S in r e g r d t o ,
a ,
a

A B C p a s s e s th r o u gh t h e middl e p o i n t o f O S H e n c e s h e w th t
, , , ,
. a

t h e di r e ct r i x o f t h e p a r a b o l a d e s cr ib e d w ith fo c u s a t S t o t o u ch ,

B C CA A B p a s s e s thr o u gh 0 ; a n d o bt a i n thi re s u lt b y t h e
, , ,
s

t r a n s fo r m a ti o n r e fe r r e d t o a b o v e .

Ex 5 P o v e th a t t o a ny p o i n t P o f t h e c o n ic 2 th e r e c o r
. . r

r e s o n ds a p o i n t P o f t h e c o n ic Q s u ch th a t CP m ee t o n t h e
’ ’

p S P ,

li n I J w hil e CP S P m e e t o n t h e li n e H K T ki n g t w o a bit r a r y
e , ,
’
. a r

o i n ts C S a n d t w o a r bit r a r li n e s I J H K i n v e s tiga t e t h e c o r
p , , y , , ,

r e s o n d e n c e b e tw e e n a n a r bit a r o i n t P a nd t he o in t P d e t er
’

p y p p r

mi n e d by th e s e t w o c o n diti o n s ( B os c vich S ection m Con ica r u m . o ,

u

E l e men ta n ova gu a d a m me thod o conc in n a ta , E le me n ta U n i ver s a e

M a thes eos , Ve n e t iis , 1 7 5 7 S e e T a y l o r s An cien t a nd M oder n Geo
’
.

m etr y of Co n ics , p 3 , e t c ) . .

Th e l ocu s of th e c ent re s of r e c t a n g u la r h yp e b r ol a s pa s s in g

t h r o u g h t h r e e g iv e n p o i n t s We c on s id er e d in Ch a p 1 ( E x 1 8 ) . . .

l c l
t h e o u s o f p o es o f a giv li n e in re ga rd t o a l l c o n ic s p a s s i n g
en

th r o u gh fo u r give n p o i n ts s a y A B C D We fo u n d th a t it is , , , , , .

a c o n ic wh o s e i n t e r s e cti o n s with t h e li n e a r e t w o p o i n t s I a nd J , ,

which a r e c o nj u ga t e in r e ga r d t o a ll c o n ic s p a s s i n g thr o u gh A B , ,

C D ; a n d w e s p e cifi e d n i n e o th er p o i n t s th er eo n n a m e ly fi r s t t h e
, , , ,

thr ee i n te r s e cti o n s o f t h e li n e p a i r s p a s s i n g th r o u gh th es e fo u r
p o i n t s a n d s e c o n d t he p o i n ts e a ch o n t he j o i n o f t w o o f thes e
, , , ,

p o i n t s h a r m o n ic in r e ga r d t o th es e t w o p o i n ts t o t he p o i n t in
, , ,

which t he j o i n m e e t s th e giv e n li n e I J Wh e n w e t a k e t he p o i n ts .

I J a s a bs o l u te p o i n t s e a ch o f t h e p o i n ts A B C D is t h e o rth o ‘
, , , , ,

c e n tr e o f t h e o the r three a n d t he c o mics p a s s i n g thro u gh thes e fo u r ,

90 C h ap ter II
la s t 18 r e l a t e d t o M (P ) d , th e n c e , t o V ( Q ) T h u s t h e l o c u s o f Q
, an .

is a c o n ic c o n t a i n i n g U
a nd V I n t h e s a m e w a y U Q , LP m e e t , in
’
.
’

X I J , a n d V Q , M P 1 n Y ; a n d t he p r o o f o f t h e s t a t e m e n t m a y
’ ’ ’ ’

,
on

be co m p le te d .

If t h giv e n circl e b e t h e n i n e p o i n t s circl e o f A B C o f which

e , , ,

D is t h e o r th o ce n tre t h e p o i n t Q a s P d e s cr ib es t he n i n e p o i n t s
, ,

ci r cle d e s c ib e s a ci r cl e We h a v e s e e n h o w e v e r th a t t h e n i n e p o i n t s
,
r .

circl e p a s s es thr o gh t h e middle p o i n t s o f DA u ,

DB D C ; t h e n e w ci r cl e th u s p s s es thr o u gh
,
a

A B C T h u s t h e s u gg e s te d d e fi n iti o n o f t h e
, , .

n in p o i n t s ci r l e is j s tifi e d ; a n d w e s e e th a t
e c u

it s c e n tr e N is t h e middl e p o i n t o f D a n d 0
, , ,

w h e r e O is t h e c e n t r e o f t h e ci r cl e A B C T he , , .

oint P o f t he n i n e o i n t s ci r cl e i t h e c e n tr e s
p p , ,

o f a r e ct a n g u l a r h p e r b o l a c o n t a i n i n g A B C ; thi s h y p e r b o l a a s it
y , , ,

c o n t a i n s D a l s o p a s s e s t hi o gh Q T h r e e o th e p o i n t o f thi s hyp el
,
u . r s

b ol a a n b e a s s ign e d ly i n g r e s p e ctive ly o n A P B P CP [ A d d
c , , , .

T h e p o l a r s o f a p o in t in r e g a r d t o a s y s t e m o f c o n f o c a l
c on ic s t ou c h a p a ra b ol a T h e th o r e m o bta i n e d fr o m t h e d u a ll y
. e

c o rre s p o n di n g figu re d es e r v e s m en ti on a ls o T h e p o la r s o f a p o i n t .

in re ga rd t o a s y s t e m o f o n ic s c

t o u chi n g f u giv e n li n e e n e l o p e o r s v

a c o n ic o f whi h e l e v e n t a n g e n ts , c

c n b e e a s il s s ig n e d
y a a .

L e t t he p o i n t p a ir s thro u gh
which t he fo u r li n e s p a s s b e t he
a bs o l u te o in ts I J t o g e th e r
p , ,

with t h e p a irs S S n d H H ,
’
a ,
’
.

T h e c o n ic s a r e th e n a s y s t e m o f
c o n f o c a l s in r e g a rd t o I a n d J ,

wh o s e p i r s o f c o nj u ga t e fo ci a r e a

S S a nd H H
,
’
th e i r c o mm o n c e n tr e b e i n g t he i n t e s e cti o n C
,
’
,
r , ,

D n o te t h e fi xe d p o i n t by 0
’
’
o f t he a x es S S a nd H H . e .

T h e n th e e o f t h e e l e v e n t a n ge n t s o f t h e e n v e l o p e a r e b y wh a t
r ,

ha s b e e n s e e n a b o v e t h e li n e I J a n d t h li n e s CS CH th u s t h e
, ,
e ,

e n v e l o e is a a r a b o l a t o u chi n g t h e a x es o f t h e c o n fo ca l c o n ic s
p p .

A n d a s th e s e a x e s a r e a t r ight a n gl es in r e g a rd t o I a n d J t h e
, , ,

di r e ctr i x o f t he p a ra b ol a p a s s e s th r o u gh t he c o mm o n c e n t r e C , .

T w o o th e r t a n ge n t s o f t h e e n v e l o p e a r e t h e t a n g e n t s a t O o f t h e
t w o c o n f o ca l s w hich p a s th o u gh 0 ; th e e t a n ge n t s b e i n g h a r
s r s ,

m o n ic in r ega 1 d t o OI OJ a r e a t right a n gl e s a n d t h e dire ctri x o f

, , ,

t h e p a r a b o l a p a s s e s t h i o u gh O Ot h e 1 s ix t a n g e n t s o f t h e e n v e l o p e
.

a r e li n e s a s i n g thr o u gh t h e o i nts I J S S n which t h e

’
i
’

p s
p H H , , , , ,

fo u r giv e n li n es i n te rs e ct ; t o fi n d t he li ne 1 n q u e ti on t hi o u gh one s

o f th e s e s ix p o i n t s w e a re t o j o i n thi s p o i n t t o O a n d t a k e t he
, ,
 Ap a ra b ola b elong ing to a confoca l sys tem 91

h a r m on ic c onj u ga t e o f thi s j o i n in r ega rd t o t h e t w o o f t he fo u r ,

giv e n li n e s which m e e t in t he p o i n t s l e ct e d I n p r tic u l a r l e t Q e . a ,

be t he p o i n t s u ch th a t IQ I O a r e h a r m o n ic in r e g rd t o I S I H
, ,
a , ,

whil e J Q J O a r e h a rm o n ic in r ega r d t o JS J H th en Q I Q J a r e
,
’
, ,

ta n ge n ts o f t he e n v e l o p e a n d Q is th e fo c u s o f thi s T hi s p o i n t ,
.

Q is t he c o nj ga t e o f O in r ega r d t o a l l c o n ic s thro u gh t he fo u r
u

f o ci S S H H
’ ’
, , , .

No w l e t 2 d e n o t e a p a r tic u l r o n e o f t h e c on foc a l c o n ic s a n d l e t a ,

o n e o f t he f u r c o m m n t a nge n ts o f 2 a n d t h e
o o a ra b o l a t o u ch 3 in
p , ,

P a s thi s t a n g e n t t o u ch e s t h e a r a b o l a th e r e is o n e o f t h e c o n fo c a l
p
c o n ics in r e g r d t w hich 0 is t h e p ol o f thi s li n e On t h o th e r
a o e . e

ha n d t h e p o le s o f thi s t n ge n t in r ega rd t o a ll t h e c o n f o a l s l ie o n
,
a c

a li n e th r o u gh P a t right a n gl e s t o t he ta n g n t thi s n w li n e
, ,
e ,
e

be i n g c o nj u ga te t o t h e t a n ge n t in re ga r d t o a l l t h c o n f o a l s a n d e c , ,

in p r ticu l
a in r e ga r d t o t h e p o i n t p a ir I J ( Ch a p 1 E x
a r, , . .
, .

Wh e re fo r OP is t he li n e d r a w n th r o u gh P a t right a n gl e s t o t h e
e,

t a n ge n t a t P which is ca ll e d t he n o r m a l a t P It is th u s p o s s ibl e
,
'

t o d r w th r o u gh 0 f u r n o r m l s t o t h e p a rtic u l a r c o n ic 2
a o a .

If w e t k e the p o l e in re g r d t o thi s p a r ticu la r co n ic E o f a l l

a s , a ,

the t a n g e n t s o f t h e p r a b o l a th e s e l ie u p o n a n o th er c o n ic t h e
a , ,

o l a r r e ci r o c a l ( 4 7 o f t h e p a r a b o l a in eg a d t o 2 T hi
p p p ) . s new r r .

c o n ic viden tly c o n ta i n s t h e fo u r p i n t s o f 2 s u ch a s P wh e ea t
e o , ,
r

t h e n o r m l o f 2 p a s s e s th r o u gh 0
a It is a s y t o s e e tha t it is a . e

re ct n g u l a r hyp e r b o l o n t a i n i n g t he c e n t e C o f a l l t h e c o n fo a l
a a ,
c r c

c o n ics a n d t he p o i n t 0 a n d t h p o i n ts o f t h e li n e I J which l ie
, ,
e

u on t h e a x e CS C H o f t h e c o n fo c a l c o n ic s
s T h e li n e s CS C H
p , , , .
, ,

I J a r e in fa ct t a n g e n t s o f t h e p a a b o l a n d th i
p o l e s in r e g a r d r ,
a e r ,

t o E a r e th r ee o f t h e p o i n t s s p o k e n o f
, t h e p o i n t 0 is b y d e fi n iti o n ,

o f t he a r a b o la t he l o f a t n gen t f thi s in r e g d t o 2 T h at
p p ,
o e a o ,
ar .

t he fo u r n o r m a l t o a c o n ic 2 fr o m a p o i n t 0 c n b c o n s t r u t e d
s , , ,
a e c

b y thi s e cta n g u l r hy p e r b o l a w a s k n o w n t o A p o ll o n i u s ( Co n ics

r a , ,

L ib v P r p s 5 8 —63 ) w e c o n s id e r t h e th e o r e m a ga i n b e l o w ( p
.
,
o . .

A p a rt i c u l a r t h e o r e m F o r cl ea r n e s s w e giv e h e r e a p a rtic u l a r
.

r e u lt w hich will b e fo u n d t o b e
s

o f i n t er e s t .

L e t A B C D b e a n y fo u r
, , ,

o i n ts a n d X Y t w o o i n t w hi h 2
p , p ,
s c

a r e c o nj g a t e t o o n e a n o th e r in
u

r e ga r d to l l c o n ic s
a s i ng
p a s

th r o u gh th e s e T a k e o n e s u h . c

c o n ic s a y 2 a n d l e t T b e t he
, , ,

o l e o f X Y in r e g a r d t o 2 L t e
p .

T D m e e t 5 a g a i n in D . W ’
. e

pr o v e th a t t he ix p o i n t A B C s s , , ,

X Y D l ie o n a c o n ic T he th e o r e m h a s a l r e a dy b e e n pro ve d
, ,
’
.
92 C h a p ter II
(a b o ve p F o r with X Y a s t h e a b s o l u t e
, .
, p o in t s t h e
p o in t D
, . ,

is t h e o rth o c e n t e o f A B C a n d t h e rc o n ic s is a r e cta n gu l a r
, , ,

hyp er b o l a o f which T is t h e c en tre ; t h e c o n ic A B C X Y is t he , , , ,

circl e A B C which w a s p r o v e d t o m e e t t h e re ct a n gu l a r hy p er b o l a
, , ,

in a p o i n t D s u ch th a t T is t h e middl e p o i n t o f DD in r e g a r d t o
’ ’

t h e li n e X Y a s h e re B u t w e giv e a n o th er p r o o f If t h e li n e s Y D
, . .
,

YD m e e t t h e c o n ic 2 a ga i n in E a n d E r es p e ctiv e ly t h e li n e s
’

, ,
’

, ,

DD E E m ee t o n t h e p o la r o f Y in T ; a n d t h e li n e s DE D E
’

,
’

,
’

,
’

m e e t o n t h e p o l a rs o f Y a n d T a t X A s DB A C m ee t t he li n e , .
,

X Y in t w o p o i n t s h a rm o n ic in r e ga r d t o X a n d Y a s lik e wi s e d o , , ,

D C AB t h e p e n cil s D ( X Y B C ) a n d A ( X Y C B ) a r e r e l a t e d ;
, , , , , , , , , ,

t h e fo r m e r is t h e p e n cil D ( E E B C ) which is r e l a t e d t o t h e
’

, , , ,

e n cil D B D Y X B hich s re l a t e d t o
’

( C i
’

( E C )
’

p E o r , , ) ,
w , , , ,

D ( X Y C B) T hi s is th e r e fo r e r e l a t e d t o A ( X Y C B) T h u s
’
, , , .
, , , .

t h e p o i n t s D A X Y C B l ie o n a c o n ic
’

, , , ,
.

C o n v e rs e ly l e t t w o c o n ic s 2 i n t e r s e ct in A B C D a n d a ’

, , , , , , ,

c h o d XY o f o n e c o n ic
r , ,
m e e t t h e o th er c o n ic E in t w o p o i n ts
, , ,

h a rm o n ic in r e ga r d t o X a n d Y ; a n d l e t t h e li n e j o i n i n g t h e p o l e ,

T o f thi ch o r d in r e g d t o 2 t o o n e o f t h e fo u r c o m m on p o i n t
,
s ,
ar ,
s ,

D o f t h e t w o c o n ic s m e e t 2 a g i n in D T h e n t h e p o i n t s X Y a r
’

, ,
a .
,
e

c o nju ga t e t o o n e a n o th e r in r e ga r d t o a ll c o n ic s th r o u gh A B C D , , , .

W h e re for e if I J b e a n y t w o p o i n ts o f t he li n e X Y which a r e
, ,

h a r m n ic in re ga rd t o X a n d Y a c o n ic ca n b e d r a w n th r o u gh
o ,

A B C D I J
, , , , , .

Fro m thi if w e re ga r d I J a s t h e a b s o l u t e p oi n ts in whi h ca s e

s , , c

t h e c o n ic 2 is a r e ct a n g l r h yp er b o l a w e h a v e t he th e o e m th t
’
u a , r a ,

if a c o n ic 2 o f c en tr e T b e m e t b y a r e ct n g u l a r h yp er b o l a
, , ,
a ,

which m ee ts t he li n e IJ in t w o p o i n t which a r e c o nj u g te in r e ga r d s a

t o t h e c o n ic 2 a n d m e e t s 2 in A B C D a n d D b e t h e o th e r
’

’
°

, , , ,

p o i n t in whi h T D m e e ts 2 ; th e n t h e c

f u r p o i n ts A B C D l ie o n a ci r cl e o , , , .

W e s h ll s e e th a t thi s es lt is p a r a r u ,

tic u l a r ly o f i n t e r e s t w h e n A B C a r e , , ,

s u ch th a t t h e r e ct a n g u l a r h e r b ol a c o n
yp
ta i n s t h e c e n t r e T , .

T h e n o r m a l s o f a c o n ic w h ic h p a s s
t h r o u g h a g iv e n p o i n t L e t 0 b e a ny .

fi e d p o i n t a n d H a v a r i a bl e p o i n t o f a x ,

giv e n c o n ic L e t C b e t he ce n t r e o f t he .

c o n i If thr o u gh 0 t he li n e b e d ra wn c .

which is a t right a n gl es t o t h e ta n gen t a t

H a n d thi s li n e m e e t CH in Q w e co n , ,

s id e r t h e l o c u s o f Q a s H v a ri es If Q O .

m ee t t he li n e I J in D a nd t he t a nge n t a t ’
,

H m e e t t he li n e I J in D s o th a t D D a r e h a rm on i c c onj u g a t es in
’

, ,
94 Ch ap ter II
If OP OQ OR b e th e s e n o rm a l s it c a n b e s h e w n in thi s ca s e
, , , , ,

tha t t h e ci r cl e P Q R p a s s e s thr o gh A F o r ta k e P o n t h e give n

, , u .
’

r b o l a s u ch th a t A P a n d Q R m e e t t h e li n e
’
a a
p ,

I J in p o i n t s which a r e h a r m o n ic in r e g a r d t o
C a n d B A s t h e p r a b o l a it s e lf t o u chi n g I J . a ,

a t C ha s a l s o thi s r o er t it fo ll o w s b
p p y , y c on , ,

s id er in t h e i n v o l u ti o n o n t h e li n e CB b ll
g y a

c o n ics th r o u gh A Q R P th a t e a ch o f t he , , ,
’

li n e p a irs A Q R P a n d A R P Q a l s o m ee t s I J ,
’

,
’

in a p a i r o f p o i n t s whi h r e h a r m o n ic in re ga r d c a

t o C a nd B T h u s t he p e n cil P ( C B R Q )
’
.
, , ,

is r e l a t e d t o t h e p e n cil A ( C B Q R ) ; thi s , , , ,

h o we v e r is re l a t e d t o t h e p e n cil o f li n e s j o i n
,

in g a n y p o i n t o f t he p a r a b o l a t o C A Q R , , , ,

a nd th u s t o t he p e n cil C ( B A Q R ) a n d
, , , , , , ,

th er e fo re t o t h e p e n cil C ( A B R Q ) A s th e n t he p e n ils
, , , , .
, , c

P ( C B R Q ) C ( A B R Q ) a re r e l t e d w e c a n i n fe r th a t a c o n ic
’

a
, , , , , , , ,

c o n s tr u cte d t o p a s s thr o u gh P Q R C B h a s CA f o r it s t a n g e n t ’
, , , ,

at C . C o n v e rs e ly th e n t h e e ct a n g u l a r hy p er b ol a c o n ta i n i n g t h e
, ,
r

p o i n ts o f t h e p a r a b o la wh e ea t t h e n o r m a l s p a s s th r o u gh 0 h a vi ng
r ,

be e n s h e w n t o c o n t a i n Q R C B a n d t o h a ve CA f o r it s t a n ge n t
, , ,

a t C mus t, p a s s th r o u g h P ; s o th a t P is t he s a m e a s P
’
W e th u s
’
.

i n fe r th t a n y c o n ic thro u gh P Q R A m e e t s t h e li n e I J in p o i n t s
a , , ,

which a r e h a r m o n ic in r ega d t o C a n d B ; o r c o n v e rs e ly th a t t he r , ,

c o n ic th r o u gh P Q R a n d a ny t w o p o i n ts o f t h e li n e CB which
, , ,

a r e h a r m o n ic in r e g r d t o C a n d B a s e s thro u gh A Of s u ch s
p a , .

c o n ic s t h e ci r cl e P Q R is o n e ; f o r w e h a v e s ee n th a t C B a r e
, , , ,

h a r m o n ic in r ega rd t o I a n d J .

E x 1 P r o v e th a t a n a rbit r a ry giv e n li n e is a n o r m a l o f o n e
. .

c o n ic o f a giv en c o n fo ca l s y s t e m If thi s li n e b e n o r m a l a t P a n d .
,

m ee t thi s c o n ic a ga i n in P a nd if it m e e t n o th e r c o n ic o f t h e a

c o n fo c a l s y s te m a t Q a n d Q p r o v e th a t t h e n or m l s o f thi s o th e r a

c o n ic a t Q a n d Q m e e t 0 11 t he ta n ge n t a t P o f t he fo r m er
,
’

,
’

c o m c.

Ex . d u a l c on c e p ti n t o a n o rm a l o f a c o n i is fo u n d b y
2 . T he o c

t a ki n g t w o a r bit r a r y fi x e d li n e s i a n d j a n d fi n di n g u p o n a va ri a bl e , ,

t a nge n t o f t he c o n ic which t o u ch s thi s a t P t h e p o i n t P which

,
e ,
’
,

is t h e h a rm o n ic c o nj u g a te o f P in r e g a r d t o i a n d j P r o v e th a t .

t h e l o c u s o f P is a c u r ve which m e e t s a n a r bit r a r y li n e in fo u r
’

o i n ts a s s e s twic e thr ou gh t h e o i n t o f i n t e r s e cti o n o f t he li n e i

p p , p s ,

a n d twic e thr ou gh e a ch o f t w o th o i n ts which l

j ,
er
p ie o n t he o ,

p o l a r in r e ga rd t o t h e c o n ic o f thi s p i n t o f i n t e cti o n
, ,
o rs e .

T h e d u a l o f t h e d i r e c t o r c i r c l e o f a c o n i c T he t ng e n t s t o a . a

c on ic fro m a p o i n t o f t he di r e cto r ci r cl a r e s u ch a s m e e t t h fi x e d li n e e e

I J in a p a ir o f a n i n v o l u ti on o f p o i n t s o n thi s li n e o f which I J , ,
 Th e d u a l o f th e d ir e tor c cir cle 95

a re d o u bl e p o i n t s D u a lly if fro m a giv en p o i n t b e d r a w n a

t he .
, , ,

p a i r o f li n e b e l o n gi n g t o a n i n v o l u ti o n a n d o n e o f t he p o i n ts o f
s , ,

i n t ers e cti o n w ith a give n c o n ic o f o n e o f the s e li n es b e j o i ne d t o

, , ,

o n e o f t h e i n t e r s e cti o n s o f t h e o th r li n e th e n t h e j o i n o f t h e t w o e ,

i n t e r s e cti o n s n v l o p e s a n o th e r c o n ic If i j b t he do u ble r a y s o f
e e .
, e

t h e i n v o l u ti o n t h e t a ng e n t o f thi s s e c o n d c o n ic is a n y li n e w h o e
,
s

i n te rs e cti o n s with t h e giv e n c o n ic a r e ha rm o n ic in r e ga r d t o it s

i n te rs e cti o n s w ith t h e give n li n es i a n d j .

I n fa ct b o th t he c n t r u cti o n s th a t f o r t h e di r e t o r ci r cl e a n d
o s ,
c ,

th a t w h a ve n o w d e s ribed a r i s e in t h e
e c ,

s a m e fig u r e L e t t he p o i n ts P Q o f a
.
, ,

giv e n n ic Q b e s u ch th t t h e li ne s
co , ,
a ,

OP OQ j o i n i n g th m t a fi x e d p o i n t 0
, ,
e o ,

a ir of a e n cil in i n v o l u ti o n o f
a re a
p p ,

w hich t h e li n s i j a s s i n g thr o u gh 0
p e , , , ,

a e t h e d o u bl e r a s T h u s t h e li n e P Q
r
y .

is m t b y t h e li n e s i j r es p e ctiv e ly in
e , , ,

t w o p o i n t s whi h a r e c o nj u g a t e in r e g r d
c a

t o t h e c o n ic Q N o w t o a ny p o i n t o n
.
,

t he li n e i th e e m a y b e m a d e t o c o r r
,
r e

s o n d t he o i n t o f t h e li n e which
p p j i s ,

c o nj u ga t e t o t h e fo m r in r ga rd t o t he c o n ic Q ; a s th e s e t w o r e e

po i n t s d e s crib e on i nd j r es e cti v e l
p, y t w o ra n g e s which a r e
a , ,

re l a te d t he li n which j o i n s th e m e n ve l o p s a c o n ic s a y 2 T hi s
,
e , , .

c o n ic t ou ch es t h e li n e s i a n d j s a y in H a n d K re s p e ctiv e ly It , , , .

a l s o t o u ch e s t h e fo u r t a n g e n t s of t h o n ic Q a t the o i n t s wh e r e e c
p , ,

Q is m e t b y t h e li n e s i a n d j If OQ m e t Q a ga i n in Q t h e c o n ic
’
. e ,

2 a l s t o u ch s P Q A n d if t h e o th e r p o s s ibl e t n ge n t s b e d r a w n
’
o e .
, a

t E fr o m Q a n d Q th e s e m ee t o n t h e o n ic Q in t h e fu r th e r p o i n t
’
o , , c ,

o f t h e li n e OP which li es o n Q Fu rth b y c o n s id e ri n g t he p o s iti o n . er ,

o f t h e li n e P Q in whi h it o i n cid e s with t h e li n e i w c e e th a t O H c ,

e s ,

a re o nj u g a t
c t o o n e n o th er in r e g a r d t o Q ; a s lik e wi s e
e a 0 , ,
a re

a n d K ; th u s H K is t h e o l a r o f O in r ga rd t o Q m e e ti n g Q at
p e ,

p o i nts I J ,
wh e ea t t h e t n g e n t s
, , p a s s th r o u gh 0
r Fr o m thi s w e a .

i n fe th a t t h e li n e s P I P J a r e c o nj u ga te t o o n e a n o th e r in r ega r d
r ,

t o t h e c o n ic 2 T h e o n ic Q is th u s t h e di r e ct o r i cl e o f E in
. c c r

rega r d t o t h e p o i n t I J whil e 2 is t he d u a l o f t he dire ct o r ci r l e

s ,
c

o f Q in r e g r d t t h li n s i a n d j
a ( Cf t h e di a g a m o n p
o e e . . r .

It is s e n th a t P Q Q is a t r i a d o f p o i n t s o n t h e c on ic Q o f
e , ,
’

, ,

which t w o j o i n s P Q P Q t o u h t h e o n ic 2 whil e t he thi r d j o i n ,

’
c c ,

Q Q p s e s th r o u gh o n e p o i n t 0 o f t h e s e lf p o l a r t r i a d c o mm o n t o
’ -
a s , ,

S imil a l y if t h s e c o n d t a n ge n t t o 2 fr o m Q m e e t Q in
’
Q a nd 2 . r ,
e

R th e n R Q Q P P Q is
, ,
tri a d o f th r ee t a n gen ts o f 2 t w o o f wh o s e
,
’

a ,

i nte r s e ti o n s Q a n d P l ie o n Q whil e t h e thi r d t h i n t er s e cti on o f

c , , , ,
e

R Q a n d P Q li es o n t h e li n e H I o f t h e c o m m o n s e lf p o l a r tri a d o f
’
-
, , ,
96 Ch ap ter II
Q a nd 2 . T he t e tra d P Q
, ,
R, Q
’

, of p o i n ts o f Q is s u ch th a t t he ,

j o i n s o f th es e t a k e n in o r d e r , ,

a r e t a n g e n t li n es o f E .

C o n v e rs e l y if a n y t w o ,

c o n ic s Q E b e s u ch th a t
, , ,

th e r e e x i s ts a t e t r a d o f p o i n ts ,

P Q R Q o f Q wh o s e fo u r
’

, , , , ,

j o i n w h en th e p oi n ts a r e
s ,

t a k e n in o r d e r a e t a n g e n t s ,
r

Q \ of 2 , t h e d 1a g o n a l s P R an d

“
\
m e e t in on e p o i n t
QQ
’
of

a t h e c o mm o n s e lf p o l a r t r i a d -

o f t h e t w o c o n ic s a n d th e r e

is th e n a n i n fi n it e n u mb e r o f s u ch t e tra d s o f p o i n t s A s u ffici e n t .

c on diti o n f or thi s r e la ti o n is th a t t he ta n ge n t s o f 2 a t t w o o f it s ,

i n ter s e cti on s with Q s h o u ld m e e t in a p o i n t ly i n g o n Q P a rtic u l a r

, .

e x a m pl e s o f t w o c o n ic s in thi s r e l a ti o n a r e ( 1 ) T w o ci r cl e s Q , 2 , ,

o f which Q c o n ta i n s t h e ce n tre o f E ( 2 ) A circl e Q p a s s i n g thr o u gh

,

a a ir o f c o nj u g a t e fo ci o f E ( 3 ) A ci r cl e Q a n d a c o n ic 22 which is
p ,

t h e n v e l o p e o f a ch o r d P Q o f Q w hich s u bt e n d s a r ight a n gl e a t a
e

fi x e d p o i n t ( n o t lyi n g o n Q ) I n thi s l a s t ca s e t h e middl e p o i n t o f

.
,

P Q d es c r ib e s a ci r cl e w h o s e c n tr e is t h e middl e p o i n t o f t he t w o
,
e

p o i n ts c on s tit u t e d b y O a n d t h e c e n tr e o f Q [ C f p 5 6 a l s o A d d ]. . .
98 C h ap ter I I I

t he s y mb o l f or P , with re s p e ct to A
’

, B ’

,
C
’

,
b e c o m es
x a , B + a,C
’ ’

) + y (b A ,
’
b, B + b, C )
’ ’
z (c A ,
’
c, B
’
+
’ ’ ’ ’ ’
A
’
x
y B x C ,

I ’
x d ,x + b, y o, s , y d ,x + b, y + c, z , z a ,x + b,y c, z .

T h e c o o r di n a t es th u s cha n ge d by a li n ea r t r a n s fo rm a ti o n
a re .

T h e re c a n b e n o o bj e cti o n t o a gre e i n g t o r e p r e s e n t t h e r e l a ti o n s

i n v o lv e d res p e cti v e ly b y
, ,

’ ’ ’ ’
(A, B 9 C)
’

(A R C ) (53
’
: an as , as , , 9 s y s z
) an bu cl (w i g,
bl )
62 9 63 61 2 9 62 9 02

c, , c, , c, as , 63 , 03 1

h ere i n t he m a tri x o f tra n s f o rm a ti on b y which w e p a s s fro m th e c o

o rdi n a t e s x z t o t h e n e w c o o rdi n a t es x s o bt a i n e d fro m
’ ’

y , , , , y i , ,

tha t b y which w e pa s s fro m t h e n ew p o i n ts o f re fe re n ce A B C ,

’

,
’
,
’
,

t o t h e or ig ina l oi n ts o f r e f e 1 en ce A B C b y t h e ch a n ge o fte n
p , , , , ,

c a ll e d tra n s p os iti o n o f r o w s i n t o c o l u m n s T hi s is o fte n ex pre s s e d

, .

b y s a y i n g th a t ( x y z ) a n d ( A B C ) a re tra n s fo rm e d con tr a
‘
, , , ,

r ed ien tl
g y .

T he e q u a tio n of a l in e . L et t w o p o i n t s which d e te rmi n e a

li n e be of re s p e cti ve s
y mb ol

P1
an
y tho er p o i n t of t he li n e is th en o f s
y mb ol an d ha s
c o o rdi n a t es No w c o n s id e r t he three
s mb o l s
y
u =
y 1 3 2
" '

y zz i a v = zl x2 _
w = wl
y
— ‘
z
y i 2
’
2 l

w e no tice firs t th a t th es e a r e u n a ff e ct ed s a
, , , v e b y m u ltiplica ti o n
.

with th e s a m e fa ct o r if ( x y ( y
x 2 ,
e ,, ,, ,, ,, ) b e res p e ctiv ly r e
2 , .

l a ce d b e c o o rdi n a t es ( x o th e r t w o
’ ’ ’ ’

p y t h y z
(
p o i n ts o f t h e li n e ; th u s wh e n t h e li n e 15 g i v en t h e s y mbol s u v w
x
y , , , , ,
.
, z of a n
,

, , , ,

a r e d e t e rmi n e d s a v e f or a c o mm o n m u ltipli e r ; th e n w e n o tic e th a t

, ,

if (x y 2 ) b e t he c o o rdi na t es o f a n y p o i n t wh a te v e r of t h e li ne w e
, , , ,

ha ve
ux vy wz 0,
fi n a lly if u v w b e giv en a ny p o i n t wh os e c o o rdi n a tes ( x y z )
, , , , , ,

s a ti s f thi s e q u a ti o n is a o i n t o f t h e li n e F o r (x
( x z )
y p , y y .
, , ,, ,, , ,

b e i n g t w o p o i n t s o f t h e li ne thi s e q u a ti o n c ou pl e d with , ,

a x, v
y , wz, O, ux, v
y , w z, 0,

e na bl e s us to i n fe r tha t the re a re tw o s mb ols M 7x, su ch tha t

y ,

x X1 3 91 Wr e' e, y My ; My ” 3 7V1 3 1 X2 2 ,
 Coo r d in a tes o f a l in e 99

The e q tiua on ux v
y wz 0,
wh e re i n v w a r e giv e n ( s a v e f or a c o mm o n m u lti p li e r ) a nd x y 2
u , , , , ,

h a v e a ny v a l u e s f o r which t h e e q u a ti o n is ve rifi e d b e i n g t h e re la ti o n ,

s a ti s fi e d b
y t he c o o rdi n a t es o f a ll p o i n ts o f t h e li n e a n d by n o o th e r ,

p o i n t s is ca ll ed t he eq u a tio n of the l ine

, .

T h e c o o r d in a t e s o f a l i n e T h e three s y mb o l s u v w which .
, , , ,

a s w e h a v e s e e n d e t e r mi n e a li n e a r e c a ll e d t he coor d in a tes o
, f he
t ,

If m b e a ny a lg ebra ic s y mb o l o th e r tha n 0 t he s y mb o l s mu , , ,

m v m w a r e e q u a ll y t h e c o o r di n a t e s o f t h e li n e
, .

I n p a tic u l a r t he c o o r di na t es o f t h e fu n d a m e n t a l p o i n t s B C
r , , ,

be i ng re s p e ctiv e ly ( 0 1 0) a n d ( O O
,
t h e c o o r di n a te s o f t he li n e
, , , , ,

B C j o i n i n g th e s e a r e ( 1 O
,
If the n w e rep r e s e n t th e lin es B C
, , , , , ,

CA A B r e s p e ctiv e ly b y t h e s y mb o l s a b c w e m a y re ga r d th e li n e
, , , , , ,

wh os e c o o rdi n a t es a r e u v w a s re p r e s e n te d b y t h e s y mb o l , ,

T hi s is l go u s t o t he r e pres e n t a ti o n o f a ny p o i n t o f th e pla n e by
a na o

m ea n s o f t h e three fu n da m e n t l p o i n ts A B C T he a n a logy e x ten ds a , , .

fu rther F o r w e c a n s h e w th a t if l l b e t he s y mb o ls o f a n y t w o
.
,, 2

li n es t h e s y mb o l fo r m e d in t he s a m e w a y f or a ny li n e thro u gh t he
, , ,

i n ter s e cti o n o f th e s e t w o is o f t he fo rm p l + gl T o thi s e n d l e t , , ,. ,

b h e c o o rdi n a t es o f t h e o i n t o f i n t e r s e cti o n O o f t h e
( y
x ,, 3 ) ,, e t 0 p , ,

li n es (x y z ) o f a n y o th e r p o i n t o f t h e firs t li n e a nd (x y z )
, ,, ,, , , ,, ,, ,

of a n o th e r o i n t o f t h e s e c o n d li n e A n li n e thr o u gh 0 is d e t e r
y p y .

mi n e d b y O a n d a p o i n t s a y P n o t lyi n g o n e ithe r o f t he t w o giv e n

, ,

li n es ; if w e p u t
0 o + y ,B xo C , P, x, A + y ,B z , C, P, x, A + y ,B x, C,

w e ca n s u pp os e t he s
y mb ol of P to be

th u s if P ,
be xA
y B x C, w e ha v e
““
60 6 1 h g
x za
y l flyi { yes z 5 3 0 C2 3 ,

a nd th es e giv e
ya 9 03 7? (y i zo { 0 —g9 2 30 oz z a )
with s imila r e x pre s s i on s f or z x —z x a n d xy , , o
-
xo
y T .h e re fo r e , in

t er m s o f t h e c o o rdi n a t es o f t h e t w o giv en li n es , t h e c o o rd i n a te s o f
t he li n e OP a r e
“ “
77141 l ”
C a z, 770 1 l"
( Us : 7770 1 Sw a g

a nd t he s
y mb ol f or thi s li n e is , th e re fore ,

( 77101 9 )
7
1 2 a ( 770 1 90 ) b ( 710 2 7 1 C102) 03
77 11 “l '

Cla
1 00 Ch ap ter III
T he l ogy b e twe e n t h e e x p re s s i on o f a ny p o i nt in t e rm s o f three
a na

o i n ts a nd o f a n li n e in t er m s o f thr e e li n es is th u s c o m le te
p , y p , , ,
.

A n d a s in t h e fo r m e r c a s e s o in t h e l a tt e r wh e n t h e s y mb o l s a b c
, , , , , , ,

o f thr e e fu n d m e n t a l li n e s a r e giv e n
a in o rd e r t o s p e cify with o u t ,

a mbig u it t h e s mb o l o f a n
y y o th e r li n e it is n e c es s a r t o s e cif t h e
y y p y ,

s mb o l o f o m e o n e fo u r th d e fi n it e li n e b es ide a
s b c w e ma
y in
y ; , , ,

p a rtic u l a r s p e cify t h e li n e o f which t h e s y mb o l is a + b c

, .

T h e e q u a t io n o f a p o in t We i n tr o d u ce d t he e q u a ti o n o f a .

li n e a s t he e q u a ti on s a ti s fi e d by t h e co o di n a t e s o f a ll p o i n t s o f t he r

li n e Fr o m wha t h a s j u s t b e e n s a id w e m a y s imila rly s p e a k o f t he

'

.
, , ,

e q u a ti o n o f a p o i n t thi s b e i n g t h e e q u a ti o n s a ti s fi ed b y t he c o
,

o r di n a t e s o f a l l t h e li n e s which c o n t a i n thi s oint C l e rl if t h e

p y . a ,

p o i n t be of c oo rdi n a te s ( x y s ) t h e e q u a ti on o f t h e p o i n t will b e
,, ,, o ,

u xo v
y 0 w e, 0,

wh e re u ,
v a ri a bl e li n e c o or di n a t es F o r t he s a k e o f di s ti n ct
v, w a r e .

nes s t h e c o o rdi n a t e s o f a li n e a r e o ft e n c a ll e d t h e ta ng en tia l c o

,

o r di n a t e s a n d t h e e q u a ti o n o f a p o i n t it s ta n en tia l e q u a ti o n
, g , .

A n d j u s t a s t h e c o o rdi n a t e s o f t h e li n e j o i n i n g t h e t w o p o i n t s
, ,

who s e c o o rdi n a t es a r e ( x y z ) a n d ( x y a re ,, ,, , ,, ,,

u = z — 2 U =z x w =x
y 3/ y
_

l z 2 n l 2 , ,

s o t h e c o o r di n a t e s o f t h e p o i n t which is t h e i n t e r s e cti o n o f t h e li n e s ,

o f c o o r di n a t e s (

““
v w ) a nd ( v u,, a re
, , , u, , ,,

7J1 w 2 ”a w n 9 0 wl u Z ' 702 151 9 1 02 2 711

F or, if ( x ,, y , a nd (x , , y ,, z, ) be the c o o rdi n a t e s of tw o p o i n ts ,

on e on ea ch li n e t h e c o o r di n a t e s u v
, ,, ,, w, a re t he c ofa cto rs o f
r e s p e ctiv e l in t h e d e t e rmi n a n t
x, ,
y ,, z, ,
y ,

$0,

“
y o,
55 1 21
) y
me , y es 22

an d u , , v, , imil a rly t h e c o fa ct o rs o f x y z r es p e cti v e ly

w, a re , s , ,, ,, ,, .

If w e fo r m t h e de t e r mi na n t wh o s e e l e m en ts a r e t he mi n ors o f thi s
de t e r mi n a n t t h e mi n o rs o f t he n e w de t ermi n a n t a r e k n o wn t o b e
,

p r o p o r ti on a l t o t he e l e m en ts o f thi s o ne ; thi s giv e s t h e s t a t emen t

m de
a .

T h u s i n s t ea d o f rega rdi n g t h e s y mb o l s o f t he p oin ts o f a l a ne

,

a s b e i n g fu n d a m e n t a l w e might e q u a ll w e ll h a v e r eg a rd e t he
y ,

s mb o l s o f t h e l in es a s fu n da m e n t a l O r if w e r e g a r d t h e coo r d i
y .
,

n a tes a s fu n d a m e n t a l w e m a y r e g a r d th a t which w e h a v e fr o m t h e
,

firs t s p o k en o f a s t he s y mb o l o f a p o i n t a s b e i ng in fa ct th a t , , ,

e x r e s s i on li n e a r in u n d e t e r mi n e d li n e c o o r di n a t es which o cc u r s
p , ,

a b o v e a s t h e fir s t m e mb e r or l e ft s id e of t h e e q u a ti on o f a p o i n t
, , .
1 02 C h a p ter III
v a n i s h f o r t he s a m e s e t o f va l u e s o f x y , ,
2 , na m e ly f or th a t s et of

v a l u es which s a ti s fi es b o th t he e q u a ti ons

f o r t he m o men t w e
p p o s e th a t t he li n es o f which th es e l a s t a r e
su t he
e q u a ti o n s a r e n o t t h e s a m e T h e s im u lt a n e o u s v a n i s hi n g o f
. t he
t h ree li nea r fu n cti on s re q u i r es h o w e v e r th a t t he d e t e rmi n a n t
, ,

A, a , by g
h, 6, f
g ) I; 0

s h ou ld v a ni s h A n d c on v e rs e ly it will a pp ea r th a t it is e a s y t o
.
, ,

pro v e th a t wh en thi s de te r mi n a n t v a n i s h e s t he q u a dric e xpres s i o n , ,

o n t h e l e f t s id e o f t h e giv e n e q u a ti o n n e c e s s a ril
y brea k s u p i n t o t h e
,

pro d u ct o f t w o li n ea r f a ct o rs T h e s e t w o fa ct o rs ma y be t he s a m e ;
.

b u t th e n th e re a r e o th e r c o n diti on s c o nn e cti n g t he c o effici e n t s

,

a , in fa ct t h e mi n o r s o f t w o r o w s a n d c o l u m n s in A a l s o
, , ,

v a ni s h A ls o it is tru e th a t if t h e give n q u a dric e q u a ti on is s a ti s

.
,

fi e d by t h e c o o rdi n a t e s o f e v e ry p o i n t o f a li n e s a y t he li n e o f , ,

which t h e e q u a ti on is L = 0 wh e re L is li n ea r in x y a th en t he , , , ,

u a dric ex pre s s i o n o n t h e l e f t o f t h e e u a ti o n br ea k s u i t t h
q q p n o e

pro d u ct of L a n d a n oth e r li n e a r f a ct or F or b y o rdi n a ry divi s i on w e .

, ,

c a n if L c o n t a i n x writ e thi s q u a dr ic ex pres s i on in s u ch a fo rm a s

L M + A (y —mz ) (y —
, ,

na ) ,

wh e re M is li n ea r in x y z a n d A m n a r e i n de p e n d e n t o f x y z
, , , , , , , .

T hi s ca n n o t b e s a ti s fi e d b y e v e ry p o i n t f o r which L 0 u n l es s t he
c o effi ci e n t A b e ze ro .

w s u p o s e t h e d e t e rmi n a n t A is n o t ze r o L et P b
( )
b N o , p P e .
,, ,

t w o p o i n t s wh os e c o o rdi n a t e s s a ti s f t he giv e n e q u a ti o n F rom

an
y y .

t h e fa ct th a t t h e gi v e n e q u a ti o n is o f t h e s e c o n d o r d e r it ca n b e ,

s h e w n th a t e v e ry li n e dra w n thr o u gh P c o n ta i n s a n o th e r p o i n t , ,

P wh o s e c o o rdi n a t e s a l s o s a ti s f t h e giv e n e q u a ti o n s o th a t
sa
y , y ,

th e re is a s s o ci a t e d t o e v e ry li n e d r a w n thr ou gh P a d e fi n it e li n e ,,

thro u gh P j o i n i n g thi s t o P If t he c o o rdi na t es o f P a n d P b e

,, .
, , ,

r e s p e ctiv e ly ( x y z ) a n d ( x y
, ,, ,, , t h e e q u a ti o n s o f li nes thr o u gh
,, ,,

P a nd P
, res p e ctiv e ly a r e o f t he fo rm s
,, ,

y z — y, z 9 ( x x, x x ) y z — y z
, d ) ( x
, x , , , ,

f o r pro p e r v a l u e s o f 9 a n d By wh a t w e h a v e s e e n t o e ve ry 9 w e ,

ca n a s s o ci a t e a d e fi n it e e a n d c o n v e r s e l y T h u s ( cf t he P re limi n a ry
, . .

r e ma rk s t o thi s v o l u m e p 8 a b o v e ) t he p en cil s P ( P ) a n d P ( P )
, .
, , , ,

a r e re l a t e d T h e re fo re P d es crib es a c o n ic in a cc o r d a n c e with o u r
.

o rigi n a l d e fi n iti o n .

( )
c W e m a
y r ea ch thi s c o n cl u s i o n m o re di r e ctl
y a s fo ll o w s L et , :

t h e q u a dric ex p r es s i o n o n t h e l e ft s id e o f t h e giv e n e q u a ti on be
 P a ra m eter exp r ession f or g en er a l con i c 1 03

d e no t e d b y F a n d t he re s u lts o f s u bs titu ti n g th e re i n f o r x y 2
, , , , ,

r es p e ctiv e ly x y z a nd x y x by F a n d F ; l e t p q r d e no te
,, ,, , ,, , ,, , , , , ,
“
r es p e ctiv e ly a x hy g z hx by +f z g x +f y oz a n d p g r
, , , , ,, ,, ,

wh a t th e e b e c o m e wh e n x y z a r e p u t f o r x y z with s imila rly

s ,, ,, , , , , , ,

p g ,, r ,,wh en x
,, y z a r e p u t f o r x y 2 ; w e th e n h a v e
,, ,, , , ,

3 71 72 2 17 $2171 “
l“2
7 q z 2 y g e i 27 1 ,

e ithe r of th e s e b e i ng th e s a m e as

by xy a +f (y i y zz Q + g “
03 1 2 2 1 za ( ) 77 019 2 i
’
01 33 s
' '
3 1 53 2 2 2 55 1 1 5 '

which we d e n o te by If w e now
p ut

X $171 + y9 1 2 71 ) Z $192 y9 2 272,

Y x (9 1 22
9 23 1 ) 9 (z ,x, 3 21 1 ) 2

an d ppsu p o i n ts
os e t he z ) t o s a ti s f
y t h e giv e n ,

e u a ti o n F 0 s o th a t b o th F a n d F v a n i s h w e ca n s h e w th a t f o r
q , , , , ,

a ll v a l u es o f x z t h e e q u a ti on F O is t he s a m e a s
y
—u Y
, , ,

XZ 2 = O

wh e re p éA/F m F or wha t e ve r x y
. .
, ,, ,, z , a nd x , ,
y ,, 2, ma y b e , we
ha v e by m u lti p lic a ti on o f d e t e rmi n a n t s
, , t he p r o d u ct
a s
ha g

e q ltua o
P 3 9 9 r

[91 3 91 9
92 9
[ 92 3
an d, h e n ce ,
e q ltua o F , X Z
X9 F1 3
F 12
Z F ,
F ,

na m e ly ,
we ha ve the ide n tity ,

F (F FY A 2
2X Z F F Z F X
, , ,, ,
2
,
2
.

Whe n w e s u bs titu t e f o r x y z in F r e s p e ctiv e ly x M , , , , , , ,,

z , M ” t h e r es u lt is F 2 7t F V F ; w e a r e s u pp o s i n g F
, O ,, , , ,

F = 0 a n d th a t t he li n e j o i n i n g ( x y z ) a n d ( x y z ) d o e s n o t
, , ,, ,, , ,, ,, ,

c o n s i s t o f p o i n t s a l l s a ti s fy i n g F = 0 ; thu s F d o es n ot v a n i s h ,, .

T h e id e n tity o bta i n e d th u s l e a d s t o
F F 2F ,, (X Z uY )
2 2
,, ,

wh er e u W h e r e for e , t he e q ti
ua on F O is s a ti s fi ed by a l l
e e q u a ti o n s
,

p o i n ts ( x , y, z ) which ,
f or an
y va l u e of 9, s a ti s f
y t h

X = 9,
2
u
,
Y = 9, u
,
Z =1 ;
1 04 Ch ap ter III
thu s the e q u a ti o n F = O b el o n gs t o a c o n ic pro vid e d t he li n ea r ,

fu n cti o n s of x y 2: which w e h a v e d en o t e d b y X Y Z r e i n de
, , , , ,
a

p e n d e n t th a t is pr o vid e d t h e li n e s X
, ,
0 Y 0 Z 0 d o n o t m ee t , ,

in a p o i n t a n d in fa ct X 0 Y O i n t e rs e ct in t h e p o i n t (x y
, , , ,, ,,

while Z O Y 0 m ee t in t h e di s ti n ct p o i n t ( x y
, ,, ,,

A p a r t ic u l a r f o r m of t h e e q u a t i o n o f a c o n i c We h a v e .

s ee n th a t with re fe re n c e t o three p o i n t s c o n s i s ti n g o f a ny t w o
, ,

o i n t s o f a c on ic a n d t h e p o l e o f t h e li n e j o i n i n g th e m t h e e q u a ti o n
p ,

o f t h e c o n ic ca n b e s u pp o s e d t o h a v e t he fo rm x x 0 p oin t
2
an
y y ,

o f t h e c o n ic h a vi n g c o o r di n a t es o f t h e fo rm ( 9 9 Ma n y re s ul ts 2
, ,

which h o ld f o r t he ge n er a l fo rm o f t h e e q u a ti o n c a n b e w e ll ill u s
t ra t e d b y thi s c a s e .

( 1 ) E vid en tly th e li n e r e pr e s e n t e d b y t h e e q u a ti o n
x

c on t a i n s b oth t he p i t ( , 9, )
9 1 a n d ( 4 , (p,
2
thi s is , th e n , th e
o n s
2

q
e u a ti o n o f t h e ch o rd o f t h e c o n ic Or , a li n e r ep r e s e n t e d b y t h e .

q
e u a ti o n a x by 02 O m e e t s t he c o n ic in t w o p o i n t s f o r which
t he v a l u e s o f t h e p a r a m e t e r 9 a r e th o s e giv e n b y t h e e u a ti o n q
a 9
2
b9 c O I n p a rtic u l a r t h e t a n g e n t o f t he c o n ic a t t h e p o i n t
.

x
’
6,y
2 ’
9, z
’
1 h a s t h e e u a ti o n x 2y 9 29
2
0 ; it is t o he q
re m a rk e d th a t thi s is t h e s a m e a s x z x x 2y y 0, a n d , a ga i n ,
’ ’ ’

th a t thi s is t he s a m e a s
8 8 8
— ,

(
,

+ y 8 4 -
2 _
a z
y ) - O
5
.

ax da
Fr o m thi s re m a rk w e c a n a t o n ce fi n d t he e q u a ti o n o f t h e ta n gen t
at an p o i n t o f t h e c o n ic r e r e s e n t e d b t h e g e n e ra l e q u a ti o n
y p y
a X 2
2 hX Y O;

f or ,if X Y Z b e a n y li n ea r fu ncti o n s o f x y 3 s a y
, , , , ,

X a x by , Y d x by c z Z a x +by +c z
, , , , , , , , ,

a nd X Y Z b e pre ci s e ly t h e s a m e li nea r fu n cti o n s o f x y z i t

’
,
’
,
’ ’

,
’

,
’

is e a s y t o s ee th a t
a 8 8 8
X ’

n ow w e h a v e s h e w n th a t t he ge n er a l e q u a ti o n o f t he c on ic s a y F 0 , ,

in v a r i a bl e c o o rdi n a t es X Y Z c a n b y ch o o s i n g x y z t o b e , , , , , ,

s u it a bl e li n ea r fu n cti o n s o f th e s e b e r e d u c e d t o t h e fo r m x x 0 2
, .

W h er e for e t he e q u a ti o n o f t he t a n ge nt a t a p o i n t o f c o or ina t es
, ,

X Y Z is ’ ’
’

, , ,

8 a

T hi s , ho we v er , ca n be o bta i n e d , l
a s o, as foll o w s : Th e p o in t
1 06 Ch ap ter 1 1 1

q
T hi s e u a ti o n is o ft e n c a ll e d t h e t a n g e n ti a l e u a ti o n o f t h e c o n ic q .

I n vi e w o f wh a t h a s b e e n s a id in re ga rd t o t he p o i n t e u a ti o n , a n d q
a s t o t h e d u a l n a t u r e o f a c o n ic , a n d fr o m t h e s imil a rit o f t he
y
r e l a ti o n s f o r t h e c o o r di n a te s o f a li n e a n d o f a p o i n t , it is a t o n c e
cl e a r , ( 1 ) th a t f or a c o n ic wh o s e e u a ti o n is giv e n in ge n e ra l f o rm , q
q
t h e t a n g e n ti a l e u a ti o n m u s t b e h o m o g e n eo u s ly o f t h e s e c o n d o rd e r
in t h e c o o rdi n a t es , u , v , w , o f a ny t a n g e n t o f t h e c o n ic ( 2 ) th a t a ny ,

s u ch q q
u a d r ic e u a ti o n c o nn e cti n g u , v , w m u s t b e t h e t a n g e n ti a l

q
e u a ti o n o f a c o n ic , b e c o mi n g a p o i n t p a ir wh e n t h e e u a ti o n b r e a k s q
i n t o t w o li n e a r f a ct o rs B u t w e m a y pro ve dire ctly th a t t he con
.

diti on f or t he li n e , wh o s e e u a ti on is u x vy w z 0, t o t o u ch q
t he c o n ic giv e n b y

ax
2
by 2
2f y s 2g zx 2 hxy 0,
Au ?
Bv 2
Cw2 2F vw 2q 2H a v 0,

wh e re A , B, C ,
in t h e d e t e rmi n a n t A , s o th a t A
F
G, H a r e re s p e cti ve ly t h e c o fa ct o rs o f a , b c,f , g , h
,

bc f , F 2
g h cy ; e t c A nd — ‘ .

th en , fr o m t h e we ll k n o w n d e te rmi n a n t id e n titi e s s u c h a s
-

B C —F = a A GH —A F = f A 2
, ,

w e ee th a t w e ca n p a s s fr o m t h e t n ge n ti a l
s q ti on t o t he p oi n t a e ua

e q u ti o n b y t h e s m
a l e th a t b y w hich t h fo rm e r e q u a ti o n is
a e ru as e

de d u ce d f o m t he l a tt e r T o p o v t h s t t e m e n t m a de w e e pre s s
r . r e e a ,
x

tha t t h e li n e x vy w z 0 is t h e ta n g n t a t o m e p o i n t
u e s ,

( y
x
’

,
’
o f t h e c o n ic s o th a t thi
,
q u ti n i f t h f rm
, s e a o s o e o

x (a x hy
’

g z )
y ( hx
’
by +f ) z (
’

g + fi/ cz ) 0
’ ’
z
’
x
’ ’
.

Wh e n ce w e h v e a

’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’

hy hx by +f +fl
’
cz
ax
g z z
g x

u v w

which h o w e ve r l ea d
, , to

x
I

y
I
z I

A u + H v + Gw Hu + Bv + F w Gu + F v + C w

th es e wh en w e e x p re s s th a t u x vy w z 0 giv e t he c o n diti o n
,
’ ’ ’

s p e cifi e d .

A s ex a mpl es t h e re a d e r m a y pr o v e t he s impl e fa ct s th a t t h e c o n ic
,
’
wh o s e e q u a ti o n is o bta i n e d b y ra ti o n a li s i n g (f x ) (gy ) ( hz ) 0
i i 5 ’

h a s f or it s ta n g e n ti a l e q u a ti o n f v w g w h uv 0 t h e ta n g e n t a t u ,

p oi n t (x z ) o f t h e c o n ic h a vi ng t h e e q u a ti o n
’ ’ ’
an
y y , ,

c a n (g a r z / r
'

x ( h z

thi s c o n ic t o u ch e s t he j o i n s B C CA AB o f t he thre e p o i n t s of , , , ,

refe r en ce f o r t h e c o o rdi n a te s D u a lly t h e c on ic thr o u gh A B C .

, , , , ,
 R ed u c t ion to for m a p p r op r ia te f or ac ir cle 1 07
wh o s e e qu a ti on is fig s + g zx + hxy = O ha s a a n e n a e u a o n ,
t g ti l q ti
l" s ‘
i
o bta i n a bl e fr o m ( f ) —0 t h e t‘a n ge n t a t a ny p o i n t
1

) g ) ‘(
c uh w ,

(E ,
7 ,
7 C ) h a vi n g t h e e q u a ti o n Ef x n gy C h z = 0 [Ad d ] Q Z 2
.

We r e t u rn n o w a ga i n t o t h e e q u a ti o n x x y 0 L e t X Z b e 2
.
,

an
y p o i n t s o f t he li n e A C w hich a r e h a r m o n ic c o nj u ga t e s in re ga rd

t o A a n d C s a y o f s y mb o l s mA
, , C mA 4 C re s p e ctiv e ly in t e r m s , , ,

o f t h e s y mb o l s o f t h e p i n t s A a n d C ; th e i r c o o rdi n a t es will th e n
o

b e r e fe r r e d t o A B C r es p e ctiv e ly ( m 0
, , , , 1 ) a nd ( m 0 T he , , , ,

e q u a ti o n s o f t h e li n e s BX B Z will th e n b e r e s e ctiv e l m O
p y x 2:

a nd x —
, , ,

mz = 0 N o w w e h a v e a gre e d th a t o u r s y s t e m o f s y mb o l s
.

s h a ll b e s u ch th a t th e r e is a s mb o l i f o r which i
y 1 ( Vo l 1 “ .
,

p . f or thi s w e u s e a l w a y s t h e s a m e s ig n ; t h e o th e r s y mb o l
s a ti s fy i n g t h e s a m e e q u a ti o n will th e n b e i T hi s b e i n g u n d e r .

s too d l et ,

§ = i ( x — m a ) n = 2 m i
y
, ,

whe re mi a s u s u a l is o n e o f t h e s y mb o l s t f or which t m W
, , , ,
?
.

the n ha v e a s a n o th e r fo rm o f t h e e q u a ti o n x z y O t he e q u a ti o n
,
2
,

‘
d h a v e writi n g m i f or (M D
- 1
an we , ,

E C
1
B C
<m A 77
’ ( mA C
2 im 2m 5 2m
Th e tri a d , B, X , Z, is s e lf p o l a r in -
rega rd t o t h e c on ic . C o n v e rs e ly ,
if, in t he gen e ra l e u a ti o n q
ax by
‘ cs
?
2f y a 2g z x
2
2 hxy O ?
,

t he c oo r di n a t e s a r e re fe rr e d t o a tri a d which is s e lf p o l a r in r ega rd -

t o t h e c o n ic w e m u s t h a v e f 0 g = 0 h
, O F or t h e p o l a r o f t h e , , .

p oi n t ( 1 O O) which in ge n er a l is o f e qu a ti o n a x hy g z = 0
‘
, , , ,

m u s t th en b e e x pres s e d b y x = O with a s imila r r e m a rk f o r t h e ,

’
p o i n ts ( 0 I O) ( O O
, , , If th en w e p u t 5 x a ? iy b g 2 05 t he
, ,
i , , , 7
e ’
, ,

e u a ti o n r e d u c es t o 5 { T h 2 F 2
e
q 7 7 .

a lge bra ic r o bl e m o f re d u ci n g t h e g e n e ra l
p
e q u a ti o n t o thi s fo rm e q u iv a l e n t t o t he ,

pr o bl e m o f fi n di n g a s e lf p o l a r tri a d o f -

t he c o n ic giv e n b y t h e ge n e r a l e q u a ti o n ,

is s olv e d b e l o w ( p
“
.

E q u a t i o n o f a c i r c l e I n t h e p hra s e .

o log of t h e pre c e di n g ch a t er with

y p ,

re f e re n c e t o t h e p o i n t s A C t a k e n a s , ,

a bs o lu te oints t h e c o n ic is a circl e
p , ,

wh os e c e n tre is B ; t he li n e s BX B Z a r e ,
1 08 C hap ter III
an
y t woli n es thro u gh it s c e n tre w hich a r e a t r ight a n gle s t o one
a n o th e r in r e ga r d t o A a n d C .

If re ta i n i n g X Z a s t w o o f t h e p o i n ts o f r e fe r en c e w e t a k e f or
, , ,

t he third p o i n t i n s t e a d o f B a n o th e r p o i n t B t h e e q u a ti o n o f t h e
’

, , , ,

circl e t a k e s t he fo rm
(E
’
—Cn)2 = n
In fa ct ,
w r 1 t 1n
g ( s ee
p 1 0
.7)
1
—— ( mA C) , 2 , ( mA C) , B,
2 im
a nd t a ki n g B ’
so th a t
B a X cZ B ’
, , ,,

t h e s y mb o l o f a p g e n e ra l
o i n t fo u n d a b o v e EX + 7B + is , , 7 ,

( E a n) X Z d thi write in t he fo r m
’

n B , (C 0 7 ) a n s w7e ,,

CZ T h e p o i n t s o f re fe re n ce a r e n o w a ny p o i n t B o f
’

EX
’ ’ ’

nB
, , .
,

t h e pl a n e t o ge th e r w ith a n y t w o p o i n t s X Z 0 11 t h e a b s o l u te li n e
, , ,

‘
A C which a r e s u ch th a t B X B Z a r e a t r ight a n gl e s in r e g a r d t o
’ ’

, ,

A a n d C Th e c e n tr e o f t h e circl e is n o w t h e p o i n t f or which t h e
.

”
c o o rdi n a tes g g 7 a r e r es p e ctiv e ly a c 1
,
”
, 7 , , , , .

I n fu r th e r ill u s tra ti o n o f t h e p o i n t o f vi e w a d o p t e d in t h e l a s t
ch a p te r l e t u s n o w fi n d t he e q u a ti o n ,

of a gen er a l circle o f a c o a x i a l
s s t e m th a t is o f a c o n ic thr o u gh
y , ,

fo u r giv e n p o i n ts D e n o te thes e .

o i n ts b I J A B u s i ng I J a s
p y ~
, , , , ,

t h e n o t a ti o n f o r t h e t w o a b s o l u te
p o i n t s T he p o i n t s o f i n t e rs e cti on .
,

S H r e s p e cti v e l y o f AJ BI a n d o f
, , ,

A I B J a r e ( Ch a p 1 1 a b o v e p 66) , , .
, , .

t h e limiti n g p o i n t s o f t h e c o a x i a l
s s t e m o f ci cl e s L e t AB I J m e e t r
y

“
.
,

in Y a l s o I J S H in X n d A B S H , , ,
a ,

in Z ; th e tri a d S H Y is s e lf p o l a r in r e g a r d t o a ll c o n ic s thr o u gh
, ,
-

I J A B
, , ,
Te r e fe r t h e ci r cl es t o t h e p o i n t s Z X Y a n d s u p o s e
.
p , , ,

t he s y mb o l s s o ch o s e n th a t I iY) J % ( X i Y ) a s is , ,

p o s s ibl e s i n c e I J a r e h a rm o n ic in re ga r d t o X a n d Y
,
.

F o r a ny p a r tic u l a r o n e o f t h e circl e s l e t t h e p o l e o f t h e li n e I J , ,

which li es o n X Z b e o f s y mb o l Z a X ; th e n b y wha t w e h a v e
, ,

s ee n a b o ve t h e s y mb o l o f a ny p o i n t o f thi s ci r cl e is ex p re s s ibl e
, ,

with a p a ra m ete r 9 in t he fo rm ,

9 1 + 9m ( 2 + a X )
2
J,
w her e m is a fi x e d a ppr op r i a t e s
y mb ol . D e n o ti n g thi s by
xX +yY + zZ ,
w e ha v e

= %i ( 9 2 l ) = m 9,
y z
 1 10 Ch a p ter I I I

a nd T h es e y mb o l s , h o we ve r
ti ve ly
a re u Y q X p Y s a r e , r es ec
.
, p
—i ) ( X
,

( v + ia ) (X u i Y ),
+ 517) ( X iY ) (q if ? ) ( X i Y ),
or —in ) J —ie ) J ; .

t h e c o n diti o n th t t h e t w o t a n g e n t s h u ld b e a t right n gl e s in
a s o a ,

r eg d t I a n d J is th t th e p o i n t h ou ld b e h a m o n ic c onju
ar o ,
a se s s r

ga t in re g d t o I J n a m e ly th a t
es ar , , ,

“1
(v in ) (v 71 3 0+ ( 9 + 519 ) (9 in) 0.
p u vq 0

‘
m o r e fu lly thi s is th a t
f” 0 w e s h o u ld h a v e
,
, , a t the c o mm on p i t
o n o f t he c on ics
8d) Bxlr 8d> 8x]
;
_

8x bx By By
A pp l y i n g thi s t o t he ca s e of the ci r cl e s wh o s e e q ti
ua on s a r e

1
3
+y
2
2a x s hz 2 2
O, x
2
2 by a hz fi 2
0,
it b e c o m es ( x a z ) x y (y be ) 0 ;
thi s is s a ti s fi e d a t ea ch c o mm on p o i n t o f t h e t w o ci r cl es a s w e s ee ,

b y a ddi n g th e ir e q u a ti o n s .

I n cide nta l ly w e ha v e s e en tha t t h e c o n diti o n th a t a ny t w o li ne s

,

s h o u ld b e at r ight a n gl es
in r ega r d t o 1 a n d J , is u p , v
q 0 .

E x a m p l e s o f t h e a l g e b r a ic t r e a t m e n t o f t h e t h e o ry of
c o n ic s T h e p re c e di n g e x p l a n a ti o n s a r e p ro b a bly s u ffi ci e n t t o e x
.

bibit t h e a p plica ti o n o f t he a lge bra ic s y mb o l s t o t h e th eor y o f

c o n ic s We c o ll e ct t oge th e r n o w a s u cc es s i o n o f ill u s tra ti on s , with ,
.

in m a ny ca s e s , o mi s s i o n o f d e ta il e d di s c u s s i o n M os t o f t h e res u lts .

o bt a i n e d will b e k n o w n t o t h e r e a d er o f t h e p r e c e di n g ch a pt e r s ; b u t

th er e a r e s o m e , o f which t he s y mb o lic t r ea tm e n t is bri e fe r th a n a

p u re ly ge o m e tr ica l tre a tm en t wo u ld b e , which ha ve n o t be e n r e
f e rr e d t o p re vi o u s ly T h e r e a d e r will b e a bl e t o c o n vi n c e him s e lf ,
.

b y d e vi s i n g a g eo m e t r ic a l m e th o d , th a t t h e s y mb o l s a r e n o t i n di s
p ens a bl e e v en f o r th e s e B u t th e r e is o n e a s s u mpti o n which is m a de
.

in s o m e o f t h e c on cl u di n g e x a mpl es t o which r e fe r e n c e s h ou ld b e
m a de It is a s s u m e d in th es e e xa m p l e s th a t t he s ys te m of s y mbo ls
.

e mpl o e d is s u ch th a t a r a ti o n a l a lg e bra ic e u a ti o n o f o r d e r n h a s
y q
n r o o t s , a n d c a n b e writt e n a s t h e pr o d u ct o f n c o rr es p o n di n g li n ea r

f a ct o rs L
o gic a ll , t h e e x a m p l es in which thi s a s s u m p ti o n is m a d e
.
y
s h o u ld h a v e b ee n d e fe rr e d till a ft e r t h e c o n s id e ra ti o n s giv e n in

C h a p l v ; it s e e m e d m o re c on v en i en t t o i n cl u d e th e m h ere
. .

Ex 1 . Cond ition tha t a p a ir of p oin ts s hou ld be ha r mo n ic conj a

.

a tes i n r e a r d to a no ther p a ir O n a li n e , d e t e rmi n e d b t wo i t

g g y p.o n s
 E x a mp l es o f in vol u tion s 111

O, U ,
we c on s ide r
i n t s wh o s e s y mb o l s a r e 0 a U O B U
tw o po , ,
wh e r e a B a r e th e v a l u es o f x f o r which d x 2 hx b 0 a n d a l s o
,
2
,

t w o p o i n t s O + a U O + B U wh e r e a B a r e t h e v a l u e s o f x f o r
’ ’ ’ ’

, , ,

which a x 2 h x b 0 P r o ve tha t t he c on diti o n tha t t he t w o

’
’
’ ’
.
,

la tt e r p o i n t s s h o u ld b e h a r m o n ic c onj u ga tes in r e ga r d t o t h e t w o
“
fo rm e r is tha t ( a a ) ( a B) (B a ) (B B O a n d th a t
’ ’ ’ ’
"
1 1
, ,

thi s is t h e s a m e a s a b a b 2 hh 0 ’ ’ ’
.

E x 2 A r es l t in r eg a r d to in vo l u tion s If A B a n d A B b e
’ ’
. . u .
, ,

t w o p a ir s o f p o i n t s o n a li n e o r o n a c o n ic a n d X Z b e t h e d o u bl e
, , , ,

p oi n t s o f t he i n v o l u ti o n which is d e te r mi n e d b y th e s e t w o p a irs ,

p r o v e th a t t h e th r e e
p a irs o f
p o i n ts A A ; B B X Z r e in in , ,
’

,
’

, ,
a

v o l u ti o n a s a l s o r e t h e thre e p a i r s A B ; A B ; X Z
,
a , ,
’ ’

, , .

Ex 3 R ep r es en ta tio n
. . a l l the
p a ir s o
f a n i n vo l tio n If a s in u .
,

E x 1 t w o p o i nts A
.
,
O a U a nd B ,
O B U b e d e t e rmi n e d b y
, , , ,

t h e r o o t s (1 B o f t h e e q u ti o n a x
,
2 hx b 0 a n d l s o t w o p o i n ts
a
2
, , a ,

O a U a nd B 0 + B U b y t h e e q u a ti o n a x
’ ’ ’ ’
A
’

b =0
’ ’
, , , 2h x ,
2
,

the n t he t w o p o i n ts 0 SU 0 nU wh e re f ) a r e t h e r oo ts o f t h e
, , , , 7

e q u a ti o n 9 ( a x O f o r a ny s y mb o l 9
’ ’ ’
2 hx b) d x
?
2h x b 2
, ,

a r e a p a i r o f t h e i n v o l u ti o n d e t e r mi n e d b y t h e t w o a i rs A B a nd
p ,

A B Fu rth er e v er y p a ir o f thi s i n v o l u ti o n is s o d e ter mi n e d with

’ ’
, .
, ,

a n a p r o pri a t e v a l u e f o r 9
p .

E x 4 A g en er a l r es u l t f o i n vo lu tion s I n t h e p r e vi o u s e x a m p l e
. . r .
,

t h e p o i n ts 0 E U 0 nU c a n b e ex p res s e d b y t h e p o i n ts A a n d A ;
’

l e t t h e e x pre s s i o n s f o r t h e s y mb o l s o f t h e p o i n t s b e
, ,

P r o ve ,th e n th a t x (g , ii
-
1
a ) (f a )( 77 0 0
— 1

den o ti ng thi s b y e p r o v e th a t ,

e [a ( AA ) i ’
H]

<1 e
r [ 0 ( Ar a n
wh e re A h 2
a b, A
’
h
’
2
a
’
b,
’
H 2 hh
’
a b
’
a
’
b .

I n p a rtic u l a r , ( E x t he p o i n t s 0 .
£ 17
0 , nU a re ha rm on ic
c onj u ga t es of o n e a n o th e r , in r e ga r d t o A a nd A ,
’
wh en 9 is s u ch th a t
’2 ’ ’
6 2
(h
?
a b) h a b .

E x 5 Cond ition tha t t w o cir cles , in g en er a l j b r m , s hou l d cu t a t

. .

r i ht a n les
g g S h e wi n g , fr o m t h e t ex t , th a t t h e e u a ti o n s o f a n
.

y t wo q
ci r cl e s ca n b e ta k e n in t h e for m s
"
= 0,
’ ’
+ y + 2g x z + 2f y z 0, 2g + 2 f
2 2 2 2 2 2
x ex x +y xz
y z + c z

pro v e th a t the c o n diti o n th a t they s h oul d cu t a t right an gl e s is

’ ’ ’
2g g 2jf c c .

E x 6 T he r a d ica l a x is
. .
f
o tw o cir c l es the r a d ica l cen tr e o
f thr ee
cir cl es If t h e e u a ti o n s o f
. q an
y t wo c o n ic s , r e er r e f d to an
y tr ia d of
1 12 Ch ap ter I I I

p o i n ts h e F 0 F O pro v e tha t t h e e q u a ti o n o f a ny c o n ic which

, ,
’
,

p a s s e s thr o u gh th e i r fo u r i n te rs e cti o n s is 9F F 0 f o r a n a p p ro ’
,

r ia t e s mb o l 9 I n p a r tic u l a r s h e w th a t t h e ra dic a l a x i s o f t he
p y .
,

t w o ci r cl e s in t h e p r e c e di n g e x a m p l e is ( b y 9 1)
2 (g

A ls o th a t thr e e r a dica l a x e s f o r t he p a irs o f a n y three circl e s

the , ,

m e e t in a p o i n t S h e w fu rthe r ( s e e E x
. th a t t h e c o n ics which
, .

p a s s thr ou gh t h e c o mm o n p o i n t s o f t w o giv e n c o n ic s cu t a n a rbitra ry

li n e in p a irs o f p o i n ts be l o n gi n g t o t he s a m e i n v o l u ti on .

Ex 7 T he common a nd
qf
'

s imil itud e o
. . ta ng en ts cen tr es
f tw o
cir cles . P ro v e th a t t he c o n diti o n th a t t he li n e wh o s e e q tiua on is
ux v
y wz 0
s h o u ld t o u ch the circl e wh o s e e q ti ua on is

(x ) (y be ) hz
2 2 2 2
as

istha t (a n bv w)
2
h2
(u
?
v

H e n ce ,
fi nd th e e q ti
fou r t a n gen ts c o mm on t o thi s circl e
ua on s o f the ,

a n d t h e circl e giv en b y ( x T h e r e a r e thre e

’ ’ ’
a z) (y b a ) h z 2 g 2 z
.

p o i n t p a i r s s u ch th a t e v e r y o n e o f t h e fo u r t a n ge n t s p a s s e s thro u gh
o n e o r o th e r o f t h e t w o p o i n t s o f a p a i r ; a n d t h e th r e e li n e s e a ch ,

c o n ta i n i n g th e p o i n t s o f a p a ir fo rm a tri a d s e lf p o la r i n r e ga r d t o,
-

b o th t h e c i r cl e s S h e w th a t th es e li n e s h a v e f or i n te rs e cti on s t h e
.

t w o limiti n g p o i n t s o f t h e t w o circl es a n d a p o i n t o n t he a b s o l u t e
li n e I J T he c en tre s o f t h e t w o ci r cl es in t er m s o f t he p o i n ts o f
, . ,

refer e n ce X Y Z h a v e f o r res p e ctiv e s y mb o l s C d X bY Z

, , , , , , ,

a nd C
’
d X bY
’
Z s h e w th a t th er e a r e t w o p o i n t s o n t h e li n e
’

j o i n i ng t h e c e n tre s with s y mb o l s h C h C thro u gh ea ch o f which

,
’ ’
,

p a s s t w o o f t h e c o mm o n t a n gen t s o f t h e ci r cl es T h es e t w o p o i n t s .

a r e c a ll e d t h e c e n tr e s o f s imilit u d e o f t h e t w o ci r cl es It m a y b e .

pro v e d th a t t he s ix ce n t r es o f s imilit u d e o f three ci r cl es l ie in thr ees , ,

u p o n fo u r li n e s .

T h e ci r cl e p a s s i n g thr o u gh t he c e n tres o f s imilit u de o f t w o circl es ,

with it s c e n tre o n t he li n e j o i n i n g t he c e n tre s o f thes e is o f im ,

p o rta n ce P r o v e th a t t h e e q u a ti on o f thi s circle is h F

.
2 ’

whe re F 0 F = O a r e t h e e q u a ti on s o f t he t w o circl e s written a s

,
’
,

in thi s ex a m p l e .

E x 8 F eu er ba ch s theor em Ap ola r tr ia ds L e t A B C b e th r ee
’
. . . .
, ,

o i n t s s u ch th a t t h e j o i n s B C CA A B t ou ch a ci r cl e s a y Q ; a n d
p , , , ,

l e t D E F b e t h e middl e p o i n t s re s p e ctiv e ly o f B C ; o f C A ;
, , , , , ,

a nd o f A B T h e n t h e circl e D E F t o u ch es Q
, . T he d e fi n iti o n s o f
, , .

a circl e a n d o f middl e p o i n t s
,
a r e with r e fe r en c e t o t w o a b s o l u te
,

o i n ts I J
p .

L e t K b e t h e c e n tre o f Q a n d ta k e c o o rdi n a t es in re ga rd t o ,

I J K a ny p o i n t o f the pl a n e b e i ng x I + z J y K T he e q u a ti on
, , ,
.
1 14 Ch a p ter III
T he v a l u e s o f t h e p a r a m e te r s a , , 'y, f o r t h e p o i n t s o f c o n t a ct B
o f B C , CA , A B with t he ci r cl e Q , a r e t h e v a l u es o f 9 f o r which t h e

p o lyn o mi a l u 9 p 9 q 9 r , v a n i s h es If w e s imila r ly t a k e t o
3 2 — .

ge th e r t h e va l u es o f t h e p a r a m e t er f o r t h e p o i n ts I , J , o f th e c ircle
Q , a n d t h e p o i n t wh e r e it is t o u ch e d b y t h e ci r cl e D , E , F, th e s e
b e i n g, re s p e ctive ly, 00 O, it , th e s e m a y b e s a id t o b e t he r o o ts o f t he
p o lyn o mi a l v 9 ,u 9, r e ga r d e d a s a c u bic p olyn o mi a l N ow , f o r
= 2
. .

an
y t wo q
u a d r a tic p o l n o mi a l s , s a
y y a 9
2
2 h 9 b a nd 2 h 9 b ,
’ ’

w e h a v e r e m a r k e d ( a b o v e , p 1 1 1 ) a n ex p r e s s i o n i n v o lvi n g th e i r c o
.

e ffi c i e n ts , a b ba , which is o f g e o m e tric a l i n t e r e s t F o r a n y
’ ’

2 hh
’

t w o c u bic p o l y n o mi a l s a 9 + 3 b9 + 3 c 9 + d a n d
3 2

th e re is a s imila r e x p re’s s i o n ,’ which is a l s o o f ge o m e trica l i n te res t ,

n a m el w o c u bic s a r e s a id t o b e a o la r t o
’
cb d T
’

y ad 3 b e 3 a .
p
o n e a n o th e r wh e n t he e x p r es s i o n v a n i s h e s ; thi s is t he ca s e f or t h e

t w o c u bic s , u , v , c o n s id e r e d h e r e We m a y , th er e fo r e , s a y , th a t t h e
.

ci r cl e D, E , F t o u ch es t h e ci r cl e Q a t t h e p o i n t o f Q which is t he
o l a r c o m l e m e n t o f I a n d J, with r e fer e n c e t o t h e p o i n t s w h e r e
a
p p
Q is t o u ch e d b y B C , CA , A B ( S e e E x 2 6 , b e l o w ) [ A dd ] . . .

E x 9 Con tin u a tion of the p r eced ing ex a mp le T he p o i n t wh e r e

. . .

t h e n i n e p o i n t s ci r cl e , o f A , B , C , th a t is , t h e ci r cl e D , E , F , t o u ch es
t h e i n s cr ib e d ci r cl e Q , m a y a l s o b e d e s c r ib e d a s t h e fo u r th i n t e r
s e cti o n o f Q with a p a r ti c u la r c o n ic , which w e n o w e x p l a i n , p a s s i n g
thr o u gh t h e p o i n t s wh e r e Q t o u ch e s B C , CA , A B L e t th e s e p o i n t s .

o f c o n t a ct b e c a ll e d P , Q , R t h e e u a ti o n o f t he li n e Q R is q
x

D e n o t e thi s b y U 0 S imil a r l y , l e t R P a n d P .
Q be V : 0 a nd

W O T he c on ic r e p r e s e n te d b y t he e u a ti o n
. q
a a
U V W = O,
,

ma y be c ll e d t h e p o l a r c o n ic o f t h e p o i n t ( x y z ) in re ga r d t o t he
a
’
,
’

,
’

d e ge n e r a te c u bic l o c u s r e p r e s en te d by U V W = 0 Whe n ( x y z ) .
’

,
’
,
’

is t h e ce n t r e ( 0 1 O) o f t h e ci r cl e Q thi s p o l a r c o n ic b e c o m e s
, , , , ,

2 + 7) V W = 0 It m a
y e a s il
.
y b e v e r ifi d th a t thi s c o n ic p a s s es e

thr o u gh t h e p o i n t ( 1 ) o f Q a n d th a t it p a s s es th r o u gh P Q
u , ,a
l
f
, , ,

a nd R . I t s t n g e n t a t P is t h e h a r m o n ic c o nj u g a t e in re g a rd t o
a ,

P Q P R o f t h e li n e j o i n i n g P t o t h e c e n t r e o f t h e i n s crib e d ci cl e Q
, ,
r ,

a s is e a s y t o v e r ify with a s imil r s t a t e m e n t f o r Q a n d R ; thi

,
a s

s u ffic e s t o id e n tify t h e c o n ic T h u s t h e n i n e p o i n t s ci r cl e o f A B C
.
, , ,

t o u che s t he i n s c ib e d ci r cl e o n t he p o l a r c o n i o f t h e c e n tre o f t he
r c

i n s c r ib e d ci r cl e t a k e n in r e ga rd t o t he d e gen e ra t e c u bic f r m e d o f
,
o

t h e th r e e j i n s o f t h e p o i n t s o f c o n t a ct o f t h e i n s c r ib e d ci cl e with
o r

B C, CA , A B .

An o e on th r c ic which t o u ch es t he i n s c r ibe d circl e Q a t t he p o int

 F eu er b a ch s th eor em
’
1 15

i o bt a i n e d a s fo ll o w s C o n s ide r ga i n the li n e dra wn

( 1 )
f
s : a
i , u ,

thr o u gh P h a r m o n ic , in rega r d t o
P Q , P R , t o t he li n e j o i n i n g P t o
t h e c e n t r e o f t h e i n s c r ib e d ci r cl e
a n d t h e s imil a r li n e s thr o u gh Q

a nd R A c o n ic c a n b e d ra w n
.

to u chi n g th e s e li n e s t o h a v e a
fo u s a t t he c e n t re o f t he ii i
c

s c r ib e d ci r cl e We m y p o v e . a r

th a t thi s c on ic ha s t he e q u a ti o n
[ 1
2
50 2a ( e 7 7
2
2
) 234
2

’
3 “4
4x z r p

in f ct it is cl ea r th a t thi s c o n ic
a ,

m ee ts e a ch o f t he li n es x 0 z 0 o n ly in o n e p o i n t o r t o u h e s , , c

th e s e a n d o h a s t h e c e n tr e ( 0 1 O) o f t he i n s c r ib e d ci r cl e a s
f c u s It is a l s o cl r th a t it m e e t s t he i n s cribe d cir l e x x —
,
s , , , , ,
a

o . ea
y 0 c
2

wh e r e thi s i m e t b y t h e t w o li n e s
s

x —2y ( u
x O,

o f which t h e fo r m e r is t he ta n g e n t a t ( a
a n d s o t o u ch e s t h ,
2
, ,a ,
e

i n s cr ib e d i r cl e t thi s p o i n t T h a t it t o u ch es t he li n e s p o k e n
c a .
,

of th r o u gh P w h o s e e q u a ti o n is W ( 01 + y) V ( a B ) 0 o r
, ,
r
,

x (a 2y ( a g ) z ( q
a r
)
2
0 m a
y b e v e rifi e d b
y s h e wi n g ,

th a t t h re s u lt o f e limi n a ti n g y b e twe e n thi s e q u a ti o n a n d t he

e

e q a ti o n o f t he c o n ic is a p er fe ct s q u a re in x a nd z ; o r by fi r s t
u ,

fi n di n g t h e ta n ge n ti a l e q u a ti o n o f t he c o n ic which is ,

[ 2 a (p g r ) v0
.
2
][ 2 70 (
pg r
) 71
9] W
2
,

an th e n v e rify i n g th a t thi s is s a ti s fi e d b y u a p v
d 2 (a q) ,
2
,

w + r T h e a lg e bra is t h e s a m e in b o th c a s e s
q a . .

We ma y a l s o giv e a n a lge b r a ic p r o o f o f Fe u e r b a ch s th e o r e m with ’

c o o r di n a t e s w hi h r e r e fe r r e d t o t h e p o i n ts A B C W ith o u t a ny
c a , , .

l o s s o f g n e ra lity t he e q u a ti o n o f t h e ci r cl e t o u chi n g B C CA AB
e , ,

m a y b e t a k en t o b e
x
2
. +y +
2
z
z
2y z —2 zx 2 xy = O,

t he b s ol u t e li n e I J h a vi n g th e e u a
a , , q ti on lx + my na =0 . No w
c o n s id e r th e c o n ic s a y N e x p re s s e d b y , , , t he e q ti ua on

‘l ‘l
2 lm n C + f g h ( l x my ) (f
1
h z) 0,
"

na x
g y
wh er e C i s the ex
p re s s on x i 2
2y z which o cc u rs on t he l e ft s ide
of t he e q tiua on i n s cr ib e d ci r cl e n d f m n g = n l
of t he a , ,

h = l —m
,

I t s i n t e r s e cti o n s with t h e ci r cl e e x p re s s e d b y C = O a r e
.

t he i n t e r s e cti o n s o f thi s with t he li n e a n d with

‘ ‘
th e li n e f x + g y h" z = O T he fo rm er is t he a bs o l u t e li n e s o
l
.
,

8 —2
116 C h ap ter 1 1 1

th a t t h e c o n ic c on s id e r e d N is a l s o a ci r cl e ; t h e l a tte r is in fa ct
, ,

a t a n g e n t o f t h e i r cl e C 0 th u s t h e c o n ic c o n s id e r e d N is a ci r cl e
c , ,
—
t o u chi n g t h ci r cl e C = C T o pr o v e th a t t he li n e f x +
e . 0 l

t o u ch e s t h e ci r cl e C = 0 w e r e m a r k m or e gen e r a lly th t c o n i c
, , ,
a a

wh o s e e q u a ti o n is th a t o bt a i n e d b y r a ti o n a li s i n g t h e e q u a ti o n
(a s a s is 0,
w hich is t h e m o s t ge n er a l c o n ic t o u chi n g B C CA A B h a s f or it s , , ,

ta n gen t a t a ny p o i n t (x y t h e li n e giv e n b y
,
’

,
’

/ f z '
w y ( b a 0 .

a n d h a s t h e t a n g e n ti a l e q u a ti o n a v w bw a cu v 0 C o n s ide r n o w .

t h e i n t er s e cti o n s o f t h e c o n ic N with B C CA A B ; it is e a s ily v e r i , ,

fi e d th a t thre e o f th e s e a r e t h e middl e p o i n t s r e s p e ctiv e l y o f B C , , , ,

o f C A a n d o f A B in r g r d t o t h e a b s o l u t e li n e
, , , ,
e T hi s s u ffic es
a .

t o id e n tify t h e c o n i N with t h e n i n e p o i n t s ci r cl e ; a n d s o w e h a v e
c

pr o v e d Fe u e r b a c h s th e o r e m If t h e o th r i n t er s e cti o n s o f N r es p ec
’
. e
,

t i e l y with B C CA A B b e D E F a n d D b e t h e h a rm o n ic c o nju
’
v , , , , , ,

ga t e o f D in r e ga r d t o B a n d C w ith a s imil a r d e fi n iti o n f or E a n d ,

’

F o n CA a n d A B it m y b e p r o v e d th a t D E F l ie o n t h e li n e
’

, ,
a
’

,
’
,
’

wh os e e q u a ti o n is
(x + y 3 )( m n + n l l m —
) ( l x my + n z ) 0
2 2
,

H a m il ton s mod ifi ca tion of F eu er ba ch s theor em I n tr o

’ ’
Ex . 10 . .

d u c tor y r es u lts .

T h e fo ll o w i n g r e s u lt s c a n b e v e rifi e d ( cf C h a p , E x L et . . I .

A , B , C b e a ny tri a d o f p o i n t s , n o t in li n e , a n d O, 0 b e t w o fu r th er
’

p o i n ts ’L e t A’ O, B 0, C 0 m e e t B C, CA , A B , r es p e ctiv e ly , in D , E , F,
.

a n d A O , B O , C O m e e t B C , CA , A B , re s e ctiv e l , in D , E , F
’ ’ ’
’
p y
l e t E F , E F m e e t in P , whil e FD F D m e e t in Q , a n d DE , D E
’ ’ ’ ’ ’

m e e t in R T h e n t h e li n es Q R , R P , P Q , r e s p e cti ve ly , co n t a i n A , B, C,
.

whil e t he li n e s A P , B Q , CR m e e t in a p o i n t A ls o , t h e li n e s DP , .

E Q , F R m e e t in a p o i n t , s a y , K, a n d t h e li n e s D P , E Q , F R m e e t
’ ’ ’

in a p o i n t , s a y , K Fu r the r , t h e li n e KK p a s s e s th r o u gh t h e i n t e r
’ ’
.

s e cti o n o f Q R with B C , o f R P with CA , a n d o f P Q with A B .

A c o n ic , s a y , S , ca n b e d r a w n t o t o u ch B C, CA , A B , r e s p e ctive ly ,
in D , E , F , a n d a c o n i c , s a y , Q , ca n b e d r a w n t o t o u ch B C, CA , AB ,
re s p e ctiv e ly , in D , E , F A n d a c o n ic , s a y , T , ca n b e d ra wn t o
’ ’ ’
.

c o n ta i n t h e s ix p o i n ts D , D , E , E , F, F T he p o i n t s K, K a r e
’ ’ ’ ’
.

t h e p o i n t s o f c o n t a ct , r es p e ctiv e ly , with S a n d Q , o f th e i r fo u r t h
c o mm o n ta n ge n t , a n d th e s e p o i n ts l ie o n T T he t r i a d P , Q , R is .

s e lf o l a r in r e g a r d t o ea ch o f t h e th r e e c o n ic s S , Q , T F u rth e r , if
p
-
.

E F , FD , DE , re s p e ctiv e l y , m e e t B C , CA , A B in U , V , W, th e s e p o i n ts
a r e in li n e , a n d t h e t w o i n t e r s e cti o n s o f thi s li n e with t h e c o n ic Q

fo r m , w ith K , a t r i a d o f p o i n t s o f Q which is a p o l a r ( s ee b e l o w)
’

with t he tr i a d D , E , F , o f p o i n t s th er e o n I n ciden t a lly w e h a ve

’ ’ ’
.
1 18 Ch a p ter III
will h a v e a n e q ti f rm
ua on By of C2 the o Ax 2 2 2
O . T he c o n ic
c o n ta i n i n g t h e fo u r i n te s e cti o n s o f thi s with t he li n e
r s
p h,, a n d a ls o

th e p o i n t s A B C will th e n h a v e t h e e q u a ti o n
, , ,

(A a Bb Cc ) (a x by + cz ) (x y + z) 4 a bc ( A x By
z 2 ? 2 2

C o n v e r s e ly ,
if a ny c o n ic b e ta k en thro u gh A B C m e e ti n g h a n d , , ,

p ,
th e n a c o n ic c a n b e d r a w n thr o u gh t h e fo u r i n t e r s e cti o n s h a vi n g ,

D E F f o r a s e lf p o l a r tr i a d If w e t a k e co o r di n a t e s re fe r r e d t o
, ,
-
.

A B C a n d t h e e q u a ti o n o f t he o r igi n a l c o n ic b e p u t in t he fo r m
, , ,

z + zx + x = 0 whil e t h e c o n ic t a k e n th r o u gh A B C ha s t he
y y , , ,

e q u a ti o n th e n t h e c o n ic th r o u gh t he fou r i n t e r
n z
g zx hx
y 0 , ,

s e cti o n s o f thi s with a nd h which h a s D E F f o r a s e lf o la r

p p
-
, , ,

tr i a d is ,

U n § + g t f + h f n $ 2)
2

wh er e ( f , n , C) a re th e c o o r di n a te s o f P .

Ex Con ic r ef er r ed to i ts cen tr e a n d a x es
. 12 . T h e t w o li n e s .

d r a wn thro u gh t he ce n tr e , C , o f a c o n ic , ( t h e p o le o f t h e a b s o l u t e
li n e , I J , in re ga r d th er e t o ) , which a r e h a r m o n ic c o nj u ga t e s o f o n e
a n o th er b o th in r e g a r d t o t h e t w o t a n g e n t s w hi c h c a n b e d r a w n t o

t h e c o n ic fr o m C , a n d in r e ga rd t o CI , CJ , a r e , a s w e h a v e p r e vi o u s ly
s a id , c a ll e d t h e a x e s o f t h e c o n ic If th e s e m e e t t h e li n e I J in A .

a n d B, t h e t r i a d A , B , C is s e lf p o l a r , a n d , in r e fe r e n c e t o th e s e , t h e
-

q
e u a ti o n o f t h e c o n ic is o f t h e fo r m
p x
2
qy
2
2
2
T hi s fa il s if t h e .

c o n ic is a p a r a b o la , th a t is , t o u ch e s t he li n e I J , a p o s s ibility w e e x
ol u d e W e m a y s u pp o s e t h e c o o r di n a t e s x , y s o ch o s e n th a t t h e
.

p o i n t s I , J a r e o n t he li n e s x iy 0, s o th‘ a t , in a n
y ci r cl e t h e t e rm s
i
o f t h e s e c o n d d e g r ee in x a n d y a r e d 1V e r e la ce
a z

—2
y p p , q ,
r es ec
p .

tiv e l y , b y a a n d b T h e e x p r e s s i on in t e r m s o f a p a r a m e t e r , t, o f
2 "

t he p o i n t s o f t he c o n ic , m a y th e n b e ta k e n t o b e

a ( 1 —t ) 2
, y
= 2 bi ,
‘1
so th a t t = b y /(z It is u s ua l to d e v e l o p m a ny re s ul t s in
thi s n o ta ti o n .

T h e e q u a ti o n
‘l ‘1
a x (1 z (1 t t )
t, t,) b y ( t, t, ) , ,

is a t o n c e v e r ifi e d t o b e th a t o f t h e li n e j i n i n g t he p o i n t s t a n d t ; o , ,

it give s t h e e q a ti o n o f t h e t n gen t b y p u tti n g t t T h e ta nge n t s

u a , , .

t o t h e c u r v e fr o m t h e p o i n t s I J p a s s th r o gh n e o f t he t w o fo ci ,
u o
,

S H giv e n b y x b) y i 0 z 1 a n d a l s o th r o u gh o n e o f
i (a
2 2
, , , , ,

i
t h e o th e r t w o fo ci S give n by x 0 y i ( b a ) z 1
=
’ ’
H , , , ,
2 2
, .

T h e n o rm a l o f t he c o n ic a t t h e p o i n t ( 6 n ha t he e q u a ti o n , , s

1
3? (a
2
b) ?
 C o n ic f
r e e r r ed to i ts c en tr e a n d a x es 1 19

an d thi s s a m e e q u a ti on if w e r ega d ( x y 2 ) a s giv e n a n d E n a , r , , , , ,

‘
é s

v a r i bl e i th a t o f t he r e ta n gu l a r hyp e r b ol a o f A p o ll o n i u s m ee ti n g
a ,
s c ,

t h e giv e n c o n ic a t t h e fe e t o f t h e f u r n o r m a l fro m ( x y z ) ( p o s , , , .

If w e c o n s i d e r t he i n te s e cti o ns o f a ny ci r cl e with t he giv e n c o n ic r

,

w e imm e di a t e l v e r if th at an o n e o f t he thr ee a i r s o f ch o r d s
y y y p
c o mm o n t o t h e c o n ic a n d t he ci r l e m ee ts t he li n e I J in t w o p o i nt s c

which a r e h a r m o n ic in r e ga r d t o A a n d B ( a p r o p s iti o n o fte n e x o

r e s s e d b y s a y i n g th a t th e s e ch o rd s a r e e q u a lly i n cli n e d t o o n e o f t h e
p
a xe cf Ch a p II p 7 9 ) a n d fu r th er s u b s tit u ti n g t h e a b o v e p a ra m e t r ic
s , . .
, .
,

e x r e s s i o n s f or t h e p o m t s o f t h e c o n ic in t h e q u ti o n o f t h e ci r l e e a
p c ,

if t t t t b e th e p a r a m e t er s o f t he fo u r i n t er s e cti o n a n d w e
,, ,, ,, 4 s ,

a s s u m e ( in ill o gic l a n ticip a ti o n o f t h e limit a ti o n o f t h e

a
y mb o l s s

which is e x p l a i n e d in t he foll o wi n g Ch a p t e ) th a t t he e q u a ti o n o f r

t he fo u rth o r d e r which th e s e s a ti s fy is c a p a bl e o f be i n g w r itt e n in

t h e fo rm ( t t ) (t t ) (t t ) (t t ) ,
0 w e i n fe r th a t p , p wh er e , , , , ,,

is t h e u m o f t h e p r o d u ct s o f s e t s o f r o f t
s t t I n a s imil a r
p , ,, ,, ,,

wa f o m t h e e q u a ti o n f o r t h e A p o ll o n i u s r e cta n g u l a r h y p e r b o l
r a
y , ,

w e i n fe r th a t t he p r a m e t er s o f t h e fe e t o f t h e fo u r n o rm a l s w hich
a

ca n b e d ra w n t o t h e c o n ic fr o m a n
y p o i n t s a ti s fy 1 — p + p 0
—
, 4 .

T hi s l a s t ch a n g e s i n t o t h e fo r m e r if w e r e p l a c e t b y T h u s if l
t , ,
, .

P ,, P P P b e t h e fee t o f t he fo u r n o m a l s a n d Q b e t h e o th e r
,, ,, ,
r , 4

o i n t o f t h e c o n ic l y i n g o n t h e li n e P C it fo ll o ws th a t P P P Q
p 4 , ,, ,, ,, ,,

l ie o n a circl e a s h a s a l r e a dy b e e n p r v e d ( C h a p 1 1 p
,
If th r e e o .
, ,

o i n t s o f t h e c o n ic with p a ra m e te r s t t t b e s u ch th a t t h e
p , ,, ,, ,,

n o rm a l s th e r ea t m e e t in a p o i n t it c a n b e v e r ifi e d th a t ,

—1
E t, t, 2 .

L tly i f li b d w th gh
as ,
f t h f ci ( O a h ne e ra n r ou one o e o c, ,
w er e

c
’
b t right
a
?
gl t t h t g t f t h c ic t
2
,
a
p i t an es o e an en o e on a a ny o n ,

f q ti
‘l ‘1
o e ( 1ua
”
t ) 2b y t z ( 1 t ) 0 th i li will h v
on a x
?
, s ne a e

th q ti 2 b t (
e e
‘
) ua (1 t )y 0 on d will m t t h 1
x cz a
‘1 ?
, an ee e

ta n ge n t in t h e p o i n t wh o s e c o or di n a t e s a r e x a ( 1 y
= 2a x ,

z 1 7 wh er e 7x ( a c) b t thi s b ei n g a p o i n t o f t he ci cl e
9
,
'
1
, r

x
2
y a z T hi
2
s h a s b e e n c a ll e d t h e a u x ili a r y ci r cl e ( C h a
z 2
.
p 11 .
,

p 8 5 )
T he p o i n t s I , J, S , H , S , H
’ ’
Ex 13 . . Co nf oca l con ics .
,
in t h e p r e
ce di n g ex a m p l e ha vi n g , , r e s e cti v e l , t h e c o o rdi n a t e s
p y
“
( ( O, ( 9
°

1 i (1 3 i, 0, 09 0
( Ca Ca 2C,
-

‘
, s

wh e r e b , a ny t w o
c
- 2
c o n ic s t o u chi n g t he fo u r li n e s IH S,
’

JS S , I S H JE H , m a y b e
’ ’ ’

ta k e n t o ha ve e q u a ti on s
—1 —l
b y (a X) (6 x>
- - 2 2 2 ? 2 2 2
2 2
a $ 2 , x
y
th e s e a re conj b ca ls , in reg a rd t o I an d J T he c o n diti o n th a t a ny
.

li n e o f e q u a ti o n lx my na 0, s h o u ld t o u ch t h e s e c o n d o f th es e

c o n ic s is a l m
,
2 z 2
n
?
7s ( m 2
0 ; t h e t a n ge n ti a l e q u a ti o n
1 20 Ch a p ter III
of firs t c on ic is a l 6 m rt O a n d t he t a n ge n ti a l e q u a ti on
t he ’ 2 2 2 2
.
,

o f the p o i n t
p a i r I J is Z m 0 W e ha v e
, p r e vi o u s l
y r2
e ma r k e d
2
.

p a b o v e ) th a t if f b o i n t e q u a ti o n s o f a n
’
e t he
( .1 1 2 ,
O f 0 p ,y t w o

c o n ics t he e q u a ti o n o f t h e ge n e ra l c o n ic th r o u gh th e ir fo u r i n t e r
,

s e cti o n s is f + f O f o r a p r o p e r p a r a m e t e r ; th u s t h e t a n ge n ti l
’
fe , 1c a

e q u a ti o n o f a c o n fo c a l c o n ic a p p ea r s a s it s h o u ld a s th a t o f t h e , ,

ge n er a l c o n ic t o u chi n g t he t a n ge n t s fr o m t h e p o i n t s I J t o a ny o n e ,

c o n ic o f t h e s ys te m It is e a s y t o v e r ify t he p r o p e rti e s o f a s y s t e m
.

o f c o n fo c a l c o n ic s m a n y o f which h a v e a lre a dy b e e n r e fe rre d t o

,

7 9 90 b m e a n s o f th es e q u a ti o n s I n p a rtic u l a r t he
( pp .
, y ,
e .
,

o la r o f a p o i n t ( f g) i n r e g a rd t o t h e c o n ic
p , ,

(a
2
M fl
x
?
z
2
0,
h a s t he e q tiua on
‘1
( a
2
(b
2
K) y 77 C2: 0,
which we ma y write in t h e fo rm NZ RY X 0, wh e re
Z Y ( b )é E
z — /y X a b éz a ny b f a
2 ? ’
x r ,
:
z z '
z z
x .

By w h t w e h a v e p via ly s n thi is t h q u ti o n o f t h t n g n t
re ou s ee ,
s e e a e a e

of t h e c n ic wh s q ti n is 4 X Z Y 0 It c n b e v e i fi d th t
o o e e ua o
2
. a r e a

thi is t h e s m e i bt a i n d b y a ti n li i n g t h qu a ti o n
s a as s o e r o a s e e

( W W c ex 0 .

T hi s c o n ic t o u ch es t he li n e x O ( f or 7x a
2
) , t he li n e y O ( f or
7x d t h e li n e 2
b 2
), an O ( f o r 7x 00 it is th u s a p a r a b o l a , in
r e ga r d t o I a n d J , t h e o i n t C , a t which t w o er e n dic ul a r ta n g e n t s
p p p
m e e t , be i n g o n t h e di r e ct r i x T h e p o i n t ( 5, 77, if) is e u a lly o n t h e . q
di r e ctri x ; f o r th e r e a r e t w o o f t he c o n f o ca l s p a s s i n g th r o u gh thi s
o i n t , th o s e n a m e l f o r which X h a s e ith e r o f t h e v a l u e s f or which
p — y
d th s e c u t a t r ight a n gl es ; f o r t h e t a n
( 0 5 0
2 2
C
2 1
a 7 ,
a n e :

ge n t s a r e ( a 2
Ex C2 O a n d ( a
2
{ z O,
which a r e a t right a n gle s ( p 1 1 0, a b o ve ) , if .

( x1 ) w 6
( (6 MH Z MW
? - l 2 2 2
a a
e ?
)
?
0,
an e q a ti
u on o bt a i n a bl e fr o m

= 0 d
C
2
(
2
a + an

d th e s e t a n ge n t s a r e t he p o l a r s of ( f , t o th e s e t w o
“in re ga rd
an Q)
c on f o c a l s T he fo c u s o f t h e p a r a b o l a is t h e i n t er s e cti o n o f t w o o f
.

it s t a n g e n t s p a s s i n g r e s p e ctiv e ly thr o u gh I a n d J t he p ol a r
—1
( a
2
+ 7 05 27 { z 0 p a s s es thr o u gh ( 1 , i , O f o r t h e v a l u e o f X
)
“ —
giv e n b y ( a 2
?
2
M
( 6 7 0 577 0 ; a n d w e s imila rly fi nd t h e
1

o la r a s s i n g th r o u gh ( l , — i O ) Th e i n t e r s e cti o n o f th e s e l
p p , .
p o a rs .

giv e s t he fo c u s , whi c h is fou n d t o b e ( 0 55, c 77§, 5 2 2 2

It is -

t o v e r if th a t t h e g e n e r a l c o n ic a s s i n g thr o u gh t h e fo u r fo ci
ea s
y y p
ha s t h e e u a ti o n x 2
q y
2 2 2
0 2 2 hx
y 0 , wh e re h is v a r i a bl e , a n d
 1 22 Ch ap ter III
T h en t h e p o i n t s o n B C CA A B which a r e the r s p e ctiv e ha r m o n ic
, , , , e

c o nj u ga tes o f D E F with r ega r d t o B C ; C A ; A B l ie o n a

, , , , , ,

li n e s a y I n d t he p o i n t s o n B C CA A B s imila r ly d e riv e d fr o m
, ,
a , , , ,

D E F a l s o l ie o n a li n e s a y l I n ge n e ra l the s e d e r iv e d s ix
’
,
’

,
’

, , ,
’
.
,

o i n t s lie o n t h e c o n ic wh o s e e q u a ti o n is
p
by 2f y z n 2 hxy O,
2 2
ax x

as is ea s
y t o in t he c a s e n o w c o n s id e r e d , thi s c o n ic b r e a k s i n t o
s ee ;

t h e t w o li n e s , I a n d Wh e n thi s is s o , it fo ll o ws , fr o m wh a t h a s
been s a id , th a t th e re is a c o n ic thr o u gh A , B, C which t o u ch e s t h e
ta n ge n t s d r a w n t o S fr o m 0 a n d Fro m t h e e u a ti o n s it a l s o q
fo ll o w s e a s ily th a t thi s c o n ic p a s s es th r o u gh t he i n t e rs e cti o n s o f S
with t h e li n es I a n d l ; a n d a l s o , thro u gh the s e i n te r s e cti o n s th er e
’

a s s e s a c o n ic i n r e g a r d t o which A , B , C a r e a s e lf p o l a r tri a d , t h e
p
-

li n es I a n d I b e i n g t h e p o la rs , r es p e cti v e ly , o f 0 a n d 0 , in r e ga rd
’ ’

t o thi s q
T h e p o i n t e u a ti o n o f a c o n ic , giv e n in t a n ge n ti a l fo r m ,
.

w hich b r e a k s i n t o a p o i n t p a i r , r e pr e s e n t s t h e li n e j o i n i n g th e s e
p o i n ts , t a k e n twic e o v e r, a s is ea s y t o s ee T h u s , in t h e ca s e n o w .

c o n s ide r e d , th er e is a c o n ic t o u chi n g B C, CA , A B which t ou ch e s S

a t it s t w o i n t er s e cti o n s with t h e li n e a n d , fu r th e r , t h e t a n g e n t s

o f t h e c o n ic s , a t th e i r t w o p o i n t s o f c o n t a ct , m e e t in t h e i n t er s e cti o n

o f t h e li n e s I, l I n t h e p r e s e n t c a s e , w e m a y r e ga r d S a s t h e n i n e
’
.

o i n t s circl e o f t h e t r i a d , A , B, C w e ha ve o n l
y t o t a k e f o r a b s o l u te
p
o i n t s t h e i n t e r s e cti o n s o f S with t h e li n e I ; it c a n b e p r o v e d th a t
p
th es e a r e c o nj u ga t e p o i n ts in r e ga rd t o a ll c o n ic s thro u gh t he fo u r
o i n ts A , B, C, s o th a t , f o r i n s t a n c e , A O is a t right a n gl e s t o
'

p
B C in r e fe r e n c e t o th e s e p o i n t s T h u s t he r e s u lt s h er e s t a t e d a r e
.

q
e u iv a l e n t t o s a y i n g th a t t h e t w o p o i n t s 0 , O , r e s p e ctiv e ly t h e
'

i n te r s e cti o n o f t h e li n e s fr o m A , B , C t o t h e middl e p o i n t s o f B , C,
o f C , A , a n d o f A , B , a n d t h e o r th o c e n t r e o f A , B , C , a r e t he c e n t r es

o f s imilit u d e o f t h e n i n e p o i n t s ci r cl e a n d t h e ci r cl e A , B , C , t h e

r a dic a l a x i s o f th es e ci r cl es b e i ng t h e li n e l , d e r iv e d fr o m t he '

o r th o c e n t r e , b y t h e r u l e giv e n ; fur th e r th a t th e re is a circl e ,

c o a x i a l with th es e t w o ci r cl e s , with c e n tr e a t t he o r th o ce n tre , f o r
w hich A , B , C is a s e lf p o l a r t r i a d , a n d f o r which 0 is t h e p o l e o f
-

t h e ra dic a l a x i s s p o k e n o f ; a n d , a l s o , th a t th e r e is a c o n ic t o u chi n g
B C , CA , A B , which t o u ch e s t h e n i n e p o i n t s ci r cl e a t t w o p o i n t s o f
t h e li n e 0 0 wh e r e a t t h e t a n g e n t s a r e p a r a ll e l ( with r e g a rd t o t he
’

a b s o l u t e li n e I) t o thi s ra dic a l a x i s ( S e e a l s o Ch a p , E x
. . I .

It w o u ld s e e m t o b e wo r th whil e t o s p ea k o f t he c o n ic wh o s e e u a q
ti o n , re fe rre d t o three p o i n ts A , B , C , is
n by n 2 hxy 0,
2 2
ax z x

as t he h a rm o n ica lly co nj u ga te of t he c o n ic wh o s e e q tiua on is

i
'

+ by + 2g z x + + 2 hxy 0
3 2 z
(1 3 + z ez .
 C on ics b ip u n ctu a l in re ga r d to a tr ia d 1 23

If th e l a tte r m ee t B C in P a n d P t he fo r m e r m e e t s B C in t w o I ,,

p i
o n ts ,
which a r e t h e h r m o n ic c o nj g a t e s in re g a r d t o B a u ,

a n d C r e p e ctiv e ly o f P
, s a nd P with a s imil r s ta t e m e n t f r CA
, 1 ,, a o

a nd AB A n d fu r th e r t o S p ea k o f t he l a tt e c o n ic a s b e i n g b i
“
.
, ,
r

u n ct u a l in r e ga r d t o A B C wh e n t h e s ix li n s ch a s A P A P es u
p , , , , 2,

m e e t in t w o p o i n ts T he c o n diti n f or thi s is th a t t h e h a rm o n ica lly

. o

c o nj u ga te c o n ic b r e a k u p i n t o t w o li n e s .

If X Y Z b e s e lf p l r tri a d in r e ga d t a c o ni a n d 0 b e
, ,
a -
o a r o c,

an o i nt a nd X 0 Y 0 Z 0 m eet Y Z Z X X Y r es e ctiv e l in
y p , p , y , , , , ,

A B C th e n t he c n ic is bi p u n ct u a l in r e ga r d t o A B C F o r if
, , ,
o , , .

we su
pp os e 0 t o b e ( 1 1 r e l tiv e l
y t o X Y Z a n d the eq u a , ,
a , , ,

ti o n o f t he c n ic r e l a tiv e ly t o th e e b e a x by ex 0 b y t a ki n g
o s
2 2 2
,

=
C é< w + y
— z) ,

w e h a v e f o r t h e e q u a ti o n in r e ga d t o A B C t h e fo r m
,
r , , ,

( 77 + 0
2
a +

The h a r m o n ica lly co nj u ga t e c o n ic ,

in re ga rd to A , B , C , is th en
M7 7

which vid e n tly a li n e p a ir

is e .

C o n ve r s e ly if c o n ic b e bi p u n ct u l in re g r d t o A B C it is
,
a a a , , ,

o s s ibl e a n d in o n l y o n e w a y t o d r a w li n e s Y Z Z X X Y pa s s ing
p , , , , , , ,

e ctiv e l th o gh A B C u ch th a t t h e tri a d X
r u Y Z fo r me d s
re s
p y , , , , , , ,

b y th e i r i n t er s e ti o n s is s e lf p l a r in r eg r d t o t h e o n ic ; a n d t h e
c ,
-
o a c

li n s A X B Y CZ m e e t in p o i n t F or if r e fer e d t o A B C t h e
e , ,
a . , , r , , ,

c o n ic b e
$
' ’ ’ ’ '

( m n + m n ) 75 ( n l + n l )
' ' '

ll § + m m n + n n é )
’

( l m I m O
’
2 2 2
+ 7 7 1
,

a n d w e a tt e m t t o w r it e thi s e q u a ti o n in t h e fo r m
p
P ( fl + 19 0 Q ( 5+ 9 9 + R ( 35 0 2 2
,

we find
'
' ’ ’ ’

p (nl n l ) ( lm QPp mn m n,
w ith s imila r v a l es f o r g Q r R ( s o th a t p qr u , , , ,

We ma y s imila ly c o n s ide r a c o n ic s u ch th a t th e t a n ge n t s
r to it
fr o m A B C m ee t B C CA A B in p o i n t s ly i n g in th r ee s
, , , , , ,
u
p on

t w o li n e s .

E x 1 5 T w o tr ia ds r ecip r oca l i n r eg a r d to a
. . co n ic a r e in p er
sp ective If P , Q , R b e t h e p o le s , with rega r d t o
. an
y c on ic wh o se

q
ta n ge n ti a l e u a ti o n r e fe r r e d t o A , B , C is
An 2
s Cw 2
QF z' w 2q 2H u v 0,
res p e ctiv e ly o f B C CA A B th e n t h e li n es A P B Q CR m e e t in a , , , , ,

p o i n t ( E x 1 0 Ch a p F o r P Q R h a v e t h e re s p e ctiv e o o r di n a t es
.
, .
, , c

( A H G ) ( H B F ) ( G F C ) a n d t h e li n es A P B Q CR m e e t in
, , , , , , , , , , ,

t he p o i n t giv e n b y
1 24 C h a p t er III
D u a ll y , t h e p o l a r s o f A, B C m e e t B C CA AB r es p e ctiv e ly
, , , , , in
th r ee p o i n t s ly i n g in li n e . If t he e q u a ti o n o f t he c o n ic b e
ax 0,
q ti f thi li i
‘l ‘l —
t he e f x g y 0 h z
l
ua s non o
e s ,

E x 1 6 T he H es s ia n li n e of thr ee p oin ts o
. .
f a co n ic If t h e t a n .

ge n t s a t th r e e p o i n t s , A , B , C , o f a c on ic , m ee t B C , CA , A B , r e
s e c t iv e l in D , E , F, t he o i n t s D , E , F a r e in li n e C h a
p y p ( p 1, Ex . .

If t h e p o i n ts o f t he c o n ic b e e x p r e s s e d b y a p a r a m e te r , a n d t h e .

v a l u es o f thi s f o r t h e p o i n ts A , B , C b e t he va l u e s o f x /y f or which
ax
" 3 6x y2
S exy 2
dy 3
O, t h e v a l u e s o f t h e p a r a m e t e r a t t h e
t w o p o i n t s , H , K, a t which t he li n e D , E , F m e e t s t h e c o n ic , a r e t h e
t w o v a l u e s o f x /y f o r which

8F 2
8F 2
8F
9

8x 2
By 2
ax cy
wh e re F O is t h e e q u a ti o n a b o v e ( cf V o l I p Fu r th er . .
, .
,

if t h e l e ft s id e o f t h e l a t q u d tic b e m u lti p li e d by x my w her e m

s a ra ,

is a r bitr a r y a n d t h e r e s u lt b e w r itt e n d x + S b x y + 3 e xy + d y = 0
' ' ' '
3 2 2 3
, ,

it m a y b e p r o v e d th a t a d S bc 3 cb d a = O I n o th e r w o rd s a ny ’ ' ’ ’
.
,

th r ee p o i n ts o f a c o n ic a r e a p o l a r with t he H e s s i a n p o i n t s o f th s e e

t k e n with a third bitr a ry p o i n t If w e t a k e t h e e q u a ti o n o f t he

a ar .

o n ic in t h e fo r m = 0 the o i n ts (x
c
fy a
g zx h x
y p y z
) ca n b e
—
, , ,
“
ex p r es s e d in t e r m s o f a a r a m e te r b y x = =h
f 9 y g ( 0 1
p a , ,

s o th a t A B C c o e s o n d r e s e ctiv e l t o 0 O 1 oo t h o i n ts
, p , p yrr e
p
, , , ,

H K a r e th n giv e n b y 9
,
e 9 1 O a n d it is e a s y t o e r if v t he re l a
2
,
v

ti o n in q u e s ti o n f o r t h e t w o c u bic s
w —
fiy w O,

T he l ti o n is u n a ff e ct e d if i n s t e a d o f 9 w e u s e
re a , ,
a
p m e te r 4
a ra ) c on

n e c t e d with 9 b a n e q u a ti o n A M B 9 C D 0 wh e r e i n
y ) 4) ,

A B C D r e c o n s t a n t s S imil r r e m a r k s h o ld
, , ,
a . a f o r t h e d u a l ca s e
o f th r e e giv e n t a n g e n t s o f a o n ic c .

Ex 17 T he d ir ector c ir cle of a con ic, a n d g en er a lis a tions It c a n

. .

q
.

b e p r o v e d th a t t h e e u a ti o n o f t h e t w o t a n g e n t s d r a w n fr o m a p o i n t
’

( ,y , )
x z t
'
o t o u c h t h e c o n ic U
’
0 is UU T 2
0 , wh e r e U 1 5 wh a t
’ '

U b e c o m e s wh e n x , y , z a r e wr itte n in p l a ce o f x , y , z ; a n d T is
’ ' '

o n e h a lf o f wh a t is o bt a i n e d b y o p e r a ti n g u p on by U
’
a/Bx + y a/ay a/Bz ,
' '

x z

an y mm
d is e t r i a l in r e g
s d t o x
y cz a nd x
y z T hi s r es u lt
ar , ,
'

,
'

,
’
.

fo ll o w s b y c o n s ide r i n g th t t he p o i n t s with c o o r di n a t e s o f t he a ,

fo r m s (x + Hx y + Hy z + '
o n t h e li n e j o m i n g ( x y
,
’

,
z ) to , ,

( y
x
'

,
which’
,
l ie o n t he c o n ic a r e giv e n b y U + Q H T 0 ,
,

Fu r th e r if th e s e t a n ge n ts m e e t t h e li n e j o i n i n g t he p o m t s I J
, , , ,

w hich h a v e c o o r di n a t es ( 1 ii in t w o p o i n t s h a r mo n ic in rega rd
, ,
1 26 Ch ap ter III
thi s c o n ic e vid e n tly t o u ch es t h e e ight t a n ge n t s o f the t w o c on ics a t
th e ir c o mm o n p o i n t s .

F o r t he fo rm e r c a s e o f t w o c o n ic s giv e n t a n ge n ti a lly w e m a y b y
, , ,

t a ki n g a p a ir o f t he i n ter cti o n s o f se

th e i r o mm o n t a ngen t s a s t he a b c

l u te p o i n t s I J rega rd t h e t w o , ,

o n i s a s b e l o n gi n g t o a s s t e m o f c c
y
c o n f o ca l s th e i r e q u a ti o n s b e i n g
‘
,
‘ ‘
a x b 2 O 2 3 2
y
2 2
,
‘l
( >c ) (b 0
2 2 2 2
0 a x 2 .

1
T he t a n ge n ts fr o m a p o i n t P t o t h e , ,

fo r m e r c o n ic s a y p a n d g will b e , , ,

c o n ju ga te in r e ga r d t o t h e s e c on d
c o n ic if g p a s s e s thr o u gh t h e
,
p ol e T o f t h e li n e p in r ega r d t o t h e
, ,

s e c o n d c o n ic T he l o c u s o f P with t h es e c o o r di n a t e s is fo u n d t o b e
‘
,
‘
,
.

‘ “
2a b a x [
b ] [ (a b)2 ] 0;
2 2 2 2 2 3 l 2 2 ? 2
x
y x x
y
itm e e t s e ith e r o f t h e t w o c o mics in t he fo u r p o i n t s wh e re thi s is me t
by it s di r e ct o r ci r cl e .

F o r t h e l a tt e r c a s e , o f t w o c o n ic s giv e n in p o i n t c o o r di n a t e s , w e
m a y r e g a r d b o th t h e c o n ics a s circl e s .

A li n e , I, will m e e t t h e ci r cl e s h a r
m o n ic a l ly if it j o i n a p o i n t P , o f o n e
ci r cl e , t o o n e o f t h e p o i nt s , Q , wh e r e
thi s ci r cl e is m et b y t h e p o la r o f P
t a k e n in r e ga r d t o t h e o th e r ci r cl e .

T he ci r cl e s b e i n g s u p p os e d t o h a v e
1 e q ti
ua ons

= O,
’

n + y + Qg O,
2 2 2 2 2 2
w +y + 2 + 02 x xz + 62

as we h a ve s h e w n t o b e p os s ibl e ( a b o v e p , . t he en ve l o p e is fo u n d
to be giv e n by
'

)
'

( )( ) (g i t ) (g 0
2 ?
v c w n w
u
gg .

T he eq tiua on u
2
+ v
2 =
0 r e p r e s en t s t h e
b o l u te p o i n t s I J a n d a s
, ,

t he e uq ti a on ( g u w) (
g u w) 0 r e r es e n t s t h e c e n t r e s o f t h e
p
’

t w o ci r cl e s T h e e n v e l o p e h a s t h e c e n tres o f t h e t w o ci r l e s f o r fo ci
. c
,

a n d t o u ch e s t h e t a n g e n t s o f t h e ci cl es dra w n a t th e ir i n t e s e cti o n s r r .

A p a r tic u l a r c a s e is th a t in which t he t w o ci r l e s c u t a t r ight a n gl es ; c

th e n c = g g a n d t he e n v e l o p e re d u c es t o t he p o i n t p a ir give n by
'

t h e c e n t re s o f t h e ci r cl e s We h a v e p r e vi o u s ly s e e n ( Ch a p II p 66)
. .
, .

th a t w h e n t w o circl es c u t a t r ight a n gl e s a ny li n e th r o u gh t he ,

c e n tr e o f e ith e r is divid e d h a rm o n ica lly by t he ci r cl e s [ A dd ] .

A p a r tic u l a r c a s e is wh e n o n e o f t h e t w o c o n ics is a li n e p a ir .

F o r e xa m p l e if t h e c o n ic b e t he circl e x ( )
2
, y a b 2 O a nd 2 2 2 ?
,
 L in e m et i n conju ga te p oin ts b y tw o con ics 1 27

“2
t he li n e
p i
a r be b a
y
“2
O t
x h e e n v e l o e is
2
p f
2
o u nd t o be
g —
,

a u + b o
2

‘2 ‘
2 i

“‘
10
2
O w hi c h is t he ta n g e n ti a l e u a ti o n o f t he c o n ic
: q
d x
l
b y 2 2
0 T h u s a n y t a n ge n t o f a c o n ic m e e t s t h e di r e ct o r
.

c i r c l e in t w o o i n t s which a r e h a r m o n ic in r e ga r d t o t h e o i n t s in
p p
whi c h t he t a n ge n t m e e t s t h e a s y m p t o te s o f t he c o n ic .

T h e dire ct o r circl e , S , o f a c o n ic E , ha s b e e n s h e w n ( C h a p 1 1 , .

9 6) t o b e s u ch th a t s e t s o f fo u r p o i n t s ca n b e t a k e n th e r e o n wh o s e
p .

o i n s , in o r d e r, a r e fo u r t a n g e n t s o f t he c o n ic It m b e p r o ve d
j a
y .

tha t f o r t w o c o n i cs S O, 2 0, w h e r e
E= An + B v + C w
2 2
,

the c o n diti o n
f o r thi s p o s s ibility is th a t t h e s u m o f t w o o f t he
q u a n titi e s a A
, b
B , c C s h o u ld b e e u a l t o t he thi r d q .

E x 1 8 E n velop e of a l in e j o in ing p oin ts of t w o co n ics w hich a r e

. .

c on u a te in r e a r d to a thir d
j g g W e now
p r o v e t h e fo ll o w i n g th e o r e m ,
.

which will b e fo u n d t o i n cl u d e m a ny p a r tic u la r re s u lt s : l e t

So= x +y + 2
2
,
‘l ‘1
SI 2
by 2 z
21 2
b 1 2 2
"

d x cz , a u v c w ,

s o tha t 20 t n gen ti a l e q ti o n o f t h e c on ic S O a n d
O is t he a ua 0 ,

2 1
:O is t h e t a n g e n ti a l e q u a ti o n o f t h e c o n ic S = O I n ge n er a l 1 .
,

a n t w o c o n ic s h a v e fo u r di s ti n ct i n t e r s e cti o n s a n d th e ir e q u ti o n s
y ,
a

ca n b e r e d c e d t o th e e for m s
u A n y c o n ic t o u chi n g t he fo u r c o mm o n
s .

ta n ge n t s o f 2 a n d 2 ha s a ta n ge n ti a l e q u a ti o n 2 6 2 0 We
0 1 0
2
, .

r o v e th a t thi s c o n ic is t h e e n v e l o e o f a li n e j o i n i n g t w o o in ts
p p p ,

ly i n g r es p e ctiv e ly o n t h e co n ic s S a n d S s a y P a n d Z which a r e 0 ,, ,

15
c onj u ga te to o ne a n o th e r in rega r d t o the c o n ic ( a bc) S 0 9S I 0,
which p a s s es th r o u gh t he c o mm o n p o i n ts of S a nd o S1 ; an d
1 28 C h ap ter III
c o n v e r s e ly Fu r th e r a n y c o n ic thr o u gh t he i n te rs e cti n s o f S a n d o

S h a s a n e q u a ti o n o f t h e fo r m ¢ S —S = 0 W e p r v e th a t thi s
.
, 0
2
, 0 , . o .

co n ic i t h e l o c u o f t he i n t e r s ti n o f t w o t a nge n t s r e p e ctiv e ly o f
s s ec o
, s .

th e o n ic s S
c a nd S sa
y p a nd z
o which a r e c o nj ga te t o o n e
,, , u

a n o th e r in r e g a r d t o t h e c o n ic cf) 2
é O whic h t o u ch e t h e
( a bc) 2 0 , , s

c mm o n t a n ge n t s f S a n d S B u t fu r th e r wh e n <1) 9 t he t w o
o o 0 ,. , ,

d u a lly co rr e s p o n di n g fa ct s a r i s e in t h e s a m e fig u e t he li n es p a n d 3 r ,

b e i n g t he t a n ge n t s a t t he p o i n t s P Z o f t h e c o n ic s S a n d S , , 0 ,.

L e t S S a n d S b e a n y th e e c o n ic s which h a v e fo u r p o i n t s in
,, , r

c o m m o n L e t t h e t a nge n t li n e p a t a n y p o i n t P o f t h e c o n ic S
.
, , , , 0,

m ee t S in t w o p i n t s o f which C is o n e L e t t h e t w o ta n ge n t s b e
o .

dra w n fr o m C t o t h e c o n ic S t h e p o i n t o f c on ta ct o f o n e o f th es e
b e i n g Z D en o t e t h e li n e P Z b y c Fr o m t h e s e c o n d i n t e rs e cti on
. .
,

D with t h e c on ic S o f t he li n e p d r a w a t a n ge n t t o S to u chi n g
, , , ,,

thi s in X L e t Z X m ee t p in Q L e t t h e li n e j o i n i n g P t o t h e
. .

i n te r s e cti o n o f t h e t a n ge n t s o f S a t X a n d Z b e q 1 .

L e t t h e e q u a ti o n s o f S S b e r e s p e ctiv e l y S 0 S 0 wh e re ,, , , 0 , 1 ,

S S b n d t h e e q u a ti o n of S be
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 dx cz a
0 x
y y , , ,

HS Z
SO 0 ; l e t t he c o o r di n t es o f t h e p o i n t P b e ( 5 n (j) a n d o f
,
a , , ,

t h e li n e p b e (X ) s o th a t w e h a v e 5 C O 0 2 2 ? 2
, ,Lt , u a , , v ,

X3 5 n ) i
,
v § = 0 L et x
( y 2 ) b e a n y o th e r p o i n t a nd ( l m n ) a n y
.
, , , , ,

o th e r li n e ; l e t P x i? nd P axf b cz é AlsO
’

y ‘ n 0 y n
—l
a ,
‘1
.

let 2 , 1 2
m 2
n
2
2, a
l
l 2
b lx m
mg 2
n u, c n
2
11 0
—l
, ,

a lx
‘l
b mp . c
‘l
nv . We c a n a t o n ce v e r ify t he fo ll o wi n g
e q ti ua on s , id en tica lly t r u e in r e ga r d t o x ,
y , z a nd l, m , n

(9
2
a ) b
( y g ca n) ( 9 b ) ( cz f
2 2
(6
2
c ) (a x n by g) 2

( bcij
2
ca n
2
a b? ) S , a bcP , 2
0 ,,
P 2 2

—1 z n) + ( b b
‘1 12
1)
{Q 9 1 ) (y § (z 5 g)
2 ’
2
bc 2
r

‘
a t .

+ <c
~
1
r 1) ( sen e m
6 (a g
2
by ?
C)
?
S, a bcP
2
6P, 2 2
'
2
C , ,

‘l ‘l
C ‘l — —l' l
) (b mv p) b )( )
2 1 l 2
nx
_

d n . c a v

) ( a—l l/i
’‘ ‘l ‘ ‘l
( ci b )
2 2
c ni k
‘1
( a bc) 1 I II
2
o

“1 ‘2 —2
{( 9 1 ) (m y ) ( bt9 l ) (nx l v)
2
( a bc) a n ,u.

‘1 “1 ‘1
(cc 1 ) ( la
-
2
m m
( b )2 ( )b II II
2 2 2 l 2
7\
_

a u. c v , a c O
,

which w e s h a ll c a ll re s p e tive ly ( 3 ) a nd ,
It will b e s e e n c ,
l) ,

th a t ( 3 ) a n d ( 4 ) a r e a t o n c e d e d u cibl e fr o m ( 1 ) a n d
5 a n d it is

t o ded e ( 2 ) fr o m uc
ea s
y
N o w r e ga r di n g x y 2 a s t h e c o o r di n t e s o f a v a ri a bl e p o i n t t h
, , ,
a ,
e

l e ft s id e o f t he e q u a ti o n ( 1 ) v a n i s h e s wh e n t he p o i n t which i t h , s e

i n t e r s e ti on o f t he li n e p with t he p o l a r li n e o f (x y z ) in re ga r d
c , ,
130 C h ap ter III
d r a w n fro m P t o t he c o n ic 9 2 2 O T h e r ight s ide o f e q u a 2
, 0 .

ti o n p u t e u l t o ze r o
q r e re s e n ts
p a h o w e v er a c o n ic ,p as s i n g , ,

th r o u gh t he p o i n ts X Y Z T ; thi s c o n s i s t s th e n o f t h e li n es
, , , , ,

P X Y P Z T T h es e li n e s th er e fo r
,
. t o u ch t h e c o n ic 9 2 2 O
,
e, 2
, 0 ,

which w e m a y d e n o t e by 2 ; w e m a y d e n o te t he li n e s P X Y P Z T , ,

re s p e ctiv e ly b y d a n d c ,
.

N o w c o n s id e r t h e e q u a ti o n R e g rdi n g l m n s c o o r di n t e s o f a a a
— —
, ,
‘
a v a r i a bl e li n e t he l e ft s id e v a n i s h e s wh e n t h e
p o le (a l b m c n )
l l 1
, , , ,

in r e ga rd t o 2 o f thi s li n e a n d t h e p o l e P o r ( k
1, ) o f t he
, , , u , v ,
—E =
, ,

li n e p in r e ga r d t o 2 d e te r mi n e li n e t ou chi n g
, ,
a ,

which is t he c o n ic 2 I n o the r w o r d s t he le ft s ide o f q u a ti o n ( 3 )

.
,
e

v a n i s h es f or a ll li n e s ( I m n ) which a r e p o l a r s in re ga r d t o , ,
of ,

p o i n t s o f e ith e r o f t he t w o li n es P X Y P Z T ; th u s p u t e q u a l t o , ,

ze r o it r e re s e n t s t a n g n ti ll t h oint a i r c o n s tit u t e d b
y t h e
, p y e
p
, p e a ,

p o l es in rega rd t o S o f t h e li n es d a n d c ; if the ta n ge n ts o f S
, ,, ,,

a t t he o i n ts X Y Z T b e c a ll e d r e s e ctiv e l
p y x
y z t th
p , , , , es e , , , , , ,

p o l es a r e t he p o i n ts ( x y ) a n‘d ( z t) On t he r ight s id e o f t h e , , .

e q u a ti o n t he t e rm s ( a bc) II v a n i s h wh en t h e li n e 1 2
0

n ) p a s s es thro u gh t h e p o l e in r e g a r d t o o n e o f t h e c o n ic s
( I
,
m , ,

52 o f t h e li n e ( 7x a th a t is th e s e t er m s
( ) b 0 ) ut
"

a c 0 ; , p , , v , ,

e q u a l t o ze r o a r e t h e t a n ge n ti a l e q u a ti o n o f t h e p o i n t a i r co n s i s t
, p
in g o f t h e p o l e s o f t h e li n e p in r ga d t o th es e t w o c o n ic s T h e e r .

right s ide o f e q u a ti o n p u t e q u a l t o ze r o is ta n ge n ti a lly t he , , ,

e q u a ti o n o f a c o n ic t o u chi n g t h e t a n g e n t s d r a w n fr o m th es e o le s
p
t o t h e c o n ic S We th u s i n fe r th a t t he p o l e s o f t he li n e p in
, .
,

re ga r d t o t h e c o n ic s 92 j; ( a bc )% 2 O a r e a c o m p le m e n t a r y p a i r o f
0 , ,

i n t er s e cti o n s o f t he t a n ge n t s d r a wn f o m C a n d D t o t he c o n ic S r
,,

o th e r th a n t h e p a ir ( x y ) a n d ( z t ) ; th ey a r e , l s o o th e r tha n C , a

a nd D T h es e p o l e s a r e th e n t h e p o i n ts ( x z ) a n d (y t ) It is
.
, , , .

k n o w n tha t the s p o i n ts l ie o n a li n e g p a s s i n g th r o u gh P T h u s
e , , .
,

t h e t a n g e n t z d r a w n f o m C t o t h e c n ic S
, ,
is t he c o nj g t e o f
r o ,, u a

t he t a n g e n t p d r a w n fr o m C t o t h e c o n ic S
, ,
in re g a r d t o o n e o f 0,

t h e c o n ic s 9 2 i ( a bc fi 2 ,
0 a n d t h e o th e r ta n g e n t y is t h e c o n
, , , ,

j u ga t e o f p in re ga r d t o t he o th e r o f th e s e c o n ic s It will a p p ea r .

th a t t h e o th e r t a n gen t dra w n f o m C t o t he o n ic S m a y b e r c 0

s imil a r l y c o u p l e d r e s p e ctiv e l y with y a n d z

, , .

La s tly c on s ide r t he e q u ti o n
,
T he l e ft s id e e q u a t e d t o ze r o
a , ,

is t h e t a n ge n ti a l e q u a ti o n o f li n e s m e e ti n g t h e li n e p u p o n t h e c o n ic
S 9 S = 0 o r t h e c o n ic S
2
0 ,
T h u s it r e p r e s e n t s t h e p o i n t pa i r .

q
I

C ,
D T h . e e u a ti o n th u s ex
p r s e s t h e f a ct w e h a v e a lre a d
y fo u n des
,

th a t t h e t a n ge n t s f o m t h e p o i n ts ( x z ) (y t ) t o t he c o n ic S ha ve
r , , , , ,,

th e p o i n ts C D ,
s a c o m l e m e n t a r y p a i r o f i n t er s e cti o n
, p ,
a s .

W e h a ve th u s p r o ve d t he r e s u lts s ta te d a t t h e b egi nn i n g o f t he
e x a mpl e We c o n s ide r s o m e p a r tic u l a r c a s es
.
.
 P a r ti u a r c l c a ses of th e g en er a l th eor em 13 1

A p a r tic u l a r ca s e a ri s es wh e n t he c o n ic ( a bcfi S 9S = 0 is a , ,

a ir o f c o mm o n ch o r d s o f t he c o n ic s S a n d S s th a t in br i e f th e o

pine P Z is divide d ha r m o n i ca lly by the s e t w o li n e s T he co m m o n

, ,, , ,

ch o rds will i n t e r e ct in n e o f t he th r e p o i n t which fo r m t h e

s o e s

c o mm o n s e lf p o la r t r i a d f o r the s e t w o o n i S S T h e li n e j o i n
-
c cs , , ,.

ing t h e o th e r t w o p o i n t s o f thi t r i a d will o n ta i n t w o c o m p l e m e n s c

‘
ta ry i n t ti o n s e a ch o f t w o o f t h c mm o n ta n ge n ts o f S a n d S
e rs ec e o , ,.

It a n b e s h e w n th a t in thi s a s e t he e n v e l op e E 9 2 0 t o u che s
c ,
c , ,
2
,

b o th t he c o mm o n ch o rds c o n s id e d a n d th a t t he c o n ic 9 S S = 0 er ,
2
, ,

p a s s es thro u gh t he t w o i n t r ti n s o f o mm o n t a n ge n ts s p o k e n o f e s ec o c .

F o r wh e n ( a bcfi S
,
9S O is li n e p i r s a y f 9 ( bc/a fi t he
, , a a , , or
,

e n v e l o e 92 ( a bc fi E O is t he oi n t a ir c o n s i ti n g o f t he t w o
p , p p , s

i n t e r cti o n s o f c o mm o n t a n ge n ts s p o k e n o f T he co or di n a t e
se . s

( t m n ) o f t he li n e p a ir
, ,
O a r e r e s p e ctiv e ly , , ,

t= 0 m , (—
a n i ( c a
fi ; th es e t o u ch 2
( /)
be a 2 0 , , ,

whi h is c ( a a b c )
1
1 ( c a )
2
m ( a b )
2
n O T h o mm on
2 2
. e c

t a ng nt s o f S a n d S ha v e c o o r di n a t es [ a ( b
e , ,
I [b (c -
_

i wh e n 9 e a fi t h e e n v e l o e 92 ( a bcfi 2
[ c (a b )] ( /
b p ,
0 re , ,

d u ce s t o [b ( c [ c (a O which r e r es e n t s t h e t w o
p ,

o i n t s o f i n t e r s e cti o n o f c o mm o n t a n g e n t s s p o k e n o f T h e c o o r di n a t e s
p .

—is
o f th es e t w o o i nts a r e x 0 y [ (
b c z i [ c (a b)] ;
p ,

th es e p o i n t s l ie o n t he c on ic 9 S S 0 which is 2
, , ,

( bc -
a )y —c ( a
If t he i n te r s e cti o n s o f c o mm o n t n ge n t s p o k e n o f b e ca ll e d U
tw o a s ,

a n d V it a e a r s th a t t h e t a n g e n t s CP C Z r e s e ctiv e l
p y t o S a nd
pp, , , ,

S d ra w n fr o m C a r e h a r m o n ic c o nj u g a te s in r e ga rd t o C U n d
,, ,
a

C V ; if th es e t a n g e n t s m e t t h e c o n ic 9 S S O in fu r th e r p o i n t s
e
2
, ,

D a n d Z th e s e p o i n ts will th e n b e h a r m o n ic c o nj u ga te s in r e ga d
’
, , ,
r

t o t h p o i n t U V o f thi s c o n ic T h e li n e DZ will th u s p a s s
'

e s , ,
.
, ,

thro u g h t h e p o l e o f t h e h o rd U V o f thi s c on ic ; thi s is th a t o n e c

o r igi n a lly c o n s i d e r e d o f t h e o i n t s which a r e t h e c o mm o n s e lf o la r

p p
-

tri a d o f S a n d S thro u gh which t he c o mm o n ch o r ds o f thi s c o n ic “ ,

, ,,

p ass T h u s w e h a v e t r i a ds o f
.
p o i n ts C D Z l y i n g o n t h e c o n ic , , ,
’
,

S o f w hi h t w o j o i n s t o u ch re s p tiv e ly t h e c o mic s S a n d S whil e

,
c ,
ec , , ,,

t h e r e m a i n i n g j o i n DZ p s es thro u gh o n e o f t h e t r i a d o f c o mm o n
’

, ,
a s

c o nj u g t e p o i n t s f o r S n d S ( In t he ge n e ra l ca e Cha p 1
a , a , . s , .
,

E x 3 1 t h e li n D Z t u ch es a c e r t a i n c o n ic th r o u gh t h e c o m m on
'
.
,
e o

o i n ts o f S a nd A s h o we ve r t he a r tic u l a r c a s e in which t h
p , p , , e

c o n ic ( a bc fi S 9S O is a p i r o f c o mm o n ch or d s o f S a n d S
, , a , ,,

is a s h a s b e e n r e m a r k e d a l s o t he p a rtic u l r c a s e in which t h e
, , a

en v el o e 92 is a i r o f i n t e s e cti o n s o f c o mm o n
p p a r

t a n ge n t s o f S a n d S t h e f t th a t 2 —9 2 = O t o u che s t he
,
2
, ,, ac , ,

c o mm on ch o r d s c o rr es p o n ds d u a lly t o t he fa ct th a t t h e c o n ic
9—2
132 Ch ap ter III
9 S,
2
S, p e thro u gh th e s e i n t er s e cti o n s o f c o mm on t a n gen ts
0 a ss s .

We h a v e r e m r k e d th t t he ta nge n t s CP CZ a r e h r m o n ic in re ga r d
a a ,
a

to C U a nd CV th e s e l a s t a r e in f ct t h e d o u bl e r a y s o f a p e n cil
,
a ,

in i n v o l u ti o n o f which CP CZ a r e a p a i r a n d t w o o th e r p a i r s a e
, , , r

t he li n es d r a w n f o m C t o t h e p a i r s o f i n t e r s e cti o n s o f S a n d S
r , ,,

t w o i n te rs e cti o n s b e i n g p i r e d wh e n th e y l ie o n o n e o f t h e c o mm o n
a

ch o rd s w h ich w e c o n s ide r e d T hi s is o bvi o u s b e ca u s e l l the s e fo u

. a r

i n te r s e cti o n s lie o n t h e o n ic 9 S S O w hich c o n t a i n s C a n d

c
2
, , ,

t h e ch o d s which j o i n th es e p a i s p a s s th r o u gh t h e p o l e in re ga r d
r r ,

t o thi s c o n ic o f t h li n U V
,
e D u a ll y if w e d e n o t t h e c o mm on
e .
,
e

ch o rd s c o n s id er e d b y a n d v a n d c o n s id er t h e en v e l o p e 2 9 2 0
u , ,
2
,

f or t h e p r tic u l r v a l u e o f 9 n e e s s a r y th a t t h e li n e c m a y b a
a a c e

t a n g e n t t h e t nge n ts
,
a v o f thi s e n v e l o e m ee t t h e t a n g e n t c in
,
u,
p , ,

the d o u bl e p o i n t s o f a n i n v o l u ti o n o f which o n e p a ir a r e t h e p o i n t s
,

wh er e c m e e ts S nd S a n d a n o th e r p a i r a r e t he p o i n ts w he re c
, a ,,

m e e ts e ith e r p a i r o f c o mm o n ta n ge n t o f S a n d S whi h m ee t o n s , , c

t h e li n e U V .

We m a y s p p o s e t h e c o n ic s S S t o b e t w o ci r cl e s t he o mm on
u ,, , ,
c

ch o r d s c o n s id e r e d b i n g t h e r a dica l i s a n d t h e li n e I J T h e n if
e ax , .
,

U V b e t he i n t e r s e cti o n s ‘o f th e c o m m o n t a n ge n t s o f t he t w o ci r cl es
,

which lie on t h e li n e o f c e n tr e s t he ci r cl e S c o a x i a l w ith S a n d , , , ,

S ,,which p s s e s th r o u gh U a n d V is s u ch th t ta n ge n t s CP CZ
a ,
a , ,

d r a w n fr o m p o i n t C o f S r e s p e ctiv e ly t o S a n d S m e t S a ga i n
a , , , , ,, e

in p o i n t s D Z ly i n g o n a li n e a t r ight a n gl e s t o t he li n e o f
’
, , ,

ce n t r e s ; fu r th e r t h e li n es j o i ni n g C t o t h e b o l u te p o i n ts I J
, a s , ,

c o mm on t o t he ci r cl es a s a l s o t he li n e s j o i n i n g C t o t h e o th er
, , ,

i n t e s e cti o n s o f t h e ci r cl es r e h r m o n ic in r ga r d t o C U a n d C V
r ,
a a e .

A l s o t h e li n e P Z is bi s e ct e d b y t h e ra dic a l a x i s ; a n d thi s li n e
,
134 Ch a p ter III
l o c u s wh o s e p o n i t e q tiua on is d
‘l
x
2
y b
“ l'
z
2 ?
(b
-
1
a
‘1
)y
2
0,
or x
2
y
2
as
?
0; thi s is t h e a u x ili a r
y ci r cl e of t he c o n ic ( S e e .

Cha p p 8 6 ,
. a II
o e
), . b v .

E x 1 9 I n d ica tio n of a g en er a l is a tio n of the p r eceding r es u l ts

. . .

f ri g b ck
R e er n a t o th e r e s u lt giv
en a b v
o e in E x 4
(p w e s ee . .

th t if f m
a , ro f r l m t d fi d
t he o u e e e n s e ne r t
b y t h e t w o o o s o f t he
q d tic
ua ra
f O ,
a n d t he t w o r t
o o s o f t he q d tic
u a ra f
’
0, w e o r f m
ir
t w o p a s , by a n t ki g ch r t
ea oo of
f =O with
o n e o f t he r o o s o f t
f
"
O, which is p o s s ibl
e in t w o
yw
a s, th
e n t he e e l m t which
en s a re

h rm ic
a on g d
in r e a r t o t h e o n s c tit t
u en s o f o b th
t he p a s a r e ir en giv
b y o n e o f t h e e q u a ti o n s B u t t h e r e s u lt o f
E x 4 l e a d s t o a r e s u lt f o r t w o c o n ics o f w hich t h e c o r r e s p o n di n g
.

c o o ll a r y is in c o nn e x i o n with t h e r es u lt o f t he p re ce di n g E x a m p l e 1 8
r .

L et S O 2 0 be t h e p o i n t e q u a ti o n a n d t h e ta n g e n ti a l e q u a ti o n
, , ,

o f t h e s a m e c o n ic wh e r e ,

S = ax
2
+
—( bc —
f ) — 2 (g h —
2 =
cf )
2
u
2

l t S E b wh a t th e b c o m e wh n w itt n r es p
’ ’ ’ '

e ,
e b se e e a , , a re r e , ec

t i ely f
v b ,
l l t T = O b e t h c n diti o f
or a , , li n a so e e o n or a e, o f
c o o di n tr v w wh e i t
a cti o with S O
es u , h m n ic
, ,
os n er s e ns a re a r o in
eg d t it s i n t cti n with S 0 ( b o v e E wh
’

r ar o er s e o s a , x . er e

T= -
Qfi
'

)u
2 —cy” —a f ) ’

T h en
l e t t h e li n e ( u , v , w ) m e e t S
,
0 in t he p o i n t s A , B , m ee t
O in t h e p o i n t s A , B , a n d m e e t 9S 0 in t he p o i n ts
'
9S
’ ' ' '

S
X , Y I n t e r m s o f t h e s y mb o l s o f A , A , l e t t he s y mb o l s o f X a n d
.
'

‘l
Y b e X A EA a n d Y A nA ; a n d l e t 6 f n It fo ll o ws ' ’
.

fr o m E x 4 th a t .

99 a 2 2 i ]
'
T [ ( 3
(1 e
)
?
[ a m t

T h u s , in p a r tic u l a r wh e n X , , Y a re h a r m o n ic in ga d t o A A
re r
’

a nd s o 6 l , t h e li n e ( u , v, w ) e n ve lo e
p t h e s c o n ic w h o s e t a n g e n

q
ti al e u a ti o n is 9 2 2
0 .

E x 20 . .
p Of i n a r ticu l a r o
co r r es
p f g on d e n ces
en e r a l i n vo lu tion s , ,

u
p on a con ic T a n t he o n
. of ki g an
y p o n h as oor c ic
n a es which i t c di t
o f the f m or 9 , 9, 1 , w e m a y c on s er t w o p o n s , P a n d
2
, o f t he id i t Q
c o n ic with ,
m t p a ra e e r s , r es e
p e
y , 9 a n d 5,
9 a re s o ctiv l
e a e which rl td
th a t th e r e e x i s t s a n e q u a ti o n o f t h e fo rm

wh e re i n t h e p o lyn o mi a l o n t he l e ft is s u pp o s e d t o b e ge n e ra l , co n
t i n i n g e ve ry t e r m 9 ¢ w ith O i r
a
f 8 "
m a n d O f s i n A p a rti c u l a r .
 C or r esp on d en e o c f p o in t s of a c on i c 135

ca s e is th a t in which m a nd n a r e b o th 1 s o th a t P a n d Q des cribe ,

re la t ed ra n ges u p o n t h e c o n ic ( Vo l I p I n ge n e r l w e s a y .
, . a ,
.

tha t th er e is a ( m n ) c o r r es p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n P a n d Q th e re b e i n g
, ,

m p os iti o n s o f P c o r r es p o n di n g t o a n y p os iti on o f Q a n d n p o s iti o n s ,

o f Q c o r re s o n di n g t o a n os iti o n o f P I n s a i n g thi s w e a r e
p y p y .

a g in a a s s u mi n g th a t a o l n o mi a l e x re s s i o n in a p a r m e te r
p y p a

va n i s hes f o r a n u mb r o f v a l u es o f thi s p a r a m e t e r e q u a l t o t he
e

d e gree o f t he p o l yn o mi a l S e e Ch a p I be l o w . . v, .

A s a r u l e it is n o t t h e ca s e in s u ch a c o r e s p o n d e n e tha t wh e n
, , r c ,

Q t a k e t he p o s iti o n P t h en P ta ke s o n e o f t he c o r r e s p o n di n g
s ,

os iti o n s Q T hi s will b e s o if m n a n d t h e e q u a ti o n c o n n e cti n g

p .
,

9 ( f) b e s y mm e t r ic a l in e ga r d t o th e e W h e n m = n
,
r 1 thi s a r i s e s s .

if P Q a r e p a irs o f a n i n v o l u ti o n u p o n t he c o n ic Wh e n m n = 2
, .

it a ri s e if t he r e l a ti o n b e o f t he fo r m
s

the n iti o n s o f P which c o r re s p o n d t o

t h e t w o p os an
y p os iti o n o f Q
a r e t h e i n t er s e cti o n s of t h e fu n d a m e n t a l
c on ic x z —y = 0 with t he p ol a r of Q in
,
2
,

r e ga rd t o t h e c o n ic a re nz 0 2
.

T he p o l a r o f P in r e ga r d t o thi s l a s t c o n ic
th e n p a s s es th r o u gh Q b u t m ee t s t he f u n ,

d a me n t a l c o n ic in ge n er a l in a n e w p o i n t P
, , ,

R ; th u s wh e n Q t a k e s t h e p o s iti o n P o n e
, ,

o f t h e c o rre s p o n di n g p o s iti o n s o f P c o i n cid es

w ith Q b u t t h e o th e r is ge n e r a ll a fre s h
y
o int A n o th e r i n t er p r e t a ti o n o f t h e r l a e
p .

ti o n is o bta i ne d by r e m a r ki n g th a t if t h e ,

li n e j o i n i n g P a n d Q b e w r itt e n ,
so th a t u = 1,
v ( 9 + w = w e h a v e

a w
2
h vw + g ( v
2
2wu ) bw u —
f uv on
2
0,
an d the li n e P Q en vel o
p es a c o n ic ,
o f which thi s is t h e ta nge n ti l a

e q tiua
( C f
on .
pp i 1 25 , .
’

A p a rtic u l a r c a s e o f t h e
ge n e r a l s y mm e tr ic l a

corr e s p o n de n c e j u s t de cr ib e d is th t in which s ,
a

an oi n t Q a nd t he m o i n t s P which c o r re
y p p ,

s o n d t o it fo r m a s e t o f ( m 1 ) p o i n t s which
p ,

r e ma i n s the s a m e s et w h en Q ta k e s t he o s iti o n
p
of a n o n e o f t he ( m + 1 ) o i n t s which fo rm t h e
y p
s et S u ch a s e i e s o f s e t s o f ( m + 1 ) p o i n t s is
. r

ca ll e d a n in vol tion o f s e ts o f ( m 1 ) p o i n t s a n d
u ,

is o f g r e a t im p o r ta n c e I n t h e ca s e 772 2 n 2 thi s cl ea rl y r e
q u ires th a t it b e p os s ible t o ta k e tri a d s o f p o i n ts o f xx —y = 0
.

‘ , , ,
i
,

which a r e s e lf p ol a r in rega rd t o a x n a
- 0 o r th a t it b e 2
,

p os s ibl e t o ta k e tr i a d s o f p o i n t s o f x z —y 0 wh o s e j o i n s t o u ch 2
13 6 C h ap ter III
th e c o n ic w h o s e t n gen ti a l e q u a ti on is th a t writte n a b o v e We
a .

h a v e p r e vi o ly e e n ( C ha p 1 E x x 1 2 a n d 7 ) th a t in e ith e r ca s e
us s .
,
.
, ,

if o n e s u ch t r i a d b e p o s s ibl e a n i n fi n ite n u mb e r o f s u ch tri a ds is ,

os ibl e F o r ge n er a l v a l u e s o f m it is c o n v e n i e n t t o c o n s id e r t h e
p s .
,

e q u ti o n s a ti s fi e d b y a l l t h e ( m
a 1 ) p o i n t s fo rmi n g t he s y mm e tri l ca

s e t c o n s i s ti n g o f Q n d t h e m c o r r e s o n di n g oi n ts P It c a n be
p a
p .

s h w n th a t thi s e q u a ti o n m u s t n e c e s s a rily b e o f t h e fo r m

“
e

m
9 ( a Kb) (a , Nb, ) 9 (a m Xbm ) a m +1 7t bm + 1 0,

wh e r e a b , ,
c o n s t a n ts b u t X v a r i es fr o m s e t t o s e t T h u s
a ,, b, a re ,
.

t he p o i n t s o f a s e t a r e giv e n b v a l u e s o f 9 s ti s f i n g a n e q u a ti o n a
y y
a M) 0 b u t t h e p o i n ts o f a n o th e r e t b y v a l u e s o f 9 s a ti s fy i n g
,
s

a n e q u a ti o n i t Xv 0 ; her e v a r e t w o d e fi n it e o l n o mi a l s in
p‘ y u ,

9 o f de gr e e m 1 which c o r r e s p o n di n g t o X
, 0 X ,
0 res pe c ,
1
,

t i e l y giv e t he p o i n t s o f t w o p a rtic u l a r s e t s o f t h e s e r i es
v ,
T he .

w h o l e i n v o l u ti o n is th u s d e t e r mi n e d b t w o o f it s s e t s
y .

We ma y giv e t h e p ro o f o f thi s r e s u lt : t h e m p o i n t s P c o rr e
s o n d in g t o Q w ill b e giv e n b y a n e q u a ti o n
p
m m*1
9 u, 9 u , um 0,
w h er e u,, u ,, p o ly n o mi a l s in t h e p a r a m e t er d) b y which
a re , ,

Q is d e te r mi n e d By t h e d e fi n iti o n o f t h e i n v o l u ti o n if w e r e pl a ce
.
,

9 in thi s e q u a ti o n b y o n e o f it s r o o t s s a y
, , a n d c) b
f y y an o th e r ,

o f t he r o o ts s v t h e q u a ti o n r m a i n s t r u e T h
,
a fo r mi n g t he
e e . us ,

e q u a ti on
m m ‘l u
( a (
p) ( e u, a , O,

“
or, s a
y,
mfl m-

“
I
a u, cf v, Um 0,
ea c h o f u , , v, , v , , am is a l n o mi a l in gb a n d thi s e q u a ti o n
o
p y ,

is sa ti s fi e d n ot on ly by b u t a l s o b y e a ch o f t h e v a l u e
, , s,

92 , 0 = w hich with m a k e u p t h e s et o f m + 1
'

a 0 ,

v a l u e s b e l o n gi n g t o a s e t . T he s e ( m 1 ) ro o ts a r e h o we v e r a ls o , ,

o bt a i n e d fr o m t h e e q u a ti o n
0

which di ff e rs fr o m t h e p r e c e di n g in h a vi n g a n y o ne o f 9
w r itt e n in l a ce o f in t h e c o e ffici e n t s ; f o r i n s t a n c e 9 If th e n
p ,

w e ta ke v a l u e o f r f or which
a d es a ctu lly c o n t a i n 98 a n d o a ,

de n o t e thi s b y F ( qb) w e h a ve F ( gh) , F ( 9m ) .

T h u s t h e m + 1 p o i n t s o f a n y s e t a r e giv e n b y f or a
r o e r v a l u e o f X ; it fo ll o w s s i n ce u is a t m o s t o f o rd e r m in ( )
p p , i , ,

th a t v in , , m u t b e o f o r de r m l a t l a s t if t he s ,
e ,

v a l u e s (I) 9 , a r e a ll di ff e r e n t ; a n d it c a n n o t b e o f high e r
2 ,

o r d e r s i n ce n o n e o f
, u is o f high e r th a n o rde r 772 iii (I)
u ,, , .

F o r it is a s u m e d th a t f) s a r e a l l di ff e re n t s a v e f o r
( , p ar ,

t ic ul a r v a l u e s o f qb .
13 8 Ch ap ter I I I

o th e r fi x e d p oi n t s A B C n o t l y i n g o n thi s c o n ic t h e gen e r a l
, , , , ,

c o n ic th r o u gh th es e fo u r p o i n ts will h a v e a n e q u a ti o n o f t he fo rm
U XV O T he thr e e i n ter s e cti o n s o f thi s c o n ic with x x y 0
: .
2
,

o th e r th a n 0 will th e n b e giv e n b y a n e q u a ti o n a
, N0 0 w h er e ,

u , v a r e c u bic p o ly n o mi a l s in t he p a r a m e t e r (I) of a
p oin t of , ,

= 0 ; th e s e thre e i n t e r s e cti o n s will th e n b e a s e t o f n in o

2
xz
y a v

l u t io n ly i n g o n thi s c o n ic o f which t h e di ff e r e n t s e t s a r e giv e n b y

,

di ff e r en t v a l u e s o f X Co n v e rs e ly l e t P Q R a n d P Q R b e a ny
.
, , ,
’
,
’
,
’

t w o tri a d s o f p o i n t s o f thi s c o n ic ; t a k e u p o n t h e c o n ic a n a rbit r a r y , ,

fi xe d p o i n t 0 ; th e n d r a w a n y d e fi n ite c o n ic thr o u gh P Q R 0
, , , , ,

o th e r d e fi n it e c o n ic th r o u gh P th e s e t w o c o n ic s
’ ’ ’
a nd a n
y Q R 0 ; , , ,

will h a ve in c o mm o n th r ee fu r th er p o i n t s A B C n o t ge n e ra lly , , , ,

lyi n g u p on t h e giv en c o n ic x z y 0 T he gen er l c o n ic thro u gh 2

. a

A B C 0 will th e n m e e t thi s g iv e n c o n ic in three fu r th e r p o i n t s

, ,
”
P Q R o th e r th a n 0 a n d th e s e will be l o n g t o t h e i n v o l u ti on
, ,

o f s e t s o f th r e e p o i n t s d e t e r mi n e d b y t h e t w o s e t s P Q R a nd , ,

E vid e n tly in thi s c o n s tr u cti o n t h e p o i n t 0 a n d o n e o f

’ ’ ’
P Q R , , .
, , ,

t h e p o i n t s A B C m a y b e t a k e n r bitra ril y ; in p a rtic u l a r d e n o ti n g

, ,
a ,

by X Z t h e p o i n t s o f c o n t a ct o f
x — = 0 with
,

t h e giv e n c o n ic y ,
x
2
,

z 0 x 0 r e s p e tiv e ly the re will , ,

c ,

b e a s e t o f t h e i n v o l u ti o n c o n t a i n i n g
X ; s a y thi c on s i s ts o f X P Q ; s , ,

a n d th er e will b e a s e t s a Z ’ ’

y P Q , , , ,

c o n ta i n i n g Z ; a s s u mi n g th a t Z is
n ot one o f P Q a n d X i n o t on e , s

Q w e m a y wr ite t he e q u a
’ ’
of P , ,

ti o n s o f t h e li n es P Q P Q in t he ,
’ ’

r e s e ctiv e fo r m s a x h e n t he s e ts
p hy g 0 g x +
jy cz 0 T , .

o f t h e i n v o l u ti o n will b e giv e n b
y

f or v a r y i n g v a l u e s o f X t h e p o i n t s X Z b e i n g giv en b y
, ,

<1) 0 r e s p e ctiv e l y ; thi s is t h e s a m e s giv e n a b o v e B u t thi s in o a v

l u t io n is o bt a i n e d b y t h e i n t er s e cti o n s o f t h e c o n ic x x —y = 0
.
,
2

w ith t he c o n ic s o f e q u a ti o n Xz ( a x hy z) (
g y g x +
7? oz ) O ,

f o r v a r y i n g X T h e e c o n ic s h a v e f o r f u c o mm o n p o i n t s ; fi r s t t h e
. s o r ,

oin t X on xz th en t he
p o i n t A wh e re t h e li n e s P Q
p , , , , ,

P Q m e e t ; th e n B wh e r e X Z P Q m e e t ; a n d fi n lly C wh e r e
’ ’

, , ,
a , ,

X Y a n d P Q m ee t ’ ’
.

A p a rtic u l a r r s u lt r e fer r e d t o in C h a p 1 1 ( a b o v e p
e , fu r n i s h es .
, .

a n e x a m l e o f t h e th e o re m o bt i n e d h e r e th a t t h e s e t s o f a n in o
p a , v

l u t io n o f th r ee p o i n t s a r e giv e n b y a n e q u a ti o n 7t u + v = 0 f o r
, , ,

v a r yi n g v a l u e s o f 7x wh er e u v a r e cu bic p o lyn o mi a l s in t he
, ,

a r a m e t e r w hich d e t e rmi n e s a p oint F or if w e a s s ume w ith

p .
, ,
 App lica t ion o f p r Op er ty o
f i n vo l u t io n s 13 9

c o n ti n u e d a n tici p a ti o n o f a limit a ti o n ro e in C h a p I i nt d c d u . V,

th a t a c u bic e q u a ti o n in wh o e r o ts a r e a b c is ca p bl e o f
, s o , , ,
a
‘
t he fo rm ( a ) ( b) ( c) 0 thi s s h e w s th a t if a b c b e t he
'

0 0
'

0 , , ,

v a l u e s be l o n gi n g t o ny s e t o f t he i n v l u ti o n w e h a v e e q u a ti o n s
a o ,

w h er e P Q R S a re , , ,

t h e s a m e f o r ll t he s e t s a .

N o w c o n id r t he p e d a l li n e o f
s e fi e d p i n t o f t he i r cl e s a x o c
2
x +
y
2
3 ( t
2
h e a b s o l u te
p i nt b e i ng 2 O x i i
y o t a k e n in
s ,

r e ga r d t o t h e j i n s o f th r e o oint o f t h e ci r cl e w hi h e re a s e t o f s c a
p
a n i n v o l u ti o n o f s e t s o f three p o i n t s
, ly i n g o n t he ci r cl e We s h e w , .

th a t f o r a l l th e s e s e t t h e p e da l li n e ha ve a p i n t in c o m m o n
, s ,
s o .

P u tti n g x iy X x iy Y s o tha t t he circle is X Y 2 t he

, ,
2
,

a r a m e t e r f o r a p o i n t o f t h e ci r cl e m b e t k en t o b 9 = X z If
p y / a a e .

f o r t h e fi x e d p o i n t thi s b e K n d f o r t h e p i n ts o f a s e t o f t h e ,
a o

i n vo l u ti o n t h e v a l u e s b e 9 a 9 b 9 c it is e s y t o p r o v e th a t , , , a

t h e e q u a ti o n o f t he p e d a l li n e is
2 K( Y a bc —X K) = —K ( a + b + c ) — K ]z ; 2 3

w ith t h e c o n diti o n s giv e n a b o v e t h e r ight s id e is s a v e f o r t he , ,

fa ct o r z ,

a bc ( 1 KS KQ )2
KR -
KP 2
K
3

th u s da l li n e p a s s es thro u gh fi x e d p o i n t giv e n
“,(
t he p e
“
t he by
— KQ
Xz P x R ) Yz S )
I l
x x
-

.
,

( T hi r d bl ems r o h n s C o ll e g e C a mb r idg e 9
’

y p ea S t J
ro , D ec 1 88 , , . .

Cf W e ill L io ville s J I V 1 8 7 8
’

.
,
u .
, ,

I n ge n e a l in a n i n v o l u ti on o f s e t o f n p o i n t s th e r will b e
r ,
s ,
e

(n s e t s wh e r e o f t w o o f t h e n o i nts o i n cid e s is ea s t o see

p y c ,
a .

For n 3 t a ki n g t w o s u ch s e t s s t h e fu n d a m e n t a l s e ts t h e p a r a
, a ,

m e t e r b e i n g ch o s e n s o th a t t he p o i n t s o f c o i n cide n c e a r e giv e n by
9 O 9 ,
00 t he i n v o l u ti o n m a y b e re p e s e n t e d b y r

N o w s u p p o s e t h e p o i n t s o f t h e i n v o l u ti o n t o b e p o i n t s , ( 9 , 9 l ), o f 2
.

t h e c o n ic x z y
2
0 D efin e the
p o l e o f a li n e in r e g a r d t o
.
p o i n ts

A , B , C a s t h e p o i n t 0 s u ch th a t A O a n d t h e li n e m ee t B C in
o i n t s h a r m o n ic in r e g a r d t o B a n d C , with a s imil a r c o n diti o n f o r
p
C , A a nd f o r A , B T h e n w e m a y p r o v e th a t , f o r a l l s e t s A , B, C
.

o f t he i n v o l u ti o n 9 ( b 9
2
a) K ( 09 b) 0, t h e p o l e o f t h e li n e
j o i n i n g t h e t w o d o u bl e p o i n ts , 9 0, 9 00 is t he s a m e , b e i ng t he
o in t (a , 3 b c)
p , .

T h e c o n diti o n f o r a n i n v o l u ti o n o f s e t s o f th r e e p o i n t s u p o n a
c o n ic m a y b e a p p r o a ch e d di ff e r e n tly T he fo ll o w i n g e xa mpl e s l ea d .

u
p t o thi s .

E x 2 1 R ecip r oca tio n of o n e co n ic in to a n other w hen they ha ve a

. .

common s elf -p ol a r tr ia d A s h as a lre a dy b e e n r e m a r k e d ( a b o v e ,

.
1 40 Ch ap ter III
p . t he e q ti ua ons o f tw o c o n ic s which h a ve a c o mm on s e lf
o l a r t r i a d , wh e n t h e c o o r di n a tes a r e t a k e n in r ga r d th e r e t o a r e e
p ,

o f t h e fo r m s

ax
2
by 2
oz
?
0, a
’
x
‘ by
’
2
c z
’
2
0
.

No w l e t Ax By C3 0 b e a fu r th e r c o n ic f o r which t h e s a m e
2 2 2

t r i a d is s e lf p o l a r If w e c o n s id er t h e l o c u s o f t h e p ol e s , t a k e n in
-
.

r e a r d t o thi s l a s t c o n ic , o f t h e t a n g e n t s o f o n e o f t h e for m e r c o n i c s , it

fi
w l b e a n o th e r c o n ic I n fa c t t h e p o l e o f t h e li n e a x f
*1
by n cz f, 0,
’

in r e ga r d t o A x a n d w he n
‘1
0, is ( A a E, B bn, ( E, 7, Q)
’
2
7

‘
is s u ch th a t a t? 0, thi s p o l e d e s c r ib e s t h e c o n ic
”?
by cg
2

—1 —
A 2 2
b E y z 2
C 2 2
0
'

a x 2: .

If we c o n s ide r
v e l o p e o f t h e p o l a s a l s o t a k e n in r e ga r d t o
t he en r ,

Ax + 2
0 o f t h e p o i n ts o f t h e s a m e
,
O it is imil a r l y ,
s
‘
s e e n t o c o n s i s t o f t h e t a n g e n t s o f t h e c o n ic a Ax O T hi s 1 2 2
.

l a s t is the n c a ll e d t h e p o l r re ci p r o c a l o f a x ‘ 0 in r e ga rd t o a
2

Ax 2
0 T h e r e a r e th u s fo u r c o n ics A x
. 0 i n r e ga r d t o 2

which t h e p o l r r e ci p r o c a l o f a x a 0 is t he o th e r giv e n o n ic 2
c

0 n a m e l y th o s e f o r which A
’ ’ ’
bb C
’
a x
2
,
aa B cc
2
,
2
,
2
.

C o n v e rs e l y if a c o n i S b e r e cip r o ca t e d t o a c o n ic S a s e lf p o l a r
’

,
c ,
-

tri d o f p o i n ts f or S be c o m e s a s e lf p o l a r t r i a d o f li n e s f o r S a s w e
a -
’

e a s il s e e ; th u s wh en S a nd S h a v e a c o mm o n s e lf o l a r tr i a d
’

y p
-
, ,

thi s is l s o s elf p o l a r f o r t h e r e ci p r o ca ti n g c o n ic
a -
.

‘
It m a y b e re m a r k e d th a t if w e t a k e t he p o l a r li n e o f a p o i n t ,

P o r ( f n if) in re ga r d t o t h c o n ic A x +
, , , ,
0 s o o bt a i n i n g e
2
,

Ax g By n Cz C 0 a n d th e n t a k e t h p o l e o f thi s li n e in r e ga r d
’

,
e

t o o n e o f t he th r e e a s s o ci a t e d c o n ic s A B C 0 2 2 2
we
y x
y 2 ,
sa ,

o bt i n t h e p o i n t
a E n C ) or P which c a n b e o bt a i n e d fr o m P b
, , y
’

j o i ni ng the p o i n t ( 1 O or A to P b y a li n e A P m e e ti n g B C
, , , , , ,

in D a n d t ki n g P o n A D h a r m o n ic t o P in r e ga r d t o A a n d D
’

,
a .

E x 22 T he d eter min a tio n o

. .
f t he co mmon s el
f p o l a r tr ia d o
f t w o -

con ics in en er a l T h e c o n s t r u cti o n f or t h e c o mm o n s e lf o la r tr i a d

g p
-
.

o f t w o c o n ic s h a s b ee n giv e n ( a b o v e , p 2 3 ) w h e n th e ir fo u r c o mm o n .

p o i n t s a r e giv e n , a n d th e s e a re di s ti n ct W h e n t h e e u a ti o n s o f
q .

t he c o n i c s a r e giv e n , in g e n e r a l fo r m , s a y a x 2f y a 0,
2

O, t h e a lge b r a ic d e t e r m in a ti o n will b e gi n b y
’
a x
2
2f y a
s e e ki n g a oi n t, ( x ,
y wh ose
p o l a r li n e is t h e s a m e f o r b o th
p ,

c o n ic s F o r thi s , w e m u s t h a v e
.

ax + hy + g z hx + by + f z
g x +jy + cz
’ ’ ’ ’ ’ '

b y +f f
’
hx
’
hy
'

a x
g z z
g x + y c z

th es e l ea d to th r e e e q ti ua ons of t he fo r m
( a Ka
’

) x ( h —Kh ) y '

+ (b
whi h if c , t he t w o give n c o n ics be S 0, S
’
0, ex p r es s th t a t he
1 42 Ch ap ter . III
o f the b a s e p o i n t s in t e r m s o f which t h e c o o r di n a tes a r e ta k en If .

w e d e n o te t h u bic writt e n a t l e n gth b A K K® KA

’ ’
e c
y , O 0 ,
2 3
,

t he e x p re s s i o n A is th a t p ly n o mi l h o m o ge n e o u s ly o f t h e thi r d o a ,

d e gre e in t he c o effi ci en t s o f t he c o n ic S wh o s e v a n i s hi n g is t he ,

c o n diti o n f r S 0 t o b e a li n e p a i r ( a b o v e p
o whil e A is t h e , .
’

s imil a r o l n o mi a l f or S e e x p r e s s i o n 69 is o n l o f t h e s e c on d
’

p y t h y ,

d egr e e in t he c o e ffi ci e n t s o f S b u t is o f t h fi r s t d e gr e e in t he
‘
,
e

c o e ffici e n t s o f S b e i n g e x p licitly t he s u m o f th r e e p a i r s o f t e rm s
’

, , ,

s u ch a s A a 2 Ff wh e re A bc —f F = g h cg ; e t c which a r e
’ ’

,
2
, .
,

t h e c o e ffi i e n t s in t h e t n g e n ti a l e q u a ti o n f S whil e
c a is s imil a rly o ,

r el t e d t o S
a We p r o c e e d t o fi n d t he ge o m e tr ic a l s ign ific a n ce o f
'

t h e e q u a ti o n 6) 0 [A d d ]
’
0 or o f G) , .

E x 2 4 T he a lg ebr a ica l co n d ition f or on e co n ic to be ou tp ol a r to

. .

a n other , o r to be tr i a n u l a r l
g y c ir c u ms cr ibed to a n o ther It w as
p r oved .

in C h a p I ( E x . a n d will a pp ea r i n d e p e n d e n tl
.
y h e r e , th a t if

t w o c o n ic s S a n d 2 b e s u ch th a t a tri a d o f p o i n t s o f S b e s e lf p o l a r
’
-

in r e g a r d t o th e n th e re is a n i n fi n it e n u mb er o f o th er tri a d s o f
p o i n t s o f S w ith t h e s a m e p r o p e r ty ; t h e p o l a r , in r ega r d t o of

an o i n t , P , o f S , m e e t s S in p o i n t s , Q , R , s u ch th a t P , Q, R
y p
is s e lf p o l a r in re ga r d t o
-
A n d , wh e n thi s is s o , th er e a r e
t r i a ds o f t a n ge n ts o f 2 which a r e s e lf p o l a r in r e ga r d t o S , a ls o in
’
-

i n fi n it e n u mb er It w a s s u gge s t e d th a t S s h o u ld b e s p o k e n o f a s
.

a n d E a s in o l a r t o S T h r o er t s o n e r e l a ti n g
’

o u t ol a r t o
p p e
p p y i .

t o t h e p o i n t s o f t h e o u t p o l a r c o n ic , S , a n d t o t h e t a n g e n t s o f t h e
in p o l a r c o n ic , a n d it s a lg e b r a ic c o n diti o n i n v o lv e s , m os t c o n

v e n ie n t l , t h e c o e ffici e n t s in t h e p o i n t e u a ti o n o f t h e o u t p o l a r
y q
c o n ic , a n d t he c o e ffi ci e n t s in t he t a n ge n ti a l e u a ti o n o f t h e in p o l a r q
c o n ic T he n e ce s s a ry a n d s u ffici e n t c o n diti o n is li n ea r in b o th th es e
.

s e t s o f c o e ffici e n t s , b e i n g , in fa ct , t h e v a n i s hi n g o f t h e s u m of t h e

th r e e p a i r s o f t er m s s u ch a s which , a b o v e , w e h a v e
c a ll e d A s t h e e x p r es s i on is o f t he fi r s t d eg r e e in t h e c o e ffi c i e n t s
o f S , it fo ll o w s th a t , if S S ,, b e c o n ic s a l l o u tp ol a r t o 2 , s o
a l s o is a n c oni c A ,S , A S 0
y , 2 .

It w a s a l s o p r o ve d in Ch a p I ( E x a n d will a
p p e a r h e re , th a t
. .

if t w o c o n ic s S a n d E b e s u ch t ha t a t r i a d o f p o i n ts A , B, C e x i s ts
’

o n t h e fo r m e r , wh os e j o i n s , B C , CA , A B , t o u ch t h e l a tt er , th en

th er e is a n i n fi n ite n u mb er o f o th e r s u c h t r i a d s , t h e ta n ge n t s d r a w n
to fr o m a ny p o i n t o f S , m ee ti n g S a ga i n in t w o p o i n ts wh o s e
j o i n is a t a n ge n t o f T h e c o n diti o n f o r t w o c o n ic s t o b e in thi s
r e l a ti o n is a g a i n p r im a r il y o n e f o r t h e p o i n t s o f S , a n d t h e t a ng e n t s

T hi s c o n diti o n is in fa ct
’
of E .

’
2f F
’

( aA

( bc —j ) ( B C F ) 2 (g h af ) ( G H
2
’ ' '
2
' ’

w h e re ,
on b o th id e o f t h e q ti n th e is s u m
s s e ua o ,
er a of thr e e su ch
 F u nd a m en ta l in va r ia n ts f or tw o con ics 1 43

pa i r s o f writte n If w e s u ppos e th a t t he p o i n t e q u a
t e r ms a s a re .

ti o n a nd ,
n o t t he t a nge n ti a l e q ti n o f E is giv e n b i ng ua o ,
’

, ,
e

0 w e h ve B C
’ ’ ’ ’ ’
AF
’ ’ ’
F a A GH
’ ’ ’
2f y a
3 2
'

a x a ,
—
,

e tc ; th
. n w r iti n g ea s u s a l A b c
f F g h , af ; e tc t h e u ,
2
, .
,

o n diti o n ca n a l s o b e w r itt e n 4 ( O ) t h e c o n ic which i

’
2
c s

t r i a n g u l a rly i n s c r ib e d t o t h e o th e r b e i n g E o r S ’

,
’
.

It is t o b e n o ti e d th a t if w e t a k e a c o n i b y w hich S is r e c ip o
c c r

c a ted i n to a t r i d o f p o i n t s o f S w hich is s e lf p o l a a in r e ga r d t o -
r

2 b e c o m e s a t r i a d o f t a n g n t s o f 2 which is s e lf p o la in re ga rd
’ ’
e -
r

t o S s o th t t h e c o n diti o n O 0 i n v lv e s t w o g e o m e t r ic a l fa ct s ;
’

,
a o

b u t a t r i a d o f p o i n t s o f S wh os j o i n s t o u ch b c o m e s wh n t he e e , e

re cip o c a ti n g c o n ic is p r o p e ly ch o s e n t he t r i a d o f th th r e e j o i n s
r r , es e .

( C f C h p
. 1 Ex a T hi s is b r o ght o u t b
.
, y
. w r iti n g t h o n d iti o n u e c

4 A O s y mm e tr i ll y in r e ga r d t o t h e p o i n t q u ti o n o f S a n d
’
ca e a

t he ta n ge n ti a l e q u ti n o f a s w e h ve d on e It m y a l s b e
a o a . a o

re m a r k e d in r e ga r d t o t he t w o th e o m s th t t he p o i n t s in which
,
re ,
a

a t a n g e n t li n e o f 2 m e e t s S a r e co nj ga te p o i n ts in r ga r d t o t he
’
u e

c o n ic w h o s e e q u a ti o n is 2F —S ® = O wh e F O is t he co n ic ’
,
re

l o cu s o f p o i n t s fr o m which t he t a n ge n t s t o S n d 2 fo r m a ha r m o n ic a
’

e n cil b o ve E x
p ( a ,
.

T o p r o v e th a t t h e a lge b r a ic c o n d iti o n s a b o v giv e n r e n e c e s s a r y e a

a n d s u ffici e n t is e a s y if w e r e m r k th a t th e y a e b o th x r e s s i bl e a r e
, p ,

b y t h e i n v a r i a n t s r e fe r r e d t o in E 2 3 ; it is n e c e s s r y th n o n ly t o x . a e

v e r ify th e m f o r a ny c o n v e n i e n tly h o e n tr i a d o f p o i n ts o f r e fer e n e c s c

f o r t h e o o r di n a te s th t is f o r a n y t w o c o n v e n i e n tly ch o s e n fo m s
c ,
a , r

t o w hi h t h e e q c ti o n s o f t h e o n ics a n b e s im u lt a n o u s ly r e
ua c c e

d u ce d .

T hu s , f o r the fir s t diti o n s u p p os e tha t a t r i d o f p o i n t s con , a ,

A , B , C , ly i n g o n S , is s e lf
p o l a r in re ga r d t o W e c a n th en r e -
,

fe rr i n g c o o r di n a t e s t o A B C s u p p os e S 2f y a 2g z x 2 h y a n d , , , x ,

F o r th e s e t w o w e vid e n tl y h a v e O
’
2
’ ’ ’ ’
a b w
’ ’ ’
bcu c a v
2 2
0 fi
. e
,

which is th u s n eces s a ry C o n ve r s ly s p p o s e O 0 ; t a k e t he . e ,
u
’

o l a r in r e ga r d t o of a n
y p o i nt A of S n d l e t thi s m ee t S in a
p , , , ,

B a n d C I n r ga r d t o A B C w e ca n th e n s u pp o e a s b e fo r e th a t
. e , ,
s , ,

2 hxy T h e t n g e n ti a l e q u a ti o n 2 0 m us t be
’
S 2f y a 2g z x . a

s u ch th a t t h e o l e o f t h e li n e B C in ga r d t o E which in gen e ra l ’

p ,
re ,

is t h e p o i n t w h o e c o o di n t G ( be i n g t h e p o i n t wh o s e ’ ’ ’
a re A H s r a es , ,

e q u a ti o n is
’ ’ ’ ’
A
’ ’ '

( H G ) (H
’
v w u u w (G 0 v u u ,

wh e n ( u v w ) a r e t h e c o di n a t e ( 1 O O) o f t he li n e B C) m u s t
’
,
’
,
’
o r s , , , , , ,

in thi s c a s e b e t h e p o i n t A o r ( 1 0 th u s G 0 a n d H = 0 ’ ’
, , , , .

T h e ge n e r a l f m f Q is h o w e v e h e e 2j F + 2g G 2 hH ; th u s
’ ' ' ’ ’
or o r, r , ,

s u mi n g O 0 w m u t h a v e fF 0 W n o nl h v
’ ’
as we re a as e s e ca
y e , . a

f 0 if t h e co n i S r e d u c es t o t h e li n e
p a ir 2 x (
c
g z hy) 0 which
Wh e re for e F 0 a n d 2 h a s t he fo r m
,
w e e x cl u d e
’ ’
.
,

A
’ ’ ’
u
2
B v
g
C w 2
0 .
1 44 C h a p ter III
T h e re fo r e G 0 is s ufi cien t f o r t h e t r i a d A B C t o b e s e lf p o l a r
’
) , ,
-

in r e g a r d t o
I n r e g a r d t o thi s r e l a ti o n o f t w o c o n i s w e m a y r e m a r k fu r th e c , , r,

th a t w e h a v e s h e w n ( Ch a p 1 E x 1 1 ) th a t wh e n S is o u t p o l a r t o E .
, .
’

th e r e ca n b e fo u n d o n S s e t s o f fo u r p o i n t s A B C D s u ch th a t
, , , , , , ,

t h e p a i r o f li n e s A D B C a r e c o nj u g a t e in r e ga d t o E a s a l s o a r e
’

,
r ,

B D CA a n d CD A B
,
I n ge n e ra l if fr o m t hr e e p o i n t s A B C in
,
.
, , , ,

r e g a rd t o which t h e e q u a ti o n o f 2 is A u 0 th e e
’ ’ ’
2 F vw + 2
,
r ,

b e dra w n li n e s A D B D CD re s p e ctiv e ly c o nj u g te t o B C CA A B
, ,
a , , ,

with r e s p e ct t o th ey w ill m e e t in a p o i n t D o f c o or di n a t e s x y z , , , , ,

give n b y x F y G a H ; if t he p o i n t A B C b e o n S which then

’ ’ ’
s , , ,

h a s a n q u a ti o n o f t h e for m 2f y a
e 2g z x 2 hxy 0 t h e c o n diti o n ,

th a t thi s p o i n t D s h o u ld a l s o be n S is 2f F 2g G 2 hH O o
’ ’ ’

which is e a tly G) 0 T he e q u a ti o n 2 0 c a n b e writt e n in t h e

x c
’
.
’

fo r m
’
1 ’ ’ 1 ’ ’

(H G
’

( )w
'
'

(G F F C H
2
H u + ? v
2
+ 1
?

6 11
'
F c H

an d u = 0, v = 0, w = 0, a re t he
p e ctiv e q ti i n ts B D ge n e r a l i f
“
r es e ua on s of t he p o A, ,
C, . In ,

(3 71 7 y l a ( wa y s , ( 3 74 7
y ) 3 4 be a by fo u r POin t s a a nd

A A A A, be an
y c o n s ta n ts ,
t he e q ti ua on

EA ( a x , , v
y .
, wa y )
?
0,

c o n ta i n i n g fo u r t e r m s f o r = 1 2 3 4 is e a s ily s e en t o b e t h e
,
r , , , ,

t a n ge n ti a l e q u a ti o n o f a c o n ic in r e ga r d t o which t he li n e j o i n i n g
an t w o o f t h e fo u r o i n t s i c o nj u g a t e t o t h e li n e j o i n i n g t h e o th e r
y p s

t w o D u a ll y s e t s o f fo u r t a n g e n t s o f E e x is t wh o s e p o i n t p a ir
'

,
.
,

i n t e r s e cti o n s a r e c o nj u ga t e in re ga r d t o S ( C f p . . .

T h e p a r tic u l a r c a s es o f t h e re l a ti o n re fe r e d t o in E x 1 3 o f r .

C h a p I a r e e a s y t o v e r ify I n p a r tic u l a r a s i n gl e p o i n t ( 5 7 g)
. .
, , , 7 , ,

r ega r d e d t a n ge n ti a lly s c o i n cide n t p o i n t p a i r o f e q u a ti n

a a , o

( g
f
a v 7
1
-
. w C ) 70 i s in o la r t o S
p
2
if ( 5 ,7 C ) l ie th e r e o n ; thi s , , 7 ,

s u gg es t s imm e di a t e l e fo m a b o v e gi v e n f o r 2 n t e r m s o f t he
’

y t h i r

e q u a ti o n s o f fo u r p o i n t s o f S if w e n o ti e th a t wh e n t w o or m o r e ,
c ,

co n ics 0 ,
0 a r e a l l in o l r t o S
, p so,
l s o is a n
y c o n ic a ,
a

A 2; 0 W e e a s il y v e r ify th a t t h e e q u a ti o n
’
A 2 , , 2 .

( s a m w e
?
o,

if E m,n2 m, n , , 77 n , l2 n, l, , l , m2 l, m , , is tha t fo rm e d , by
the ru l e ,
as t h e t a n ge n ti a l e q ti ua on o f t he li n e p a r i
( ,x
l m ,y )
n, z my
( l, x n,z ) 0,
c o n s i s ti n g of a n
y t wo li n e s m e e ti n g in ( 5 ,
77, C) .
146 Ch ap ter III
an ta k e t w o p o i n t s o f S o f c o or di n a te s
d x,,
y,, z, a n d x, ,
y ,, z, , t he
e q ua ti o n o f t h e li n e j o i n i n g th e s e is
—7113
if
-

(w l ” ( 2 33 9 07
1
'
l 1

as we v e rify a t diti o n th a t thi s li n e s h o u ld t o u cli

on ce ; the c on
““l
which is f F x x g Gy y ’

, 2 0 is h o w e v er a l s o t h e
1 ’
, , ,

c on diti on th a t t he p o i n ts ( x y ( x ‘y z ) s h ou ld b e c o nju ,, ,, ,, ,, ,

ga te in r e ga r d t o k H 0 It is e a s ily l ’
.

s e e n th a t in r e g a r d t o thi s c o n ic S a n d 2 a r e p o l a r r e ci p r o ca l s ;
’
, ,

thi s is the n t he c o n ic Q If w e ta k e a n o th e r o f t h e fo u r c o n ics in .

re ga r d t o which S a n d 2 a r e p o la r re ci p ro ca l s s a y Q a tr i a d o f ’

,
’
,

o i n ts A B C o f S wh o s e j o i n s t o u ch r e ci r o c a t e s in re ga r d
p , , , , p , ,

to Q i n t o a tri a d o f t a n ge n ts o f 2 wh o s e i n t e rs e cti o n s s a y
’
,
’
,

A B C l ie o n S Th e p o i n t A is th u s o bt a i n e d fro m A b y t h e
’ ’ ’ ’

,
.
, ,

s e q u e n c e o f t w o r e ci r o ca ti o n s in r e ga r d t o Q
’
a nd Q a n d a s ha s
p , , ,

b e e n re m a r k e d t h e li n e A A p a s s e s th r o u gh o n e o f t he t r i d o f
,
’
a

p o i n t s s e lf
p o l a r in r e ga r d t o b o th S a n d
-
a s a l s o d o BB a n d C C
’ ’
.

T he a ggre ga t e o f t h e t i a d s A B C m a y th u s b e a r r n ge d in s e t s r , , a

o f fou r o f which a n y t w o a r e in p er s p e ctiv e

, .

If t h e co mics S 2 b e r e fe r r e d t o th e i r c o mm o n s e lf p o l a r tri a d it
,
’
-
,

is e a s y t o ch o o s e a p a r a m e t e r f o r t h e p o i n t s o f S s u ch th a t t he c o n ,

diti o n th a t a ch o r d o f S s h o u ld b e a ta n ge n t o f
,
t a k e s t h e fo r m
9
( g
2
!)
2
1 ) a 9 ¢ b ( 9 p ) 0 a n d t o s ee
( s ee E x
2
2 0 a b(o v e
)
?
, .
,

th a t t he c on diti o n th a t t w o p o i n ts 9 so o n n e ct e d s h o u ld b e , , c

t w o o f a s e t o f a n i n v o l u ti o n o f s e t s o f th r e e p o i n t s is a b 1 2
.

“
I n t r o d u ci n g thi s v a l u e o f b a n d a dj o i n i n g t he fa ct o r 9 we ,

o bt a i n f o r t h e c u bic e q u a ti o n s a ti s fi e d b y fl) a n d t h
,
t w o v a l u es e ,

9 a s s o ci a t e d th e re with
0
“ 2,

0
2
(P <
2
a )( 4
95
2
,

W 43 a ) l )
“l
0
.

T h u s , in a cc o r d a n ce with t h e th eo r y , t h e i n v o l u ti o n o f s e t s o f thr e e
p o i n t s is giv e n b y K( a ct 1 ) qb 2
a ) 0, f o r v a r y i n g v a l u e s
of K Fo u r a s s o c i a t e d s e t s o f thi s i n v o l u ti o n a r e give n by K, - K,
—
.

K ,
"
1 — K , c o r re s p o n di n g t o t h e v a l u e s
1
qb, cp ,
‘l
(1
)
1
, as
we
-

e a s il e ex r e s s i o n ca n b e w r itt e n a s t h e p r o d u ct
’

y s ee T h p . 4 A O
o f fo u r ( irr a ti on a l ) fa ct o r s it v an i s h’es wh e n t he ro o t s a , ,8 , 7 , o f t h e
q
c u bic e u a ti on A KG) K ® K A 0, a r e s u bj e ct t o
2 3
’

h f 3
a B "
y 0 .

E x 25 . . E n u mer a t io n f
o r ed u ce df or ms fer the e
q ua tio n s o
f an
y
t w o con ics .

Wh e n t w o c o n ic s i n t e r s e ct in fo u r p o i n t s which a r e n o t di s ti n ct ,

t h e p r e c e di n g d e t e rmi n a ti o n o f t h e e q u a ti o n s a x by 2
oz O 2 ?

‘ ,

0 fa il s W h e n t h e c o n ic s t o u ch in t w o p o i n t s
’ ’
a x + by
’ 2 2
c z , .
,

th e y h a v e a n i n fi n ite n u mb e r o f c o mm o n s e lf p o l ar t r i a d s a n d -
,

th e i r e q u a ti o n s c a n in a n i n fi n ite n u mb e r o f wa ys b e r e d u c e d t o
, ,
 R ed u ced for ms f or tw o con ics 1 47

x
“ y
2
z
“y 0, x
2 ?
as
”
thi s ca s e th e y ca n b e r ec ip r o
0 . In
c a t e d i n t o o n e a n o th e r in a n i n fi n ite n umb e r o f w a y s .

P ro v e th a t wh e n t he c o mic s h a v e o n e o i n t o f c o n t a ct th e ir e q u a
, p
ti o n s ca n b e t a k e n t o b e 2 xy z: 0, 2 xy 2
y
2
0 A nd .

“
fu rth e r th a t th ey a r e , th e n , p o la r re cipro ca ls o f o ne a n o th e r in r e
ga r d t o e ith e r o f t h e t w o c o n ics 2 xy i c z gy 0i
’ 2
.

A l s o , th a t wh e n th r e e o f t h e p o i n t s o f i n te r s e cti o n c o i n c ide a t o n e
q
p o i n t , th e ir e u a ti on s c a n b e ta k e n t o b e
2 xy + + 2y z = 0
2
z .

A nd th a t the n th ey
, ,
a re
p o a l r re ci p ro ca l s o f o n e a no th e r in re ga rd
t o 2 xy + z
2
+yz
Fi n a lly whe n t h e fo u r i n te r s e cti o n s c o m cid e th a t th e ir e q u ti o n s
, ,
a

ca n b e ta k e n t o b 2 xy 0 2 xy 0 A n d th a t th e n
2 2 2
z
z e
y , .
, ,

th ey a r e p o l a r r e i p r o ca l s o f o n e a n o th e r in re ga r d t o
c

1 2 z )9 = O,
2 xy + é ( my
2= 2
z + 2
y a

f o r a ny v a l u e o f m, 0 b e i n g 0 o r 1 [ Add ]
'

E x 2 6 A p a r t ic u la r in volu tion of s ets of thr ee p oin ts Ap ola r

. . .

tr ia d s .

It ha s be e n s e e n th a t a n i n v o l u ti on o f s e t s o f th r e e p o i n t s o n a
c on ic is o bta i n e d b y t he i n t er s e c ti o n s o f thi s c o n ic with a s e t o f
c o mics a ll a s s i n g th r o u gh a o i n t , 0 , o f t h e c o n ic a n d th r o u gh
p p
th r e e o th e r p o i n t s , A , B, C , n o t ly i n g o n t he c o n ic A s p e ci a l c a s e .

w hich is o f i n t e r es t is wh e n A , B , C a r e a s e lf
p o l a r tri a d in r e ga rd
-

t o t h e giv e n c o n ic It ca n th e n b e s e e n th a t if t h e p a r a m e te rs , 9, o f
.

t w o s e t s o f t h e i n v o l u ti o n b e s u ch th a t , r e s p e ctiv e l y,
’ ’
d 3b9
’ ’
a 9 + 3 b9
3 z
3 09 d 0 an a 9 3 2
3c 9 d 0,
the n a d 3 bc 3 cb d a 0 T hi s re l a ti o n is cl ea r ly u n ff ct e d
’ ’ ’ ’
. a e

if w e r e pl a c e a b c d es p e ctiv e l y b y a + Ka b + Kb c + Kc
, , , ,
r ,
’

,
’
,
’

Kd wh a te v e r K m y b It is a l s o u n a ff e cte d if w e u s e in p l a c e
’
d ,
a e .
,

of 9 a ra m e t e r giv en b na m e l if t h
,
a
p y , y e ,

c u bic e q u a ti o n s th e n b e c o m e A <j> + 3 B j> 0 a n d A qS 0 3

<
2
,
’
3
,

w e h a v e AD 0 ; a s m a y r ea dily
’ ’

3BC
b e v e r ifi e d E v er y t w o s e t s o f t h e i n v o l u ti o n
.

a r e th n a o l a r t i a d s C o n ve r s e l l et P Q R
e
p y r .
, , ,

Q R b e a n y t w o t r i a d s u p o n a c o n ic ;
'

a nd P
’ ’

, ,

u o n t h e li n e Q R o in ts A C ca n b e
’ ’

p t wo
p , , ,

ta k e n which a r e c o nj u ga t e t o o n e n o th r in a e

rega r d t o ll c o n ic s th r o u gh t he fo u r p o i n t s
a

P P Q R ; in p a r ti u l r A C will th e n b e Q
’ ’
c a ,
, , ,

c o nj u g te in r e ga r d t o t he giv e n c o n ic If B b e
a .

t h e p o l e o f Q R in r e g r d t t h e giv e n c o n ic
’ ’

,
a o ,

a nd B P m ee t thi s c on ic a ga i n in 0 it ca n b e
'

s h e w n th a t t h e s ix p o i n t s P Q R A C C l ie , , , , ,

10 —2
1 48 Ch ap ter III
on a c on ic ( a b o v e p B u t wh e n P Q R a n d P Q R a r e
, .
,
’

, ,
’
, ,

a p o l a r thi s c o n ic a l s o p a s s es th r o u gh B a s m a y b e p ro v e d T h e
, , .

p o i n t s A B C a r e a s e lf p o l a r tr i a d i n rega 1 d t o t he giv e n c o n ic ;
, ,
-

a n d th e r e a r e t w o c o n i c s th r o u gh th e s e a n d th r o gh t h e p o i n t 0 ,
u ,

wh o e fu r the r i n te r s e cti o n s with t h e giv e n c o n ic s a r e r es p e ctiv e ly

s , ,

t h e t l ia d P Q R a n d t h e t r i a d P Q R ; n a m e l y t h e fi 1 s t o f th e s e
’ ’ ’

is t h e d e g e ii e r a t e c o n ic c o n s i s ti n g o f t h e li n e A C a n d B C ; t h e
, , , , ,

s e c o n d o f th e s e is t h e c o n ic a b o v e r e m a r k e d T h u s e v e r y c o n ic
th r o u gh A B C 0 m e e ts t h e giv e n co n ic in a t r i a d o f p o i n t s a p o l a r
, , ,

with P Q R a n d with P Q R
, , , , , .

If t he giv e n c o n ic r e fer r e d t o Q R B h a v e t h e e q u a ti o n ,
’

,
’

, ,

0 c o n ic th o u gh A B C h a s a n e q u a ti o n o f t h e for m
2 '

xz an 1
y y
—K z = 2y (f z hx ) ; if thi s p a s s th r o u gh 0 o r ( m m
, , ,
2 z
we , , ,

ca n r e l a c e 2 b K m e thr e e o th er i n t er s e cti o n s
f y m 2 h T h 3 2 1 2
7 n
p .

o f thi s c o n ic with t h e giv e n o n e a r e th e n d e t e r mi n e d b

y
“1
9 3
9 m 2
9m 2
Km 2
2 h9 ( 9 m) 0,
w hich f o r e v e ry v a l u e o f h is a p o l r with t he c u bic 9 + 9m = 0
, ,
a
2
,

b e l on gi n g t o Q R P It is e s y t o s ee tha t A C a r e c onj ga te
’
,
’
,
’
. a ,
u

in r eg a r d t o a ll c o n ic s th r o u gh P P Q R
’

, , ,

If f o r f a x 3 bx y 3 cxy dy t he He s s i a n fo r m
,
: 3 2 2 3
,

H w her e
f a m a z etc ,,
e
, .
,

b e d en o t e d b y p x x
g y r
y w e a t o n c e ve r if th a t a r
2
y b q c
p 0 2
,

a n d br c
g d p 0 T hi s gi v e s t h e r e s u lt
p r e vi o u s l y m e n ti o n e d
.
,

( a bo ve p ,
tha t t h e c u bic fo r m H (Ax By ) wh e e i n A B a r e
.
,
r ,

a rbitra r
y is a
p o l r with
, f W e h a v e a l s o m e n ti n e d
a
( s ee a bo ve o ,

p . 3 0 ) th a t if t h e t a n g e n t s a t th r ee
p o i n ts P Q R o f a c o n ic , , , , ,

m e e t Q R RP P Q in D E F t he li n e D E F m ee t s t h e c o n ic in t h e
, , , , ,

H e s s i a n p o i n t s u p o n t h e c o n ic o f t h e p o i n t s P Q R Wh e r e fo r e
, , , , .
,

if P Q R n d Q R b e a n y p o i n t s o f a c n i t he p o i n t P s u ch
, ,
a
’

,
’
o c, ,
’
,

th a t P Q R a r e a p o l a r with P Q R m a y b e c o n s t r u ct e d b y
’

,
’

,
’

, , ,

d r a w i n g t h e c o n ic t o u hi n g Q R R P P Q Q R a n d t h e li n e D E F ; c , , ,
’ ’

t h e t a n ge n ts t o thi s c o n ic o th e r th a n Q R d r a w n fr o m Q a n d R
’ ’ ’ ’
, , ,

m e e t in t he p o i n t P o f t h give n c o n ic which is r e q u i r e d A ,
’
, e , .

fu r th er c on s tr u cti o n f o r P a r i s e s fro m w h a t is s a id a b o v e ; w e h a v e ’

onl t o d r a w t h e c o n ic th r o u gh P Q R a n d B ( the
p ole o f
y , ,

w hich m ee t s Q R in o i n ts A C o nj u g a t e in r e g a r d t o t h e giv e n
’ ’

p , , , c

c o n ic ; if thi s m e e t t he giv e n c o n ic a ga i n in 0 th e n P is o n B 0 ,
’
.

T h e li n e DE F s p o k e n o f a b v e m a y a s b e fo r e ( C h p 1 E x
, o , ,
a .
, .

b e c a ll e d t h e H i a n li n e o f P Q R T he r e de r m a y ve rify f o r
es s , , . a ,

e x a m l e th t f r t h e th r e e p o i n t s o f a ci r cl e o f c e n t r e 0 c o n i s ti n g
a o s
p , , ,

o f th e a b s o l u te p o i n t s I J a n d a ny p o i n t P o f t he ci r cle t he , , , ,

H e s s i n li n e i th a t th r o u gh t h e middl e p o i n t o f 0 P a t r ight
a s , ,

a n gl e s t o OP G iv e n th r e e t a n g e n t s o f
. c o n ic w e ma y d u a lly a , , ,

de fi n e the H es s i a n p o i n t o f th e s e F o r e x m p l e i n t he c a s e o f a . a ,
1 50 Ch ap t er III
ta ki n g v a r i o u s co n ics S thr o u gh A B C H t h e li ne s T U en v e l o p e
, , , , ,

a c o n ic n d thi s is id e n tifi e d with 2 b r e m a r ki n g th a t r tic u l r

,
a
y p a a

c o n ics S a re t he li n e p a irs AB N C ; A L CB ; A C B H f or which , , , ,

t h e li n T U is r e s p e ctiv e l y A B ; B C ; CA
e , T h e li n e T U is t he , .

H es s i a n li n e o f A B C f o r t h e c o n ic S
, t h e r e l a ti o n o f t h e c o n ic s
, ,

S E is th u s re ci p r o c a l
,
.

T h e c o n ic S m e e t s M N in t w o p o i n t s F G whi h a r e h rm o n ic in
"
, , , c a

re ga r d t o M a n d N th u s t he p o i n t t r i a d A F G o f p o i n t s o f S is , , , ,

s e lf o l a r in r e ga r d t o 2 a n d S is o u t ol a r t o 2 If t h e ta n g e n t s o f
p p
-
, .

S a t A B C m ee t M N N L L M ( in p a i r s ) r e s p e ctiv e ly in X Y Z
, , , , , , , , , , ,

t h e li n e t r i d Y Z Z X X Y is s e lf p o l a r f or a l l c o n i s which t o u ch
a , ,
-
c

B C CA AB a n d T U in p a r tic u l a r f o r 2 T h u s S is a l s o in p ol a r
, , , .

to 2
Fu r th er if w e c o n s id e r t h e l o c u s o f t h e p o l e s in r e ga r d t o 2 o f
, , ,

t h e t a n g e n t s o f S th a t is t h e p o l a r r e ci p r o ca l o f S in r e g a rd t o 2
, , ,

w h o s e ta nge n ts a r e t h e o l a r s in r e g a r d t o 2 o f t h e c o r r e s p o n di n g
p , ,

oi nts of S w e o bt a i n a thi r d c o n ic s a y Q A s t he p ol a r o f X Z
p , , , .
,

in r e ga r d t o 2 is t h e p o i n t Y a n d t h e p o l a r o f B in r e ga r d t o 2 is
, , , ,

N L with a s imil a r r e m a r k f or Z Y a n d X Y it a p p ea r s th a t Q
, ,

to u ch e s M N N L L M r e s p e ctiv e ly a t X Y a n d Z It will a p p e a r
, , , , .

th a t Q is e q u lly t he p o l a r r e ci p r o ca l o f 2 in rega r d t o S a n d th a t
a

an t w o o f t h e thr ee o n ic s S E Q a r e r e l a t e d t o o n e a n o th e r in
c
y , , ,

the s a m e w a y a s wer e S a nd 2 .

We s e e th a t t he o n diti o n th a t a c o n ic S th r o u gh A B C
c , , , , ,

s h o u ld c o n t a i n t h e H e s s i a n o i n t o f t h e li n e s B C CA A B in r e
p , , ,

ga r d t o a c o n ic 2 t o u chi n g B C CA AB is th a t S s h o u ld be o u t , , ,

p o la r t o 2 W ith t he s y mb o l s if S b e 2j yz 2g z x 2 hxy O a nd
.
, ,

2 b e t a n ge n ti a ll y vw
,
w uv
,
0 which is n o t a re s t r icti o n t he
u , ,

H e s s i a n p o i n t r e f r r e d t o is ( 1 1 e a n d t h e c o n diti o n th a t S , ,

s h o u ld c o n t a i n thi s is f + h 0 which i s t he o n diti o n th a t S

g ,
c

s h o u ld b e o u t o l a r t o 2 h u s it fo ll o w s th a t if A B ’ ’
b
’

p T . C e an
y , , ,

o th e r t r i a d o f o i n t s o f t h e c o n ic S o r which B C
’
f
’ ’ ' ’ ’

p CA AB , , ,

t o u ch 2 t h e H e s s i a n p o i n t o f th e e li n es in re ga r d t o 2 a l s o li es
,
s , ,

a n d t h e H es s i a n li n e o f A B C in r e g r d t o S a ls o t o u ch es ’ ’ ’
on S , , ,
a ,

E ; a n d t he fig u r e m a y b e d e v e l o p e d f o m A B C a s it w a s fr o m
’ ’ ’
r , ,

A B C I n t h e fig u r e w e h a v e c o n s id er e d th e r e a r e th r e e t r i a d s o f
, , .
,

p o i n t s ; A B C ; L M N a n d X Y Z ; t he p o i n t s o f o n e t r i a d
, , , , , , ,

l ie o n t h e j o i n s o f t h e p o i n t s o f a n o th e r t r i a d whil e t h e j o i n s o f t h e ,

p o i n ts o f t h e fi r s t t r i a d c o n t a i n t h e
p o i n t s o f t h e thi r d t r i d K ee i n g
p a .

t h e c o n ic s S 2 Q , ,
fi x e d s u ch a s e t o f th r e e p o i n t tr i a ds ca n b e
, , ,

i n iti a te d fro m a ny o n e o f t h e n i n e p o i n t s ; a n d t h e tri a d A B C ,

’

,
’

,
’

of o i n ts o f S b e l o n gi n g t o s u ch a s e t will b e a o l a r with A B C
p , p , , , .

T hi fo ll o w s fr o m wh a t h a s p r e c e d e d
s .

T h e c o n ic s S 2 b e i n g s u ch th a t S is b o th o u t p o l a r t o E a n d
, , ,

t r i a n gu l a r ly circ u m s crib e d t o 2 a r e s u ch th a t t he t w o i n va r i a n ts ,
 E xa mp les of th r ee su ch con ics 151

O, O f o r th e s e t w o c o n ic s ( a b o v e d es c r ib e d
E x 2 3 ) a r e b o th ze r o
’
.
, .

F or w e h a v e b o th 0 a nd R e fe r r i n g S a n d E t o
th e ir c o mm o n s e lf p o l a r t r i a d , w e fi n d tha t th e s e , a n d t h e c o n ic Q ,
-

m a y b e t a k e n t o h a v e e u a ti o n s x 2
y
2
z
?
0 q
, x
2
x
y
z
w z
2 2
0 ,

x
2
(M
y
?
(o z
?
0 , wh e r e w is s u ch th a t ( 2 0) 3 0 A n o th er .

fo rm t o which th r e e s u ch c o n ic s c a n b e re d u ce d is x + 2y z = 0, 2

s e e t h e c o n cl u di n g r bl m l tic l
2 O 2 0 ( A
2
y zx x
y n n a a
, p o e s o
y
C o n ic s in Wo l s t e n h ol m e s p r o bl e m s )
’
.

A n o th e r d e d u cti o n o f t h e th r ee c o n ic s m a y b e m a d e b y t a ki n g
three p o i n ts , A , B , C , o f t h e c o n ic S , the n d ra wi n g, th r o u gh t h e
o l e , Y , o f A C, a n li n e t o m e e t B A , B C , r e s e ctiv e l , in N a n d L ,
p y p y
a n d th e n d es cribi n g t h e u n i u e p r o e r c o n ic , E, which t o u ch e s
p q
BA , B C, re s p e ctiv e ly , a t N a n d L , a n d a l s o t o u ch es A C If thi s .

con ic t o u ch A C a t M , t he c o n ic Q the n a ri s es a s t o u chi n g N L a t , Y

a n d t o u chi n g M N a n d M L wh e r e th e s e a r e m e t b t h e ta n g en t a t
y
B o f th e c o n i c S .

P a rtic u l a r figu r es in which th r e e s u ch c o n ic s a r i s e m a y b e r e

fe rre d t o : ( 1 ) If 0 , P , Q , R b e t h e fee t o f t he fo u r n or m a l s d r a w n t o
a c o n ic , S , fr o m a n o i nt, T, a n d , the oi n t 0 b e i n g k e t fi x ed , t he
yp p p
o i n t T b e a ll o w e d t o v a r o n t h e n o r m a l a t 0 , t h e t r i a d s o f li n es ,
p y
Q R , R P , P Q , s o o bt a i n e d , a r e a l l t a n gen t s t o a p a r a b o l a , 2 , a n d t h e
o l e s o f th e s e li n e s , in r e g a rd t o S , d e s c r ib e a r e ct a n g u l a r h er bola ,
p yp
Q .T h es e th r e e c o n ic s a r e r e l a t e d a s a b o v e T h e i r r e s p e ctiv e e u a . q
ti o n s , tha t o f 2 b e i n g ta nge n ti a l , m a y b e t a k en t o b e
—l “’ ‘l
a x
2
b y
2
2
2
0, a ,u v b y ,u w a x , vw 0,
x
y z, xa
y, y zx , 0 ,

—l
wh e r e a x + b y “1
,
2
( )
2 If a circl ,
S
2
b e d es r ib e d t o e, ,
c

p as th
s r o gh t h e fo c u s o f a p a r a b ol a
u 2 with it s c e n tr e o n the , ,

di r e ctri x o f t h e p a r a b o l a th er e is a s s o ci t e d with th es e a r e ct a n g u l a r
,
a

hy p er b o l a Q T he e q u a ti o n s ma y b e t a k e n t o b
, . e

( x a s )
y 4 2
a 2 0 y
2
4 a xz 0 2
x — y
2
3 a z ,
2 xz
2
0 ,
2 2 2 2
a ,

—1
the t a n gen ti a l q u a ti on o f Q b e i n g 3 l + 4 m + a n + 2 a n l = 0
e
2 2 ‘2 2
.

I n c o n n e x i o n with thi s s e t w e m a y d e d u c e t h e r es u lt th a t wh e n a
pa ra b o l a t ou ches t h e li n e s B C CA A B in s u ch a w a y th a t it , , ,

dire ctr i x co n ta i n s t h e ce n t r e o f t h e ci r cl e A B C t h e n i n e p o i n t s , , ,

circle o f t h e t i a d which is fo r m e d b y t h e i n te r s e cti o n s o f t he t a n

r

gen ts o f t he circle dra wn a t A B C t o u ch e s thi s circl e t t h e fo c u s , , ,

a

o f th e a a bo la

‘
p r .

E x 28 T he d ir ector cir cle of a con ic tou chin g thr ee l in es is cu t a t

. .

r i ht a n l es b
g y t he c ir c e f o
l r w hic h t he t hr ee lin es f o r m a s egp
l o l a r
g
tr iad L e t a , b, c b e t h e li n es , 2 t h e c o n ic t o u c hi n g th e m , a n d C
.

t he circl e A s 2 is in p o l a r t o C , th e re fo re C is o u t p o l a r t o 2 ; th u s ,
.

b y G a s ki n s th eo r e m , C c u t s t h e dire ct o r ci r cl e o f 2 a t right a n gl e s
’
.
1 52 C h ap ter III
E x 2 9 T he ci r cl e in re ga r d t o which a t r i a d o f p o i n t s is s e lf
. .

o l a r h a s it s c e n t r e a t t h e o r th o c e n tre o f t he t r i a d If t w o tr i a ds
p .

o f p o i n t s o n a c o n ic h a v e t h e s a m e o rth o c e n tre , th e re is a ci r cl e in

r e ga r d t o w hich b o th tri a ds a r e s e lf p o l a r ( Cf E x 2 1 , p -
. . . .

E x 3 0 P r o v e th a t c o n ic s t o u chi n g thr e e li n e s wh o s e di r e ct o r
. .

circl e s h a v e a c o mm o n p o i n t h a v e a fo u rth co mm on t a n ge n t .

E x 3 1 A tr a n sf or ma t ion of co nics thr ou g h f

. . ou r
p o in ts in to co n ics

ha v ing d o u ble con ta ct T he e u a ti o n s

. q
5 ( my
-
1
We ( a
:

c
-
l
z (7
l ea d to —
( en e) =
y
-
1
7 e 7)
—z —7 )
an d tr a n s fo rm c o n ics o f e q u a ti o n y 2 K ( r x ) 0 p a s s i n
,
2 2
.
2 2
,

thro u gh t h e fo u r p o i n t s ( 1 4; 1 i n t o c o n ic s o f e qu a ti o n
, , ,

( x
y )
2
K ( a x )
2
0 a ll2
h a vi n g d o u bl e c o n t a ct o n x
, y 0 .

Oth e r E x a m p l es a r e fou n d in t h e A dditi o n s a t t h e e n d o f t he

V ol u me .
1 54 C h a p ter I V

t o t he ti f cti o n o f th e s e c o n diti o ns Mo re fu lly th e ge o m e trica l

sa s a .
,

s ch e m e w a s b u ilt u p b y s u p o i n g c e r t a i n o i n t s t o b e giv e n a n d
p p s ,

o th e r o i n ts in i n fi n it e n u mb e r t o b e d e d u c e d fr o m th e s e b
p , , y p re

s crib e d r u l es o f c o n s t r u cti o n ; it w a s a s s u m e d th a t if t h e fu n d a

m e n ta l p o i n t s w e r e a m o n g th o s e f o r which t h e c o n diti o n s f o r a n
a b s t r a ct o r d e r on a n , y li n e s c o n t a i n i n g th e m w e r e s a ti s fi e d t h e , ,

o i n t s d e riv e d th e re fr o m b y t he p r e s crib e d c o n diti o n s might e u a ll

p q y
b e r e ga r d e d a s s a ti s fy i n g s u ch c o n diti o n s T hi s u n de rl y i n g a s s u m p .

ti o n o f t h e e x i s t en ce o f wh a t r e la ti ve ly t o t h e r u l es o f c o n s tru cti o n
, ,

m a y b e c a ll e d a c los ed se t o f p o i n t s which i s t o b e m a d e m o re p r e , .

ci s e with t h e u s e of t h e a lge b r a ic s y mb o l s w a s a v o id e d in t h e , ,

A b s tra ct G e o m e try o f C h a p t e r I o f V o l I b y t h e fra n k a s s u mpti o n .

,

o f P a pp u s th e o r e m
’
.

We w e re n o t c o n t e n t h o w e v e r with o n ly p o i n ts s a ti s fy i n g t he
, ,

c o n diti on s f o r a n a b s tra ct or d er W e re c o gn i s e d a l s o t he ex i s te n ce
.
, ,

o f p o i n t s s u ch a s w o u ld a ri s e if t h e a lg e b r a ic s mb o l s a p r o r i a t e
y p p
t o t h e ge o m e tr y w e r e s u ch th a t t h e e q u a ti o n z 0 c o u ld a lw a s b e
2
y
s a ti s fi e d b a s mb o l z o f t h e s s t e m e m l o e d wh a t e v e r s mb o l
y p y
y y , , y ,

o f thi s s s t e m c might b e
y W h e n in p a rtic u l a r 0 is
. 1 thi
, s c on , ,

diti on r e q u ires t h e e x i s ten ce o f p o i n t s n ot p re vi o u s ly r e c o gn i s e d

( s e e V ol I . p, . W e s h ll a s is c u s t o m a r
a
y ,
u s e i t o de n o te a ,

s mb o l f or which i 1 B t h e a dj u n cti o n o f thi s s mb o l i t o

2
y y .
y , ,

t h e s y mb o l s pr e vi o u s l y i n t r o d u c e d o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e it e r a ti v e
s mb o l s it is th e n p o s s ibl e t o o bt a i n a s o l u ti o n o f t h e e q u a ti o n c
y ,

f or e v e r y s y mb o l 0 which is it s e lf fo r m e d fr o m i a n d t h e pre vi o u s
s mb o l s If w e c a ll t h e s mb o l s c o n s i s ti n g o f t h e it e ra tiv e s mb o l s
y y
y .
,

a n d th os e de r iv e d fr o m th e m a s t h e i r ra ti o n a l n u mb e r s o f a rithm e tic

a r e d e r i v e d fr o m t h e r a ti o n a l n u mb e r s t h e r ea l s y mb o l s a l l t he , ,

s mb o l s a r i s i n g in c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e fu n d a m e n ta l g eo m e t r ic a l c o n
y
s t r u c t io n s a n d t h e p o s s ibilit y o f S t e i n e r s p r o bl e m ( V o l I p
’
.
, , .

in V irt u e o f t h e l a w s o f c o mbi n a ti o n o f t h e s y mb o l s ( V o l I p .
, .

will e vide n tly b e o f t h e fo r m x iy wh e re x a n d y a r e r e a l s y mb o l s , .

It is t h e s e n o w th a t if w e i n tr o d u c e c e rta i n l a w s o f o r d e r o f
ca ,

s u cc e s s i o n o r if t h e phra s eo l o gy is a ll o w e d c e rt a i n c o n c e p ti o n s o f
, , ,

ma g nitu d e t h e r e a l s y mb o l s a e in m a n i p u l a ti o n i n di s ti n g u i s h a bl e
,
r , ,

fro m t h e r ea l n u mb e r s o f a rithm e tic a n d t he s y mb o l s x iy a r e in ,

di s ti n g u i s h a bl e fr o m t h e n u mber s o f o rdi n a ry An a lys i s T o th o s e .

w h o h a v e c o n s id e r e d t h e th eo re tic a l b a s i s o f A n a l y s i s thi s c o n cl u s i o n ,

will b e e vide n t B u t thi s b a s i s is o fte n di s c u s s e d with t he h e lp o f

.

c o n ce p ti o n s d er iv e d fro m t he c o n s id e ra ti o n o f t h e m ea s u r e m en t o f
q u a n tity a n d with m e tr ica l E u clid ea n p l a n e S o m e br i e f fu r the r
,
a
’
.

i n dica ti o n o f t he id e s i n v o lve d m a y th e r e fo re b e ll o we d
a a .

1 Cf Ga u s s , Wer ke, m , 1 8 6 6 , p 7 9 I ch w er d e d ie B e w e is f iih ru n g in e n er d e r i

i i i
. . .

G e om e tr ic d er L a g e e n t n om m e n e n E n kl e d u n g d a r s te ll en , w e l je n e d a d u rc h d ie
g r b s s te An i i i
s ch a u l c h k e t u n d E n f a c h h e t g e w n n t I m G i i
r u n d e g e h b r t a b e t d er .
 R ea l sy mb ols . D is t in ct ion o f s ig n 1 55

To m e it w ill a p p ea r th a t it w o u ld h a v e b e e n be tt r a s i t w o u ld
so e ,

h a v e b ee n s im p l r f a n kly t o a u m e fr o m t he firs t th t a ll p o i n ts
e , r ss a

t o b e c o n s id e r e d l n t he g e m e t r y a r e s u ch a s th o s e f r which t he o o

n u mb e r s o f A n a ly s i s x + iy a 1 e a i t T o th w 1 it e 1 thi s
pp p ro 1 a
~

e , , . e

a ttit u d e a ea r s t o b e ne f t h e ma n n d m os t i n t e r es ti n
pp g o
g o i ,
a ,

q u es ti on s a i i n g in di s cu s s i ng t he fo u n da ti o n f ge o m e tr y It i s
r s s o .

a dmitte d th a t by h e lp o f t he s y mb o l s w e c n d efi n e a cl o s d s ys te m
, a e

o f p o i n t s a n d fig u r e t o which thi cl o e d s s t e m o f s mb l s l S a
s r s s
y y pp o o

r ia t e B u t thi s d o e s n o t ea r t o e cl u d e t h e e x i s t e n c e o f o th e
p .
p p p a r 1

o i n t s a n d fig u r e s u s c e tibl e f g e o m t r ic a l th e r It is tr u e o f
p p s
y o e o .

c o u r s e th a t in t h e p res e n t v o l u m e w e d o n o t o bta i n n y ge o m e t r ic a l s a

r e s u lts f o r which c r r es o n di n g r e s u lt s id e n tic a l in s t a t e m e n t d

p o , ,
o

n o t h o ld in t h r e a lm o f
p o i n ts re
p s e n t bl e b
y y s mb o l s x + i re a
e
y .

B u t thi s a pp ea 1 s t o b e a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e a r bit r a r y limit a ti o n ,

a d o te d f o r a c t ic a l r e s o n s 1i n v o lv e d 1 11 t h e a s s u m ti o n fi 1 t o f
p p 1
p a , ,
s

P a pp u s t h e o 1 e m a n d th e n o f t h e p o s s ibility o f S te i n e r s c o n s tru
,
e

ti o n o r m o r e g en e 1 a l ly a s in s o m e e m p l e s i n C h a p 1 1 1 o f t h
, , ,
xa .
,
e

p o s s ibility o f t h e s o l u ti o n o f p r o bl e m s de p e n di n g w h e n e x p r e s s ed ,

a lg e b r a ic a ll o n e q u ti o n s o f high e r th a n t h e s e c o n d o 1 d e r
a N 1 O
y , .
,

e v e n is it t h e c a s e th a t t h e r u l e s f o r t h e o r d er o f s u cc e s s i o n o f t h e
,

r e a l s mb o l s t o which w e p r e s e n tl r o c e e d a r e t he o n l ones w e
y , y p y ,

might a do p t F o r i n s ta n c e a n i n t er es ti ng th e o ry a ri s e s b y c o n s ide ri n g
.
,

a s s t e m o f s mb o l s r e r e s e n t a b l e in t h e fo r m a b 2
x + cx +
y y p
wh e re i n a b c , m y b e s u p p o s e d t o b e r ea l s y mb o l s b u t x n o t
, ,
a ,

o n e o f th e s e a n d a g r ee i n g th a t s u ch a s mb o l s h a ll b e h ld t o e
, y
fo ll o w a n o th e r s y mb o l o f t h e s a m e fo r m wh e n in t he d i ff e r e n e f ,
c o

th es e a a ( b b x ( c c ) x
,
’
t h e fi r s t o f t he c o e ffici e n t s
’ 2 -

a a
’
b b c
,
c
’

, which I S n o t ze r o is p os itive [A dd
’

, , . .

T h e d i s t i n c t i o n o f p o s i t iv e a n d n e g a t i v e f o r t h e r e a l
s y mb ol s T h e r ea l s y mb o l a o f a p o i n t 0
. a U b e l o n gi n g t o t he
, , , ,

o r d er e d a gg r e g a t e w hich w e m a su o s e t o e x i s t u o n a li n e
y pp p ,

u o n which th r e e o i n t s o f t h e a gg r e g t e 0 U a nd E f s mb o l
p p y a , , , ,
o

E 0 U a r e give n is s a id t o b e p os itive wh e n t h e p o i n t li es in
, ,

t h e s e gm e n t OU which c o n t a i n s E W h e n t h e p o i n t b e l o n g s t o t he
'
.

o th e r s e gm e n t O U t h e s mb o l a is s a id t o b e n e ga tiv e
y ,
W e sa w .

tha t t h e p o i n ts 0 a U 0 a U a r e h a r m o n ic c o nj u ga t es in r e g r d ,
a

t o 0 a n d U a n d th e r e fo r e s e p a ra t e d by 0 a n d U ( Vo l I p p 7 4
1 1 9) th u s wh e n
, , , .
, .
,

a is a o s itiv e s mb o l t h e s mb o l a i n e g tiv e s a
, p y y , .

I n p a r ticu l a r a s 0 0 it is imm a t e r i a l wh e th e r w e r e ga r d t he
, ,
.

mb o l o f t h e po i n t 0 a s o s itiv e o r n e ga tiv e t h e p o i n t U is e x c
s
y p p e

t io n a l a s will a p p e a r a n d o u r d e fi n iti o n d o e s n o t a pply t o it

, ,
.

i i
g e n tl ch e In h a l t d e r g a n z e n Ar g u m e n ta t on e n e m b ob e r n von r a u m l ic h en i i
i
e
u n a bh an g i g e n G e b e te d e r a ll g em e in e n a b s tra c ten G r os s e n l eh r e a n , d e s s e n G e g e n
i i
s ta n d d ie na c h d er S tet g ke t z u s a m m enh an g e n d en Gr ea s e n c om b in a t io n en s n d , i
i
e in em G e b e t e , w el ch e s z u r Z e t n oc h w en g a n g e b a u e t i
u n d in w e l c h e m m a n i
i i i
s c h a u ch n c h t be w e g e n k a nn o h n e e n e von r a u m l ic h e n B l d e r n e n tl e h n te S p r a c h e i .
1 56 Ch a p ter I V

Wh e th e r c be a p o s itive or ne ga tive r ea l s
y mb ol , thes mb o l 0 is
y
2

p os itiv e ; in vi r t u e o f c) c )
2
0 ( Vol . I , p . it is s u ffi ci e n t
to p r o v e thi s wh e n 0 its e lf is p os iti v e . T o pa s s fr o m P 0 cU , ,

to Q, 0 c U t h e co n s t r u c
2
,

ti o n giv e n ( V o l I p 8 4 ) w a s .
, .

fo ll o w s : dra w f m 0 a n d ,
ro

U re s p e cti ve ly t w o a rbitr a r y
, ,

li n es 0K U K m ee ti n g in K ; , ,

t a k e Y a rbit r a r ily o n U K
l e t E Y m e e t 0K in E a n d
’
,

E P m e e t K U in X ; th e n if
’

P Y m e e t 0K in P t h e p o i n t
’

Q is t h e i n t er s e cti o n o f P X
’

with O U C o n v e s ely if . r ,

X Q =0 + a U,

a nd a bep os iti v e re a l s y mb o l th e r e is o n e p o s itive r e a l z f or

a ,

which a a a s we ll a s a n e ga tiv e r ea l 2 T o o bta i n P fr o m Q is

2
, .
,

in fa ct t h e p r o bl e m c o n s id e re d in V o l I p 1 5 7 ( iii ) : w e a r e t o d r a w
,
.
,
.

thro u gh t h e giv e n p o i n t s E Q Y r es p e ctiv e ly in t h e s egm e n ts

’

, , ,

CE K OQ U U X Y K th r e e li n e s E P X X Q P Y P P wh o s e in
’ ’ ’ ’
, , , , , , ,

t e r s e c t io n s in p a i r s r e s p e ctiv e ly P P a n d X s h a ll l ie res p e ctiv e ly

’

, , ,

in t h e s p e cifi e d s e gm e n t s .

If a b b e b o th p o s itiv e r e a l s y mb o l s t he s y mb o l 0 a b is a l s o
, , , ,

p os itiv e ; if a b b e b o th n ega tiv e th en c is a l s o n e ga tive I n e a ch

, , .

U O A

ca s e ,
t he e q ti ua on a +b= 0 re q u i r es th a t b o th a = 0 a nd b O .

T he pro d u t a b is lik e wi s e
c , ,
p o s itiv e wh e n a b a r e b o th p o s i tiv e , , or

b o th n e ga tive .

Or d e r of m a g n it u d e f o r t h e re a l s y mbo l s rea l s y m b o l s T he .

m a y th e n b e p u t in o r d e r which w e c ll rd r o f m a gn i
,
ma y a t he o e

t u de by t h e r u l e th a t a b wh e n a b is a p o s itiv e s y mb o l If
,
.

A = O+ a U B 0 b U it c a n b e p r o v e d th a t t h e ge o m e t r ic l
,
:
,
a

c o n diti o n f o r thi s is tha t t he o r de r U B A s ha ll b e t he s a m e a s , ,

1 58 C h ap ter I V

p a ir of Q o f t h e li n e which a r e h a r m o n ic b o th in r e ga r d
o n s i t P
p , , , ,

t o 0 U a n d in re ga rd t o A B
,
If b e s ide O U th er e b e giv e n , .
, , ,

a n o th e r o i n t E o f t h e li n e which in t e r m s o f t h s mb o l s o f 0 U
y e
p , , , , , ,

h a s t h e s y mb o l E 0 U th en t h e s y mb o l s o f A B a n d o f P Q , , , , ,

h a v e d e fi n ite e x pre s s i o n s in t er m s o f 0 a n d U It is o f imp o rta n ce .

t o k n o w wh en t he e x p r e s i o n s o f P a n d Q in t e r m s o f 0 a n d U s , ,

onta i n o nl r e a l s mb o l s
c
y y .

L e t t h e e x pre s s i o n s o f A a n d B b e 0 a U 0 b U r e s p e ctiv e ly , ,

l e t p g b e t w o s y mb o l s s u ch th a t p
,
a a nd
Q b ; w e cl e a rl
y h a ve
2 2

—q ( 0 —q ) ( 0 —q ) ;
c o mp a ri n g th es e m mb i n g th t p o i n t f s y mb ol A mB e
e, r e er a s o s ar

h a rm n ic in e g d t o A n d B w
o r e th a t t h
ar
p i n ts 0 +
n a ,
e se e o ,

0 q e th p oin t ar d s ir d h m n ic b th in r ga d t o 0
e s U e e ,
ar o o e r , ,

a n d in r g d to A B e ar ,
.

N o w w h e n a b r e r e l n d th
,
f re a b i
,
l t he s y mb o l p g
a a ,
a ,
er e o ,
s r ea , ,

which i u ch th t p q ) a b is a l o n ly wh n a b i p os itiv e th a t
s s a
2
,
re e s ,

is nl wh n b ar b o th p
e itiv e o
a b o th n g tiv e T
e h us wh n os r e a e
,
o
y , , .
,

0 U E nd A B a e
, ,
a g ded a l the p o in ts P Q which e
,
r re ar s r ea , , ,
ar

h m o n ic b th in
ar g rd t o 0 U a n d A B a e ea l p o id ed A nd
o re a , , ,
r r r v a

B a e n ot s ep a ted by O a n d U b t o t other w is e
r ra , u n .

If h o w ve r l tiv ly t o 0 U n d E t h p i t A B
,
e , re a e u ch , . a , e o n s , a re s

th a t a x iy n d b x iy wh r , y a r l th n a b w hi h ,
e e x, a re ea , e ,
c

is i ea l nd iti v in thi c th en P Q l T
y
2
x s ,p ; r a e os w o e s a s e, , ,
ar r ea .

u ch i nt A B
o c o mm o n l
s, y id t b e co j g te imag in a ies in
a re sa o n u a r
s
p , ,

re ga d t o 0 U n d E
r ,
a .

A s t h r u lt re of f q n t pp lic ti o n w m y g d t he
es s a e re ue a a ,
e a re ar

m tt er f o m a n o th e r p o i n t f vi w L t u
a r f r b th 0 U n d o e . e s re e o ,
a

n d Y which w

‘
A B t t w o th r p i n t o f t h e li n
,
o o a
y X
e o
p s e, s , a , e su

p se t
o b giv o n t o g th r with
e n th e e
p oin t ,
f t h e li n wh e
e e a o r o e os

s mb l is X Y pp th th t 0 = X Y U = X + 7Y
’

o ; s u n os e e a 7
y g , ,

wh e E 7
er e t h e ro ot
, 7
f th
ar q u ti n 2 hx b O nd l o s o e e a o ax
2
,
a a s

th t A X a Y B X BY wh
a 8 th r
, ts f t h , ,
ere a , , a re e oo o e

e q u ti n a o b = 0 T h g ner l p i f p i n ts o f t he
’
. e e a a r o o ,

i n v o l ti n d e t e mi n d b y t he t w p a irs 0 U n d X Y is th en
u o r e o , a , ,

X nY X n Y wh e m n a e t h ro ot f t h e q u a ti o n
7 , ,
re ,
r e s o e

f or p r o p e r v a l u e o f K If t h e s y mb o l 5 7 b e e ith e r r ea l o r co n
a . s , 7 ,

j u ga t e im gi n r i e s s o th a t E 7 a n d 57 a r e r e a l w e ma y s u p p o s e
a a ,
7 7 ,

h b t o b e re a l t h e c a s e wh e n 5 7 a r e r ea l b e in g th a t in which
'

a ,
7

h —a b is p o s iti v e C o n v e r s e l y wh e n a h b a r e r ea l 5 a n d 7 a r e
, , ,
z
.
, , , , 7

e ith e r r e a l o r c o nj u g a t e im a gi n a r i e s S imil a r ly f o r a a n d 78 We limit . .

o u r e lv e s n o w t o t h e c o n s id e r a ti o n o f t h e ca s e wh e n a
’
h b a h b
’ ’
s , , , , ,

a r e a l l r ea l T h e p o i n ts P Q which a r e h a rm o n ic b o th in r e g a rd t o
.
, ,
 R ea lity f or p o in t s of in vol u tion s 1 59

0, U an d t o A , B,
d o u bl e p i n t s o f t h e i n v o l u ti o n d e te r mi n e d
a re t he o

by th e e t w o p i r s T h e e a r i s e th e n f o r t h v a l u e s o f K which
s a . s , ,
e

m a k e t he l a s t w r itte n q u d ra tic a p e r fe ct s q u a r e n a m e ly wh n a ,
e

K e v a l u es o f K s a ti s f i n g thi s will
’

K a ) (b b h
’

( a ) ( t h y
e ith e r b e r e a l o r b e c o nj u g t e im a gi n a i e s
, If th e e v a l u e b e K a nd a r . s s ,

K t h e l a s t w r itt e n q u a d r a tic w ill a r i s e b y s q u a r i n g

,,

K, h ,
’
K, a )
’
K, a K, h ,
’
h
’

( a ) x or ( a x h
a nd t he
y mb o ls o f P s Q will b e ,

( a K a ) X ( h K h ) Y, ( a
’
K a ) X ( h K h ) Y ,
’

, ,
’

,
’

the s e p o i n t s P Q will th e n b e re a l in r e ga r d t o X Y a n d X Y if
, , , ,

a nd onl if K a n d K b e r ea l f o r which t h e c o n diti o n is th a t

y , , , ,

’ ’ ’
4 (h
’ ’ ’

( 2 hh a b a b) 2 2
a b) ( h 2
a h)
s h o u ld b e p os itive If w e .
p ut
“2
M M a
(h (h
2
a b),
’ ’
2

thi s ex p r es s i o n is e q u a l t o a a m u ltipli e d i n t o
’
i 2

—
[( a h
'
l
M M 4 M ( a h l

W e s e e th u s th a t t he e x p r es s i o n is p o s itiv e if e ith e r M o r M b e ’

o s itiv e ; th t is if e ith e r h a b b e n e ga tiv e ; th t is

’ ’ ’
ab r h
2 2
a o
p , a ,

if o n e o r b th o f t h e t w o p a i r 0 U a n d A B b e c o nju ga te
,
o ,
s , , ,

im a gi n a r i es in rega r d t o X Y a n d X Y B u t wh en 111 M a r e , .
, ,
’

b o th n ega tiv e s o th a t E 7 a 8 r e a l l r ea l o r 0 U a n d A B a r e
, , 7 , , ,
a , , ,

a ll r ea l in r e ga d t o X Y a n d X Y t h e e x p r es s i o n is e q u a l t o
r , ,

m u lti p li d i n t o ( E a ) ( s s ) ( 7 a ) ( 7 s ) ; it is th er e for e
e , ,

o nl
y p o s itiv e w h e n 0 U a r e n ot s e a r a t e d b
p y A a nd B
, .

We m a y i n t er p e t E 7 a n d a 8 a s v a l u e s o f t h e p a r a m e te r 9 o n
r ,
7 , , , ,

t h e c o n ic x p r e s s e d b y x e 9 y 9 z 1 s p e a ki n g o f p o i n t s giv e n 2
, , ,

b y r e a l v a l u e s o f 9 a s r ea l p o i nt s T h e n t h e d o u bl e p o i n t s o f t he .

i n v o lu ti on giv en b y t h e t w o p a i r s o f p o i n ts o f t he c o n ic 0 U a n d , ,

A B a r e t h e p o i n t s o f c o n t a ct o f t he ta n ge n t s t o t h e c o n ic w hich
, ,

c a n b e d r a w n fr o m t h e o i n t in which t h e ch o r d s O U n d A B
p a

i n t er s e ct T h e p e vi o u s r e m a r k s th er e fo r e giv e t h e res u lt th a t
. r , , ,

f o m a ny p o i n t o f a li n e which d o e s n o t c u t the c o n ic in t w o r e a l
r

p o i n t th e re ca n b e dr a w n t w o r ea l ta n ge n ts o f t h e c o n ic T w o
s, .

r ea l ta n gen t s ca n a l s o b e d r a w n fr m a p o i n t whi h i s u ch tha t o c s

,

fr o m it t w o li n e s c a n b e d r a wn wh o e res p e ctiv e p a irs o f i n te r

,
s

s e cti o n s with t he o n ic a r e b o th r ea l n d d o n o t s e p a r a t e o n e
c a

a n o th e r r e g a rd e d a s p o i n t s o f t h e a gg r e ga t e o f r e l p o i n t s o f t h e
,
a

c o n ic w hich is give n b y t he r a l v a l u e s o f 9 B u t fr o m a p o i n t fr o m e .

which t w o li n e s c a n b e d r w n i n t er s e cti n g t h e o n ic a ch in a p a i r a c e

o f re l o i n ts th o s e o f o ne i r s e a r a ti n g th os e f t h e o th e r p i r
p a
p p a o a
-

, ,

n o r e a l t a n ge n t s a n b e d r w n t o t he c o n ic c a .

We m a y i n t e rp r e t t h e re u lt s o m e wha t di ff e r e n tly r ega di n g 0 U s , r ,

1 60 Ch ap ter I V

as t he p id o u bl e
t o f o n e i n v o l u ti o n
o n s a n d A B a s t h e d o u bl e , ,

o i n t s o f a n o th e r i n v l u ti o n ; th e n P Q or e t he a ir o f o iii t s
p p p , a .

c o mm o n t o bo th i n v o l u ti o n s T h e s e a r e th e n rea l wh en a t l ea s t o n e
.

o f t h e i n v o l u ti o n s h a s f o r it s d o u bl e o ints a a ir o f c o nj u ga t e
p p
im gi n a r y p oi n t s R e ga rdi n g t h e p o i n t s a s b e fo re a s ly i n g o n t he
a .
, ,

o n ic x z h e r e s u lt s h e w s th a t if T a n d T b e t w o o i nts
’
c
y 0 t 2
, p , ,

n o t l i n g o n t h e c o n ic o n e o f which a t l ea s t is s u ch th a t n o r e a l
y , , ,

ta n ge n t s c a n b e d r a wn fro m it t o t he c o n ic th e n t he li n e TT m e et s ,
’

t h e c o n ic in t w o r e a l p o i n t s F o r t h e i n v o l u ti o n o f which t he
.
,
:

d o u bl e p o i n ts a r e t he p o i n t s o f c o n t a ct o f t a n ge n ts fro m T t o
t h e c o n ic c o n s i s t s o f p a i r s o f p o i n t s o f t h e c o n ic l y i ng o n li n e s
,

thr o u gh T .

A n o th er a p plic a ti o n is a s fo ll o w s W ith r e fe re n c e t o t w o a b s o l u t e
o i nts I a n d J w e h v e d e fi n e d t h e a x e s o f a c o n ic wh o s e c e n t r e
a
p , , ,

is Y ( t h e p o l e o f t h e li n e IJ ) s t h e li n es j o i n i n g Y t o t he
,
a
p o i n ts ,

P Q o f t h e li n e I J which a r e h a r m o n ic b o th in r e ga r d t o I J a n d
, , , , , ,

in r e g a r d t o t h e t w o p o i n ts X a n d Z in w hich t he c o n ic m e e t s t h e
, ,

li n e I J T h e n wh en w ith re p e ct t o p o i n t s r ega r d e d a s r e a l o n t h e
.
, ,
s

li n e I J t h e p o i n t s I a n d J a r e c o nj u ga t e im a gi n a r i e s t h e a x e s o f
, ,

t he c o n ic a r e r e a l p r o vid e d t h e c e n t r e Y is r ea l a n d t h e p o i n t s
, , , ,

X Z wh e r e t h e c o n ic m e e t s t h e li n e I J a r e e ith e r rea l o r a r e c o n
, , ,

j ga t e im a gi n a r i e s
u .

R e m a rk I n wh a t p re c e d e s w e h a v e d e a lt with t h e r ea lity o f
.

P Q in t w o w a y s fi r s t c o n s id e ri n g A B r e l a tiv e l y t o O U a n d
, , , , ,

a ft e r w a r d s o n s id e r i n g b o th 0 U a n d A B r e l a tiv e l
c t o t w o o th e r
y , ,

o i n ts X Y T h e di s ti n cti o n is n o t imm a t e ri a l ; if 0 U b e im a gi
p , .
,

in r e g a rd t o X a n d Y a o i n t which is r e a l in r e g a r d t o X
na r
y p ,

a n d Y m a y b e im a gi n a r y in r e ga r d t o 0 a n d U F o r i n s t a n c e if
—
.
,

K+7 2 = 1 7a n
2
d 0 = X, + (p + 7 9 ) Y U = X + ( p ig ) Y th e n t
,
h e ,

p o i n t giv e n b
y 0 ( K in ) U is t h e s a m e a s th a t giv e n b
y
—K> 71 Y .

G e n er a l s ta t e m ent of t h e m e a n in g of r e a l a n d im a g i n a r y
p oin t s in a p l a n e As . a ba s i s
f o r ge o m e try in a p l a n e , w e s u pp os e
tha t fo u r p o i n t s a r e give n , s a y A , B , C a nd D T h e s e a r e r ega rde d .

a s r ea l By t h e i n t e r s e cti o n s o f t he j o i n i n g li n e s o f p a i r s o f th e s e
.

o i n t s , th r ee o th e r p o i n t s a r e o bt a i n e d B y t h e i n t e rs e cti o n s o f t he
p .

j o i n i n g li n e s o f t he p a i r s o f a l l t he p o i n t s n o w o bt a i n e d , o th e r
o i n t s a r e fo u n d , a n d t h e m e th o d m a y b e i n d e fi n it e l y r e p e a t e d
p .

T h e d e riv a ti o n m a y b e a r ra n ge d a s a s e r i e s o f a pp lica ti o n s o f t he
r o c e s s o f fi n di n g t h e fo u r th h a r m o n ic p o i n t o f th r e e giv e n p o i n t s
p
o f a li n e , o r o f t h e p r o c e s s o f fi n di n g t h e fo u rth h a rm o n ic li n e o f

thr e e li n e s w hich m e e t in a p o i n t T he p o i n ts a n d li n e s s o o bta i n e d .

a r e u n limit e d in n u mb e r Fu r th er , with a p r o p er d e fi n iti o n o f t he

.

m e a n i n g o f t h e s t a t e m e n t , it a p p ea r s th a t t he p o i n ts s o d e riv e d
1 62 Ch a p ter I V
‘1
wh e r e l m n p g r a r e rea l
, , , , , m g but l
“1
, n
‘l
r n ot a ll e q l ua ,

th e r e co rr e s p o n d s a conjug a te im a gi na ry p o i n t
<1
a nd , s imil a r ly t o a n im a gi n a r y li n e th e re c o rre s p o nd s a n o th e r t h e
, ,

c o nj u ga te im a gi n a ry li n e T he j o i n o f a n im a gi n a r y p o i n t t o it s
.

c o nju ga t e is a rea l li n e thro u gh t he firs t p o i n t ; t h e i n t e r s e cti o n o f

a n im a gi n a r li n e with it s c o nj u g a t e is a r ea l p o i n t o f th e firs t li ne
y .

C o n v e rs e l y a li n e giv e n by t h e e q u a ti o n
,

wh e r e l m n p g r a r e a l l re a l b u t l p m g “l
a r e n ot a ll
‘l
n
—r
l
, , , , , , , ,

e q u a l ( s i n c e o th e r wi s e thi s w ou ld b e a r e a l li n e ) c o n t a i n s o n l t h e r ea l
y ,

p o i n t f o r w hich b o th t h e e q u a ti o n s lx my + n z 0 p x qy r z 0
'

a r e s a ti s fi e d ; thro u gh thi s p o i n t t h e c onj u ga te im a gi na ry li n e

p a s s es S imil a rly f o r a n im a gi n a ry p o i n t
.
, .

T h e r ea d e r will c o mp a r e thi s th e o ry w ith th a t giv e n in V o l 1 .

( p. o f a ggr e ga t es o f re a l e l e m e n t s h a vi n g t h e m u t u a l r e l a ti o ns

o f im a gi n a r
y e l e m en ts C o n s id e r a n y im a gi n a r
.
y p oi nt W e ca n .
,

c on v en i en tly s u pp os e t y mb l t o b e 3 L iP wh ere
i s s o 5
, ,

3 1 L = zA + mB + n C ,

c j g t b i g 4 h v l i a nd — i a r e t he
T / /
’
it s o n u a e e n 3 L iP e a u e,s i 3 i 3
r o o t s o f t h e e u a ti o n 3 x + 1q 2 = 0 T he u a dra tic 3 x + 1 is t h e
.
2
q
H e s s i a n fo r m o t e c u bic (
f h x s ) [( x s)
2
(1 3 s x ) ], a s is ea s y
2

t o v e rify , t he s y mb o l s b e i n g a rbitra r y Th e r oo t s o f thi s c u bic a r e

—
.

s , (s + 3 s ) a n d ( 9 + 3 s ) ; if w e u s e S ( s ) t o de no t e

(s 3 s ) , a n d S ( s ) t o d e n o t e S [S
2
th e s e r o o t s a r e s , S ( s ) ,
S ( s ) ; w e e a s il y s ee th a t 5 ( s ), o r S [S
? 3 2
is e u a l t o 8 T h u s ( s e e q .

Vo l 1 , p
. . t h e th e o ry r e fe rre d t o w o u ld r e p r e s e n t t he giv e n
im a gi n a ry p o i n t , wh os e s y mb o l is 3 5L iP , b y a s e t o f three p o i nts
t a k e n , in a d e fi n ite o rde r , o n t he rea l li n e c o n t a i n i n g t h e giv e n p o i n t,
n a m e l y t h e th r e e p o i n t s wh os e s y mb o l s a r e L sP , L S (s ) P ,
L S (s ) P
?
The c o nj u g a t e im a gi n a r y p o i n t , wh o s e s y mb o l is
.

7
3 L iP , w o u ld th e n b e r ep r e s e n t d by t e tri d , L s P , L + S ( s ) P ,
e h a
”

L S ( s ) P , c o n s i s ti n g o f t he s a m e p o i n t s in a di ff e re n t o r d e r A n d , .

s b e i n g a rbitra r y , t h e s a m e im a gi n a ry p o i n t w o u ld b e re pres e n t e d

b y a n i n fi n it e n u mb e r o f e u iv a l e n t tri a ds q .

R ea l a nd im a g in a r y c o n ic s . M o re c a r e
ry in d e fi n i n g is n e es s a c
a r ea l c o n ic th a n in d e fi n i n g a r ea l li n e s i n c e a c o n ic c a n b e ex ,

pre s s e d by a n e q u a ti on in which a ll t h e c oe ffici ent s a r e rea l a n d s till

F o r i n s t a n c e t h e c o n ic wh os e e q u a ti o n
n o t h a v e a n y r ea l p o i n t .

r e l a tiv e l y t o t h e giv e n r ea l p o i n t s o f t he p l a n e is x y z
“ ,

0 ,
2 2
,

c on t a i n s n o p o i n t wh o s e c o o rdi na te s a r e a ll rea l A c o n ic ca n a l s o .

h a v e t w o re a l p o i nt s a nd no oth e r rea l p o i n t s ; or ca n ha v e fo ur
, ,
 R ea l a nd im a g in a r y c on ics 1 63

rea l p o i n ts a nd n o o th e r r ea l p o i n t s
, . C o n s id e r , f o r e xa m p le , t he
c on ic e x p r e s e d by th e e q u a ti n
s o

—y [h
x
2 —l
wh e r e l , m , h, k rea l y mb o l s i h a vi n g t he u s u a l s ign ifica n c e
a re s ,

( 7
2
hi
T s c o n ic c o n t i n t h e tw o
p o i n ts ( 1 0 0 a n d 0 l
a s
) ( , , , ,

w hich w e r e ga rd a s re a l A n y o th e r p o i n t o f r ea l c o o r di n a t e s ly i n g
.

o n thi s c o n ic m u s t b e s u ch a s t o s a ti s fy b o th t he e q u a ti o n s

2
3 + l z x + m z
y
— x
y ( h 2
z x + z
y
— x
y ( 2 h — l
th es e h o we v e r b y e limi n a ti o n o f 2 r e q u i r e t h e e q u a ti o n
, , ,

[ ( h — l ) x — < h
a n d thi s ca n b e s a ti s fi e d b n o r ea l v a l u e s o f x a n d if k b o itiv e
y y p e s

th r th w hich b r e c u rr i n g t o t h e o r igi n a l e q u a
( o e a n x 0 y 0 , y , ,

ti o n s d oe s n o t l ea d t o a p o i n t o f th e c o n ic ) Wh e n It is n e ga tiv e
, .
,

th er e a r e t w o v a l u es o f x y which s a ti s fy thi s e q u a ti o n e a ch o f
“ 1
,
‘
which l e a d s t o a v a l u e o f x z T h u s t h e c o n ic ha s t w o o r fo u r l
.
, ,

r e a l p o i n t s a cc o rdi n g a s ls is
, p o s itiv e o r n e ga ti v e .

I n ge n e r a l t h e r ea l p o i n t s o f a c o n ic e xp r es s e d b y a n e q u a ti o n
,

0 wh o e c oe ffici e n ts a r e n o t r ea l a r e t he p o i n t s
,
s ,

c o mm o n t o t w o c o n ic s e a ch with r e a l c o effici e n ts a x +
, 0 ,
2
,
"
0 T h e s e c o mm o n p o i n ts h a v e c o o r di n a t es which d e p e n d
’
a x .

u p o n t h e r o o t s o f a n e q u a ti o n o f t h e fo u r th d e gr ee wher e i n t he ,

c oe ffici en t s a r e rea l ; o f s u ch a n e q u a ti o n a s w e h a v e r e m a r k e d t he , ,

rea l ro o t s a re in n u mb er n o n e t w o o r fo u r T h u s a co n ic wh os e
, , , .
,

c o e ffici en t s a r e n o t re a l p o s s e s s e s n o n e o r t w o o r fo u r r e a l p o i n t s , , ,

u n l e s s it o s s es s e s a n i n fi n it e nu mb er ( a s wh e n it d e g e n e ra t e s i n t o
p
t w o li n es o f which o n e is r ea l a n d t h e o th er is n o t r e a l ) .

A c o n ic w h os e e q u a ti o n h a s re a l c oe ffi ci e n t s m a y h a v e n o r e a l
p o i n t a s w e ha ve s een If h o w e ve r s u ch a c on ic ha v e o n e r ea l
, .
, ,

p o i n t a n d b e n ot a li n e p a ir m e e ti n g a t thi s p o i n t it ha s a n i n fi n ite
, ,

n u mb e r o f r ea l p o i n t s ; f o r a n r e a l li n e d r a w n thr o u gh t h e r ea l
y
o i n t m e e t s t h e c o n ic in a n o th e r r ea l p o i n t A c o n ic which is a .

a i r c o n s i s ti n g o f t w o c o nj u g a t e im a gi n a r li n es c o n ta i n s on e
p , y ,

rea l p i n t t h e i n t e rs e cti o n o f th es e a n d n o o the r

o , , .

T h u s w e s ee th a t w e m a y c o n v e n i e n tly s p e a k o f a co n ic which is
n o t a li n e a ir a s r ea l r e ga r d e d a s a l o c u s o f o i n ts wh e n it is
p , , p ,

e x re s s e d b a n e q u a ti o n with r ea l c o e ffici e n t s a n d p o s s es s e s on e
p y ,

rea l p oi n t S u ch a c o n ic h a s a r ea l t a nge n t a t e ve ry rea l p o i n t a n d

.
,

is th u s r e a l a l s o r e ga r d e d a s a n e n v e l o p e Wh e n w e s p ea k o f a
, , .

c on ic a s im a gi n a ry it w ill b e d e s i r a bl t o s p e cify w h e th e r it s
,
e

e q u a ti o n h a s r ea l c oe ffici e n t s o r n o t .

It is o bvi ou s tha t a c o n ic which ha s fi e r ea l p o i n t s is a re a l v

c on ic ; it ma y b e de fi n ed in t he o r igi n a l w a y by t w o r e l a t e d p e n cil s
, ,

o f li n es wh o s e c e n t r es a r e a t t w o o f th e s e o i n ts B u t a r e a l c o n ic
p .
,

1 1 —2
1 64 C h ap ter I V

p os s es s e s im a gi na r y p o i n t s a n d s u ch p o i n t s m a y b e a m o n g fi e
, v

p o i n t s which a r e u tili s e d t o d e fi n e s u ch re l a t e d p e n cil s o f li n es It .

is u nn e c e s a ry t o e n t e r i n t o a n e xa mi n a ti o n o f t he p os s ibiliti e s
s .

T he in t e r ior a nd e xt e r i o r p o in t s of a r ea l c on ic . In
re ga r d t o a r e a l c o n ic s u pp os e d , a li n e
p a i r w e ma
n ot t o b e
y ps ea k ,

o f a n y rea l p o i n t o f t h e pl a n e which d oes n o t l ie o n t h e c o n ic a s ,

b e i n g e ith e r in ter ior o r ex ter ior t o t h e c o n ic F o r t he p o l a r li n e o f

, , .

a r ea l p o i n t s a P in r e g a rd t o a c o n ic e x re s s e d b a n e q u a ti o n
, y , , p y
with r ea l c o e ffi ci en t s is a rea l li n e a n d will m e e t t h e c on ic e ith er
, ,

in t w o r e a l p o i n t s or in t w o c o nj u ga t e i ma gi n a r y p o i n t s ; in t h e
,

l a tte r ca s e t h e t w o t a n ge n t s th a t c a n b e d r a w n t o t h e c o n ic fr o m
t h e p o i n t P a r e c o nj u ga t e im a gi n a r y li n e s a n d w e s p e a k o f t h e ,

o i n t P a s in ter ior t o t h e c o n ic It w a s s h e w n a b o ve
( 1 6 0 ) th at
p .
p .

e v er r e a l li n e dra w n th r ou gh s u ch a n i n t e r i o r p o i n t m ee t s t h e c o n ic
y
in t w o r ea l p o i n t s A p o i n t fr o m w hich t w o r e a l t a n g e n t s ca n b e
.
,

dra w n t o t h e r ea l c o n ic is s p o k e n o f a s a n ex ter io p o i n t ; fr o m
, r

s u ch a o i n t ca n b e d r a w n s o m e li n e s which m e e t t h e c o n ic in t w o
p
c onj u ga te im a gi n a ry p o i n t s a n d o th er s which m ee t it in t w o rea l
,

p o i n t s It c n b e p r o v e d th a t if w e ta k e t w o i n t e ri or p o i n ts a n d
. a , ,

c o n s id e r t h e t w o s e gm e n t s o f t h e li n e which j o i n s th e s e which a r e ,

de t er mi n e d b y t he t w o r ea l p o i n t s in which thi s li ne m e e t s t he
c o n ic th en a ll t h e rea l p o i n t s o f o n e o f th es e s egm e n t s a r e i n t e ri o r
,

o in ts T h e r ea l
p o i n t s o f a pl a n e a r e th u s di vid e d i n t o t w o c a t e
p .

g o r ie s b
y m ea n s o f t h e r ea l
p o i n t s o f a r ea l c o n ic which is n o t a

li n e p a i r .

T h e b e h a vi o u r f o r a n im a gi n a ry c o n ic which is d e t e rmi n e d b y a
r ea l e q u a ti o n is di ff er e n t T h e ta n gen t s dra wn t o s u ch a c o n ic fr o m
.

an
y r ea l
p o i n t a r e c o nj u ga t e im a gi n a r y s o th a t in o n e s e n s e a n , y , ,

o i n t might b e c a ll e d a n i n t e r i o r p o i n t ; b u t e v e ry r ea l li n e m e e t s
p
t h e c o n ic in t w o c o nj u ga t e i m a gi n a r y p o i n t s .

T h e r e a l it y o f t h e c o m m on p o in t s , a nd of th e c o m m on
s e l f -p o l a r t r i a d , o f t w We c o n s id e r t w o c o n ics which
o c onic s .

a r e b o th e x pr es s e d b e q u a ti o n s with r e a l c oe ffici en t s ; o n e o r b o th
y , ,

o f t h e c o n ic s m a y b e r e a l A s ha s b ee n r e m a r k e d t he d e t e rmi n a ti o n
.
,

o f t h e c o mm o n p o i n t s o f t w o s u ch c o n ic s m a y b e r e d u c e d t o t h e

s o l u ti o n o f a n e q u a ti o n o f t h e fo u r th d e gr ee with r e a l c oe ffici e n t s , .

T o a n y ro o t o f s u ch a n e q u a ti o n which is n o t r ea l th e r e c or r e s p on ds
a n o th e r r oo t which is t h e c o nj u g a t e im a gi n a r o f t he fo rm e r ; th e re
y
fo re it m a y b e s h e w n t o a n y o n e o f t he fou r c o mm o n p oi n t s o f t he
, ,

t w o c o n ic s which is n o t re a l th er e c o rres p o n d s a n o th e r c o mm o n
,

o int c o nj u ga t e im a gi n a r t o t h e fo rm er ; a n d t h e li n e j o i n i n g
p , y ,

th es e t w o c o mm o n p o i n t s is rea l T h er e is th e re for e a lwa ys a t .

, , ,

l ea s t on e li n e p a ir o f t w o rea l li n e s p a s s i n g thro u gh t he fo u r
, ,

c o mm o n p o i n ts o f t w o s u ch co n ic s If t he fo u r c o mm on p o i n .

t h e t w o c o n ic s a r e a ll rea l a n d di ff e re n t th e re a r e s ix li n e s
, , ,
 C H AP TE R V

P R OP E R T I E S RE L AT I VE TO AN A BSOL U T E C ON IC .

THE N OT I ON OF D I ST A N CE . N ON E U C-
LI DE AN
G E OME T R Y

T h e i n t e rv a l o f t w o p o i n t s of a l in e rela t iv e l y t o t w o

g iv e n p o i n t s o f t h e l i n e If M N P Q b e fo u r p o i n t s o f a .
, , , ,

li ne a n d t h e s y mb o l s o f th es e p o i n t s b e s u ch th a t a P = M + x N
, ,
‘
bQ = M y N th e n t h e s y mb o l y x ,
i s s u ch th a t : it is u n a lte re d 1

b y r e p l a ci n g a ny o n e o r m o re o f t h e s y mb o l s P Q M N r e s p ec , , , ,

t i e ly b y p P g Q m M n N wh e r e p g m n a r e a n y s y mb o l s o f t h e
v , , , , , , , ,

s s t e m e m l o e d o f which t h e c o mm u t a tivit in m ul ti lic a ti o n is

y p y , y p ,

o f c o u rs e a s s u m e d ;
,
it h a s t h e s a m e v a l u e a s f o r a ny o th e r fou r
p o i n ts M ,
N P
’
, Q which ’
,
f o rm a ra n ge r e l a t e d t o M N
’

,
’

,
P Q; , , ,

with a s light cha n ge o f n o ta ti o n thi s i s t he s a m e s ta te m e n t a s th a t

a r a n ge o f p o i n t s M N M + N M + KN is re l a t e d t o a ra n ge o f
, , , , ,

o i n t s r e 1 es e n t e d b M M M r o o f ha s
’ ’ ’
K
’ ’ ’

p p y N + N + N A p, , , .

b ee n g i v en Vo l I p 1 5 4 t h e s y mb o l y x I S e q u a l t o t he s y mb o l 1
'

, ,
. .

fo r m e d b y t h e a n a l o go u s r u l e fro m t h e e q u a ti o n s which ex pres s

M N in te rm s o f P a n d Q th a t is t h e e q u a ti o n s
, , ,

( x
y)
1
M = P
y
- — x ba
‘
Q a
‘
y ( x — y ) N =
y P — y ba Q
‘ 1
,
1 1
.

T h e s y mb o l ca n th e n b e r e p res e n t e d b ( P Q M N ) or b
y ; y , , ,

M a t is o f t he gr e a t es t i m o r t a n c e t o u s h e r e i s
( N
, ; P Q ) \V,h .
p
t he fa ct th a t if P Q R b e a ny th 1 e e p o i n t s o f t h e li n e M N w e h a v e
, , , ,

(P Q ; M , ,
M , M ,
N) .

Now , an th a t fo ll o w s w e s u p p o s e tha t t h e a lge bra ic

d in a ll ,

s mb o l s e mpl o e d a r e th o s e a 1 1 i e d a t in t h e p r e c e di n g ch a p t er 1
y y ,

which h a v e t he s a m e p r o p ei t ie s in c o m p u t a ti o n a s t he c o mpl ex
n u mb e r s o f o rdi n a r y A n a l ys i s with h 1 ch th ey m a y th u s b e ide n ,
11

t ifi e d If th e n < 1
. ) ( 5) b e a n y fu n cti o n f or which <1 ) < ) ( 5)
1 g!
)

a n d 5 den o t e ( P Q ; M N ) 7 d e n o t e ( Q R ; M N ) a n d 2; d enote
, , , 7 , , ,

( P ,
R ; M N ) w e s h a ll h a v e
, ,
W e a ppl
y thi s
‘
t o t he c a s e wh en < 1) ( E ) ( ) 2 i l 1
o
g
L e t t h e e x p re s s i o n

111
0
. Q ; 7 1 . N )1

be c a ll e d t h e in ter va l fro m P to Q with re s p e ct to M an d N . T he

 In ter va ls m ea su r ed b y tw o a bsolu te p oin ts 1 67

i nt e rv a l fr o m P t R is th u s t he s u m o f t he i nt e rva l fro m P t o Q
o

a n d th a t fr o m Q t o R s u b j t h o w e v e r t o t he a mbig u it i nh e r e n t ec
, y
in t he d e fi n iti o n A s ( Q P ; 111 N ) is t h e i n v e r s e o f ( P Q ; M N )
.
, , , , ,

t h e i n t e r v a l fr o m Q t o P i t he n e g tiv o f t he i n t e rv a l fr o m P t o s a e

Q B u t fu rth e r in virt u o f t he p r o p e r t y o f t he l oga rithm t h e

.
, e ,

i n t er va l in d e f u lt o f fu r th er s p e cifi a ti o n is u bje c t t o t he a dditi on

,
a c ,

o f a n a rbit r a r
y i n t e g r a l m u lti l e o f n
p W e ma
y a g r e e th a t w hen .

P a n d Q c o i n cid e in which c a s e ( P Q ; M N ) , 1 t h e i n te r a l , ,
:
,
v

va ni s h e s a nd th e n th a t wh e n t he i n t e rv l is W t h e t w o p o i n t s
, , , a ,

a g a i n c o i n cid e W e m a y h o we ve r a pp ly t he d e fi n iti o n t o ca s e s in
.
, ,

which t he i n te r va l is n o t r ea l a s will b e s e e n If t h e i n te rva l b e , .

d en o t e d b y 9 w e h a v ( P Q ; M N ) e a n d wh n P Q M N
,
= w
e , ,
2
, ,
e , , ,

a r a ll rea l
e
p o i nt s it is i 9 w hich is r ea l W h,en w e ha ve .

( P Q, ; M N ) ,
1 th e n P a nd Q a r e h a rm o n ic in re ga r d t o M

an d N .

A n g u l a r i n t e r v a l in r e g a r d t o t w o a b s o l u t e p o i n t s We .

h v c id d
a e o ns h t
er e , in C a
p er , so e o f t he o n s e u e n es o f s u
p III m c q c
p i g
os n p i t I J
t wo o n s, , , o f t he
p a ne , t o be en , a n d a en a s l giv t k
a b l t
so u e i t p ith
o n s W t wo su .
p o n s , w e ma
y e
p yo t h e coni t ch m l
sid r ti
e a j t giv
on s us d en , t o e n e t he n er a ro o ne fi i t v lf m
n e , OP , t o li
a noth li er m l
n e , OQ ; na e
y , es e n es , r e s e
p e
y ,
if th
ee tli
h e ctiv l m t
li n e I J in P Q
’
a nd ,
w e ma
y a e f or s n
’
er a t h e t ka ue thi i t v l v l
‘l
Q I J hi d d
a nd l p i t
’ ’

( )
2 i l o
g ; ,
T s e en s o n
p y o n t he o n s, P

Q wh r li m t t he n e I J , a n d n o t o n t h e p o s li
o n o f t he iti
’

, e e t he nes ee

i t cti
n er s e li
o n , 0 , o f t he ne s Su o s e in
p a u a , en the ppp o n s
. rtic l r wh i t
o f t he l p r f rr d
a ne a re e e e t o r ee
p o n s , C , A, ,
th
w e re a i t B which g rd
a sr l th t I
ea , a J A iB , A iB , e P ,
’ ’
a re en b
y whil Q giv
’
a nd Q

li n e s CI CJ CQ ca n th e n b e e x p r e s s e d b y t he r e s p e cti v e
’ '

th e , , CP ,

e q u a ti o n s y ix , y ix y ta n a x y
, ta n ( a 9 ) x T h es e , .

re la ti o n s gi ve
ia ’
I ‘i t fd -t o,
'

I
Qe P J
z
Qe Q J
a
e ,

h en ce ’ ’
I J) m
a nd (P , Q ; , e .

Th i s r e l a t on , ai pp r oa c h e d f r om a m et r i ca l p o n t of i vi ew , w a s ,
it s e e ms , fi rs t

u s ed L
b y a g u e r r e ( N ou v A n na l x ii, 1 85 3 , p 5 7 ; Oeu vr es ( 1 905 ) 1 1 , p As
i i i
. . . .

w l l b e s e e n , it m a y b e r e a r d e d a s t h e f o u n d a t on o f a l l t h a t f ol l ow s in t h s
g
Ch a p te r ( Cp p . . .

It is cl e a r th a t if 0 b e a n y p o i n t o f a c o n ic c o n t a i ni ng I a nd J o f
, ,

which P a n d Q a r e t w o fi x e d p o i n t s t he i n te r va l fro m OP t o OQ in , ,

r ega r d t o I a n d J is t h e s a m e f r a l l p o s iti o n s o f 0 o n t h e c o n ic
,
o .

I n p a rtic u l a r w h e n P Q p s e s th r o u gh t h e p o l e o f I J in r e ga rd t o
,
a s ,

thi s c o n ic thi s i n t er va l is 1
,
7 .

I n t e r va l in r e g a r d t o a n a b s ol u t e c o n i c Th e p o s t u l a ti o n .

o f t w o a b s l u t e p o i n t s th u s fu r n i s h e s a r e a dy m e a n s o f d e fi n i ng t he
o
1 68 Ch ap ter V

i nte r v a l fr o m o n e li n e t o a n o th e r It d o e n o t h o w e v er e x c e pt b y . s
,

a limiti n g p r o c e s s fu r n i s h a m e a n s o f d e fi n i n g t h e i n t e r v a l b e tw ee n
,

t w o p o i n t s u nl e s s th e y l ie‘ o n t h e li n e d e t e r mi n e d b y t he a b s o l u t e
,

o i nt s T h e t w o a b s ol u t e
p o in t s m a
y h o w e v e r b e th o u ght o f a s a
p .
, ,

d egen e r a t e c o n ic e n v e l o p e T hi s m a y s u gge s t th a t w e ta k e a fi x e d.

u n d g e n e r a t e c o n ic giv e n in t h e p l a n e a s a b a s i s f o r r e fe r e n c e
e ,
If , .

w e d o thi s t w o p o i n t s s a y 111 a n d N a r e d e t e r mi n e d o n a n y li n e
, , , ,

P Q w hich d o e s n o t t o u ch t h e c o n ic n a m e ly t h e p o i n t s o f i n t e r
, ,

s e cti o n o f P Q w ith thi s a b s o l u t e c o n ic ; a n d th e n t h e i n t er v a l fr o m

P t o Q m a y b e de fi n e d a s a b o v e in r es p e ct t o 111 a n d N , B u t thi s , .

c o n ic a l s o d e t e rmi n e s t w o li n e s thro u gh a n a rbitra r y p o i n t 0 o f , ,

t h e p l a n e n o t l y i n g o n t he c o n ic n a m e ly t h e t a n g e nt s fr o m 0 t o
, ,

thi s a bs ol u t e c on ic a n d th e n t he a n g u la r i n t e rva l b e t w ee n a n y t w o
li n e s which i n te rs e ct in 0 ma y b e d e fi n e d a s a b o v e by m ea n s o f , ,

th e s e t a n ge n t s 1V e h a v e th u s a m e th o d o f d e fi n i n g b o th t he
.

i n t e rva l fr o m o n e p o i n t t o a n o th e r a n d th e i n t e rv a l fr o m o n e li n e t o ,

a n o th e r in h a r m o n y with t he d u a lity o th e r wi s e e x i s ti n g in t h e
,

ge o m e t r y o f t h e pl a n e Wh en t h e a b s o l u t e c o n ic r e ga rde d t a n
.
,

g e n t ia ll
y b e c o m e s a p o i n t p a ir w e th e n c e o bt a i n wh a t h a s o n o th e r
, , ,

gr o u n ds b een ch o s en a s t h e m ea s u re o f a n a n gl e ; w e c o u ld s imil a rl y
, , ,

o bt a i n a m e a s u r e o f t h e i n t e rv a l b e t w e e n t w o o i n t s if w e s u s ed
p pp o ,

t h e e x i s te n c e o f t w o a b s o l u t e li n e s in t h e pl a n e a s a d eg e n e ra t e ,

fo rm o f t he a b s ol u t e c o n ic Fr o m thi s ge n e ra l p o i n t o f i e w t h e . V ,

o r di n a r m e tric r e l a ti o n s u s u a ll
y e m l o y e d a t l ea s t
p i n c e t h e tim e s
y ,

o f t he G r e e k s a ea r a s a n u n s mm e tric a n d i n c o m l e t e s ch e m e
pp , y p .

Mo r e o v e r d is ta nce a s u s u a ll y u n d e r s to o d w hich w e h a ll s h e w t o
, , , s

b e d d u cibl e by a limiti n g pro c e s s fr o m wh a t h a s b e e n s a id s o f a r

e ,

fr o m b e i n g a n o bvi o u s n o t 1 o u ch a ra ct e ri s i n g t he s p a c e o f e x p er i ,

e n c e a pp e a r s a s a n a r tifici a l if u s e fu l a p p lic a ti o n o f t he a lg e br a ic
, , ,

s
y mb ols .

T he id e a o f l e n gth is p re s u m a bl y s u gge s t e d b y o u r e x p e r ie n ce
, ,

o f wh a t a r e c a ll e d rigid b o di e s We m a y r e fer a t o n c e h e re t o .
, , ,

t h e n o ti o n w hich r e pl a c e s thi in t h e p r e s e n t p o i n t o f vi e w L e t s .

P Q 111 N b e fo u r p o i n t s in li n e o f r es p e ctiv e c o o r di na t es ( x y z )
, , , , , ,

L t P Q l l N b e o t h er fo u r
( E 7 S)
’ ’

e
( x
y
, a ) 7 9 ,
f 1 9 l a l s 1

oi nts e c o o r di n a t e s o f P b e i n g d e fi n it e l m ea r fu n ct i o n s o f t h e
o

p t h , ,

c o o rdi n a t e s o f P s a v ,

ax + by + cz , z,

t he c o or di n a t e s o f Q b ei n g t h e s a me li n ea r fu n cti o ns o f t h e c o or d i
,

n a t e s o f Q th os e o f 11 t h e s a me li n e a r fu n cti o n s o f t he c o o r di n a t es
,
1 ,

of W I a n d th o s e o f N t he s a m e li n a r fu n cti o n s o f t h e c o o r di n a t es
, ,
e

of N It m a y th e n b e s h e w n with o u t di ffi cu lt y th a t P Q
.
N ,, ,

a r e in li n e a n d a r e a r a n ge which is r e l a t e d t o t h e r a n g e P Q M N
, , , , .

T h e li n ea r t r a n s fo rm a ti o n e mpl oye d is in f ct t h e r e pr es e n t a ti on ,
a ,
1 70 Ch ap ter V

thre e p a irs of t e rm s su ch as ax
2
2f ya If o n e o f t h e thre e
. co e ffi

i
c ents a ,

a ( x
b,
a
-
‘
0, s a

hy
y t h
‘l
a
e

ga )
c o e ffici e n t
2
(b a
a ,

“1
be
h )y2
n o t ze r o t h e fo r m is

2
,

‘l ‘l
(c ) 2 (f g h) y z
2 2
a 2
g a ;

he r e thre e t e r m s a ft e r t he firs t a r e a q u a dr a tic fo rm in y a n d

t he
2 onl with r ea l c o e ffici e n t s a n d ca n b e writt e n a s a s u m o f t w o ( o r
y , ,

f e w e r ) s q u a r e s with re a l c o e ffi ci e n ts If h o w e v e r a ll o f a b c b e
, .
, , , ,

e z e r o t h e o r igi n a l fo r m in x z
“
ze r o b u t n o n e o f b
j g; h
“
, , y is , , ,

‘ ‘ ‘l
a (f k ar e 9 l 2f h i f s (s e
h
1 2
w
'

r
s 1
e
which c o n s i s t s of three s q r ua es .If a l l o f a b c b e ze r o , , , an d one, or

tw o, o f h b e ze r o , t h e
j; g , o f t w o re a l fo r m r e d u c e s t o a p r o du ct
li n e a r fo r m s , P Q , which is 2, ( P Q ) E
1 2
,( P Q )
2
I n a n
y c a s e, .

th er e for e , t h e fo r m is r e d u cibl e , in m a n y w a ys , t o p X g Y r Z ,
2 2 2

wh e re p , q , r a r e r e a l , a n d X , Y, Z a r e r e a l li n e a r fu n cti on s o f x , y , 2 .

A s s u mi n g th a t t h e fo rm , wh e n e u a t e d t o z e r o , d o e s n o t r e p re s e n t q
a li n e p a ir , n o o n e o f
p g
, ,
r is z e r o A n d , in t h e e u a ti o n s o oh . q
ta i n e d , w e m a y s u pp o s e tha t a l l o f p , g, r a r e p o s itiv e , or o n ly o n e is
p o s iti v e W h e n r is
.
p o s itiv e , a n d
p q
,
a re a ls o
p o s iti v e , b
y t a ki n g

X, X Y, Y Z, Z r i , wh e re x is a n a r bit r a r y r e a l
p o s iti v e n u mb e r , w e o bt a i n t h e e u a ti o n Z ,
2
x X,
(
2
Y ,
2
) 0 q .

W h e n r is p o s itive , a n d p , q a r e b o th n e ga tiv e , w e ca n p u t
X =X 1 Y Y at
z. Z r t . a .

wh e r e is x an a rbitra r y rea l ne ga tive nu mb er , an d so o bta i n t he

e q u a ti o n Z (X Y ) 0
2 2 2
, x , , .

Ca se of a n i m a g in a r y c on ic a s Ab s ol u t e . Let (x , y , , , z, )
an d (x
y , , a ) be an
y t wo b s o l u t e c o n ic
o n p i ts
L et n ot ly i n g o n t he a .

f d en o t e t h e e x r e s s i o n
p ( x a n d j wh a t thi s b e c o m e s x
2
,

whe n x y z a r e p u t f o r x y a r e s p e ctiv e ly ; a l s o l e t 11 d en o t e
,, ,, , , , ,
r

t he e x p r e s s i o n a s ( x x F o r t h e c a s e o f a n im a gi n a r
1c
y
c o n i c I S p o s i tiv e a n d fi j a r e p o s itive ; a n d ff —1 whic h is
, ,
2
1c 1f

“
, , , , ,

eq u a l to

" [ ( f/ 0
i K
( 2 x,
( 3
9 0 zo
y fl)
is l p o s iti v e L e t M N d e n o t e t h e p o i n t s in which t he li n e
a so .
,

j o i n i n g t he p o i n t ( x y z ) t o t h e p o i n t ( x y z ) m ee t s t h e c o n ic
,, ,, , , , .

W e ca n s u p p os e th a t f or a p os itiv e rea l v a l u e o f 9 o n e o f the s e

, ,

o i n t s h a s t h e c o o r di n a t e s
p
i i 15
d
-
i
f
io u
-
e
j f y
" '

x, , e x , g ,
a ,

wh ere t he s q
t fl i j i h a v e th e i r r ea l p os iti v e va l u es ;
u a r e r oo s ,
'

,
'

f or t h e s u b s tit u ti o n o f th es e c o o r di n a t e s in t he e q u a ti o n o f t he c on i c
g i v e s t he c o n diti o n

1 gew ‘
f f k i
_

f -
f 6
7 79 : 0,
 M ea s u r em en t in re ga r d to a c on i c 1 71

na m e ly
o f which t h e v a l u e is l es s th a n u n it If th e n r e l a tiv e ly t o t h e p o i n t s
y .
,

o f r e fe r e n c e f o r t h e o o r di n a t es A B C w e d e fi n e t he s y mb o l s
c ,
0 , , , ,

a nd P o f t he o i nts (x d r e s e ctiv e ly b
, p y z
) a n ( y
x ,, p ,, , y , , ,

m ea n s of
—l P =f
‘5f
C ),
0 =f , + y ,B x, C ) , +yB + x

we ma y write , f o r t h e s y mb o l s o f the p o i n ts M a nd N .

M 0 e
‘i g
P , N 0 — 5e
c P
’
,

‘
i —t
wh ere 5
tf
-

9
'

bfl f i 9 ( If
"

cos « ,
s n ) ,

a nd t he y S mb o l ( G p M , a , N d e fi n e d a b o ve ( p . give n by
(0 7
P ; M ,

N o w l e t t h e p o i n t wh e re t h e li n e OP m e e t s t h e p o l a r li n e o f 0 in
re ga r d t o t h e a b s o l u te c o n ic b e d e n o t e d b y U T he c o o r di n a t e s
—
.

( f , 7, t)
7 o f thi s
p o i n t a r e giv e n b y f = af , x , 1
1
r
, 77

f o r th e s e b e l o n g t o a p o i n t o n t h e li n e j o i n i n g
( ,y ) t ( y ), a n d a re s u ch th a t Qs , 7c ( Ex , 77y , ) 0 W ith
’
x , , , z , o x , ,
z .

th e s e v a l u es w e ha v e { 1c ( E 2 2
e u a l to
j j]
, , which is q
p o s itiv e .If w e d e n o te t h e
p o s itiv e s u a r e r o o t o f thi s b
y,
u ,
w e h a v e q
q
three e u a ti on s , f o r x , y , z , o f t he fo ll o w i ng fo rm
— —f —f —f
x fifl f
-
t
fi ( fi l E,
-
i 1
w + o z r . ,

We ma y th re fo re write u s i n g f t h p i n t U t h e
e , or e o s
y mb ol

U 71
"
( EA 78 CO) .

U .

C o n v e r s e l y thi s e q u a ti o n m a y if p r e fe rr e d b e u s e d a s givi n g t he
, , ,

d e fi n iti o n o f 9 If w e r e ga r d 0 a n d U a s fi x e d it giv e s a r ea l p os iti o n

.
,

o f P u o n t h e li n e OU f o r e v e r r e a l v a l u e o f 9 a ll s u ch os iti o n s
p y p ,

b e i ng o bta i n e d b y re s tricti n g 9 t o t he r a n ge fro m 0 t o W I n p a r .

t ic u l a r wh e n
,
t he p o i n t P is a t 0 ; a n d wh e n 9 = } t he 1 7r ,

o i n t P is a t U t h e c o nj u g a t e p o i n t t o 0 in r e g a r d t o t h e a b s o l u t e
p ,

c on1 c .

By a p r e ci s e ly s imil a r a rg u m e n t a ny o th e r p o i n t Q o f t h e li n e OU , ,

ca n b e e x p r e s s e d in t e rm s o f P a n d t h e oi nt P c o nj u ga t e t o P
’
, p , ,

u p o n thi s li n e b t h e e q u a ti o n
y ,

Q os c

A s t h e o rigi n a l f rm l
o u a w a s e q iv l e n t t o ( 0 P ; M N e s o
u a m
, , ,

thi s fo r m u l a is q u iv a le n t t o ( Q ; M N ) c ¢ T h u s w e ha ve
e P = i
, ,
2
.

( 0 , Q ; M N )
,
s o th a t a l s o ,

cos
1 72 Ch ap ter V

T hi s , ho we ver , is
s in 9 0+ . c os 9 . U)
th u s w e s ee th a t
0 + s in U ,

a nd , wh e n P is giv e n in t e 1 m s o f O a n d U b y 9 P t he co n th e n ’

j u g t e o f P in r e ga 1 d t o t h e c o n ic u p o n t h e liii e OU is giv en b y
, , , ,

a , , ,
o

9 i 773 T hi s fa ct c a n o f c o u r s e b e dir e ctl, y v e rifi e d t h e c o o rdi n a t es

, ,

of P b e i n g a s w e e a s ily s ee
’
, ,

( ff a $16 — l
/ (f f1
f ) W . e o (fi o W) W i
?
t

I n w o r d s t h e i n t e rva l in re ga rd t o t h e c on ic fro m a p o i n t P t o
, , ,

an
y p o i n t o n it s
p o l a r li n e is ,

I n a pr e ci s e l y s imil a r w a y t h e i n t e rv a l fr o m a li n e 0A t o a li n e
,

OB m a y b e d e fi n e d with r e fe re n c e t o t h e t a n ge n t s OM ON dra w n
’ ’

, , ,

fr o m O t o t h e a b s o l u t e c o n ic If t h e p o i n t s A B b e o n t he p o la r o f
.
,

O t h e i n t e1 a l i s b y d e fi n iti o n e q u a l t o t h e i n t e a l fr o m t h e p o i n t
,
v
, , 1v

A t o t h e p o i n t B I n p a r tic u l a r wh e n OB is c o nj u ga t e t o OA in
.
,

r e ga rd t o t h e a b s o l u t e c o n ic t h e i n t e r v a l b e tw e e n th es e li n es is 1
, 773

A p p l i c a t i o n t o a t r i a n g l e W e m a y ill u s t i a t e th e s e d e fi n iti o n s
.

b y a p p ly i n g th e m t o t he i n t e r v a l s b e t w e e n a n y th r e e giv e n p o i n t s ,

n o t l i n g in li n e a n d t h e i n t e r v a l s b e tw ee n t h e li n e s which j o i n
y ,

the s e p o i n t s B u t s o m e p r e limi n a r y r e m a r k s will b e u s e fu l in vi e w

.
,

o f t h e a mbig u it w e h a v e n o tic e d in t h e d e fi n iti o n o f t h e i n t e rv a l

y ,

b e twe en t w o giv e n e l e m e n t s .

A ny t w o p o i n t s d e t e 1 nn n e t w o s e gm e n t s l n o n e o r o th er o f which ,

an o th e r r e a l p o i n t o f t h e li n e d et e 1 m in e d b t h e t w o giv e n oints
y , y p ,

m u s t l ie If th en w e h a v e three p o i n ts A B C which a r e n o t i n
.
, , , ,

li n e a n d s p e a k o f t he s egm en t s B C CA AB th e r e a r e e ight w a y s
, , , ,

in which thi s m a y b e u nd e r s t o o d W e d e s ir e h o w e v e r t o a s s o ci a t e .
, ,

with ea ch o f t h e s e gm en t s s a y with B C which m a y b e r ega rde d a s

, , ,

a n a ggre g a t e o f o i nts a c er t a i n a ggr e g a t e o f li n es a ll a s s ing

p , p ,

th r o u gh t h e p o i n t A n ot o n t h e li n e B C s o th a t e v e ry o n e o f t h e
, , ,

li n es s ha ll c o n t a i n o n e o f t h e p o i n t s o f t h e s e gm e n t L imiti n g o u r .

s e lv e s t o r ea l o i n t s a n d li n e s r e l a tiv e l t o A B C if w e s ea k o f
p y , p , , ,

thi s a ggr e ga t e o f li n es a s a n a ng le w e ma y s a y th a t th er e a r e f o r , ,

ea ch o f t h e p o i n t s s u ch a s A t w o a n gl es We h a ve th en in a ll e ight
, .

o s s ibiliti es o f th 1 e e a ii s e a ch p a ir b e i n g c o n s tit u t e d b a s e gm e n t
p , p , y
a n d it s c o 1 r e s o n d in a n gl e T h e s e e ight o s s ibiliti e s fa ll h o w e e 1
p g p . v

i n t o t w o s e t s e a ch o f fo u r p o s s ibiliti es I n a n y o n e o f t lie firs t s e t

, ,

, .

o f fo u r o s s ibiliti e s t h e th r ee s e gm e n t s s a B C C A A B a n d t he
p , y , , , , ,

a s s o ci a t e d a n gl e s s a A B C h a v e i n r e g a 1 d t o r ea l o i n ts t he
y , , , , , p , ,

t w o fo ll o wi n g p l o p e 1 t ie s ( 1 ) A n y li n e f t h e p l a n e e ith e r c o nt a i n s
: o

n o po i nt f a n y o f t he th 1 e e s e gm e n t s o r c o n t a i n s a p o i n t o f e a ch
o ,

o f t w o o f t h e s e gm e n t s ; ( 2 ) If a n o i n t P o f th e l a ne b e j oi n e d
y p p
1 74 Ch ap ter V

B C, CA , A B ma y b e t a k e n t o b e re s p e ctiv e ly 7: a b c , , 71 , 7: ,

a s w e ha ve s ee n S imil a rl y t h e i n t e rva l b e t w e e n AB a n d A C a s s o
.
,

c ia t e d with a b e i n g d e n o t e d b y A t h e s u p pl e m en ta ry i n te rva l
, ,

b e tw e e n th e s e li n e s will b e A t he i n t e r v a l s a d o p t e d a t B a n d C
71

will lik e wi s e b e de n o t e d by B a n d C S o f a r a s w e h a v e s e en thi s .

, ,

s t a t e m e n t is a mbig u ou s B u t if w e a g r e e th a t a s h a ll b e p o s itiv e
.

a n d b e tw e e n 0 a n d fin wh e n the p oin t B o f t h e li n e B C w hic h is ’

, , , ,

a te to B in r e g a r d t o t h e a b s o l u t e c o n ic d oes no t l ie in the
con j g u , ,

s eg me n t B C which is d e n o t e d b y a th e n a will b e w ith o u t a mbig u ity , .

I n thi s ca s e t h e p o i n t C o f t h e li n e B C which is c o nj u ga t e t o C
’

, , , , ,

in r e ga rd t o t he a b s o l u t e c o n ic will a l s o n o t l ie in t h e ch o s e n ,

s e gm e n t B C ; f o r a ir s o f a n i n v o l u ti o n
’ ’
as B B a nd C C a re
, p , ,

wh o s e d o u bl e p o i n t s a r e t h e i m a gi n a r y i n te r s e cti o n s o f t h e li n e B C
with t h e im a gi n a ry a b s o l u te c o n ic t he p o i n t s B B a r e s e p a ra te d , ,
’

b y t h e p a ir C C (A bo ve p S imil a r ly w e a gr e e th a t A s h a ll
’

, .
, .

b e p o s iti v e a n d b e tw e e n 0 a n d 5 wh e n t h e li n e thr o u gh A which 7 ,

is c o nj u ga t e t o A B d o e s n o t l ie in t h e a n gl e c a ll e d A in which c a s e , ,

f o r a s imil a r r ea s o n t h e li n e thr o u gh A c o nju g a t e t o A C will n o t

,

lie in t h e ch o s en a n gl e A A n d w e m a k e t h e lik e a gree m e n t f o r

.

b c B a nd C
, ,
.

We c a n f o r t h e s a k e o f a lge b r a ic s y mm e tr y s u p p o s e f or t he
, , ,

r e s e n t with ou t l o s s o f g e n e ra lity th a t t h e e q u a ti o n o f t h e a b s o l u t e
p , ,

c o n ic is x y 2
0 If th e n f o r e x a m p l e ( x y z ) a n d ( x y z )
?
.
, , , ,
’

,
’

,
’

b e t h e c o o rdi n a t es o f t h e p o i n t s A a n d B r es p e ctiv e ly th e i n t e rva l , ,

c o f A B w ill b e s u ch ( p 1 7 1 a b o v e ) th a t
, , ,
.
,

' ’ ’
xx zz
= + yy
co s c

a e(f ) r ar
?

" ’ ’

[ (a i
’
z s
a ) ( z c
v z t
) (w
?

9
i
(f O( f w fi
’
a /

wh er e f x d en o t es x y a n d f o r e a ch o f t h e s q u a r e r o o t s t h e
2
"
2 z
z , , ,

p o s itiv e rea l v a l u e is t o b e t a k e n 1 11 c o s c t he n u m e ra t o r va n i s he s .
,

a n d ch a n g es s ig n wh e n ( x a s s e s o ve r t he i t li
’ ’ ’
z ) f t h
y p p o n o , e ne , ,

j o i n i n g thi s t o (x y z ) which is c o nj u ga t e t o (x y z ) We ca n
, , , , , .
,

th e r e fo re a gree t o a tta ch t o t h e c oo rdi n a t e s o f ( x y z ) s u ch a

,
’

,
’

,
’

s ig n th a t t h e n u m e r a t o r in c os c i p os itiv e wh e n c a s d e fi n e d a b o v e s , ,

is l es s th a n i n a n d th e n o mit t he a m «

b ig u o u s s ig n i in t h e a b o v e fo r m u l a f or
cos c .

We ta k e fi r s t t h e p a rtic u l a r ca s e in
n ow , ,

w hi h t h e li n es A B A C a r e c o nj u g a t e t o
c ,

o n e a n o th e r in r e g a r d t o t h e a b s o l u t e c o n ic

W e d e n o t e t he c oo rdi n a t es o f t h e p o i n ts
.

A B C r es p e ctiv e ly b y ( x y
, , , , ) )
 F or m u la e f o r a r igh t -
a n gled tr ia n gle 1 75
”
( x , y z a nd d en o t e by A t he a bs o l u t e p os itiv e v a l u e
, , of t he
d e te r mi na nt

th e mi n or s in thi s d e t e mi n a n t r , ea ch with it s pr op e r s ign b e i n g ,

d en o t e d re s p e ctiv e ly b y
, ,

R a
w )

an mi n o r o f t h e d e t e rmi n a n t fo r m e d b th e e l a s t e l e m e n t s is e q u a l
y y s

t o t h e c o m p l e m e n t a r y mi n o r o f t h e o r igi n a l d e t e r mi n a n t m u lti p li e d ,

b y t h e v a l u e o f thi s d e te rmi n a n t it s e lf a s is w e ll k n o w n We h a v e , .

t he id e n tity

( e ff a ) s(
?
z fv
’
z r
’

) (w
’
w e)
“
l ’
) ("
’
(x + 9 ( as )
9 2 2 2 ?
3 f xx + yy

f ro m thi s
i n d ep en de n tly w e h a ve
or

—
, ,

2 (y z — y z) ( z
y y
’
z) 2 x E
’

x x
” 2
’
Ex x
’
Zx x
which s till u s i n g f x f or f ( x ) w e d e n ot e by
, ,
”
f f ( f (x
'

x x
) w -
J
)
u .
, ,

We s imila rly h a v e iffi t m e a n f ( u ) , ,

A f ( x x ) =f u 2
u —f ( ’

, ) u, u

Al v wz O is t h e e q u a ti n o f t h e li n e B C nd o o a s
as
s o,x y u ,

011 w e h v e a s e q u iva l e n t t o t h e c n diti o n th a t AB a n d A C a r e

,
a ,
o

c onj u ga t e the e q u ti on ,
a

“
f ( 0 ( iii ) u
’
, u .

We s h a ll writ e P P P U U U r p e ctiv e ly f r t h e r a l ’ ’
es , o e
, , , ,

t e
o itiv n mb r ( f fi (f fi l
( f y (fi y g g
’
P
s e
e s u x x u a
p , , , ,

F or t he i n t e rv a l 0 w h a v e th e n e , ,

co s 0
f ( x ,
s in c U /P P
’

t he f ( x, x
’

) b e i n g t a k en p os itiv e o r n e ga tiv e a cc o rdi n g a s , , c

or c in . F or t he a n gl e C w e h a v e s imil a rly , ,

C = AP
’
s in
/ U U ;

b u t , t he p o l e li n e CA is o n t he li n e AB a nd is t h e p o i n t
of t he ,

th er eon which is c o nj u ga t e t o A ; t h e li n e j o i n i n g C t o thi s p o i n t

is t h e li n e th r ou gh C which is c o nj u ga t e t o CA T h u s C is gre a t e r .

o r l es s th a n a cc o rdi n g a s c is gre a t e r o r l e s s th a n 571: A ls o 1 ,

”
fr o m e q u a ti on s ( ii ) ( iii ) w e ha ve A f ( x x ) f( u )f (u
, , which 2
,
’

,
1 76 C h a p ter V

h e w s th a t f ( p o s it e s ign W h r f r
’ ’

) a nd ( ) f
s u ,
u
f x , x a re o o
p e e o e. we
ha ve
C= cos

We c a n n o w s h e w th a t , o f t he th r e e i n te rva ls a , b, 0, e ith e r a l l
a r e l e s s th a n 1 77 ) or , j u s t o n e o f th e m is l e s s th a n i 77 F o r , l e t t he 3

o l a r li n e o f t h e p o i n t B m e e t t h e li n e CA in H , s o th a t H will b e
p
t h e p o l e o f t h e li n e A B , a n d will b e t he p o i n t o f t h e li n e CA which
is c o nj u ga t e t o A By o u r d e fi n iti o n o f t h e tri a n gl e c o n s id er e d , if
.

thi s li n e , t h e p o l a r li n e o f B d o n o t c o n ta i n a p o i n t o f e ithe r o f t h e .

s e gm e n t s B A , B C , th e n H w ill n o t b e in t h e s e gm e n t A C ; s o th a t ,

if e a ch o f t h e i n t e rva l s a , c is l e s s th a n %7r , th e n 6 is , a l s o , l e s s th a n
u t , if thi s li n e c o n t a i n a p o i n t o f e a ch o f t h e s e gm e n t s B A , B C ,
i n .B
th en , a l s o , H is n o t in A C ; s o th a t , if ea ch o f a , c is gr ea te r th a n 571 3
th en , a l s o , b is l e s s th a n gm W h e n t h e p o la r li n e o f B c o n t a i n s a
p o i n t o f o n ly o n e o f t h e s egm en t s B A , B C, w e rea ch t he s a m e c o n
c l u s io n .

B u t e u a ti on s q ( iii ) giv e
f ( x , x =
( ) f ( x , x )f ( x ,
x
’

f
'

which is t h e s a m e a s
f e ar
”
) fle w ) f a x
’ ’ ”
P P PP PP
if th en w e su pp o s e ,
w h en x,
y , z h a ve b ee n ch os e n th a t , t he s ign s of
” ”
x ,
’

y
’

,
z
’
an d of x , y z ,
a re s o t a k e n th a t n o t o n l
y ,

co s 0
f ( x ,

as ha s lrea dy b ee n a gre e d
a , b u t a l s o cos b (x , x f )/P P w e ca n

i n fe r r e m e mbe ri n g tha t a s
, ,
ha s j u s t b e e n s ee n , o n e or a ll of a , b, c

a r e l e s s th a n th a t
c os a c os b c os c

an d l
a s o co s a f ( x
'

, x )/P
’
P T he n , fr o m t he e q ti ua on

fl [f W 71 )
G 5 2
N x ) 7

b y ( iii ) , we ha ve
AP U U
’ ’
PP
’
UU P P

an d hen ce s in C si n c s in a

A l s o fr o m ,
e q ti
ua on s ( ii ) ( iii )
, ,
we ha ve
’

f a fi 6
f ( ’u

Z
t , f

f
°

C
’

f ( x T T w _
7 ,
?
A

f a
‘ f a”
,

x
t 77
so th a t ,
[

fl f ( x x ,
’ '

(
’

j u u ) U
which is
,

UU
co s C ta n b ta n a
1 78 C h ap ter V

h en ce
c os a co s b cos c BN cos NC s in
2
p s in BN s in NC
we h a v e h o we v e r, ,

i
s n b s in 0 cos A s in b s in c cos

s in b s in 0 ( c o s <1) co s 1 »
1 <) 1 s in 1 r
1) ,

s in
p cos
1
«7

s in c c os NC

sm l
xr

h en c e
s in b s in A BN NC s in s in BN i NC
2
c c os co s c os
p s n .

T hu s we i n fe r
cos a co s b cos c s in b s in c c os A
By imila r p r o o f w e h a v e
a s

co s A cos B cos C s in B s in C c o s a

Fr o m th e s e for m u l a e it fo ll o ws a l s o th a t c o s a c o s ( b , being ,

e u a l t o 2 s in b s in c c o s %A
q is n e c e s s a r il
y p o s itiv e
2
W,
h e r e fo r e if .
,

a b c ) w e s e e th a t ea ch o f t h e p r o d u ct s s in
, s in
( a ) a
'

a ,

s in s in ( b) s in s in ( c ) is o s itiv e a n d fr o m th e s e w e ca n
a
p a 0
'

0 ,

d e d u ce th a t a b c 2 a n d b c a ( E u clid B o o k x 1 P r o p s 71 , , .

T he l a tte r o f th e s e t w o r e s ul t s is d e d u cibl e fr o m t he
fo rm e r by c o n s ide r i n g t h e tri a n gl e wh o s e a n gl e s a r e A B “ C; ,
71 , 77

a n d t h e fo r m e r is d e d u cibl e fr o m t h e p r e vi o u s l o bt a i n e d r es u lt
y ,

A B C W b y c o n s id e ri n g t h e t r i a n gl e wh o e v e r tic e s a r e t he
,
s

p o l e s o f th e s id e s o f t he giv e n tri a n gl e [ A dd ] .
.

I t s h o u l d p e r h a p s b e r e m a r k e d t h a t t h o u g h t h e f o r m u l a e h e r e o bt a n e d a r e i
i i i iv
d e n t ca l w t h t h os e u s u a l l y g e n f or t h e m e t r ca l t r g o n om e t r y o f t h e s p h e r e , i i
i i i i
th e r e is a n m p o r t a n t d s t n c t o n b e t w e e n t h a t c a s e a n d t h s F o r on t h e p l a n e i
i i i if i v i
.

tw o p o n ts c o n c d e t h e n t e r a l b e t w ee n t h e m is 7r , w h l e t w o li n e s h a e v
i
o n l y o n e p o n t o f n t e r s e ct on i i
Wh a t a r e t w o d a m e t r c a ll y opp os t e p o n ts o f i i i i
i i q iv
.

th e s u r f a c e o f a S p h e r e a r e h e r e r e p l a c e d b y a s n g l e p o nt Th e e u a l e n t ,
i
.

in t h e p r e s e n t t h e or y, o f t h e g e om e t r y o f t h e s u r f a c e of a s p h e r e , a r s es b e l o w
(p .

The ca se of a rea l c on ic ta k e as
a s A b s ol u t e . Wh e n we

a b s o l u t e c o n ic o f r e fe re n c e a r ea l u n d e g e n er a t e c o n ic o f which w e

x —
, , ,

m a y s u p p o s e t h e q u a ti o n t o b e f x 0 wh e r e f x
e
y + 3 it ,
i 2 2
,

is n e c e s s a r y wh e n w e a r e di s c u s s i n g o n ly t h e r e a l p o i n t s o f t he
,

p l an e t o di s ti n g u i s h b e tw e e n p o i n t s which a r e i n t er i or
, p o i n t s o f thi s

co n ic a n d th o s e which a r e e x t e ri o r T he for m er a r e cha a cte ri s e d

,
. r

b y t h e tw o fo ld p ro p e r ty ( a b o ve p 1 64 ) th a t e v e ry re a l li n e th r o u gh
, .

a n i n t e r i o r p o i n t m ee t s t h e c o n ic in t w o r e a l p o i n t s whil e t he t a n ,

ge n t s t o t he c o n ic fro m t h e p o i n t a r e im a gi n a r y F o r a n e x ter i o r .

p o i n t 0 t h e ta ngen ts t o t he c o n ic fro m O a r e re a l s o m e rea l li n es

, ,
 R ea l con ic as a bsolu te 1 79

d r a w n fro m 0 m ee t t he c on ic in t w o re l p oi n ts o th ers in t w o a ,

im a gi n a r y p o i n t s a n d a li n e o f t h e fo 1 m e r s o rt i s e p a r a t e d by t he
, s

t w o re a l t a ng e n t s f 1 o m a li n e o f t h e s e c o n d o r t s .

It s e e m s u n n e e s a ry t o e n t er i n t o grea t d eta il We c on s id e r
c s .

onl
y r ea l p o i n t s which a r e i n t e ri o r t o t h e c o n ic ; a n d o u r m i n a

o b e ct is t o h w th t r lt bt a i n e d a r e th o s e which w e r e
j e sa t h e e s u s o

fo u n d b y L o b a t s ch e w s ky a n d B o ly a i in th e ir ( m e t r ic a l ) s o ca ll e d
n o n E u clid e a n g e o m e tr B ibli o gra phic a l r e fe r e n es a r e giv e n a t
y c
-
.

t he e n d o f t he v o l u m e ( No t e
L e t t h e li n e jo i n i n g t w o i n te r i o r p o i n t s 0 P m ee t t h e c o n ic in , , ,

M a n d N s o ch o s en tha t N O P M a w in o 1 d er ; th e n t h e e x
, , , ,

p r e s s i o n s o f t h e s y mb o l s o f O a n d P i n te 1 m s
o f th o s e o f M a n d N will b e o f t he fo r m s
0 M hN P = M + kN wh e re if t he p o i n t
, , ,

wh o s e s y mb o l is M + N b e a n i n ter i o r p o i n t o f
t h e c o n ic t h e r e a l s y mb o l s h 77 will b e p os itiv e
, ,
‘
a nd h k T h u s ( O P ; M N ) o r h k is r ea l
.
, , ,
l
,

os itiv e a n d l es th t a ke
N
nd n 1 a nd w e ma s a
a
p y ,

f or l og P ; M N a v a lu e , 2 w her e is 0, a
'

rea l n d p o s itiv e T h u s t he i n te va l 9 a s p r e
a . r

v io u s l y d e fi n e d b y l og
,
P ; M N I S giv e n b y 9 i n If , o ,

f o r fi x e d p os iti o n s o f N O JV I t h e p o i n t P v r y fr o m N th r o u gh 0
,
a

a iie s fr o m
, , , , ,

t o M t he va l u e o f
,
oo
'

0 vthr o u gh 0 t o 00 ; a n d ,

co s 9 ,
s in 9 a r e re s p e ctive ly o h a n‘d i s i n h
,
T h e c on ic
, c s a
"
a .
,

—x —y 2 2
z = 0 m e e t s t h e li n es x
2
, 0 y 0 e a ch i n 1 e l p o i n t s ,
a ,

b u t d o e s n o t m e e t t h e li n e z = 0 in r ea l p o i n ts ; th u s t h e p o i n t s
( 1 O O) a n d ( O 1 0) a r e e x t e ri o r p o i n ts b u t t he p o i n t ( 0 0 1 ) is a n
, , , , , , ,

i n te ri o r p o i n t ; f o r thi s p o i n t t h e e x p res s i o n x y 3 is p o s itiv ; 2 2 2

e

thi s e x p r es s i o n is th er e for e c o n s t a n tly p o s itiv e f o r a ll i n te r i o r p o i n ts .

S imil a r ly if u w = xy
’ ’ ’ ’ ’

b
’

, y z
y
,
z v zx z x ,
x
, y e t h e co ,

o rdi n t e s o f a li n e t h e ex p e s s i o n which va n i s h es 2 2
a ,
v + w r ,

wh en t h e li n e t ou ch e s t h e c o n ic ha s o n e s ign f or a ll li n e s whi h ,
c

m e e t t h e on ic in t w o r ea l p o i n ts a n d t he o pp s it e s ign f o r li n e
c ,
o s

n t m ee ti n g t h e c o n ic in r ea l p o i n t s ; t h e ex p r s s i o n is n g a tiv e f o r
o e e

t h e li n e x = 0 a n d is th u s n e g tiv e f o r a ll li n e s which m e e t t h e
,
a

o n ic in t w o r e a l p o i n t s A g a i n if ( x y z ) n d ( x
’ ’ ’
z ) be t w o
y
c .
, , ,
a ,

in t e i io r p o i n t s a n d t h s ig n s o f x y z a s o f x z b e p r o p e ly ’
,
e , , ,
r

ta k e n t h e e x p i e s io n x x y y z z ha s a de fi n ite s ign ; f or t h e
,
s
’ ’ ’

p o l a r o f a n i n te r i o r p o i n t c on t i n s o n ly e x te ri o r p o i n t s ; t he e a x

p r e s s i o n is th
p o s iti v
us f r an
y t w o i n te r i o r
e
p o i n ts
o W e s e e th u s .

th t it is a p p o p r ia t e t o r e pl a ce t h e f o 1 m u l a e
a 1

co s 9 = ( — x x — yy
5 t
,
-

b y t h e fo rm u l a e
co hs a
”
x x — yy + z
’
z ) (f f )
x x
’
1 s i nh ’
— u i
f ) (f f ) x . x 7 ’

, o
’

1 2—2
1 80 Ch a p ter V

re p la ci n g (fi fi b y 7 t A ll t he s q u a r e r o o t s a s w e ll a s c o s h , o

a n d s i nh a e n o w t o b e t a k en o s itiv e l T h e s e fo r m u l a e c a n if
r
p y
'

a , .
,

d e s i r e d b e c o n ti n u e d t o giv e t h e i n t e r v l b e tw e e n a n i n t e r i o r p o i n t
, , a
,
‘
0 a n d a n e x t e r i o r p o i n t P ; t h e in t
,
l w ill th e n b e o f t h e
,
e i va 0

fo r m 1 77” K wh r e K is r ea l
4 -
,
e .

T h e i n t er va l b e twe e n t w o li n e s which in t e 1 s e c t a t a n i n t e r i o r
p o i n t o f t h e o n ic is t o b e t a ke n with r e s p e ct t o t h e t w o im a gi n a ry
c

t n ge n ts dr a w n t o t he c o m e fr o m thi s p o i n t T h u s a s in t he ca s e
a .
,

o f t h e im a gi n a r c o n ic c o n s id er e d b o v e t h e fu n cti o n s th a t e n t e r
y a ,

a r e t h e t r ig o n o m e tr ic a l fu n cti o n s c os a n d s in t w o li n e s which a r e , ,

a t a n i n te r va l be i n g c o i n cid e n t I n p a ticu l a r a s b e fo r e t w o
77 . r , ,

c onj u g te li n e s a r e a t a n i n t er va l t n
a .

If w e c o n s ide r th r ee p o i n ts A B C l l i n t er i o t t he c on ic , , , ,
a r o ,

s u ch th a t A B a n d A C a e o nj u g a t e li n e s t h e p o l a r li n e o f A li e s
r c ,

e n ti r l x t er i o r t o t h e c o n ic ; a n d if thi s
y e e
,

m e e t A B a n d A C r es p e ctiv e ly in B a n d C , ,
’ ’
,

th e s e a r e t h e p o l e s o f A C a n d AB r e s p e c ,

t i e ly T h e li n e CB th o u gh C c o nj u ga t e
’
v .
, ,
r ,

t o CA th u s m e e t s A B a t B o u t s id e t h e
’
, , ,

o n ic a n d th er e fo r e t he a n gu l a r i n te r va l
c , ,

be twee n CA a n d CB is l e s s th a n i n T he .

s a m e is t r u e o f t h e i n t er va l b e tw e e n B A

a nd B C R e c a lli n g th e n wh a t w a s s e e n .
, ,

a b o v e f o r t h e c a s e wh e n t h e a b s o l u t e c o n ic ,

w a s im a gi n a r if w e u s e a b c f o r t h e v a l u e s o f t h e i n t e rv a l
y
'

, , , 0

be l on gi n g re s p e ctiv e l y t o B C CA AB a n d B C fo r t he a n gl e
i n t e rva l s A B C a n d A CB t h e f or m lil a e f o r t he tri a n gl e AB C r e
, , , , ,

, a

o bt a i n bl e fr o m th o s e
a bo v e giv e n f o r a n im a gi n r y c o n i c b y m er ly
a a e

r e l a ci n g c o a s in a c o s b s in b c o s 0 s in c b y c o s h a
s s i n h a c os h b
p , , , , , , , ,

s i n h b c o s h c s i n h c r e s e ctiv e l I n a r ti u l a r
, , p y , p . c ,

co s ( B C) s in B s in C ( c o s h b c o h c , s

is n e c e s s a ril y p o s itiv e T h u s w e h a v e B . C g t h e a n gl e b e tw e e n '

zr ,

AB a n d A C b e i n g
Fr o m thi s a s b e fo r e f o r a ny tr i n gl e A B C f o r which A B C
.
,
a , , , ,

a r e i n te i m t o t h
r o n ic w e i n fer th a t A
e c B C ,

T h e a n gl e i n t e r v l 9 b e tw e e n t w o li n e s u x v wz 0
y
a , , ,

u
’
x v
y
’
w z 0 which ’
i n t e 1 e ct
, t a p oi nt (x
y z ) 1 s s u ch t h a t s a , , ,

3
f m (f fi (fi f ) ; thi s i n t er v a l i s th e n ze o
’
s in 9 1 8 o f t h e o r A x t . u r

f o r t w o li n s which i n t er s e ct o n t h e ab o l u t e c o n i
e It is th u s c . s

o s s ibl e l n thi s c a s e t o h a v e a t r i a n gl e f o r which e v e r y o n e o f t h e

p , ,

th r e e a n gl e i n t er va l s is ze 1 o if w e a ll o w t h e e 1 tice s t o be o n t h e ,
v

c on ic .

T he su m of th e a n g les of a t r ia n g le a nd a q u a dra n g l e of

th r e e r i g h t a n g les . If w e re a c ll ( s ee a b o v e ,
Ch a p . IV p, . 1 5 8 ) th a t
1 82 C h ap ter V

th a t t h e i n te rva l b e tw een A a n d a p o i n t e x t er i o r t o th e c o n ic if ,

co n s id e re d a t a l l is t o b e r ega r d e d a s im a gi n a r y I n a cc o r da n c e
, .

with o u r u s u a l pre c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e p o s iti o n o f a p o i n t a s b e i n g

d e t e r m i n e d b y it s di s ta n c e fr o m a cc e s s ibl e p o i n t s it m a y s e e m ,

n a t u r a l t o r e ga rd p o i n t s which a r e e x t e r i o r t o t h e c o n ic a s n o t

e x i s te n t o , a s a t l ea s t i n a cc es s ibl e
r If w e d o thi s w e s h a ll r ega rd a l l
.
,

t h e li n es th r o u gh A w hich h a v e i n te r s e cti o n s with t h e li n e M N a s

be i n g limite d b y th e li n e s A M a n d A N a n d th en w e ma y s p e a k o f
A M A N a s t h e tw o p a ra ll e l s t o M N which c a n b e d a w n thr o u gh A ;
, r

th e ir i n ter s e cti o n s with t h e li n e M N a r e a t a n i n fi n it e i n ter v a l fr o m

A a n d a n i n fi n it e n u mb er o f li n e s c a n b e d r a w n thr o u gh A which
,

d o n o t i n t e r s e ct M N ( a t a n y p o i n t i n t e r i o r t o t h e c o n ic ) L e t t h e .

li n e dra w n th r o u gh A c o nj u ga te t o M N i n t er s e ct thi s in H a p o i n t ,

ea s il s ee n t o b e in t h e s e gm e n t M N which
y
is i n t e ri o r t o t h e c o n ic ; l e t 9 <1) de n o t e r e , ,

s e c t i el t h e a n g u l a r i n t er v a l s H A M a n d
p y v ,

H A N a n d l e t p b e t he v a l u e o f t h e i n t er v a l
,

a b o v e d e n o te d b f o r AH A s t h e a n gl e s
y
'

a , .

A M H AN H a r e b o th z e r o w e i n fe r fr o m
, , ,

t h e fo r m u l a e

s in 9 c os A M H s e ch
p ,

c o s A N H s e ch
4) p ,

which w e h a v e o bta i n e d th a t 9 a n d <1) a r e e q u a l b o th b e i n g

—
, ,

s in
l
( s e ch p ) T hi s w
. o u ld th e n b e wh t in t he L o b a t s ch e w s k a
y g e o ,

m e try is ca lle d t h e a ng le of p a a llelis m

,
r .

Fu rth e r if 0 b e a ny fi xe d p o i n t i n t e r i or t o t he a b s o l u te c o n ic
, ,

a n d P a v a ri a bl e i n t e r i o r p o i n t s u ch th a t t h e i n t e r v a l OP is c o n

s t a n t th e n P d es crib e s a c o n ic h a vi n g t w o
,
o n t ct s w ith t h e a b o l u t e c a s

c o n ic n a m e ly a t t h e ( i m a gi n a r y ) p o i n t s wh e r e thi s c o n ic is m e t b y
,

t h e p o l a r li n e o f O T hi s c o n ic h a s t he e q u a ti o n
.

”
’

’”

)(
’

) co s h
'
? ? 2 z
w z w
xx
a a a ,

wh e re ( x y ’
,
’
, z
’
t ) f O a nd
a re di
the c is t h e c o n s t a n t
oor na es o , a
'

i n te r va l OP . T hi s c o n ic is th a t
c ll e d b y L o b a t ch e w s ky a ci cle a s r ,

f which ( x ’

, y z ) is t h e c e n t r e
’

,
If a ny h o d 111 N o f thi s ci cl e
’

.
’
c r ,
’ ’

,
r .

m
e t t h e a b s o l u t e c o n ic in M a n d N
e
,

a nd H K b e t h e t w o p o i n t s whi h , c

a r e t h e d o u bl e o i n t s o f t h e in o l u
p v

ti o n d e t e r mi n e d b y t h e p a i r s M N ,

a nd M N t h e o n e o f th e s e p o i n t s
’ ’

, ,

which is i n t er i o r t o t he a b s o l u t e o n ic c

b e i n g H it is e a s y t o s e e th a t t h e ,

i n ter va l s N H a n d H M a r e e q u a l a n d th a t t h e li n e d r a w n th r o u gh
’ ’
,

H c o n ju ga t e t o M N p a s s es thr o u gh 0 I n w o r d s t h e li n e s d r a w n
’ ’
.
, ,
 L oba ts ch ew s hy
’
s c ir cle a n d h or ocy cl e 1 83

th r gh t he middl e p i n ts o f t he h o r d s o f a ci r cl e a t right a n gl es
ou o c
t o th es e ch o r d s a l l p a s s th r o u gh t h e c e n t r e o f t h e ci r cl e
, .

If th r o u gh e ve ry p o i n t R i n t e i o r t o t he a bs o l u te c o n ic o f a li n e , r
,
wh i ch m ee ts t he c o n ic in t w o
rea l o i nts a li n e b e d r a w n a t
p ,

right a ngl es t o thi s li n e a n d ,

the re o n a p o i n t P b e t k e n s o , , a

th a t t he i n t e rva l RP is a lwa ys
t he s a m e ( t h e p o i n t P b e i n g in ,

a s e n s e t o b e e x pl a i n e d a lwa s
y ,

o n t h e s a m e s id e o f t h e giv n e

li n e ) th e n t he l o c u s o f P is
th a t cal l e d by L o b a t s ch ew s ky
a n e u id is ta n t c u r ve I n f a ct if
q .
,

0 t h e p o l e o f t h e giv e n li n e b e
, ,

o i n t e x t e r i o r t o t h e giv e n c o n ic t h e l o c u s o f a o i n t P s u ch th a t
a
p p
t h e i n t e rv a l OP is c o n s t a n t is p r e ci s e ly s u ch a n e q u idi s ta n t c u r v e
, .

T h e c o r r e s p o n di n g l o c u s o f P m a y b e c o n s id er e d wh e n 0 is a , ,

o i n t o f t h e a b s o l u t e c o n ic T hi s will the n b e a c o n ic wh os e fo u r
p .

i n t er s e cti o n s with t h e
a b s o l u t e c o n ic a l l oin c

cide a t o n e p o i n t T hi s .

is t h e hor ocy cle o f L O

b a t s ch e w s ky T h e li n e s .

bi s e cti n g a t r ight a n gl e s
t he ch o r d s o f t h e h o ro
c
y cl e a r e a ll p a ra ll e l ,

tha t is th ey a ll p a s s
,

th r o u gh p o i n t ( 0) o f
a

t he a b s o l u t e c o n ic T hi s fa ct e n bl e s u s t o c o n s tr u ct a h o r o cy cl e
. a

a s s i n g th r o u gh a p o i n t N o r d r a w th r o u gh thi s a d e fi n it e li n e
’

p ; f
N O ; th e n d r a w a n y li n e N H M t h e p oi n t H b e i n g s u ch th a t t he
’ ’
,

a n gl e H N O is t h e a n gl e o f p a r a ll e li s m f o r a li n e th r o u gh N which
’ ’

is t o b e p a r a ll l t o t h e li n e H 0 d r a w n th r o u gh H a t right a n gl e
e , 2, s

t o N H n a m e ly c o s h N H is e q u a l t o c o s e c ( s ee a b o v e )
’ ’
, .

T he p o i n t M is th e n s u ch th a t M H = H N If N O re m a i n th e
’ ’ ’ ’
.
,

s a m e t h e a n gl e O N H b e i n g a ll o w e d t o v a r e l o c u s o f M is a
’ ’
, , y t h ,

h o r ocy cl e ( T hi
. s c o n s t r u cti o n is giv e n b y L o b a t s ch e w s k
y G eo ,

metr is che U n ter s u chu ng en z u r T heor ie d er P a r a llellinien R e p r i n t / , ,

B e r li n 1 88 7 § 3 1 p 3 7 ) If t w o h or o cy cl e s h a v e t he s a m e c e n t r e
, , ,
.
,

0 a n d a v a ri a bl e li n e th r o u gh 0 m e e t th es e r e s p e ctiv e l y in P a n d Q
, , , ,

t h e i n t e rv a l P Q is c o n s ta n t ; o r t w o c o n c e n tric h o r o cy c l es c u t e q u a l ,

s e gm e n t s o n t w o p a ra ll e l li n e s a s s i n g thr o u gh th e i r c o mm o n c e n t r e
p
( L o b tas c h e w sk
y lo c cit
§ 3
,
3 p . .
, .

C a s e of d e g e n e r a t e c o n i c a s A b s o l u t e I n t h e ca s e o f a .
1 84 C h a p ter V

c o n ic re p r e s e n t d in p o i n t c o o r di na te s b y z K ( x y ) 0 o r in
e
? 2 ?
,

li n e c o o r di n a te s by ew 77 v 0 s a y re s p e ctiv e ly f x 0 a n d
f
2 2 2
, , ,

0 t h e i n t e rva l p b e tw ee n t w o p o i n t s ( x y z ) ( x y z )
’ ’ ’
F u :
, , , , , , , ,

is s a v e f o r s ig n s u ch th a t
, ,

(f x f x fi c o s p z z
’ ’ ’

(x x 1c
"
i s in
9?
’
{ [
’

f
'

(f w - l ) p K K( ma $ (wZ (y z
an d t he an gle , 9, b e tw e e n two li n e s

sa ve f or s ign , is ch th a t
su

( E u F u fi c os 9
’ ’ ’ ’
xw w uu vv ,
’

{
’ ’ ’
i 9
’

(F u ( ) ( vw
i

(
2 2
s n uw
x u w x v w ) nv

C o n s id e r
wha t th e s e b e c o m e s u p p o s i n g t o b e p o s iti ve wh e n , x , ,

fi r s t a p p ro a ch es t o ze r o a n d s e c o n d with t h e u s u a l p hra s e o l o gy
,
it , , , ,

7c be c o m e s i n de fi n it e ly gr ea t I n t h e fo r m e r c a s e t h e a b s o l u t e c o n ic .

b e c o m e s t he p o i n t p a ir giv e n b y z 0 x j: iy 0 o r b y 77 v 0 , ,
2 2
.

I n thi s c a s e t h e i n t e r v a l p b e c o m e s ze r o b u t in s u ch a w a y th a t ,

p i
lc a
-

pp r o a ch e s t o t h e limit d which is giv e n b

y , ,

’
5 zz
) }/
’
{(
’
d xz x z )
2
(y z
y z
2

t he i n t e rva l ,
9, h o w e v e r re m a i n s fi n it e be i n g
, , , sa v e f o r s ign ,
su ch th a t
’
9
' ’
co s 9 ( uu mm ,
s in
(u v
wh e r e m v
2
m u u
2
v Wh e n b e c o m e s i n fi n ite ly gre a t
2
,
’
2 ’
2
. It

t h e a b s o l u t e c o n ic b e c o m e s t h e li n e p a ir giv e n b y x i iy 0 T he .

i n te r va l p b e c o m es s u ch th a t
’ ’
c os
p ( xx s in
p ( xy
wh e re 77
2
x
2
y ,
n
’
2
x
’
2
y
’
2
; a nd the i n t er v a l 9 b e co m e s ze r o ,
ii
b u t in su ch a wa
y th a t 9 x a pp r o a ch es t o t h e limit <1) giv e n b y
’ ’

[
’

1 ( ) ( vw
2
<, uw u w

C o n s id e r t h e fo r m e r ca s e o bt a i n e d b y s u p p o s i n g it t o va n i h If , s .

w e r e ga rd t h e li n e 2 0 a s c o n s i s ti n g o f th o s e i n a cc es s ibl e p o i n t s
which w e o r di n a r ily s p ea k o f a s b e i n g a t i n fi n ity th i s ca s e m a y b e ,

h e ld t o i n cl u d e t he fa mili a r m e tr i a l ge o m e try o f t h e G re e k s o n c ,

t h e b a s i s o f which m e a s u ri n g i n s t r u m e n t s a t p r e s e n t in u s e a r e
c o n s tr u ct e d T hi s u s u a l m e t r ica l ge o m e tr y e vid en tly a s s u m es th a t
.

wh e n t w o p o i n t s a r e giv en t he s egm e n t which j o i n th e m is w ith o u t , s

a mb ig u ity b e i n g th a t s e gm e n t o f t h e li n e j o i n i n g th e m which d o es
,

n o t c o n t a i n a p o i n t o f t h e li n e 2: 0 It will b e n a t u ra l e n o u gh t o .

m a k e tha t c o n ve n ti o n ; f o r t h e d ege n e ra te c o n ic o f re fe re n ce m a y
b e re g a rd e d a s a ri s i n g fr o m a n im a gi n r y c o n ic ( a n d s u ch a , x

c o n ic c on t a i n s n o re a l p o i n t o f a ny li n e c o n s id e r e d ; o r m a y
be re ga r de d a s a ri s i n g fr o m a r ea l c o n ic ( a nd w e ha ve , x
1 86 C h a p te r V

It fo ll o w s fr o s a
*
m thi th t if
w e c o n s id e r a n ( im ro e r t r i a n gl e
p p )
of which t h e s e gm en t s A B A C c o n ta i n p o i n ts o f z 0 b u t , ,

t h e s e gm e n t B C c o n ta i n s n o s u ch p o i n t a n d A B C d e n o t e t h e , , ,

a n g u l a r i n t e r v a l s B A C C B A A CB th e n A B , C ,or , 71 7r 7r ,

B C A I n p a r tic u l a r wh e n A
7r .
4 tha t is wh e n t h e p o i n ts 71 3 ,

o f i n t e rs e cti o n o f A B a n d A C with z 0 a r e h r m o n ic in r e g rd t o a a

t he a b s o l u te p o i n t s I J lyi n g o n 3 0 w e ha v e A
, ,
B C 2 , ,
7r .

It a pp ea r s s u ffici e n tly cl e a r fro m thi s th a t a n y s ta t e m e n t o f t h e

o rdi n a r E u clid e n ge o m e t r e v e n o n e which h a s r e fe re n c e t o
y y a ,

m ea s u re m en t c o n ti n u e s t o h o ld wh e n t h e s o —ca ll e d li n e a t i n fi n ity
,

is r e pl a c e d b y a ny li n e o f t h e pl a n e a n d t he s o ca ll e d circ u l a r p o i n t s ,
-

a t i n fi n it a r e r e la ced b an t w o c o nj u ga t e im a gi n a r o i n ts
y p y y y p
ly i n g th e r eo u t [A d d ] . .

The a rb it r a r i n e s s a n d c o m p a r is o n of th e s ever a l m eth od s

of m e a s u r e m ent . W h e n i n ter va l s b e twe e n p o i n t s
d b e tw e e n ,
an

li n es , a r e m ea s u r e d by m ea n s o f a n im a gi n a r y c o n ic, t h e figu r e
c o n s ide re d is s o m e tim e s s a id t o l ie in a n ell ip tic p l a n e ; wh e n t h e
c o n ic is r ea l , in a n hyp er bolic p l a n e a n d , wh e n t h e c on ic o f re fe ren c e
is a p o i n t p a ir , in a p a r a bo lic, o r E u clide a n pl a n e T h e p hra s e o l o gy .

is c on v e n i e n t ; b u t it is a p t t o b e mi s c o n c e iv e d T he p la n e a nd the .
,

g eometr
y ( th o u gh n o t t h e s mb o l s , o r n u mb e r s , a s s o ci a t e d with
y
i n te r v a l s ) a r e the s a me in a ll the thr ee ca s es S t a te m en t s in r e ga r d .

t o t h e i n t e r v a l s a r e t o b e c o n s id er e d a s a bb r e vi a t e d s t a t e m e n t s in
r e g a r d t o p a rtic u l a r c o mbi n a ti o n s o f t h e a lg e b r a ic s mb o l s m e r e l
y y;
a n d w e h a v e s o u ght t o s h e w th a t t h e s mb o li s m is n o t a n e c e s s a r ,
y y
th o u gh it is s o m e tim e s a c o n ve n i e n t , s u pp or t o f t h e ge o m e t r ica l
the o ry N o de d u cti o n o f a r e a lly geo m e tr ica l ki n d ca n b e l eg it i
.

m a t e l y b a s e d o n s ta t e m e n t s o f which a n y p a rtic u l a r c o n c ep ti o n o f
d i s t a n ce fo r m s a n i n di s p e n s a bl e p a rt ; s u ch s ta t e m e n t s a r e e u iv a l e n t q
i i
I n th s d e d u c t on t h e f u n d a m e n t a l f a c t th a t th e a n g l e s A C T , AB T ( in th e r s t fi
tw o d i a gr a m s ) a r e e q u a l , f ol l o w s f r o m t h e f or m u l a e f or c o s (9 s in 0 on p a g e 1 8 4 , t w o
i i
l n e s m e e t n g o n z = O h a v in g e q u a l r a t o s i
Th e l a s t f ou r d a g r a m s l l u s tr a t e
,

i i
th e p r o of o f a
’
73
’
1r i n t h e v i
a r ou s c a s es , s m l a r l y m a r k e d a n g l e s b e n g e q u a l i i i
‘ ii
.

1 B u t a d ifi er e n c e i s n e ce s s a r y i n t h e d e fi n t on o f m o e m e n t w h e n w e p a s s t o v
i i
th e ca s e in w h c h t h e Ab s ol u t e con c b e com e s a p o n t -p a r Th e l n e a r t r a n s f or m a t o n i i
i i
i i
i i
.

o f th e p l a n e l e a v n g a n u n d e g e n e r a t e c o n c u n a l t er e d i s u n q u el y d e t er m n e d by i t s

e fi ec t u p o n t h e r a n g e o f p o n t s o n t h e c o n c ;ib u t t h e p a r o f p o n t s z = 0, x
2
+y i2=
0 i i
v i
i s u n a l ter e d by e e r y t r a n s f or m a t on 73, mx , y l z my , z , z F or t h e f o r m e r c a s e
i i iv i i
.

t h e s e l f t r a n s f o r m a t on o i t h e c on c n ol v e s t h a t t h e d s ta n ce o f t w o p o n t s i s
i i ii
-

u n a l t er e d ( c f p 1 6 9 ) f or th e l a t t er c a s e it is n ec e s s a r y t o n tr o d u ce th s c o n d t on
i
. . .

Th e r eb y , a s m a y b e s h e w n d r ect ly (p th e f or m u l a e f o r a m o e m en t ta ke s t h e v
i i v vi i
.

f or m s ( s t l l n ol n g t h r e e a r b tr a r y c on s t a n ts )

gy + r , y 1 = q w +P y + a Z
1
=Z .

w h er e p
2
+q
2 =1 Th es e m a y b e ob t a n e di f r om t h e f or m u l a e of p . 1 69 , if t h er e i n w e
fi
.

in p l a c e o f th a t t h e f or m u l a e m a y r el a te t o t h e s e l f
'

t p u t zx
rs z, z so

t r a n s f or m a t i on of
, ,

t h en d ivi
d e th e c oeffi c e n t s i on th e r g h t byi
§ (D + O 2 2A 2 — 2
B— ), t h e n p u t mx i 7 mii
in p l a c e of A, B , a nd th en , reg a r di ng th e
i ,

r a t os o f C, D , m , n a s d e n t e , p u t x =0 fii .
 Co mp ar is on f
o m ea s u r es 1 87

on l y t o s ta te m e n t s in ega d t o t h e b eh a vi o u r o f p a r tic u l a r m ea s u r
r r

in g i n s tr m e n t s w hich m u s t r t o n p h y s ic a l h yp o th e s e s
u , es .

I n ill s t r a ti o n o f thi s g e n e r a l r e m a k w e m a y if w e p l e a s e a pply

u r , , ,

t w o o f t h e s y s t e m s o f m ea u e m e n t s im u lta n e o u s ly T h u s l et s r .
,

A B C b e a ny th r e e p o i n t s
, ,
n d c o n s id e r a t r i a n gl e fo r m e d with ,
a

th es e in t h e s e n s e ex p l a i n e d a b o ve wh e n di s c u s s i n g t he r e fe ren ce t o
,

a n im a gi n a r c o n ic L e t t h e s e gm e n t i n t e rv a l s B C CA AB with
y .
, , , ,

r e fe r e n e t o a c e r t a i n im a gi n a ry a b s o l u t e c o n ic b e d e n o t e d r e s e c
c
p , ,

t ive l y b y a 8 y a n d t h e ,
n gl e i n te r v l s B A C CA B A B C c o r
,
«
,
a a
, , , , , ,

res p o n di n g th er e t o b e de n o te d r e s p e ctiv ly b y a , y If w e , e ,
’

,
r
’
.

t a k e a ny t hr e e p o in t s a s re fer e n c e p o i n t s f o r c oo r di n a t e s a nd t w o
°

p o i n ts I J which r e la tiv e ly t o th e s e r fer e n c e p o i n ts a r e giv e n b y

, , e ,

z O x i iy 0 w e c a n a l s o m ea s u r e t h s e gm e n ts a n d a n gle a s
, ,
e s ,

e x pl a i n e d a b o v e with r e fe r e n e t o t h e p o i n t p a ir I J
,
l e t th e m b e c ,

de n o te d th e n r e s p e ctiv e ly b y a b c A B C T he n both t h e
, , , , , , , .

e q u a ti o n s
'
co s a co s 8
,
c os y s in 8 s in 7
,
c os a ,

an d a
2
b2
0
2
2 bc cos A,
a re tru e .

A n i n t e r e s ti n g a p p lic a ti o n o f thi s lib e r ty which h a s s m e im , o

o rt a n c e o f it s o w n m a
y b e m a de T hi s e x p r es s es t h i n t e r v a l
p , e .
,

m ea s u r e d with re fe r e n ce t o t h e im a gi n a ry co n ic x + y + z = 0 2 2 2
,

be tw e en t w o li n e s b y m e a n s o f a n i n t e gra l whi h is t o b e e v l u a t e d
, c a

with m e a s u r e m en ts o f di s ta n ce a n d a n gl e th a t a r e m a d e r e l a tiv e ly
t o t h e p o i n t p a ir I J gi v e n b y z = 0 z 1 ip , O R e p r e s e n t x /z
, , , .
'
.
,

y/ z r e s e ctiv e l
, p y b y X a nd Y ; an ele men t of
, a rea w ith t h e ,

E u clidea n r e fe e n c e is w e m a y a s s u m e o n t he b a s i s o f fa mili a r
r , , ,

n o ti o n s giv e n b y d X r b
y r d r d b wh e r e r is t h e E u clid e a n
d ’
,
Y o , ,

di s t n c e fro m a p o i n t a n d 6 t h e E u clid ea n a n gl e fr o m a fi xe d li n e
a , .

If t w o li n e s i n te rs e cti n g in 0 b e giv e n o f e q u a ti o n s
, , ,

ma 0 th es e m a y b e r eg a rd e d a s d e fin i n g a r e gi o n ( P )
' ' '
n a vy
'
, ,

a nd o v e r which t h e i n t e gr a l

Y )% 2

ma y b e t a k e n ( e v e ry e l e m e n t d X d Y be i n g
o s iti v e ) It will b e fo u n d th a t t he i nte r a l
g
p .

is th e n eq a l to t w ice the in ter va l betw ee n

u

the lin es m e as u re d in r e ga r d t o t h e c o n ic
,
2
x +
y 2
’
0 O f thi s s ta te m e n t w e m a
2
.
y
giv e i n dic a ti o n s o f a s t r a ightfo r wa r d p r o o f .

L e t ( 1 d e n o t e t h e E u clid e n di ta n c e f o m a s r

th e o rigi n 2 o r ( O 0 t o t h e i n t e r s e cti o n 0 o f t h e li n e r d e
, , , , ,
s ,

n o t e t h e E u clid e a n di s t a n c e fr o m 0 t o a p o i n t P o f t h e r e gi o n o f , ,
1 88 Ch ap ter V

i n te gra ti o n ,
an d 9 t h e E u clid ea n an gl e b e tw e e n t he li n e 2 0, a n d
t he li n e OP . T he i n t e gra l is th e n

r ar { ( 1 + d + 2
7
3
+ 2 dr c os 9)

w h e r e (f) gl e b e twe e n t h e li n e 2 0 a n d o n e o f t he give n li n e

is t h e an s ,

) t h e a n gl e b e tw e e n a O a n d t h e o th e r gi v e n li n e T hi s fo r m o f t h e
’

d .

i n te gra l is o bta i n e d b y p a i r i n g toge the r p o i n t s P a n d P o n a li n e ,

’
,

thr o u gh 0 in re ga r d t o which t he h a rm o n ic co nj u g te o f 0 is o n
,
a

t he li n e z = O ; t h e fa ct o r r c o s (9 a r i s i n g f o r P c o r r e s p o n d s t o a , ,

fa ct o r r c o s ( 9 W) or r ) c o s 9 a r i s i n g f o r P T o ca rr y o u t th e
, ,
'
.

i n te gra ti o n w e m a y n o tice th a t
,

—2
f wd x [ ( x a )
2
5]2
[ ax
( a
?
b [( x a )
?
5 ] t,
2

an d u tili s e the ide n tity

’ ' ' ' '
n V n U u V ZJU uu vv ww
1
C OS COS
S A
wh er e
m,
’ '
th e , V ma 2 ? 2 g
w u, 3 u v

n A = U + V
2
2 2
.

T he i n t egr a l will th e n be fo u n d to b e co m e
—
[
' '
2 (
1
co s uu nv

On t h e b a s i s o f thi s r e s u lt , w e m a y s p ea k o f t h e ex te n t re l a tiv e l y
t o t h e im a gi n a ry c o n ic , o f a r e gi o n o f t h e p l a n e , m e a n i ng th e r e by
t h e v a l u e o f t he i n t e gr a l , e v a l u a t e d with t he p a r a b o lic m e a s u r e ,

m e n t s a s h e r e , o v e r thi s r e gi o n I n thi s s e n s e , a n y t w o li n es e n cl os e
,
.

q
a fi n it e e x t e n t , e u a l t o 2 A wh e r e A is t h e i n t e rv a l b e t w e e n t h e
,

li n e s , m e a s u r e d b y t h e i m a gi n a ry c on ic T he t w o li n e s e n clo s e t w o .

re gi o n s which a r e c o mple m e n ta ry ; t he s u m o f t h e e x t e n t s o f th es e
,

t w o r e gi on s is th a t o f t h e wh o l e p l a n e , w hich is th u s fi n it e T h e .

a n g u l a r i n t e rva l , in re g a rd t o t h e im a gi n a r y c o n ic , f o r t h e o th e r

re gi o n , is qr —A , a n d t h e e x t en t o f thi s is 2 7: 2 A T hu s 2 71 is t he .

e x t e n t o f t he w h o l e p l a n e .

T h u s a l s o t h e e x t e n t o f a t r i a n gl e , in t e r m s o f t h e a n g u l a r
i n te r v a ls o f it , with re fe r e n c e t o t he
im a gi n a r y c o n ic , is A B C or .

F o r , if t h e e x t e n t o f t h e t r i a n gl e be
d e n o te d b y A , t he wh o le p la n e is
m a d e u p o f fo u r r egi o n s wh o s e r e
s ec t iv e e x t e n t s a r e 2 A A 2 B A
p , ,

QC A, a n d A p u tti n g t he s u m of
th es e e u a l t o 2 77 3 w e fi n d q
A= A + B + C —m
1 90 Ch a p ter V

v e n ie n t t o u s e 6 7 n i s t e a d o f ,
a
y7 s u bj e ct t o w {1
+ 73 7
'

, y g n i
, 1 , _

s o th a t t h e e q u a ti o n t a k es t h e fo rm 5 7 zt We ca n s h e w th a t 2
1
2
.

t h e s u rfa ce c o n t a i n s a n i n fi n it e n u mb e r o f li n es which bre a k u p i n t o ,

t w o s y s t e m s th e r e b e i n g o n e li n e o f ea ch s ys t e m thro u gh e v e ry p o i n t
,

o f th e u r fa c e
s E v e ry li n e o f e ith e r s y s t e m in fa ct m e e t s e v e r y li n e
.
, ,

o f t h e o th e r s ys t e m b u t t w o li n e s o f t h e s a m e s y s t e m d o n o t i n t e r
,

s e ct F or firs t wh a t e v e r 9 ma y b e e v e ry p o i n t ( E ) z t) which is
.
, , , , r , ,
‘
s u ch th a t E i n 9t 5 i n 9 x is e vid e n tly s u ch th a t 5 + 7 ,
l
,zt
2
0
2 :
,

a n d is th e re fo r e a p o i n t o f t h e s u r fa ce ; s u ch a p o i n t ha s t h e
, ,

s mb o l 9tA 9 zB zC tD a n d is a p o i n t o f t h e li n e j o i n i n g t h e
"
1
y ,

o i n t s wh o s e s mb o l s a r e 9 B C 9 A D t h e t w o e q u a ti o n s
1
+ +
'

p y ; ,

ta k e n t oge th e r th u s r e p re s e n t thi s li n e By t a ki n g di ff e r e n t v a l u e s .

o f 9 w e th e n c e o bt a i n a s y s t e m o f li n es
,
If (— 5 n a t ) b e a ny .
0, o, o, o

o i n t o f t h e s u rfa c e t h e e q u a l v a l u es (5 i 7)t s (S giv 1

e 7 0
p , , 0 , , o o

a v a l u e o f 9 f or which t h e li n e c o n t a i n s thi s p o i n t It is ea s y m o r e .
,

o v e r t o v e r ify th a t t w o li n e s o f thi s s ys t e m f o r t h e r e s p e cti v e v a l u e s

‘
, ,

9 q!
, ) of t h e p a r a m e t e r giv e n b y i n 9t 5 in
,
a nd ,

d o not me et
E n ¢ g i i 1
’
t n , ( ) .

S imil a r ly t h e s u rfa c e c o n t a i n s a n o th e r s ys t e m o f li n e s o f which

, ,

o n e is giv e n b y 5 i o n e o f which p a s s e s thr o u gh

i; p t 5 + n (
1) f ( ,

e ver o i n t o f t h e s u rfa e N 0 t w o o f th es e i n t e rs e ct
c B u t thi s li n e
yp . .

m ee ts th a t o f th e fo r m e r s ys t e m giv e n b y 3; i n 9t 5 i n
, , ,

in t h e p o i n t gi v e n b y f i n 9 E in (b g t 1 , ,
:
.

It is e a s y t o pro v e th a t n y li n e o f t h e three f ld s p a ce c o n ta i n s a o

t w o p o i n t s o f t h e q u a d r ic u n l es s it c o n s i s t wh o lly o f p o i n t s b e l o n gi n g
,

th er e t o ; f o r t h e s u b s tit u ti o n in exp z t o f v a l u es x i x 9 y
'

l
-
0 2, , a z,

z , 2 0t 2, t r e s p e ctiv e l y f or r y z t l e a d s t o a q u a d r ic e q u a
1 o z, .
, , , ,

ti o n f o r Fu rth e r tha t t h e p o i n t s o f a n a r bitr a r y p l a n e which l ie

, ,

o n t h e q u a dric a r e t h e p o i n t s o f a c o n ic ; f o r l e t a n y li n e o f thi s
, ,

pl a n e m e e t t h e q u a dr ic in t h e t w o p o i n ts P a n d R o f c oor di n a t es ,

a n d l et Q (m b e a n o th e r
( y
x l , z t
,, ) a nd (a
,, , y a s , ,, y s , x t ) ,, ,, ,, e

p o i n t o f thi s p l n e n o t o n t h e li n e P R : if th en in xy = s t w e
a , , , ,

r e pl a c e a t ctiv el b x + 9x t a n d s imil a r e x
"
y y
r
r es a
p z , p , , ,
e ( , l , s ,

p r e s s i o n s w e fi n d th a t 4
,
) is e x p r e s s ibl e in t er m s o f 9 ; b
y ch o os i n g

o i n t o f t h e q u d r ic l i n g
Q s u it a bl y thi s l ea ,
d s t o a s
y mb o l f or a n
yp ,y a

in t h e p l a n e o f t h e fo r m P + m 9Q ,
n9 R T hi s s h e w s th a t a l l s u ch 9
.

o i n t s l ie o n a c o n ic I n
p a r tic u l a r t h e
p l a n e c on t a i n i n g t h e t w o
p .
,

li n e o f t he q u a dr ic which m e e t in a ny p o i n t P o f t he s u r fa ce c o n
s , , ,

ta i n s n o o th e r p o i n t s o f t h e q u a dric tha n t he p o i n t s o f th es e t w o
li n e s T hi s p l a n e is ca ll e d t he ta ngen t p la n e o f t he q u a d r ic a t P
. .

T h e li n e s a r e c ll e d t h e g e n e r a ti n g li n es o r g e n e ra t o r o f t h e s ur
a ,
s ,

f a ce a t P , .

A n y e q u a ti o n which is li n e a r ( a n d h o m o ge n e ou s ) in t he c o
o rdi n a t e s f 7 t f o i n t ex
p e s s es th a t thi s i n t li e s o n a
de fi n ite p l a n e ; this e q u a ti on ma y the n be ca ll e d t he e q u a ti on o f
z o a r o
, , p
1 , , , ,
 M etr i ca l p la n e b y p r ojec tion of q u a d r ic 1 91

the pl a n e If . t he e q ti ua on be ct
a n hz O, t he p o i nt
(5 2 77
)A (f i
.

n) B xC tD , b e i ng ,
in vi r t u e of thi s e q ti ua o n,

t he sa me a s
—in) 3 + cz C + ( 2f n + 2g E+ hz ) D ,

§( cA cB Qg D ) 17
( cA
i icB Qf D ) 2: ( 00 hD ) ,

is a
p i t o f the
o n p l a ne co nt i ni ng a t he th re e p i t wh
o n s os e sv mb o l s
a re, r es p e cti ve ly ,

—B ) + 2f D C + hD ; ic ( A , c

b y pr p ch ic f c j ; g h thi i n y p l n w h t v
o er o e o , , ,
s s a a e a e er .

I n p tic l t h thr
ar q ti o n
u a r, 7 = O e
z = O r p nt
ee e ua s 7 , e res e

r s p ctiv ly th e p l n
e e e A n d th e
,
i n te t in t h e p i n t f
re a es . se r s ec o o co

or di t es ( O O O
na th t is t he p i n t D T hi i p i n t o f t h
, , ,
a ,
o . s s a o e

q u d ic i n c th c di n t
a r ,
s e ti fy t h q u ti n £ + n = t
es e oor a es sa s e e a o
2 2
z

T h e li n whi h j o i n thi s p i n t D t
e c n
y p int f s di n t o , ,
o a o , o c o or a es

(E 7 ,
7 , z t ) m e t ,
t h p l ,
n e wh e q ti n
s i t = O in t h e
e
p i
a n t os e e ua o s , o

(5 7 7 , z, T hi p i nt i t h p j cti n fs m D of th
o
p i nt s e ro e o ,
ro , e o

q
,

(5 7 ,
7 , z t ) A n
y p ,
i nt f. t h d ic th th n D it e lf
o n th
o e ua r ,
o er a s , ca us

b m d e t c o r p n d b y p r j cti n t
e a o r es p oin t of th o
p l n , t 0 o e o , o a e a e .

B t t h e li n e which i
u p d b y t h e tw q u ti n 5 n O
s + i ex = res s e o e a o s ,

a = o is wh lly o n t h e q u d ic ; o n d thi li n e p s e thro u gh D ; a r a s a s s

of t he q
,

ev i t o n d r ic l i n g
y n th li n i th f uar p j e ct d o e e s, er e o e , ro e
y p
er

f o m D i n t o t h e a m e p o i n t f t h e p l a n e t = 0 S lik e wi s i e v e y
r s o . o, e, s r

p
i
o n t o f th q d ic l y i ng n th
e li n ua p s d rb y t h t w q ua o e e ex re se e o e

ti o n 5 in 0 z 0 E v e y p i n t o f t h p l n e t = 0 th e th n
s ,
. r o e a ,
o r a

t h e t w p oi n t o bt i n e d i t h p j e cti n f d fi n it p i n t o f
s so o a ,
s e ro o o a e e o

th q e d ic T h s t w o c p ti n l p i n t f t he p l n t = O
ua r . e e ex e o a o s o a e a r e,

n c e rily th e m e lve p i ts f t h q u d ic ; if w d n t th m by
es s a ,
s s o n o e a r e e o e e

I n d J w m y g rd t h e p i n t D o f t h e q u dric
a ,
e a re a
p oj cti n g o a as r e

i n t o t h li n e I J e .

I thi p j cti n t h p i n t
n s ro ef t h q d ic which li o n a n y
o ,
e o s o e ua r e

pla n p i n g th gh D pr oj ct i n t t h p i n t s o f li n e in t h e
e a ss r ou e o e o a ,

p
l a n t=0e nd c n v el
y ,
A p l
a n n t
p s i n g thr
o ghers D i . a e o as ou s

i n te e ct d b y t h g n e to o f t he f c t D ( wh e q ti n
rs e e e ra rs s ur a e a os e ua o s

a re 5 + i 7 = 0 a = o 7 n d E i n = 0 ,
a = o ) in t w
p i nt a
y I , o o s, sa ,
'

a nd J ; t h p i
’
nt of t h eq dric l y ing
o n u ch s
p l ne
p j ct e ua o s a a ro e ,

th fo i n t t he p o i n t f a c v in t h p l n e t = O which
ere r e, o s o ur e, e a ,

p a s s thr gh t h p o i n t I n d J If t h p l n in q u ti n b
es ou e s a . e a e es o e

th t giv n b y t he q ti o n ct a
a e Qg E h e 0 w e ee
ua l im i z , s , e

n ti g t b y m f 5 = z t th t t h eq ti n f thi v is
2 2
a n n n ea s o ,
a e ua o o s cu r e

c (g 7)
?
a n
7
2
h z O T h c u v s i th t w h v e in
a
2
. e r e s a e a ,

C h p III c a ll e d
a .
ci cl ,
l tiv ly t t he p o i n t I J I n p rticu l r
a r e, re a e o s , . a a ,

wh n t h pl n e c n t i n s t h p i n t D w e h v 0 O n d t h ci cl
e e a o a e o ,
a e :
,
a e r e

d ge n e t s i n t o t h li n e in t h pl a n e t = 0 giv n by z 0 toge th e r
e ra e e ,
e , e ,

with n o the r li n e
a .
1 92 C h a p ter V
‘
h u s t he ge o m e try in a pl a n e r e l a t iv e t o t w o a b s o l u t e p o i n ts
T , ,

which w e h v e c o n s id e r d in Ch a p III m a y b e re ga r d d a s t h e
a e .
, e

g e o m e tr y d e a li n g with t h e p o i n t s o f a q u a dr ic s u r fa c e A ci r cl e .

in t h e pl a n e is th e r e by re pl a c e d b y a pl a n e s e ti o n o f t h e q u a d r ic c

s u r fa c e .

C o n s id e r fr o m thi s p o i n t o f vi w t h e m e s u r m n t o f a n gl e
,
e ,
a e e

b e twe n t w o li n e s in t h e p l a n e t 0 rel a tiv ly t o t h p o i n t s I J

e :
,
e e , .

L e t t h li n e s i n t e r s e ct in Q a n d m e e t t h e li n e I J r e s p ctiv e ly in
e , ,
e ,

t h e p o i nts M N T h e m e a s u r e m e n t w e h a v e e x pl a i n e d ( a b o v e
, .
, ,

p . is b
y m e a n s o f t h e r n ge M N I J T h e fo u r li n es t
a , , , .
,

Q N Q QI ,
J o f t h,
e pl a n e t,
= O r e p r oj e ct e d fr o m D b y m a n s o f ,
a e

fo u r p la n e s which i n t er s e ct in t h e li n e D Q A n y p l n e n o t c o n . a ,

t i n i n g t he li n e D Q is m e t b y th es e fo u r p l a n e s in a fla t p en cil o f
a ,

fo u r li n e s which is r e l a t e d t t h p e n cil Q ( M N I J ) in t he s en s e o e , , , ,

e x pl a i n e d in V o l I ; in p a rtic u l r w e m a t a k e t h e t a n ge n t a l ne
.
y p a

o f t he q u a dr i a t D which is m e t b th es f ou r l a n e s in t h e e n cil
c
y , p p e

D ( M N I J ) L e t D Q m e e t t h e q u dric s u r fa c e in Q ( b e s id e D ) ;
, , , . a
'

th er e is t Q on e ge n er t or which m e e t s t h e ge n er a t o r DI s a y
,
a
'

,
a ,

in I a n d a n o th er g e n e r a t o r which m e e t s t h e g e n e r a t o r DJ s
y ,
a

in J It is e a s y t o v e rify
th a t t h e t a n g en t li n e o f
an
y p l a n e s e cti o n o f t h e

q u d ic a t a ny p o i n t li e s a r , ,

in t h e t a n g n t p l n e o f t h e e a

J s u fa c e a t th a t i nt T h
p e r o .

p l a n es D Q M D Q N giv e ,

r i s e t o t w o c o n ic s l i n g n
y o

t h e q u a d r ic s u r f ce which a ,

h a v e t h e p o i n ts Q a n d D '

f o r o mm o n p o i n ts ; t h e c

t a n ge n t a t Q o f t h e fo rm e r '

c o n ic m e e t s t he t a n gen t o f thi s a t D in a p o i n t s y U w hich is , ,

a , ,

o n t h e li n e DM in w hich t h e l a n e D Q M m e e t s t h e ta n ge n t l a ne
p p ,

DI J a t D ; s imil a r l y t h e t a n ge n t a t Q o f t h e l tt e r n ic m e e t s
'

a co
, ,

t h e t a n ge n t o f thi s a t D in p oi n t V l y i n g o n DN ,
Tah es e p o i n ts .

U V a r e in t h e t a n g n t p l a n e o f t he q u a d i a t Q T h u s t he p e n cil
,
e r c
'

Q ( U V I J ) is r e l a t e d t o t h e p e n cil Q ( M N I J ) T w o t a n g en t
' ' ’
.
, , , , , ,

a n e s ca n b e d r a w n t o t h e q u a d r ic s u rfa c e fr o m a n a r bit r a r
‘
p l y li ne ,

a s w e ma
y s ee b
y t a ki n g t h e t w o
p o i n t s wh e r e t h e li n e m e e t s t h e

q u a dr ic a n d c n s ider i n g t h e i n te rs e cti on s o f t he gen er a t o r s o f t he

, o

s u r fa c e a t o n e o f th e s e o i n t s w ith t h e g e n e r a t o r s o f t h e s u r fa c e a t
p
t h e o th e r o f th e s e t w o p o i n t s I n o u r figu re a s I D I Q a r e
’ ’ '

, ,
.

ge n e ra t o r s a n d J D J Q a r e ge n er a t o rs t he p la n e s DI Q a n d
,
’

,
’ ’
,
’ ’

DJ Q a r e t he t a n ge n t p l a n es o f t he s u r fa ce which ca n b e d r a w n
' '

thr ou gh t h e li n e D Q ; th u s t h e a x i a l p e n cil o f pla n e s which ha s

1 94 C h ap ter V

a
p l a n e c o n t a i n i n g o ne o f t h e g e n e r at o rs a t Q a nd a ls o th at
'

, ,

ge n e ra t o r a t R which i n te rs e ct s thi s ; thi s p l a n e will b e a ta n ge n t

’

l a n e t o t h e q u a dric dra w n th r o u gh t h e li n e Q R a n o th e r o f t h e
’ ’

p
fo u r p l a n e s will b e th a t co n ta i n i n g t h e o th e r ge n e r a t o r a t Q o f t h e '

q u a dric t o ge the r with the gen e ra t o r a t R which i n te r s e cts thi s thi s

,
’

b e i ng t he o th e r ta n gen t p l a n e t o t h e q u a dric d r a w n fr o m t he li n e
T h e o th e r t w o p l a n es o f t he a x i a l p e n cil th r o u gh Q R a r e
’ ' ' '
Q R .

t h e pl a n es o f t h e t w o s e cti o n s o f t h e q u a dric which p r oj e ct fro m D , ,

i n t o t he t w o giv en circl es I n a cc o r da n c e with wh a t is s a id a t the .

b egi nn i n g o f thi s ch a pte r t he a n gl e b e tw ee n t h e t a n gen ts a t Q o f

, ,

t he t w o giv e n circl e s m a y b e m ea s u re d b y t h e p l a n e p e n cil o f c e n tre

, ,

Q b y ta ki n g th es e t a n ge n t s with res p e ct t o Q I a n d QJ By wha t

,
.

w e h a v e n o w s a id it m a a l s o b e m e a s u re d b t a ki n g t h e pl a n e
y , y
s e cti o n s o f t h e q u a dric th r o u gh t h e li n e Q R which p roj e ct fro m ’ ’

, ,

D i n t o t h e giv e n circl e s a n d c o n s ide ri n g thes e p l a n e s with re s p e ct

,

t o t h e t w o t a n ge n t p l a n es o f t h e q u a d r ic which c a n b e dr a w n
fr o m t h e li n e Q R I n cid e nt a lly it a p pe a r s th a t t he circle s cu t
’ ’
.
,

a t t h e s a m e a n gl e a t b o th th e ir c o m m o n p o i n t s Q a nd R In , .

p a rticu l a r t h e circl es c u t a t r ight a n gl es if t h e t w o p la n e s ec

,

ti o n s o f t he q u a dric which pr oj e ct fr o m D i n t o th es e circl es a r e

, ,

in p l a n e s which a r e c o nj u ga t e t o o n e a n o th e r in r e ga rd t o t he
q u a d r ic .

I n th e s e di s c u s s i o n s t he li n e s a nd circl e s w h os e i n cli n a ti o n s h a v e
,

b ee n c o n s id e re d l ie in th e pl a n e t = O which is in fa ct a ta n ge n t ,

l a n e o f t h e q u a d r ic n a m e l a t t he p o in t
( 0 O l It is tru e
p y , , , , ,

h o w e v er tha t a pl a n e s e cti on o f t h e q u a dric p r oj e ct s fr o m a p o i n t

, ,

D o f t he q u a dric i n t o a ci r cl e u p o n a ny pl a n e wh a te v e r if t he t w o
, ,

a bs o lu te o i n t s f or thi s pl a n e a r e t a k e n t o b e t h e p o i n t s in which
p
t he ge n e ra t o r s o f t h e q u a d r ic a t D m ee t thi s p l a n e , , .

L e t u s n o w r e pl a ce t h e c o o r di n a t es z a n d t hy c o o rdi n a t e s C b y ,
7

m ea n s o f z = = C; t h e e q u a ti o n o f t h e q u a d r ic th e n
”
Q t
'
r , r

t a k e s t h e fo rm 8 7 3
T h e re is in t h e pl a n e
7
2
7 0 a c o n ic
2
. 7 ,

lyi n g on t he q u a dric giv e n by 5 + 7 + § = 0 T hi s c on ic m ee t s

,
2
7
2 2
.

a n a r bit r a r pl a ne o f t h e thr ee fo ld s p a c e in t w o o i n ts L et u s
y , 07 ,
p .

a gr e e t o t a k e f or t h e t w o a b s o l u t e p o i n t s o f thi s p l a n e in t h e s e n s e ,
at ,

di s c u s s e d a t l en gth in C ha p III th es e t w o p o i n ts o f thi s q u a dr ic .

, .

F or a t a n g e n t pl a n e o f t he q u a dric s a y a t Q th e s e t w o p o i n ts
'

, , , ,

l yi n g o n t h e q u a dr ic a n d o n thi s pl a n e a r e t h e t w o p o i n t s in which ,

t he p la n e O is m e t b y t he g e n e r a t o r s o f t h e q u a d r ic a t Q
'
7 The .

e ff e ct is th e n th a t t h e a n gl e b e tw ee n t h e t a n g e n t li n e s o f t h e t w o
, ,

l a n e s e cti o n s o f t h e q u a dric a t a p o i n t Q wh e r e th e s e s e cti o n s

’

p ,

i n t e rs e ct a s w e h a v e b ee n l e d t o c o n s id e r it is in fa ct o bta i n a bl e
, ,

b y t h e r u l e a ppli e d t o t he t a n ge n t pl a n e o f th e q u a dric a t Q which

'

, ,

w e o rigi na lly ( p 1 67 ) a d o pt e d f or ge o m e try in a pl a n e ; b u t a t t h e

.
,

s a m e tim e t h e s u gg es ti o n cl ea rl y a r i s e s o f c o n s id e ri n g t h e i n t e rv a l
,
 Ca s e when a bsol u te is a c o n ic 1 95

be t w e en t w o p i n t s o f t he pl a n e ob y a r e fe r e n c e t o a fi x e d
,

c o n ic ly i n g in thi s p l a n e .

M e t r i c a l g e o m e t r y i n r e g a r d t o a n a b s o l u t e c o n i c We .

r o c e e d n o w t o c o n s id e r thi s m e s u r e m e n t in r e g a r d to a fi x ed a
p
c o n ic fro m t he p o i n t o f vi e w w e h a v e rea ch e d by i n tr o du ci n g t he
q u a d r ic s u r fa ce .

D e n o t e t he p o i n t 5 O 7 0 which d o e s n o t lie o n t he:

,
7

u a d r ic wh o s e e q u a ti o n is by 0 It is e a s ily s ee n 2
q , 7 , .

th a t t he pl a n e O is t h e p o l a r p l a n e o f O in r e ga r d t o t h e q u a d r ic
7 .

A n y p o i n t s a y Q o f t he q u a d r ic m a y b e p roj e ct e d fro m 0 o n t o
’

, , , ,

t he p l a n e = O givi n g a oint Q A l l p o i n t s Q o f t he
’
T
p sa y , , , 1 .
, ,

q u a d r ic which l ie o n a pla n e p a s s i n g thro u gh 0 give r i s e the n t o , , ,

p oi nts Q ,
l y i n g o n a li n e o f t h e
1 , p l a ne 0 C o n s id e r t w o
p l a ne 7 .

s e cti o n s o f t h e q u a dric wh os e p l a n e s p a s s th r o u gh 0 ; t he c o mm o n

o i nt o f th e s e t w o s e cti o n s o f t he q u a dric will th e n

’
a nd R
'

p sa
s
y Q , , ,

l ie in li n e w ith 0 We h a v e s e e n th a t t he a n gl e b e tw e e n t h e t a n ge n t
.

li n e s a t Q o f th es e s e cti on s o bta i n e d by c o n s ider i n g the s e li n e s

,
'

, ,

with r e s p e ct t o t h e ge n e ra t o r s o f t h e q u a dric a t Q m a y b e o bta i n e d '

a l s o b y c o n s id e rin g t h e pl a n e s o f t h e t w o s e cti o n s with r es p e ct t o

t h e t w o t a n ge n t p l a n e s o f t h e q u a d r ic which c a n b e dra w n th r ou gh
t he li n e Q R N o w c o n s id er t h e fo u r li n e s in which th e s e p l a n e s
’ '
.

m ee t t he p l a n e O ; a s OQ R Q a r e in li n e th e s e fo u r li n es m e e t
7
' '

1 ,

in t he p o i n t Q o f t h e p l a n e 7 0 T w o o f th e s e li n e s c o r res p o n di n g
1 .
,

t o t h e t a n ge n t p l a n es o f t h e q u a dric dra w n th r o u gh Q R a r e t he
’ ’
,

i n t ers e cti o n s with 0 o f t h e p l a n es j o i n i n g 0 t o t he g e n e ra t o rs

7

o f t h e q u a d r ic a t Q th e o th e r t w o o f t h e fo u r li n e s a r e t h e i n t er
'

s e cti o n s with 7 O o f t h e p l a n e s o f t h e t w o giv e n s e cti o n s W e ca n .

s h e w th a t t he t w o fo rm e r li n e s a r e t h e t a n g e n t li n es fr o m Q to , ,,

t h e c o n ic o f t he pl a n e 0 giv e n b y 5 7 C O F o r l e t on e
2
7
2 2
.

o f t h e g e n er a t o r s a t Q o f t h e q u a d r ic m e e t t h e pl a n e 7 = 0 s a
’
, y , , ,

in H thi s p o i n t is o n t h e s e cti on o f t he q u a dric by t he p l a n e 0 1 ,

tha t is o n t he c o n ic § + n + if 0 T he pl a n e = 0 b e i n g t h e
,
3 2 : . 7

p ol a r p l a n e o f 0 it is e a s y t o s ee th a t t he t a n gen t pla n e o f t h e
,

q u a dr ic a t H p a s s es th r o u gh 0 ; thi s t a ngen t pla n e c on ta i ns t he

gen e ra t or Q H T h u s t he p la n e j o i n i n g 0 t o thi s gen e ra t o r m ee ts
’
.

O in a li n e which t o u ch e s t h e c o n ic 5 + ; C O a t H a s w as
2 2
7 7 ,

s a id. We a r e th u s l e d fr o m t h e m e a s u r e m e n t o f t he a ngl e a t Q ,
’
,

be tween t w o li n es m ee ti n g a t thi s p o i n t ly i ng in t he t a n ge n t p la n e
, ,

b y m e a n s o f t w o a b s o l u t e p o i n t s o f thi s pl a n e t o t h e
'
at Q , ,

m ea s u re m en t o f t he a n gl e a t Q b e twe en t w o li n es m ee ti n g a t thi s , ,

o i n t l i n g in t h e l a ne O b m e a n s o f t h e t a n g en t li n e s d r a w n
p y
, p y 7 ,

fr o m thi s p o i n t t o t h e c o n ic £ 7 { 0 2
7
2 2
.

N ex t c o n s id e r a n y t w o p o i n t s o f t h e q u a d r ic s a y Q a n d K
’
Le t
'
, , .

the m b e p r oj e ct e d fr o m 0 i n t o t h e t w o p o i n t Q a n d X o f t h e s , 1 ,,

pl a n e 7 0 S u pp os e th a t w e m ea s u re t he i n te r va l b e tw een t he
:

—2
.

13
1 96 C h ap ter V

p o i n t s Q a n d K a s p o in t s o f t he q u a dric s u rfa c e b y t he a n gl e
’
'

'

, ,

be tw e e n t h e li n e s OQ a n d OK t a k e n in re s p e ct t o t h e t w o a bs o
’ ’
,

l u t e p o i n ts o f t he p l a n e Q OK th e s e b e i ng a s b e fo re t he p o i n t s ’ '

, , ,

wh e re thi s pl a n e m ee t s t he c o n ic 0 { + n + G 0 We a r e f
r :
,
2 2 :
.

th u s l e d t o m e a s u re t he i n te rva l b e tw een t he p o i n t s Q a n d X o f , 1 ,,

th e p la n e 0 b y c o n s id eri n g th e s e with re s p e ct t o t h e t w o p o i n t s
7 ,

in which th e ir j o i n i n g li n e m e e t s t h e a b s o l u t e c o n ic o f th e ir pl a n e .

T h u s fi n a ll y t h e pl a n e m e t r ica l g eo m e try w e h a v e e x p l a i n e d in
, ,

thi s ch a pte r r e la tiv e ly t o a fi xe d a b s o l u t e c on ic which give s a n

, ,

i n t e rv a l b e tw e en t w o li n es a n d a n i n te rv a l b e tw e en t w o p oi n t s is
, ,

s e e n t o b e o bt a i n a bl e b y p r oj e cti o n o f a g e o m e t r u o n t h e q u a dric
y p
s u rf a c e t h e c e n t r e o f pr oj e cti o n 0 n o t b e i n g o n t h e q u a dric
,
L i ne s
, , .

o f t h e pl a n e a r e r e pl a c e d b y s e cti o n s o f t h e q u a dric wh os e pl a n es ,

p a s s throu gh t he c en tre o f pr oj e cti on 0 T h e i n t er va l b e tw een t w o , .

o i n t s o n t h e q u a dric s u rfa c e is u n d e r s t o o d t o b e t h e i n t e rva l

p
b e tween t h e li n e s j o i n i n g th e s e t o 0 t a k en with res p e ct t o t h e a b s o ,

l u t e p o i n ts o f t h e p l a n e c o n t a i n i n g th es e j oi n i n g li n e s ; t he i n t erva l
b e tw e e n t w o li n es o f t h e p l a n e is re p l a ce d b y t h e i n t e rv a l b e tween
t w o li n e s l y i n g in a t a n g e n t pl a n e o f t h e q u a d r ic s u rfa c e a ga i n t a k en ,

with r e s p e ct t o t h e a b s ol u t e p o i n t s o f thi s p l a n e .

B u t thi s r e d u cti o n o f t h e m e t r ic a l pl a n e g e o m e t r y with r e s p e ct ,

t o a n a b s o l u t e c o n ic t o m e tric a l g e o m e t r y o n a q u a dric s u rfa c e

, ,

with res p e ct in t he c a s e o f e v e r y pl a n e c on c e rn e d t o t w o a b s o l u t e
, ,

p o i n t s in th a t pl a n e c a ll s f or a fu rth e r im p o rt a n t r e m a rk Whil e
, .

p oi n t Q o f t h e q u a d r ic giv es r i s e b r oj e cti o n fr o m 0 t o a
’
an
y , , y p , , ,

s i n gl e p o i n t Q o f t h e pla n e thi s l a s t gi v e s r i s e c o n v er s e ly n ot
, 1 , , , ,

on l u t a ls o t o t h e s e c on d o i nt R n which t h e li n e OQ
’ ’

y t o Q b , p i , , l

m e e ts t h e q u a dr ic T h u s wh e r ea s t w o p o i n t s o f t h e pl a n e c o i n cid e
.
,
“

wh en t h e i n t er va l b e tw e en th e m in rega rd t o t he a b s o l u t e c on ic is , ,

W ( or a n y o d d m u lti p l e o f W) t h e c o rres p o n di n g p o i n t s o f t h e ,

q u a dr ic s u rfa ce d o n ot then c o i n cide b u t a r e t w o p o i nts in li n e with ,

0 T w o p o i n t s o f t he q u a dric s u rfa c e c o i n cide o n ly wh e n t h e

.
.

i n te r v a l b e twe en th e m is 0 or 2 o r a n e v e n m u ltipl e o f , T he 7 ,

ge o m e tr y o f t he p o i n t s o f a pl a n e in thi s b o o k is in fa ct th a t o f , ,

li n e s ex ten d e d in b o th dire cti on s p a s s i n g thr o u gh a p o i n t o u ts ide

, ,

t h e pl a n e I n t h e g eo m e try o n t h e q u a dr ic s u rfa c e which w e m a y

.
,

ca ll s p her ica l geo m e t r y a ny s u ch li n e giv es ri s e t o tw o p o i n ts I n

,
.

t h e pl a n e t w o li n e s h a v e o n e p o i n t in c o mm o n ; o n t h e q u a dric s u r
fa c e t w o pla n e s e cti o n s a r e c u rv es h a vi n g tw o p o i n t s in c o mm on
,
.

W ith pro p e r c on v e n ti o n s t he m e trica l fo r m u l a e w e h a v e fou n d f or

,

a tri a n gl e wh e n t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e with r e s p e ct t o a n im a gi n a r y
c o n ic c o n ti n u e t o h o ld o n t he q u a dric giv e“ e e q u a ti o n
,

n b t h
, y
in which t h e c o o rdi n a t es E 7 Q a r e r ea l ; t he a r c s
5 {
2 2 2 2
7
7 + 7 , ,
7 , , r

be tw een t w o p o i n t s b e i n g t a k e n o n p la n e s thr o u gh t he p o i n t
0 0 O a nd m ea s u r e d a s e x pl a i n e d with r e s p e ct t o t he t w o
( , , , , ,
1 98 Ch ap ter V

q ti on s
?
a
“? ?
0, z
? ‘—0‘ 0, an d , in t h e l a tte r c a s e
e ua 3
y a
p ,

limiti n g o u r s e lv e s t o re a l v a l u e s o f r y z f o r w hich y is .
, ,
?

o s itiv e a s in t h e e a r li e r a rt o f thi s ch a t e r l e t u s a s s o ci a t e
p , p p , ,

( a y z ) o f t he pl a n e t he p os itiv e s q u a r e r oo t
“
w ith e a ch p o i n t , , , , ,

) i or (2
2
If w e d e n o t e thi s s q u a r e r o o t b
2
a +
p , y t ,

thi s c o m e s t o c o n s ider i n g t h e p o i n t ( r y z t ) o f t h e q u a dr ic s u rfa c e .

, , ,

x r e s s ed r e s e ctiv e l y in t h e t w o cas e s b t h e firs t o r s e c o n d o f t h e

e
p p
, y , ,

e q u a ti o n s y z t x
?
y t T hi s
p oin t ( r
2
,y z t ) i
2 ? 2
.
, .
, , , ,
s

on e o f t he t w o o i n ts in w hich t h e q u a dric is m e t b y t h e l in e j o i n i n g
p
t h e p oi n t ( r y z ) of t he p l a n e t o t he p o i n t ( 0 0 0 I ) F or the
.
, , , , , , , .

fo rm e r q u a dric s u rf c e t h i s p o i n t is a n i n t e ri o r p o i n t in t h e s en s e
a , ,

th a t e v e ry li n e th r o u gh it m e et s t h e q u a d ric in t w o rea l p o i n t s F o r .

t h e l a tt e r q u a dr ic t h e p o i n t ( 0 0 0 1 ) is a n e x t e ri o r p o i n t o n ly
, , , , ,

th o s e l i n e s thr o u gh it w hi ch c on t a i n p o i n t s f or w hich 2 y 0 ? ?

m e eti n g it in r ea l p o i n t s .

I n the ca s e o f p o i n t s o f t h e q u a dric fr y ? ?
z
?
if w e defi n e
t i
,

5 7 , 7r e,
s
p e ctiv e l y b y f ox
/ ( Z t ) ,) 2y /( s , 7 t) w e ma y ta k e f r
, , o

t h e h o m o g e n e ou s c o o rdi n a t e s r y z t o f a o i n t o f t h e q u a dr ic
, .
, , , , p ,

r es p e ctiv e ly
E
’
1
.
, y 7 9
7
if w e t a k e X 5 ( 6+ i n) , n Q (E in), th e s e a re t he sa me a s

z =I t = l + 7t n
y .

N o tici n g th a t
0= t + t —
( l) ,

we m a y , if w e w i s h , r e g a rd ( f , 77, 2 , 0) a s t h e c o o r di n a t e s o f a p o i n t ,
in t h e o r i gi n a l p l a n e o f r , y , z , o bt a i n e d b y pr oj e cti n g t h e p o i n t ,
.

. q
( r , y , z , t ) , o f t h e u a dric , fr o m t h e p o i n t ( 0, 0, 1 I ) ; thi s is a
p oi n t o f t he q
u a d r ic , b e i n g o n e o f t h e p o i n t s in w hich it is m e t b
y
t h e li n e giv e n b y t h e t w o e u a ti o n s 1 0, y 0 It is cl e a r th a t , q .
'
: .

w hil e a n a i r ( 5, 77) giv e s ri s e o n l t o one o i nt th i o int,

yp y p s
p
be ing the s a me a s “
a , giv e s r i s e , c o n v e rs e l , b es id e
y , y
( f , n) , t o t h e p a ir
fi t

— g

H
 D ed u ct i on R iem a n n s geom etr y
’
o f 1 99

which a r e 5 ’
7 7 I n t er p re ti n g ( E 7 2 )
7 7
'

, 7 ,

a s r e ct a n g u l a r c o o r di n a t e s s o th a t t h e e q u a ti o n 5 4 re p res e n t s 2 2
7 , 7

a ci r cl e w h e n ( E 7) is withi n thi s ci r cl e th e n ( S
, ,
7 is with o u t it ,
’

, ,

b e i n g s u ch th a t f a n d ( E 7) a re i n v e r s e p o i n ts in r e g a rd
’
, ,
7

t o thi s ci r cl e ( s ee pp 67 1 09 a b o v e ) W hil e th e r e fo re t h e c o m
.
, , .
, ,

p
a
l
“
.
e t e pl a n e ( E 7) c o r r es p o n d s t o a l l t h e p o i n t s o f t h e q u a dric

y z
“ 2
t t h e c o m le te
p
,
2
p l,
a ne (x
7

y z ) is r e p r e s e n t e d b
y re , ,

s t r ic t in o u r s e lv e s f o r e x a m p l e t o t h e i n t e r i o r o f t h e ci r cl e 5 + 7 4 2 2
g 7 :
:
, ,

( t o g e th e r with sa
y t h e p o i n t s o f t h e ci r c u mfe re n c e o f thi s ci r cl e f o r
, ,

w hich 7 is os itiv e )
p 7 .

With th es e fo r m u l a e a n y li n e o f t h e o r igi n a l p l a n e with t h e , ,

e q u ti o n a m vy wz
u 0 b e c o m e s in t e r m s o f E a n d 7 t h e l o c u s, , 7 ,

re p res e n t e d b y t he e q u a ti on

which if ( f 7 2 ) b e c o o r di n a t e s r e p r e s en ts a circle c u tti n g a t r ight

, ,
7 , ,

a n gl e s t h e fi x e d ( im a gi n a r ) circl e w h o s e e q u a ti o n is 1 (5 + 7 ) 0
2 2
y 7 .

A n y s u ch circl e m e e ts t h e r ea l ci r cl e giv e n b y t h e e q u a ti on
a t t h e e n d s o f a di a m e t e r o f thi s a n d is n e ga tiv e l
5 4 0
2 2
7 7 s
y , , ,

s e lf i n v e r s e in r e g a r d t o thi s ci r cl e
-
T w o s u ch ci r cl e s h a v e t w o .

i n t er s e cti on s o f w hich o n ly o n e I s 1 n t e r io r t o t he circl e

—4 = o n .

Fu rth e r if y z ) be a n
, y o th e r
p o i n t o f t h e o rigi n a l
’

,
'

p l a ne ,

a n d w e i n tr o d u c e c o rr e s p o n di n g s y mb o l s a nd N t he , ,

i n t rv a l 9 be tw e en t h e p o i n t s (x y z ) a n d ( x y
“ re l tiv e ly t o ’ '

e , , , , , ,
a

c
t he o n ic at
”
y z 0 which a s w e h a v e s e e n is giv e n b
2
y , , ,
’ ' ’
wx yy zz
’
tt
is e q lly ch th t
ua su a

(K
’
0( l7 , m
Mb ) ( 1 xm
’
<1
a s w e a t on e c v e rify . In ter ms of f 7 an
, 7
d f
’

,
thi s le a ds to
’
s n i 5 9 D /P P ,

wh e re
P 2
1 n ew o
f
) . P
'
2 =1 +i <e on) .

If p po s e X X f p t o b e b o th s m a ll a n d re p l a c e 9 b y d s
w e su , u
,
.
,

w e th e n c e o bt a i n f or t he d e t e r mi n a ti o n o f t h e i n t erv a l b etw e en t h e
,

p o i n ts ( E 7) a nd ( f d f 7 d 7) t h e fo rm [A dd ]
, 7 ,
7 7 , .

df ’
d i7 2

"
[ 1 t (E 8
’ 2 2
77

T hi s m a y, of c ou r s e , be o bt a i n e d dir ctly f m e ro t he v l a u e of ds f or
2
5200 C h ap ter V

t he i n te rva l b etw e en t he p i t (a
o n s
'

, y, z ) ( a: dx , y dy , z + dz ) ;
thi s l a tte r is fo u n d a t on e c to be

(y dz dp ) ( z dx dz ) ( dy
2 2 ’
s r
. a

)
2 2 2
z
y
da 2
'
dy 2
da 2
dt 2

z
t
’

The v a l u e o bt a i n e d f or d s , in t e rm s o f f , 77, is p re ci s e ly th a t fo u n d
by R i e m a nn ( loc c it p 2 64 ) f o r t h e e l e m e n t o f l e n gth a pp r o p r i a t e
. . .

t o a m a n ifo ld n es s which , in h is s e n s e , is o f c o n s t a n t c u rv a t u r e , giv e n

b y t h e a b s o l u t e c o o r di n a t es f , 77 H is r e s u lt is f o r a m e t r ic a l m a n i
.

f o ld n es s o f a ny n u mb e r , n , o f a b s o l u t e c o o rdi n a t e s B u t it m a y b e .
-

s h e w n , r e v e r s i n g t h e pr o c e d u r e h e r e fo ll o w e d , th a t a n s u ch m a n i
y
f o l d n es s is in c or r e s p o n de n c e with a m a n ifo ld n e s s t o which ( n 1)
h o mogen eou s c o o rdi n a t e s a r e a pp rop r i a te ; a n d th a t h is m ea s u re o f
l e ngth is th en o bt a i n e d b y c on s ide ri n g t h e i n te r va l b e twe en t w o
o i n t s with r e s p e ct t o a n e n v e l o i n g c o n e o f thi s , a s in t h e p r e c e di n g
p p
w o rk , wh e re w ?
y
2
z
2
0 i s t he e u a ti o n o f t h e c o n e fo rm e d b
y q
th e li n es dra w n fr o m ( 0, 0, 0, 1 ) t o t o u ch t h e u a d r ic w ?
y
2
2
2
t q
T h e i n t e r m e di a t e p a r a m e t e r s 7x, ,u , which a r e c o n ve n i e n t , b u t n o t .

n e c es s a r , a r e n o t a v a il a bl e in t h e g e n er a l c a s e
y .

If in t he fo r m u l a f or s in %9, in t e rm s o f )t , ,u , N , pf , w e r e
2
.

pla c e u , res p e cti ve ly , by uf , K , a n d m a k e t h e c o r r es p o n d

,
l fl
,

in g r e pl a c e m e n t s f or R , t h e fo rm r e m a i n s t h e s a m e T hi s
’
.

‘1
a ls o h a pp en s in t h e cha nge s by whi c h 7x a n d u b e co m e ,

( AX a nd Cn wh er e i n A , B, C, D
a r e a rbitra r c on s ta n ts T hi s l a s t ch a n g e c o rr es o n d s t o a li n ea r
y .
p
tra n s for m a ti on o f t h e c o o r di n a tes x , y , 2: which is s u ch th a t t h e
c o n ic $ + y + 2 0 re m a i n s u n ch a nge d ( S e e p
2 z 2

ch a nge , in t e r m s o f g , 77, is o f t h e fo r m f ‘ ’
T he fo r m e r

which ha s bee n n o tice d a b o v e T h e e x p res s i o n

. .

'

f or S im is th u s u n a lt e r e d b y a t r a n s fo r m a ti o n o bt a i n e d b y c o m
bi n i n g th es e t w o t r a n s fo r m a ti o n s .

Fu r th e r it is e a s y t o c o m p u t e th a t if
, ,
we m e a s u re t he an gl e
b e tw e e n t w o circl e s o f e q u a ti o n s,

u é + vn + w [ I
by t a ki n g t h e t a n ge n t s a t o n e o f th e i r c o mm o n p o i nt s ( 5 with , 0,

r e s p e ct t o t h e t w o li n es wh o s e e q u a ti o n s a r e 5 5 i i ( 7 7) 0 0 7 7 0 ,

a s ex pl a i n e d a b o v e th e n thi s a n gl e b e t w ee n t h e circl es is e q u a l t o
,

t he a n g u l a r i n t e r v a l b e tw ee n t h e li n es o f t h e p l a n e ( r y which , .
, ,

c o r r es p on d t o th es e ci r cl es thi s l a s t i nte r v a l b e i n g ta k e n re l a tive ly

,

t o t h e c o n ic x y
2
0 T h
2
a t thi s m u s t b e s o is o bvi o u s
.

geo m e tr ic a lly a s in t he pre c e di ng s e cti o n

, .
2 02 Ch ap ter V

o rigi n a l pl a n e which m e e t o n th e a b s o l u te c o n ic a n d ma y th e re fo re , , ,

b e s a id t o b e p a ra ll e l It is e a s y t o s e e th a t thr o u gh a n a rbitra r y
.
,

o i n t o f t h e pl a n e ( 5 7 f o r which 7 is p o s itiv e th e re ca n b e
pr a wn t w o ci r cl es w ith ce n tre s o n t h e li ne 7 0 ea ch of which
, , 7 , 7 ,

, 7 ,

s h a ll t ou ch ( o n 7 0) a giv e n circl e wh o s e c e n tr e is o n 7
7 0 7 .

P a r tic u l a r ( d e g e n e ra t e ) cir l e s o f t h e s y s t e m a r e t h e li n es o f e q u a
c ,

ti o n s o f t he fo rm f c o n s ta n t which a r e a t r ight a n gl e s t o t he li n e ,

77 0 ; th es e c o rres p o n d t o t h e li n e s o f t h e o rigi n a l p l a n e which

m ee t a t t h e p o i n t ( 0 1 1 ) o f t he c o n ic z
, ,
w y 0 It i s ea s
y
? ? 2
.

t o c o mp u t e th a t t h e a n gl e b e t w e e n a n y t w o circl es o f t h e s y s t e m ,

e s tim a t e d a s b e fo re b c o n s id e ri n g t h e t a n g e n t s a t t h e i n t e rs e cti o n
y ,

o f t h e circl e s w it h r e s p e ct t o t h e t w o li n e s
,
‘
f
is e q l
ua gu l a r i n t e rv a l b e tw e en t h e li n es o f t he o rigin a l
t o th e an

pl a n e which th ey re pres e n t e s tim a t e d with r es p e ct t o t he c o n ic ,

0 F or t h e c a s e o f thi s c o n ic i n s t e a d o f t h e o rigi n a l
2 "? 2
s a
y .
,

i n t e rva l 9 b e tw e en t w o p o i n t s w e i n tro du c e d a n i n t e rv a l s u ch
, , , 0
'

th a t 9 i It ca n b e s h e wn tha t f o r t he pl a n e ( 35 7
“
d . thi s is , ,
7 ,

s u ch th a t

(M
' '

(N x) u) (E t) ( 77 70
’
2 2

’ ’
0 »
n) ( N u ) 477
b e o mi n g i n fi n ite wh en o n e o f t he p o i n ts
c is on 77 0 . Wh e n
5 f
’
d ’
g 7 7 d
’

7 thi
,
s giv e s
7
’

[ A d d7
] 7 , .

(d ? d o f" i’

7,
i

an d , hy th e o rdi n a ry m e th o d s o f t h e Ca lc u l u s o f Va ri a ti o n s it w ill b e ,

fo u n d th a t t he c u rv e f or which t h e i n t egra l
l (al t ( MV/ 7
2
7 ,

t a k e n b e tw een t w o fi x e d p o i n t s h a s a s t a ti o n a r y v a l u e is t he ci r cl e , ,

thr o u gh th es e po i n t s wh o s e c e n tre is o n t h e li n e 7 0 We ca n 7 .

i n t e rp r e t t h e i n t e rva l b e t w ee n t w o p o i n t s P P by dra wi ng ,
’

, ,

thr o u gh the s e t h e circl e wh o s e c e n tre is o n 7 0 a n d c o n s id e ri n g

, 7 ,

t h e p o i n t s P P with r e s p e ct t o t h e t w o p o i n t s s a y M a n d N in
’

, , ,

w hich thi s ci r cl e m e e t s t h e li n e 7 0 F o r t h e p e n cil which th e s e 7 .

fo u r p o i n ts s u bt e n d a t a ny p o i n t o f t h e circl e w e th e n h a v e s u p ,

p os i n g tha t N P P M a r e in o r d er u p o n t h e p o r ti o n o f t he ci r cl e
, ,
’

c o n s id e r e d f o r which 7 is p o s iti v e t h e e q u a ti on ( p 1 66)

, 7 , .

( P P ; M N ) ,
’
,

T h e c u rve c a ll e d b y L o b a ts ch e w s ky a ci r cl e o f c e n tre ( x y
' ’
, , , ,

wh o s e e q u a ti o n is ( a b o v e p 1 82 )
—
, .

xx —
' '

)
2 9
yy
'
-
a

w h e r e 7x is s u pp o s e d r e a l a n d p o s iti v e is re p r e s en t ed in t h e a rt o f
p , ,
 Wh en m in ima l lin es a re c ir cles 2 03

the (f ,
77, 2) p la n e f or which 77 is p o s itiv e , b y t he circl e wh os e
e q tiua on is
—n
thi s circl e ha s it s c e n t r e f 7 X It t o u ch es li n e
7” ’
a t g , 7 . t he 77 0
a n d b e c o m es a h o r o cyc l e if 0 th a t i if
'
77 s,
,
’ ' ’

(x ) l ie 0
? ?
on
y , ,
z a)
y .

By m ea n s o f a n y t w o p o i n t Q a re gi o n s P , ,

is d e fi n e d b o u n d e d b y t h e li n e s thr o u gh P Q
, ,

w ith e q u a ti o n s o f t h e fo r m 5 co n s ta nt a nd ,

by t h e ci r cl e th r o u gh P Q wh o s e c e n t r e is o n ,

77 0 b u t l y i n g e n ti r e ly o u t s id e thi s ci r cl e
, .

If 9 4) b e t he a n gl e s b e tw e en thi s circle a n d t he t w o li n es s p o k en
,

o f r es e ctiv e l a t P a nd Q thi s b e i n g m e a s u r e d in t h e E u clid e a n

, p y ,

wa
y y b ,m e a n s o f li n es 5 5 i i ( 7 7‘ ) 0 it is e a s y t o s h e w if 0 7 7 0 , ,

9 <1) b e p os itiv e th a t t he i n t e gra l ff n d f d n e x t e n d e d o v e r thi s

,
z
,

regi o n h a s t h e v a l u e 9
,

S u pp o s e n o w th a t w e h a v e
th re e circl e s with c e n tr e s o n ,

77 0 wh os e i n t e rs e cti o n s in
,

pa i r s a r e A B C A ny t w o o f , ,
.

the s e p o i n t s s a y A a n d B d e , ,

t e rmi n e s u ch a regi o n a s w e
h a v e j u s t c on s id e re d which w e ,

m a y d e n o t e m o m e n t a rily b y ( A B ) T h e p o i n t s A B C d e t ermi n e , .
, ,

a t r i a n gl e wh e r e o f t h e j o i n s a r e a rc s o f th e s e ci r cl e s ; a n d t o limit
, ,

o u r s e lv e s t o o n e c a s e thi s tri a n gl e m a b e su o s e d t o b e o bt a i n e d
y , pp
b y t he a dditi on o f t h e t w o r e gi o n s ( B C ) a n d ( C A ) a n d t he s u b s e , ,

q u en t s u btra cti on o f t he regi o n ( B A) With a pp r o p ri a te‘a n gle s , .

9 , d ( p e x lra i n e d b y t h e a n n e x e d di g r a m ) t h e i n t e gr a l ff 7 d f d 7 a ,
7
2
7 ,

t a k e n o v er t he tri a ngl e is th en e q u a l t o ,

[ 9 — P] \

which is 7r —A —B C whe re A B C a r e t h e m ea s u re s o f t h e , , ,

We h a ve a b o v e ( p
‘
a n gl es o f t h e tri a n gl e . giv e n a pro of th a t , .

thi s e x p r e s s i on is n e c es s a rily p o s itiv e ‘ .

T h e fo r m s f or a y z in t e r m s o f g 7 '

, , , 7 ,

s u gge s t u tti n g X z th a t w e
p , r /z Y y/ .
, ,

c on s ide r t h e tra n s fo r m a ti on
X = f [1
= 1
Y [ [1
-
1
;

it fo u n d th a t th e n t h e a b o v e i n t egra l
is , , ,

j) 7 7 b e c o m es
ff a — X 1 V ? d X d Y ? 7 2 “
.

T hu s w e i n fe r th a t if in t h e o rigi n a l pl a n e ( x , , y , t he p o int
2 04 C h ap ter V

( 0, 1 , 1 ) be T, d P , Q b e t w o p o i n t s o f a ny li n e , i n t e r i o r t o t h e
an

a b s o l u t e c o n ic , s o th a t T P Q is a tri a n gl e f o r which t he a n g u l a r
i n te r v a l b e twe en TP a n d TQ is z e r o , th en thi s i n te gra l , ex t e n d e d
q
o v e r t h e tri a n gl e T P Q , is e u a l t o t h e di ff e r e n c e o f t h e a n g u l a r

i n t e rva l s b e twee n P Q a n d , r e s p e ctiv e ly , P T a n d Q T .

C om p a r is o n of th e tw di s ti n cti on
o c a s es c on s id e r e d . T he
be t w e en t h e t w o c a s e s c o n s id er e d a b o v e o f a n im a gi n a r y c o nic o f ,

r e f e 1 e n ce a n d a r ea l c o n ic h a s a r i s e n b r e s e cti n g t h e di s ti n cti o n
, y p ,

b e tw een re a l a n d 1 m a g in a ry p o i n t s If in t h e fo r m e r ca s e w e u t
—it a nd in t h e l a tte r ca s e p u t s —is a s w ell a s 7t p in p
.
, ,
’ ’
15
1 , , , l , , .

p l a c e o f 7x t h e fo rm u l a e a r e
, ,u. ,

) z =1 t1
y u ,

—N p
,

'

y
z l , t

an d t he e q tiua on s t he q ua dr ic
f a c e , in th e s e t w o c a s e s , a r e
of su1
2
x +
y
2
+
z
z + t
2
= 0 a nd w +
2
y
2
+
2
21 + t 2 =
0, r e s p e ctiv e l
y If we .

n o w r e pl a c e t, , r e s p e ctiv e l y , b y z a n d t, t he c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e
fo r m u l a e l ea d s to
1 7x 1 u.
7
1 h 1 u
,

C o rr es p o n di n g t o t he tw en ty fo u r o rd e r s in which t he fo u r c o -

o rdi n a t e s x , e t a k e n , th e r e fo ll o w tw e n t
y z , t ma
y b y fou r s u ch
-
,

wa ys in which w e m a y re pl a c e w , y , z , t b y fu n cti on s o f t w o
p a r a m e t e rs 7x, s o a s t o s a ti s f , id e n tic a ll , t h e e u a ti o n o f t h e
y y q
q u a dric s u r fa c e T h es e tw e n ty fou r s e t s o f fo rm u l a e ca n a l l be
.
-

o bt a i n e d fr o m a n o n e o f th e m b r e l a ci n g K a n d u b pr op e r
y y p y .

X
,

li n ea r ( fra cti on a l ) fu n cti o n s , r es p e ctiv e ly o f 7x a n d u , or o f ,u a n d ,

.

It is n o t di ffic u lt t o s ee th a t th e s e tw e n ty fo u r p a irs o f r epl a ce -

m e n ts a r e c o mbi n a ti o n s o f t he three p a i r s
M = “ N = ifl a l b
’ '

( ) i 7x ;
I
a 7V , > 9 lb ;
-

-1
( V) ,

f or i n s ta n c e t h e re p l a c e m e n t a b o v e 1 s o bt a i n e d b
y fir s t c a rr i n g
y
ou t 7 th en B a n d th en a N egl e cti n g t he di s ti n cti o n b e twe e n 1 e a l
—
.
, ,

a n d i m a gi n a r w e th u s h a v e b u tti n g 7x
’
y , yp % ( f i 7) , f
i é in)
: 7 , 7y ,

tw e n ty fo u r s u ch 1 ep 1 e s en t a t io n s o f t h e o rigi n a l pla n e ( a y s ) u p on
-
’
, , ,

a pl a n e 7) 7

E xa m p l e s t h e p r e c e d i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n s E r 1 D el a m br e s
of . . .

f or mu la e i n s her ica l t r i o n ometr y

p g L et the a so u e on ,
w .we b l t c ic hich
pp o s e t o b e a n im a gi n a r y c o n ic wh e n
su ,
r e fe 1 r e d t o thre e r e al p o i n t s

X Y Z h a v e t h e e q u a ti o n
, , ,

+ 2f y s 0,
"
ax

con ta i n i n g s ix t e rm s of which t he c o effici en t s a j ; a re rea l

o f be —
, ,
, , .

No o n e of a , b, c is r
ze o , a n d 11 0 o n e f ca g
2
,
z
, a b h 2
, f or
2 06 C h ap ter V

F or i n s t a nc e wh en, 6 a 1, we h

a nd s i mil a rly in t h e o th e r c a s es .

Ex 2 N a p ier s a n a log ies L e t A , B, C b e

tri a n gl e in which
’
. . . a ,

c onj u ga te li n es in
AB , A C a r e ,

r e ga rd t o a n im a gi n a r y c on ic of
r e fe r en ce s o th a t t h e a n g u l a r ,

i n t e rva l B A C is 12 L e t t he p o la r 773

o f B m ee t A B A C B C r es p e c , , ,

t ive ly in Y R a n d V a n d t he , , ,

p ola r o f C m eet A C AB B C r e , , ,

s e c t i el in Z Q a n d W whil e
p y v , , ,

the s e p o l a rs m e e t in P which is ,

th u s t h e p o l e o f B C .

It ca n th en b e s h e wn th a t a s ,

a t A t h e p a i r s o f li n es m ee ti n g in
,

Y Z V W a r e in ea ch o f th es e
, , , ,

fo u r c a s es c onj u ga t e t o o n e a n o th e r ; a n d th a t in t he p en ta g on
, ,

P R CB Q ea ch v e rt ex is t h e p o l e o f t h e Op p o s it e s id e
,
.

E a ch o f t h e fo u r t r i a n gl es CR V B Q W P Q Y P RZ h a s it s , , ,

e l e m e n t s thr ee s e gm e n t s a n d thr e e a n gl es e x r es s ibl e in a s impl e

, p ,

wa i n t e rm s o f th o s e o f t h e o r igi n a l t r i a n gl e A B C Obt a in
y , , .

th es e ex pres s i ons H e n c e s h e w in p a r tic u l a r th a t t he re la ti o n

.
,

s in R V s in CR s in ( V CR ) which h o ld s f or t h e t r i a n gl e CR V ( s ee
,

a bo ve p , . i n v o lv es f or t h e tri a n gl e A B C t he rel a ti on
, ,

cos B = c os b s in C ;
s imil a rly s h e w th a t
, t he r e l a ti on s in B W s in B Q s in ( B Q W) in
v o lv es f or AB C t he r e l a ti o n
, ,

c os a = c os b c os c ;

a n d s o 0 11 .
( Jo h n N a pi e r, Mir ij ici lo
it
ar h m or u m ca n on is d es c r ip tio , E di n
g
b u rgh , 1 6 1 4 , L ib ii , Ca p i v Cf G a u s s , . . . .

Ges We r ke, iii , p

.
[ A dd ] . .

Ex 8 A p a r ticu la r tr ia ng le
. . Le t .

X , Y, Z b e a s e lf p ol a r t r i a d , o f rea l -

o i n t s , in r e ga r d t o t h e im a gi n a r
p y
c o n ic £17 +
2
y
2
+ z
2
0 L et a n
y li n e, .

P Q R , m e e t YZ , Z X , Y , res p e ctiv e ly, X

in P , Q , R , t h e li n e s Y Q , Z R m ee ti ng
in A , t h e li n e s Z R , X P in B, a n d t h e
li n es X P , Y Q in C The li n es X A, .

YB , Z C w ill th en m e e t in a p o i n t,
sa
y D If t h
. e e u a ti on o f P Q R b e q
 Sp h er ica l s u 7f ace a s fou r eq u a l tr ia ngles 207
“2 “1 ‘l
a a
'
b y c z 0, t h e c o or di n a t es o f A , B, C , D w ill r es p e ctiv e l y
be a , b, c ) , (a , b, c
) (a b
, , , c ) (a
, , b, c ) L e t d b e t he p o s itiv e
.

q ua ntity ( a b C ) i I n re ga rd t o x y z 0 t h e p o l e o f
2 2 2
.
2 2 2
,
t h e li n e X P li e s in th a t s e gm e n t Y Z w hi h d o es n o t c o n t a i n P ; t h e c

li n e thro u gh B a t a n a n gu l a r i n te rva l with t he li n e BX C eq u a l t o

,

h r, th u s c o nta ins a
p o i n t o f thi s s e gm e n t ; s o th a t t he a n g u l a r
i n ter va l b e t w een BX C a n d B AR is gr e a t e r tha n Jg S imil a rly t h r. e
a n g u l a r i n t e r v a l b e tw e e n A Y C a n d A B R is g r e a t e r th a n
fin a n d ,

th e a n g u l a r i n t erv a l b e tw ee n CX B a n d GY A is gr e a t e r th a n n
fi .

Th i s is t r u e f o r a l l p o s iti o n s o f P , Q , R in t he s e gm e n t s Y Z , Z X , Y X .

We ma y c on s id er t w o c a s es , tha t in which a , b, c a r e a l l p o s itiv e ,

a n d th a t in which a , b a r e p o s itiv e , b u t 0 is n e g a tiv e L e t t he .

a n g u l a r i n t e rv a l s r e fer r e d t o , a t A , B , C , b e d e n o t e d , r e s p e ctiv e l ,
y
by a ,
’
We th e n h a v e ( s e e a b o v e , p
‘1 “l
t h e e u a ti o n s o f
‘l ‘l
. q
X P , Y Q , Z R b e i n g , r es p e ctiv e l y , b y c z 0, c z a a 0, '

‘1 ‘l
a a b y
'
0, f o r t he c a s e in which a , b, c a r e a l l p o s itiv e ,
“
i

i 2
bc ( b ) (a )
2 2
'

2 2
a c ,

an d imil a r e x p r e s s i o ns s in a a d ( a b ) ( a c ) 5 e t c
s ,
’
2 2 i 2 2
, .

Fro m th es e w e fi n d c o s a c os ( B a n d s imil a r e q u a ti o n s
’ ’

a n d i n fe r th a t a
’ ’ ’
8 y 2 ( Cf p
,
7r . . .

T he s a m e fo ll o w s wh e n c is n e ga tiv e ; t h e v a l u e o f c o s a c os B
’ ’
s
—c f o r c
, ,

s in y a r e th e n ch a n g e d in fo r m b y t h e s u b s tit u ti o n o f
’

, .

If a B y be t he re s p e ctive i n t erv a ls B C CA AB f or t h e s egm en t

, , , , s
208 Cha p ter V

which a r e a pprop ri a t e t o a y in o rd e r
’
,
«
’
, to fo rm a tri a n gl e ,

a cc o rdi n g t o t he d e fi n iti o n a b o v e giv e n ( it fo ll o w s fro m

p .

t h e f o r m u l a e s u ch a s c o s a s in 8 s in y th a t
’ ’ ’ ’ ’
cos a f
co s 8 c o s y «

2—2
, ,
= ( c2 —a 2
,

= =
(a b ,8 (b c
2 2
c os d co s c os y
;5
while s in a 2a (b fo rm f or s in 7 b e i ng
2
c
2
) d
"
2
, a nd so on, the
20 ( a b )i d wh e n c is n e ga tiv e Of t h e ex pre s s i o n s a
2 2 2
b 2 2 2
'

0 .
, ,

b2
0 a
2
0 a b t w o a t l ea s t m u s t b e n e ga tiv e a s w e e a s ily
2
,
2 2 2
, ,

p r o v e r e m a rki n g th a t t h e s u m o f e v e r
, y t w o is n e g a tiv e ; e vid e n tl
y‘ ,

1 co s a c os B co s y is ze r o It is i n t e r es ti n g t o re m a rk a ls o
,
r .

tha t if t h e a ngu la r i n t e rva ls B OA CAB AB C b e m ea s u re d with , ,

ref eren ce t o t he t w o p o i n t s z = 0 a i iy = O t he s u m o f th es e i n terva l s ,

'

is l
a so 2 77 , a s fo ll o w s fa ct th a t t he i nt er va l Y CX is th en the

g w 1 67 pr e ce di ng )
T h e fig u r e c a n b e o bt a i n e d b
y
. t a ki ng u p o n ,

t h e q u a dric w + y + z t t he p o i n t s b c d) (a b c d)
2 2 2 2
a , , , , , , , , ,

b c d ) a nd b c d ) a n d p r oj e cti n g fr o m t he p o i n t
( a , ,
a
, , , , , ,

O 0 1 ) u on t h e l a n e X Y Z giv en b t O T h e pl a n es TA B
( 0 , , p , p y ,
.
,

TA C i n t e rs e ct in t h e li n e A TA wh e re A is ( a
’ ’
b c d ) a nd , , , , ,

a r e a t a n a n g u l a r i n t e rv a l a U p on t h e q u a dric t h e fou r tri a ngl e s

’
.
2 10 Ch ap ter V

m e e t t h e p l a n e o f t h e a b s o l u te c o n ic in r e s pe ct t o thi s c o n ic T h en
, .

w e h a v e t h e r e s u lt th a t t h e s u m ( o r di ff e r e n c e ) o f t h e a n gl e s b e
twe e n a n y ta n gen t p l a n e o f t h e c on e a nd a p a i r o f c o m p l e m en t a r y
ci r c u l a r s e cti o n s is c o n s ta n t A ga i n if 0 b e j o i n e d t o o n e o f t h e
, .
,

oi nt a irs thr o gh which p a s s t h e c o mm o n t a n g e n t s o f t h e c o n ic

u
p p
Q a n d t h e a b s o l u t e c o n ic t h e t w o j o i n i ng li n e s a r e c a ll e d a p a ir o f
,

fo ca l li n e s o f t h e c o n e If t he a n gl e b e t w e e n t w o li n es n o t lyi n g in
.
,

t he pl a n e o f t h e a b s o l u t e c o n ic b e m ea s u r e d b y t h e i n t e r v a l b e tw e e n
,

th e p o i n t s in which th e s e m e e t t h e pl a n e o f t h e a b s o l u te c o n ic ,

t a k e n with r es p e ct t o thi s w e ha v e t h e re s u lt th a t t h e a n gl es which

,

an e dg e o f t h e c o n e m k es w ith a a i r o f fo c a l li n e s h a v e a c o n s ta n t
a
y p
s u m ( o r di ff e r e n c e ) .

Ex 5 . If o n a co n ic th e re b e t a k e n r bitra rily the p o i n t s

.
,
a ,

D D 0
,
’

, ,
th e n th er e b e d e t e rmi n e d in s u cc es s i o n
P , a nd R , ,

b y m ea n s o f ( L O DD ) DD )
’ ’

1 , , 1 ( Q P 0L ) 1 , , ,

( Q
R ,C L )
'

1
’
s o th a t L,
is t h e h a r m o n ic c o nj u g a t e o f 0 0 11 t h e
,

c o n ic in r ega rd t o D a n d D a n d s o o n p r o v e th a t ( RP DD ) is
,
'

, , ,
'

eq a l to
u

E x 6 If t he t a n g e n ts a t t h e p o i n ts C D o f a c o n ic m e e t in F
. . , ,

a n d t h e t a n g en t s a t t h e o i n ts
p
A B m e e t in E pr o v e th t
, , a ,

m e a s u r e d with r e s p e ct t o thi s
c o n ic t he a ngu l a r i n t e va l s A F E
, r
,

E F B CE E F E D a r e e q u a l D e
, , .

n o ti n g thi s i n t e r va l b y a a n d ,

t h e a n g u l a r i n t er v a l b e tw e e n t he
li n es A B a n d CD by 8 pro ve , ,

th a t s in a s in 8 i 1 ,
.

E x 7 If P Q P R b e t w o ta n
. .
,

gen t s t o a c o n ic which t o u ch es
t h e a b s o l u te c o n ic in t w o p o i n ts ,

t h e i n t e rv a l s P Q P R a r e e q u a l ; a n d a r e t he s a m e a s f o r a ny o th e r
,
 E x a mp les 211

p o i n t P l y i n g o n a c on ic th r o u gh P which t o u ch es t he a bs o l u t e
,
’
,

c o n ic a t t he s m e t w o p o i n ts a s t he fo r m e r
a .

E x 8 L e t V a n d W he t w o c o n ic e a h o f which t ou ch e s t h e
. . s c

a b s o l u t e c o n ic in t w o p o i n t s n o t n e c e s s a ril y t h e s a m e a n d U b e a
, ,

c o n ic t u chi n g ea ch o f V a n d W in t w o p o i n ts ; fr o m a ny p o i n t P
o , ,

o f U l e t a ta n g e n t P Q b e d ra w n t V a n d a ta n g e n t P R b e d r a w n o ,

t o W p r o v e th a t t h e i n t e r v a l s P Q P R h a v e a c o n t a n t s u m ( o r , s

di ff e r e n ce ) a s P v a ri es o n U S h e w th a t thi s i n cl u de t h e res u lt
. s

give n in E x 4 . .

E x 9 Fro m a p o i n t P o f a c o n i f O a ta n g e n t P T is dra w n
. .
, ,
c ,

t o a c o n ic « p 0 a n d P T m eets f 0 a g i n in P
’
L et f
'

,
: a .
;

etc a nd C c (3 b e a r bit a r P r o v e th a t t h e di ff e r e n ti a l t a ken

.
, ,, 2, y 3 r .
,

a l o n g t h e c o n ic f 0 a t P w hich is e x p r e s e d b y
‘
, ,
s

d x dy d z (0 f , s ,
C
f )( ifi 1 i i s s ’
a

a
y z '

, ,

02 7

h a s t h e s a m e v a l u e a s t h e c o r r e s p on di n g di ff e r e nti a l a t P

‘
'
.

T h e c o n ic s b e i n g in g e n e r a l r e l a ti o n , t h e fo r m o f t h e i n t e g r a l
‘
s h e w s th a t th e r e is n o l os s o f g e n e r a lity in s u p p o s i n g « i 1,
2 2
f 77
g
f =a 2
§ b77
2
1 L e t F ( f ) d e n o t e wh a t
.
f b e c o m es b y p u tti n g

77 c o s e c a ( 1 { c a ) , a n d F ( E) aF /ag ; b y thi s s u b s titu ti o n w e

2 os ’

h a v e a Ba c c i Fr o m F
n/ c o s e c
2
a c o s a o s e
(5
a «
) 0, p .
(f )
i nte gra l b e co m es « i
t he d .i 2b da pJ
-
l
or

2 b d o: cos ec
h a s o p p o s it e s ig n s
'
an d a t P an d P .

S imil a r ly f o r o th e r fo rm s ( C f E x 25 , p
. . .

14 2
 N OTE I

ON C E RT A I N E LE ME NT A R Y C ONFI G U R A T I ON S , A ND
ON T H E C OM P L E TE
"
FI G U R E F OR P A P P U S T H E OR E M

T h e p r e s e n t n o t e d e a l s in a n i n c o mpl e t e w a y with c er t a i n c o n
fi g u r a t io n s which p r es e n t th e m s e lv e s n a t u r a lly , es p e ci a ll y in t h e
c o n s id e ra ti o n o f t h e c o m p le t e figu re f or P a s ca l s th e o r e m which is
’

c o n s ider e d in t h e s u cce e di n g n o t e .

1 T h e s i m p l e r D e s a r g u e s fi g u r e If A , B , C a n d A , B , C b e
’ ’ ’ ’
. .

t w o t r i a d s o f p o i n t s in p e r s p e ctiv e , fr o m a p o i n t 0 , a n d t h e li n es
B C , B C m e e t in L , whil e CA , C A m e e t in M , a n d A B , A R
' ' ’ ’ ' '

m e e t in N , th en L , M , N l ie in li n e .

R e g a rd e d a s a pl a n e fig u r e , th e re a r e h e r e , in a l l , t e n p o i n ts ,

ea ch ly i n g o n thr ee li n es a n d t en li n e s e a ch c on ta i n i n g three
, ,

o i n t s ; a n d t h e d u a l o f t h e fig u r e is o f t h e s a m e ch a ra ct e r To
p .

e x r es s t h e i n cid e n c e s it m a b e den o t e d b ( o r s im l
p y y p y
or by
R e ga r d e d as a figu re in thre e dim en s i o n s t h e figu r e is fo rm e d by
,

t h e i n t e r s e cti o n s o f fi ve p l a n e s t he t e n p o i n t b e i n g t h e i n t e rs e cti o n s
,
s

o f threes o f th e s e l a n es a n d t h e t e n li n es t h e i n t e rs e cti o n s o f tw os
p ,

o f th es e pl a n es . E a ch p o i n t n o w li e s in th r ee li n e s a n d in th r e e
p l a n es ea ch li n e c o n t a i n s th r e e p o i n t s a n d li e s in t w o pl a n es
, , a nd

e a ch pl a n e c o n t a i n s s ix o i n t s a n d fo u r li n es T h e s e i n cid e n c es w e
p .

m a y s u mm a ri s e by d en o ti n g t h e fig u re b y

T he figu re h o w e v e r t he p o i n ts b e t a k e n n e c e s a r ily li es in a three

, ,
s

fo ld s p a ce I t s d u a l in thi s s p a ce is fo r m e d by fi ve p o i n ts t he
.
, , ,
2 14 N ote I
p l a nes 1 2 4 m ee t in a li n e
’

,
t h e i n t e r s e cti o n o f thi s with

t he pl a n e 2 3 4 is a p o i n t 1 s imil a r l e pl a n es
” ”
, y t h 1 24 m e e t
in a li n e t h e i n t e rs e cti o n o f thi s w ith t h e p l a n e 2 3 4 is a
’
,

p o i nt , L e t t he p o i n ts
'

2 a nd
’
3 b e s imil a rl y d e fi n e d It .

c a n b e s h e w n th a t t h e li n es m e e t in a p o i n t 4 , .

T h u s t he t w lv e p o i n t s lie in thr e e s o n s i x t e en li n e s in t h e fo ll o wi n g
e

wa
y

an d an
y t fou r t e tra ds o f p o i n t s 1 2 3 4
w o o f t he , , , 4
'

" ”
l ,
3 4 a r e in p e rs p e ctiv e in fo ur w a y s t he c e n t r es o f p e r
,

s e c t iv e b e i n g t h e p o i n t s o f t h e o th e r t e tr a d
p .

Bes id e t he tw e lv e p o i n t s a n d t he s i x t e e n li n es t he fig u r e c o n t a i n s
, ,

twe lve pl a n es c o n s i s ti n g o f t h e s ix fr o m which w e s t a rt e d t oge the r

, ,

with t he thre e 1 4 24 34 a n d t h e th r e e

14 24 34 T he d e s c r i p ti on o f t h e c o m
l e t e fig u r e is giv e n b h d ua l
p y 1 2 4 6
, ) 1 6 ( 3 3 ) 1 2 ( 6 4 T,
e

o f thi s fig u r e is a fig u r e o f t h e s a m e ch a r a ct e r .

3 T h e fi g u r e f o r m e d f r o m t h r e e t r i a d s o f p oi n t s w h i c h
.
 Typ e o f a g en er a l confi g u r a tion 215

a re i n p e r s p e c t iv e i n p a ir s , w it h c entr es of p e r s p e c t iv e i n
T hi s fig u re , which is th a t u s e d in t h e p r o o f o f D e s a r g u e s
’
l in e .

th
‘
e o r e m f o r t w o tri a d s in o n e
p l a n e ( Vo l 1 , Fr o n ti s i e c e , a n d
p p . .

m a y b e d e s crib e d a s c o n s i s ti n g o f t w o t e t r a d s o f p o i n ts , Q , C , C , C
’ ”

a nd R , B, B , B in p e r s p e ctiv e fr o m P , t o g e th e r with t h e s ix
’

o i n t s o f i n t er s e cti o n o f t h e c o r r e s o n di n g j o i n s in th e s e t e t r a d s ,
’ p
p ”
s u ch a s Q C a n d R B , o r C C a n d B B n a m e l , t he o i nts A , A , A ,
” ’ ’ ”
y p
U, U , U which l ie in th 1 e e s i n fo u r li n e s lyi n g m a p l a l e Any i .

oi n t o f the fi u i e m a b e t a k e n , in l a c e o f P , a s s u ch a c e n t r e o f
p g y p
p e rs
p ctiv e e

T h e fig u r e m a y b e i n f o u 1 dim e n s i o n s , b u t n ot in high er d im e n
s i o ns S o co n s id e i e d it c o n t a i n s fift ee n p o i n t s , t w e n t y l in e s a n d fift e e n
.

p l a ne s , n a m el
y t h e th 1 e e
p l ’
a n e s , A B C, A B C ,
’ ’

p a s s i n g
thro u gh t he li n e P Q R , a n d th 1 ee s imil a 1 p l a n’e s th r o u gh” t he li n e
U U U c o n t a i n i n g r e s p e c tive ly , t he t 1 ia d s AA A , BB B , CC C ,
’ ’ "

t o ge th e r with n i n e o th e 1 p l a n e’ s , o f which f o 1 i n s ta n c e th er e a r e
th 1 ee th r o”u gh P , n a m e ly , P B C B C , w hich ’
c on ta i n s t h e
p oint

U P B C B C, whi c h c o n ta i n s t he p o i n t U ; a n d P B CB C , which
,
” ’ ’

c o n t a i n s t h e p o i n t U T he fig u i e a l s o c o n ta i n s s ix s p a c e s o f th r ee
.

dim e n s i o n s On e o f th e s e’ , f o”i i n s ta n c e , c o n ta i n s t h e t en p o i n t s
.

P , Q , R , A , B , C , A , B , C , U ; a n o th e r c o n t a i n s t h e t e n p o i n t s
’ ’

U , U , U , B , B , B , C , C , C , P ; t he fo rm er o f the s e c on t a i n s
” ' ’

f i i
t w o p l a n e s t 1 r 0 1 g h t h e l ir e P Q R , t h e t w o p l a n es which j o i n t h e
li n e AA U t o Q a n d R , a nd t he p l a n e P B B C C , fi ve in a l l , a n d is ,
” ' ’ ’

in fa ct , s u ch a fi g u r e a s c o n s id er e d a b o ve , in § 1 T he wh o l e d e s cr ip .

ti on o f t he i n cide n c e s o f t he figu r e is th e n giv en by t h e s ch e m e

If thi s fig u r e b e p oj e ct e d i n t o a p l a n e it b e c o m e s t he d u a l o f a
r ,

ge n e ra li s a ti o n o f t h e co m p l e te figu r e f o r P a p p u s th e o re m We ’
.

s h a ll h o w e v e r o bt a i n thi s b y t a ki n g a s e cti o n b y a pl a n e o f t h e , ,

d u a l o f thi s figu r e in fo u r dim e n s i o n s whi h will a pp ea r t o h a v e , c

gr e a t s im p licity B u t firs t w e c o n s id e r t he c o m p l e te fig u r e o f
.

P a pp u s th e o r e m
’
.

4 T h e c om p l et e fi g u r e f or P a p p u s th e or e m
. T h e p o i n ts ’
.

A B C b e i n g in li n e a n d t h e p o i n t s A B C in a n o th e r li n e
’ ' ’

, , , , ,

i n te r s e cti n g t he fo r m er the p a i rs o f li n e B C B C ; CA C A a n d
,
s
’

,
’ ’

,
’

A B A B in t e 1 s e t in th 1 e e p o i n ts ly i n g o n a li n e s a y h T hi s is
’ ’
c , .
,

P a p p u s th e o r e m r e fe 1 1 e d t o 1 V e m a y h o w e e 1 r e t a iriing t h e o d e r
. v ,
1

o f A B C ta k e A B C in s ix d iff e 1 e n t o r d e r s a n d s o o bt a i n in
’ ’
, , , , , ,

a l l s ix li n e s s u ch a s It e a ch c o n t a i n i n g th 1 e e o i nts f in t e 1 s e c t io n o
], p .

It is fo u n d h o we v e r tha t t h e th r e li n e s k c o 1 1 e s p o n d ing t o t h e
e

nie e t in a p o i n t s a
, ,

r d e rs A B C ; B C A a nd C A G
’ ’ ' ’ ’ ’ ’
o , , , , , , y ; ,

a n d t h e thre e li n e s It c o rre s p o n di ng t o t he o r de1 s A C B ;

’ ’ ’

, , , ,
216 N o te I
‘
B A C ; C B A a l s o m e e t in a p o i n t
’
,
’
,
’ ’
,
’
,
’

, sa
y G
’
. T hi s was re

m a r k e d b y S t e i n e r ( Wer ke I p p 4 5 1 , , .
, If n ow we o mit t he
li n es A B C ,
a n d t h e p o i n ts A B C , , ,
A B C
'

,
’
,
’
, a nd a dd to

th e p o i n t s t he t w o p o i n t s G a n d G w e h a v e a fig u re c o n t a i n i n g in
’

a l l tw e n ty p o i n t s e a ch b e i n g a n i n t e r s e cti o n o f three li n es
, a nd ,

c o n ta i n i n g fift ee n li n s ( t he n i n e li n e s o r igi n a lly a ri s i n g a s t h e j o i n s

e

o f A B C with A B C a n d t h e s ix li n e s If ) u p o n ch o f w hich
’ ' ’
ea
, , , , ,

l ie fo u r o f t h e p o i n t s T h e d e s c r i p ti o n o f t h e i n cid e n c e s o f t he
.

fig u r e will th e n b e 2 0 ( 3 ) 1 5 ( 4
5 . T h e fi g u r e f or m e d f r om s ix p oin t s i n f o u r d im e n s i o n s .

C o n s id r f r dim i
e in o u e n s o n s t he d u a l f t he fig u r e de s c r ib e d in § 3
o .

W e m a y co n s tru ct it b y t he d u a l p r o c ed u re t o th a t b efo re e m p l oye d ;

218 N o te I
T a k e , f or i n s t a n ce t he s p a c e A A B C B e s id e th e pl a n e A B C ’
.
, , , ,

thi s c o n ta i n s t h e th r e e p l a n e s A B C A CA A AB E a ch o f th es e ’

, ,
’
.

li e s in t w o o th e r s p a c e s bes id e A A B C n a m e ly re s p e ctiv e ly ’

, , ,

’ ’ ’
A B C, A CA , A AB
A A BB
’ ’ ’ ' ’ ’
l ie in A B CB , A CA C
A CA B
’ ’ ' ’ ’
a nd in A ECC , ,
A AB C .

We th u s h a v e b y s e cti o n with t he pl a n e a figu re s u ch a s tha t

,

o cc u rr i n g in P a p u s th e o r e m b u t in a g e n e ra li s e d fo r m
’

p T h e tw o , .

o rigi n a l t r i a d s o f p o i n t s o f P a u s th e o r e m e a ch in li n e a r e h e r e
’

pp , ,

re pl a ce d b y tri a d s o f p o i n t s which a r e n o t gen er a lly in li n e T he .

re a de r will ea s ily fi n d t h e s p e ci a li s a ti o n o f t he s ix p o i n ts s u ffici en t

t o s e c u r e th a t th e y s h a ll b e .

E x 1 If t w o s e t s e a ch o f n p o i n t s A
. .
,
a nd B in , I ,

n —l f o ld s p a c e b e in e r s p e ctiv e fr om a o i n t 0 th e r e is a n
( ) p , p , ,

u n i q u e q u a d r ic ( n 2 ) fo ld in r e g a r d t o which a n y p o i n t s a y A , ,

o f o n e s e t is t h e o le o f t he (n 2 ) f o ld c o n t a i n i n g t h e c o r r e s o n d
p , p
in g p o i n t s B o f t h e o th e r
, 2 If C b e t h e i n te rs e cti o n o f t h e .
,,

li n e s A A B B t h e p o i n t s C lie in a ( n 2 ) fo ld which is t he
, , s , ,, ,

p o l a r o f 0 in r e ga rd t o t h e q u a dr ic Fu rth e r t he fig u r e is s ym .
,

m e trica l e v e r y o n e o f t he Jz ( u 1 ) (n 2 ) p o i n ts b e i n g a c e n tre o f
,
e
~

p e rs p e ctiv e o f t w o n a d s a n d t h e p ol e o f a c o r r e s p o n di n g ( n 2 )
-
,

fo ld in re ga rd t o t h e s a m e q u a dric
,
.

E x 2 S h e w th a t t h e fig u re is o bt a i n a bl e b y p r oj e cti o n o f t h e
. .

p o i n t s o f i n te r s e cti o n o f ( n 2 ) a r bit r a r y ( n 1 ) fo lds in a s p a c e o f

n dim e n s i o n s fr o m a n a rbitra ry p o i n t T o f thi s Fu r th e r th a t
, , , .
,

(
“
n + 2 ) p o i nts P P c a n b e fo u n d in thi s n fo ld s p a c e ( in -
M , ,

so + w y s ) s u ch tha t t he —( n + 1 ) ( + 2 ) p o i n ts a r e o f s y mb o l s
1
a ,
77.

P , P (r s 1 , n , wh e re P P M a r e t h e s y mb o l s o f th e s e , ,

o i n ts
p .

Ex 3 S h e w th a t t h e fig u re is a l s o o bt a i n a bl e b y s e c t i o n with
. . ,

a (n 1 ) fo l d fro m th a t fo r m e d b y t he j o i n s ( li n es pl a n e s e t c ) o f
, , , .

n 2 a r bitr a r y p o i n t s o f a s p a c e o f n dim e n s i o n s .

E ar 4 I n E x 2 if t h e ( n
. . 1 ) fo ld s b e a
.
,
0 0 t he '

, , ,

ce n tre o f p r oj e cti o n T b e i n g s u ch th a t a a , ,
wh e re '

,
'

Za a r
0 2a
,
0 s h e w th t th er e is p o l a r ity in r e ga rd t o t he c o n e
, , ,
a

Za a r
0 o r Ea n
,
2
0 wh er e u u
, r
a r e s u ch th a t a n
,
2
, y ( n 1 ) ,, ,,

fo ld thro u gh T is S a m r 0 Fu r th e r tha t t he p o i n t a , is .
,

( h , k m m h m + _
,
wh
a e r e E a h , ( hm m ) a n d h h + r , a , , n 7

a r e a r bitra r y C o n s id e r t h e c a s e s 77
. 2 n 3 n 4 .
, .

E x 5 T he a gg r e g a t e o f t h e
p o i n t s P a n d t h e
p o i n t s
l

—
. .

P r
P i s a fig u r e
s ,
in s
p a c e o f t h e s a
,
m e ki nd a t h e o r 1 1na l
g s

figu re in [ n [ A d d ] .
 N OT E 1 1

ON T H E H E X A GR AMM U M M YS T I C UM OF P A SCA L
If w e h a ve in a pl a n e t w o t r i a ds f p o i n t s U V W a n d U V W
o , , ,
’

,
’
,
’
,

which a r e in p e rs p e ctiv e t he j o i n s UU V V WW m e e ti ng in a
,
’

,
’

p o i n t a n d t h e i n t e r s e cti o n s o f t h e
, p a i r s o f li n es V W a nd V W ,
’ '

WU a n d W U U V a n d U V b e i n g in li n e th e n t he r e m a i n i ng
’ ’
,
’ ’

i n t e r s e cti o n s o f t h e li n es V W WU U V with t he li n es V W W U
, ,
’ ’

,
’ ’
,

U V a re s ix p o i n t s which l ie 0 11 a c o n i a s w e k n w fr o m wh a t w e
’ ’
c, o

h a v e in t he t e x t c a ll e d t he c o n ve r s e o f P a s ca l s th e o r e m a n d if w e ’

t a k e th e s e s ix p o i n ts in a ny o r d er t he tr i a d f r m e d by o n e s e t o f
,
o

a lt e r n a t e j o i n s o f th es e s ix o i n t s is in e rs e ctiv e with t h e t r i d
p p p a

fo rm e d b y t he o th e r s et o f a lte r n a t e j o i n s a s w k n o w fr o m P s c a l s ,
e a
’

th e o r e m T he a x e s o f p e r s p e tive o f th e s e v a r i o u s p a i r s o f tri a ds
. c

a r e c a ll e d P a s c a l li n es ; th e a re s ix t in n u mb e r T h o in t e r s e c t
y y e
y c .

in s e t o f th e e ( o r o f fo u ) in v r i o u s w a y s a n d th es e p o i n t o f
s r r a , s

i n t e r s e cti on l ie in s e ts u p o n li n e s a s h s gr a d u a lly a p p ea r d fr o m
,
a e

t h e w o rk o f m a n y m a th e m a tici a n s S te i ne r Ki r km a n C a y l ey
, , , ,

S a lm o n Ve r o ne s e C e m o n a a n d o th e r s T h e p r o o f o f t h e p r o p e r ti es
, ,
r ,
.

in t h e p l a n e th o u gh i n t e e s ti n g is i n t ic a t e
,
r ,
It d e p en d s u p o n
r .

s u cc e s s iv e a pplic a ti o n s o f D e s a r g u es th e o r e m which w e h a v e l e a r n t
’
,

t o r e ga rd a s d e d u c e d fr o m P r op o s iti o n s o f I n cid e n c e in th r e e di
m e n s io n s ; a n d it is t h e fa ct th t a ll t he r e s u lt s which h v e e licit e d
a a

a tt e n ti o n a r e s u ch a s m a b e o bta i n e d b r oj e cti o n fr o m a fig u r e
y y p
e x i s ti n g in s u ch a s p a c e ; thi s m a n n e r o f o o f is m u ch s im l e r
p p r

th a n t he p ro o f in t h e pl a n e A p p li e d by Ca y l ey in a p a r tic u la r w a y
.

( C o l
. l P a
p er s vi , pp 1
, 2 9 — 1
. 3 4 was
pp li ed b
y C r e m ona a

t o a fig u re m o r g e n e ra l th a n P a s ca l s ( M e mo ie d r Acc d L in cei I
’
e r . . . .
, ,

T h r ee di s ti n ct p o i n t s o f Cr e m o n a s t r ea tm e n t
’
1 8 7 7 p p 8 54
, .

o f t h e fig u r e in th r e e dim e n s i o n s a r e ( a ) T h a t it d e e n d s u p o n a
p ,

c o n fig u r ti o n o f fifteen li n es ly i n g in th e e s in fift e en p la n es o f
a r ,

which th re e p a s s thr o u gh e a ch li n e ( b) T h a t thi s c o n fig u r a ti o n is

,

de d u cibl e fr o m a figu r e f s ix p l a n e fo rmi n g in C e m on a s p hra s e

o s, ,
r
”
,

t h e n o ccio lo o f t h e wh o l e ( c) T h a t wh e n t h e e q u ti o n s o f th es e
,
a

p l a ne s a r e i ntr o d u c e d o n l
y o n e o f t h e id e n tic a l r e l a ti o n s c o n n e cti n g
,

th es e c o m e s i n t o c o n s ide r a ti o n It fo ll o ws fro m t he l a s t th a t w e
.

m a y r e g a r d t he s ix l o ci a s b e i n g in a s p a c e o f fo u r dim e n s i o n s .

T hi s pro c e d u r e which R i hm o n d h a s u s e d l e a d s t o a v e r y s im p l e
,
c ,

t r e a tm en t o f t h e wh o l e m a tt e r which is t he m o r e i n te res ti n g be ca u s e
,

t he fi g u re in fo u r dim e n s i o n s is o n e which a s w e s h a ll s e e in a ,
2 20 N ote I I

su b s e q u e n t v o l u m e is o f fu n da m e n ta l im p o rta n ce C1 e m o n a 5 fig u r e
, .

o f fift e e n li n e s l y i n g b y th r e e s l n fift e e n l a n e s I s a n ex a m l e o f t h e
p p
c o r 1 e s o n d e n c e which it is o s s ibl e t o s e t u in v a r i o u s wa s )
p p p ( y
b e tw e e n a n y t w o s e ts o f fift een thi n gs ; thi s ha d b e e n c o n s ide re d b y
S y lv e s t e r i n c o n n e x i o n with t h e p r o bl e m o f n a mi n g a fu n cti o n o f
,

s ix l e tt e r s c a p a bl e o n l o f s ix v a l u e s u n d e r e r m u t a t i o n o f t h e l e tt e rs
y p
( Sy lv e s t e r C oll P a p er s I p 92
, .
,
ri
, p . 2 6 5 it is
p er , .

t in e n t a n d i n s tr u cti e f o r t h e p ro bl e m in h a n d t o c o n s id e r thi s
v .

1 11 t h e fo ll o wi n g n o t e w e h a v e ( 1 ) dea lt with thi s p r o bl e m o f a r 1 a n g e

m e n ts ( 2 ) s h e wn h o w thi s c a n b e re p re s e n te d by figu re s 1 n fo u r
, ,

thre e a n d t w o dim en s i on s ( 3 ) p o i n t e d ou t t h e p 1 o p er t i es o f t h e
,

figu r e s whi h l e a d t o t h e cla s s ica l p ro p e rti es o f t h e P a s ca l fig u e

c r ,

( ) p
4 ex l a i n e d t h e e x a ct fig u r e r e l a ti n g t o a c u bic s u rfa c e with a
,

n o de by which Cr e m o n a w a s l e d t o t h e g e n e r a li s a ti o n ( 5 ) giv e n
, ,

s o m e e x a m l e s o f t he r o o f in t h e l r o p e r ti e s o f P a s c a l s
’
a n e o f t he
p p p p
fig u r e a n d o f t he c on fig u r a ti o n s a ri s i n g fr o m s o m e s e l e ct e d p o r ti o ns
,

o f t h e fig u r e in thr ee dim e n s i o n s a n d 6) m a d e r e fe re n c e t o t he m o r e
( ,
.

im p or t a n t o rigi n a l a u th o r iti es T h e r ea de r m a y p r e fe r t o re a d ( 4 )
.

b e fo r e t h e o th e r s e cti o n s .

( 1 ) C o n s id e r s ix e l e m e n ts which w e d e n o t e a t p re s en t b y 1 2
, , , , ,

3 4 5 6
, , ,
T h e s e c a n b e a rra n ge d in th r e e p a irs f or e x a m p l e 1 2
.
, ,

3 4 5 6 wh e r e i n in e a ch p a ir t h e o r d e r o f t h e e l e m e n t s is i n di ff e re n t
, , , , ,

a n d t h e o rd e r o f t h e ai s in e a ch s u ch s e t o f th r e e p a i r s is a ls o
p r , ,

i n di ff e re n t S u ch a s e t o f th r ee p a irs i n v o lvi n g a l l t h e e l e m e n t s is
.
, ,

wh a t w a s c a lle d by Sy lv e s t e r a s y n theme e a ch o f t he pa i r s b e i n g ,

wh a t h e c a ll e d a d a d T h e t o t a l n u mb e r o f p os s ibl e d u a d s is
u .

fifte e n ; thi s is a l s o t h e t o t a l n u mbe r o f p o s s ibl e s yn t he m es It is .

p o s s ibl e t o ch o o s e a s et o f fi e s y n t he m e s which c o n t a i n in th e i r
v ,

a ggre g a t e a l l t h e fift ee n d u a d s
, S u ch a s e t o f s y n t h e m e s is c a ll e d
.

a s s te m T h e t o t a l n u mb e r o f o s s ibl e s s t e m s is s ix ; if th es e b e
y .
p y
a l l t a k e n e a ch c o n t a i n i n g fi ve s n t h e m e s v er s n th e m e will o cc u r
, y y y ,
e

twic e in di ff e r e n t s ys t e m s ; a s h a s b ee n s a id e a ch d u a d o cc u r s o n ce
, ,

in e a ch s y s t e m S u ch a n a r r a n g e m e n t w a s give n b y Sy lv es t e r ( s e e
.

b el o w ) If w e a s s ign n a m e s t o t h e s ys te m s s a y P Q R P Q R
.
, , , ,
’

,
’ '

e ch s n th e m e a s o cc u r r i n g in t w o s s t e m s will c o rr e on d t o t w o
a
y , y p , s

o f th e s e s i x l e tt e r s T h u s e v e ry o n e o f t h e fift e e n p a i 1 s which c a n
.

b e fo rm e d by t w o o f th e s s ix l e tt e rs s a y a l e tt e r d u a d will c o r
e , ,
-
,

res p o n d t o th r e e n u mb e r d u a d s ch os e n f o m t he p o s s ibl e fifte e n

-
,
r

d u a d s o f n u mb er s fo r mi n g a s y n th e m e T he c o n v er s e is a l s o t r u e ;
, .

an
y d u a d o f t h e n u mb e r s b e i n g t a k e n t h e r e m a i n i n g fo u r n u m b ei s ,

c a n b e t a k e n in a i r s in thre e w a s ; th u s a n d u a d o cc u r s in th r e e
p y y
s n t h e m e s a n d e a ch o f th e s e s y n t h e m e s e n t e r s in t w o o f t h e s y s t e m s
y , .

T h e d u a d th u s c o r r e s p o n d s t o th r e e p a i 1 s o f s y s t e m s ; 0 1 a n y o n e
o f t h e fift e e n n u mb e r d u a d s c 0 1 r e s p o n d t o th r ee l e tt 1 d u d s ch o s e n s e -
a ,

fr o m t h e p o s ibl e d u a ds o f P Q R P Q R T he1 ef o r e a s a ny
s , , ,
’

, ,
’
.
,
222 N o te II
P e rh a p s t h e i t w a y t o d es c r ib e th es e n o ta ti o n s is b y t he
ea s es

di gra m gi ve n b e l o w in
a p 2 25 or in a n o th e r fo rm in t h e .
, , ,

Fr o n t is p ie c e o f t h e v o l u m e .

N o w l e t u s c o n s id e r fo u r o f t h e s ix s y s t e m s c o n s id e re d a s t w o ,

a irs o r d e fi n it e n e s s Q R a n d Q R e s n t h e m e s c o mm o n
’ ’

p sa
y ,
f , T h y , , .

t o t h e t w o p a irs th a t is t h e s y n th e m e c o mm o n t o Q a n d R
’

, a nd ,

t h e s yn th e m e c o mm o n t o Q a n d R will n e c e s s a ril y h a v e a d u a d in
'

c o mm o n Fu r th e r thi s a ggr e ga te o f t w o l e tte r d u a d s Q R a n d

.
-
, ,
’

Q R m a y b e ide n tifi e d b y t h e c o mm o n n u mb e r d u a d o f t h e t w o
'
-
, ,

s nt hemes
y t a k e n with o n e d u a d fr o m t h e fi r s t s n th e m e
, y a n d on e ,

d u a d fro m t he s e c o n d s yn th e m e s o ch os e n a s t o h a v e o n e o f it s ,

n u mb e r s t h e s a m e a s o n e o f t h e n u mb e r s o f it s c o mp a n i o n d u a d

fr o m t h e firs t s y n th e m e I n t h e p a r tic u la r c a s e ch o s en Q a n d R .
,
'

h a ve c o mm on t h e s yn th e m e 1 3 24 5 6 whil e Q a n d B h a v e ,
’

c o mm o n t h e s yn th e m e 1 3 2 5 4 6 T h e s e s yn t h e mes h a v e t h e d u a d .

1 3 c o mm o n ; w e s a y th a t t h e c o mbi n a ti o n Q R Q R m a y b e id e n tifi e d
'

b y t h e s y mb o l 1 3 2 4 2 5 o r b y 1 3 4 2 4 6 o r b y 1 3 5 6 5 2 o r , , ,

by 6 4 A l l thi s is q u it e e a s y t o s ee F o r firs t t w o s y n t h e m e s
. . .
, ,

th a t h a v e t w o d u a d s id e n tica l a re th e m s elve s id e n tic a l ; a n d s e co n d , ,

t w o s yn th e m es th a t h a v e n o d u a d in c o mm o n b o th o cc u r in t h e
s a m e s s t e m a n d n o wh e r e e l s e a s w e h a v e r e m a r k e d T h e tw o s n
y , y , .

th e m es ch o s en t h e for m e r c o mm o n t o o n e p a i r o f s ys te m s t h e l a tte r
, ,

c o mm on t o n o th e r p a i r m u s t th er e fo r e h a v e a d u a d c o mm on U s i n g
a , .

01 8 y
, , ,
1
B y ,
t o d e n o t e t h
’
e
, n
f u mb ’
er s 1 2 6 in s o m e o r d e r l e t , , , ,

th e s e s y n th e m es b e B y y a a n d 8 y 017 Fr o m th es e w e ca n
’
f
’ ’

,
'
f
’

fo m t he s y mb o l 8 y 017 ( a s w e ll a s thr e e o th e r s ) C o n v er s e ly
’ ’
f
r , .
,

if thi s b e giv en t h e for m a ti o n o f t h e t w o s yn t h e me ha vi n g

, in s

c o mm on a n d c o n t a i n i n g r e s p e ctive ly a l s o a n d C1
7 is with o u t
, , ,

a mbig u it y ; s o th a t t h e s y mb o l id e n tifi e s t h e t w o p a irs o f s s t e m s

y
fr o m which it w a fo rm e d S u ch a s y mb ol o r a ny o n e o f t he o the r
s .
,

th r ee s y mb o l s w hich i de n tify t h e s a m e p a i r o f s y s t e m s w e s p ea k o f ,

a s d efi n i n g a T e l e m e n t Th e t o t a l n u mb er o f T e l e m e n t s is th u s
-
.
-

1 5 4 3 o r fo r ty fi ve N o w t a k e t he s ix s y s t e m s in a ny p a r tic u l a r
,
-
.

o r der sa wh e r e it is t o b e u n d e r s t o o d th a t thi s is
y , ,

c o n s ide r e d e q u iva l e n t with it s re v e r s e o rd e r a nd ma

y ,

b e n a m e d b e gi n n i n g w ith a ny o n e o f its l e tt e r s a s f o r i n s t a n c e by ,

th u s t h e t o ta l n u mb e r o f o d e r s is 2 6 o r s i x ty r , .

T h e n t a k e with e a ch p a ir o f l e tt e rs in thi s o rd e r th a t p a ir which

, ,

is n o t c o n tig u o u s with it o n e ith e r s id e ; t h u s with Q R t a k e Q R

’ '

, ,

with R P t a k e R P a n d with P Q t k e P Q F o r e a ch o f th es e thre e

' ’

,
’

a
'

s e t s o f t w o p a i r s fo rm t h e c o rr e s p o n di n g T e l e m en t It will b e fo u n d -
,
.

th a t th es e ca n b e r e pr e s e n t e d by s y mb ls o f t he re s p e ctive fo r m s o

8 y
,
’
f
’
dv y a o1
y ,
0
’
17 F o
’
r i n s t a n c e with t h e o r d e r
r
, .
,

t he t w o p a irs Q R Q R giv e a s y mb o l 1 3 6 4 6 5 t he
' ’

, ,

t w o p a irs R P R P giv e a s y mb o l 2 3 6 4 6 5 a n d t h e t w o p a i r s
' '

. .
, ,
 Gen er a l d er iva tio n f
o a P a sca l lin e 223

P Q , P Q giv e a s y mb o l 1 2 6 4 6 5 A n d th es e three s y mb o l s h a v e
’ ’
. .

in c o mm o n t h e d u a d s 6 4 6 5 , which h a v e t h e n u mb e r 6 in c o mm o n .

C o n v e r s e l y c o n s id e r t h e a gg r e ga t e o f t w o d u a d s 017 , h a vi n g t h e

n u mb e r 01 in c o mm o n ; w e s h e w tha t thi s l ea d s t o a a rtic u l a r o rd e r

p
o f t h e s mb o l s P , Q , hi s a gg r e a t e b e l o n g s t o o n l thr
’

y R T .
g y ee

s y mb o l s o f T 018 01 7, . a rya n d
1
018 my .

Of th e s e t h e firs t a ri s es by c o mbi n i ng t he t w o s y n t he m es 8 ry
’ ’
.

017 a n d th e r e is n o a mbig u it y a s t o th e s e ; f o r t h e m o m e n t

l e t th e s e s yn t he m es b e d e n o te d , r e s p e ctiv e ly , b y p a n d p
’
T he .

s mb o l y a a ri s es fr o m t h e t w o s n t h e m e s f a
’ ' ’ ’

y’ y y 018 . .

«
y a
'

017 . w hich w e d e n o t e , r es e ctiv e l , b

p y y g a nd
g a s tl y’,
’
. L
t h e s y mb o l 018 a f y a ri s e s fr o m t h e t w o s n t h e m e s
y 018 y y , .
f f

a ry 8 fy , which w e d e n o t e , re s p e ctiv e ly , b y r a n d r
’ ’
W e h a ve , .

h o we ve r, r e m a r k e d th a t t w o s yn t he m e s , which h a v e n o d u a d in
c o m m o n , d e t er m in e a p a rtic u l a r s y s t e m T h u s t h e s yn t h e m e s g a n d r ,
’
.

n a m el
y y
r
’ ’
a 018 78
’
1a nd a y d e t e r mi n e o n e o f t h e s s t e m s
f
y
P , Q, thi s s ys te m w e m a y , f o r a m o m e n t , d e n o te b y
It is e a s y t o s ee th a t t h e wh o le o f t h e s ix s y s te m s a r e thu s d eter mi n e d
b y s u c h p a irs o f t h e s ix s y n t he m e s , which w e m a y a rr a n ge in t he
o rd e r th e r e b e i n g n o o th e r a ir s o f th es e
’ ' ’ ’ ’ ’
r
pg g r r
p p g g
. . r
p , p
s n t h e m es
y which h a v e n o d u a d in c o mm o n S o a rr a n g e d , e v e r
.
y
c o n s e c u tiv e p a ir o f th e s e s y s t e m s d e t e r mi n e s , with t he p a i r w hich is
n o t c o n tig u o u s with it o n e ith er s id e , a T e l e m e n t F o r i n s ta n ce ,
-
.

if w e t a k e t he s ys te m s p
’

g , g r , t h e firs t p a ir h a v e c o mm o n
'

t h e s yn th e m e g o r y a a y t h e s e c o n d p a ir h a v e c o mm o n t h e
’ ’ ’
r .

s n th e m e a n d th es e t o g e th e r d t mi
’ ’
o r ry a 018 7 8 e e n e t he
y g 7 , r

T— e l e m en t re r e s e n te d b
’ ’

p y y a 018 yr a r .

We s ee the n th a t t h e o p e ra ti o n which w e ca r r y o u t wh e n , in
P a s ca l s fig u r e , w e fo r m t h e P a s ca l li n e f o r s ix p o i n t s P , Q ,
’
of

a c o n ic , t a k e n in a p a rtic u l a r o r d e r , c a n b e c a r r i e d o u t e x a ctl with

y
t h e s y mb o l s , t h e s y s t e m s o f s y n t h e m e s t a ki n g t h e pl a c e s o f t h e
o i n t s o f t h e c o n ic T h e j oin o f a n t w o o f t h e s ix P a s c a l o i n t s is
p .
y p
r e p la ce d b y o n e o f t he fiftee n n u mb e r s yn t he m es ; t h e i n t e r s e cti o n -

o f t w o o f th es e j o i n s is r e l a c e d b a T e l e m e n t , r e r es e n t e d b
p y p y
-

s u ch a s mb o l a s 018 01 ; a n d t h e P a s c a l li n e c o n t a i n i n g th r e e
y 7
o f th es e i n t e r s e cti o n s is r e l a c e d b a s mb o l , s u ch a s 018 a y , co n
p y y
r

s i s ti n g o f t w o d u a d s h a vi n g a n u mb e r ( 01) in c o m m o n We h a v e .

s e e n th a t a n s u ch s mb o l l e a d s b a ck t o a a rtic u l a r o rd e r o f t h e
y y p
s ix l e tt e r s P , Q , It is in a cc o r d a n ce with thi s , th a t t h e n u mb e r
’
R .

o f p o s s ibl e s mb o l s 018 m i 6 1 0 i t It i t n c e e n in t h e
y y s o r s x
y s a o .e s

P a s ca l fig u r e th a t th r o u gh t h e i n te r s e cti o n o f t w o Op p os it e s id e s o f
t h e h ex a g o n th e re p a s s fo u r P a s ca l li n es , t he t w o p a i r s Q R , Q R ,
’ ’

f o r e x a m p l e , b e i n g n o n c on tig u o u s in e a ch o f t h e fo u r h e x a go n s
-

thi s c o r res p o n ds
t o t he fa ct rem a rk e d th a t t he T e l e m en t -
018 017 is ca a bl e a l s o
p
224 N ote II
of th e p r es e n t a ti o n s
re y a 017 8y 8 y a y
’

, ,
’
f
’ ’
f

T h e t o ta l i n t e r s e cti o n s o f t h e fift e e n s id es in t h e P a s ca l h e x a g o n in ,

n u mb e r } 1 5 1 4 o r 1 05 c o n s i s t in fa ct o f t e n i n t e r s e cti o n s a t e a ch
7 ,

o f t h e s ix v e r tic e s P R t o g e th er with a n i n t e r s e cti o n a t e a ch

’

Q , ,
—
o f fo r ty fi ve T p o i n t s
-
.

( 2 ) We n o w c o n s ide r a g e o m e t r ic a l i n t e r p r e t a ti o n o f t h e r e l a ti o n s
w e h a v e d e s crib e d Fi r s t in fo u r dim e n s i o n s w e c a n s e t u p a fig u r e
.
, ,

o f fift e e n p o i n t s l y i n g in th r e e s o n fift ee n li n e s o f which th r e e p a s s ,

th r o u gh e a ch o f t he p o i n t s b egi n n i n g in v a r i o u w a ys If w e , s .

t a k e s ix ge n e r a l p o i n ts s a y F G H R S T o f which t h e s y mb l s , , , , , , , o

will b e s u bj e ct t o o n e r e l a ti on w hich w e wr ite in t h e fo r m ,

F G H R S T 0 th er e will b e fifteen p o i n t s o f s y mb o l s ,

e a ch t h e s u m o f t w o o f F G T a n d f or i n s t a n c e t h e p o i nt s , , , , ,

F + G H + R S + T will b e in li n e ; o f s u ch li n e s th e r e will b e
, ,

fifteen T hr ee o f th es e w ill p a s s th r o u gh e a ch p o i n t ; f or in s t a n ce t h e
.
,

li n e s ( F + G H + R S + T ) ( F G H + S R + T ) ( F + G
, , , , , , ,

a s s thr o u gh t h e p o i n t F G D e n o ti n g t h e s ix
p o i n ts F G T
p .
, ,

by 1 2 , 6 e a ch d u a d s u ch a s 1 2 m a y b e s u pp os e d t o r e
, , , ,

p r e s e n t o n e o f th e s e p o i n t s a n d e a ch s y n th e m e s u ch a s 1 2 3
, 4 5 6 , ,

t o r e p r es e n t o n e o f th e s e li n es Or w e m a y t a k e fo u r a r bitra y li n e s .
, r

o f g e n e r a l p o s iti o n s a y a b c d ; e v e r y thr ee o f th e s e will h a v e in

, , , , , ,

fo u r dim e n s i o n s a s i n gle tra n s v e rs a l ; l e t t he tra n s v e rs a l o f a b c

, , ,

b e d e n o t e d b y d th a t o f b c d b y a a n d s o o n t h e fo u r tra n s v e r s a l s
'
’

, , , , ,

be i n g a b c d It is th e n e a s y t o s h e w th a t t he li n e s a y n j o i n i n g
’

,
'

,
’

,
’

.
, ,

t h e p o i n ts ( a i t r s e ct s t h e li n e s a r j o i n i n g t he o i n ts
’

( a b ) n ,
e ,y p , ,

e li n e j o i n i n g t h e o i nts
h (
’

( 0 ,
so t , p 0 ( a ) say m
c , , , ,

m e e t s t h e li n e j o i n i n g t h e p o i n t s ( b ( b d ) s a y g a n d lik e w i s e ,
’

, ,

t h e li n e j o i n i n g t h e p o i n t s ( b m e e ts t h e li n e j o i n i n g
’

( b sa
y I , , ,

the p oi n ts ( a n d fu th e r th a t th e s e th r e e
’

( a d ) sa
, y p A , , . r

p o i n ts o f i n te r s e cti o n a r e in a li n e s a y e S ix fu n da m e n t l p o i n ts , . a

F G , ,
T fro m which th e s e s t a t e m en t s ca n b e j u s tifi e d a r e o bta i n e d
.
, , ,

b y r e g a r di n g t h e p o i n t s ( b c ) ( c a ) ( a b) ( b
’ ’ ’ ’

(c (a b ) a s , , , , , , , , ,

b e i n g r e s p e ctiv e ly t h e p o i n t s 2 3 3 1 1 2 5 6 64 4 5 T h es e s ix p o i n ts
, , , , , , , .

m a y in fa ct b e t a k e n a r bitra rily t o o bta i n s u ch a figu r e ; d e n o ti n g

th e m re s p e ctiv e ly b y A B C A B C t h e s ix c o n s e u tive j o i n s
, , , ,
’

,
’

,
’

, c

o f t h e h ex a g o n B C A B CA a r e t h e li n e s a b c a b c ; t h e li n es
’ ' ’ ’ ’
, , , , ,

d d a r e th e n r es p e ctiv e l y t h e c o mm o n t r a n s v e r s a l s o f a b c a n d
’ ’ ’ ’

, , , , , ,

o f a b c a n d t h e fig u r e ca n b e
, , ,
o m l e te d
p T h e fu n d a m e n t a l
p o i n ts c .

a r e th e n F 7 ( B C A ) R g ( B C e t c T h e v a ri ou s
,
.
’ ’
.

re l a ti on s a n d n o ta ti on s a r e r ep r es e n t e d b y t h e di a gra m a n n ex e d ;
t h e fu n d a m en t a l imp o rta n c e o f t h e fig u r e j u s tifi es thi s l e n gthy
d e s cr i p ti o n We s h a ll f o r cl ea r n es s d en o te thi s figu re by Q It
. .

de p en d s 0 11 twe n ty fo u r c o n s ta n t s We d o n o t n o w c o n s id e r t he
-
.

d u a lly c o rr e s p on di n g figu r e in fo u r dim e n s i o n s We c on s ide r h o w .

e v e r t h e fig u r e o bt a i n e d b y p r oj e cti n g t h e fig u r e Q i n t o s p a c e of
2 26 N o te [ I
‘
Q o f BD
’
an d B D,
’
a re in li n e
figu re d e p en ds o n fifte e n c on . T hi s
s ta n t s ; s o th a t th e r e a r e 00 o s s ibl e fig u r es wh e n t h e s ix fu n d a m e n t a l
2
p
o i n t s fr o m which it ca n b e c o n s tr u ct e d a r e giv e n
p , , .

T h e c o rr e s p o n d e n c e b e tw ee n t he fig u r e s a n d t h e P a s ca l c o n fi g u r a
ti o n ca n n o w b e d e s cr ibe d p re ci s e ly a s in t h e p r e c e di n g s e cti on If , .

w e t a k e a p a rtic u l a r o rd e r o f t h e s s t e m s sa a nd
y y ,

c o n s ide r e ith e r t he figu r e Q o r t h e fig u re S it is cl ea r th a t t he , ,

li n e s Q R QR o r m a n d c a r e th o s e which j o i n t h e p o i n t s 64 65
'

,
’
,
’
, ,

t o t h e p o i n t 1 3 t he li n e s R P R P or Z a n d c a r e th o s e which j o i n
’ '

, , , ,

t h e p o i n t s 6 5 64 t o t h e p o i n t 2 3 a n d t h e li n e s P Q P Q
’ ’

, or , , ,

a n d b a r e th o s e which j o i n t h e p o i n t s 6 4 65 t o t he p o i n t 1 2
'

a , , .

T h u s w e h a v e th r e e T p l a n e s p a s s i n g th r o u gh t he li n e 6 4 6 5 I n
-
.

t he fig u re S d u a ll y c o rr es p o n di n g t o S w e h a v e c o rr e s p o n di n gl y
’
, ,

th r e e T p o i n t s lyi n g o n a li n e P r oj e cti o n o f S i n t o t h e fig u re
-
.
’
73

giv es th e n th r e e T p o i n ts lyi n g o n a li n e a s in t he P a s cal con fig ur a

-
,

ti o n M ore p a rtic u la rly e a ch o f t h e s ys t e m s P Q

.
, con s i ts o f ,
’

, s

fi ve li n e s b o th in t h e fig u r e S a n d t he figu r e S t h e s ys te m s Q R
’ ’

, ,

h a v e a d e fi n it e li n e in c o mm o n a s a l s o h a v e t he s y s t e m s Q R I n ,
’

, .

o rd e r t o pr oj e ct S i n to w e m u s t t a k e a d e fi n it e c e n tr e o f
’
67,
p j r o ec

ti on s a y 0 ; fro m thi s a t r a n s ve r s a l ca n b e dra w n t o th e s e t w o

, ,

li n e s QR a n d Q R ; it is t h e i n t e rs e cti on o f thi s w ith t h e p l a n e o f m

’ ’

which giv es t h e T po i n t T he c o n s e cu tive li n e s o bt a i n e d b y t h e

-
.

p jr o e c t io n s o f t h e li n es P Q Q R R P P Q Q R R P
'

o n t o th e
, p
’
l a ne ,
'

,
’

,
’

,
’

of s imil a r l giv e s ix li n e s fo rmi n g a h exa g o n ; t he thr ee o i n ts o f

y p
f
ar ,

i n t e r s e cti on o f t h e p a irs o f o p p os it e s id es o f thi s l ie o n a li n e T he .

v e rtic es o f t he h e x a g o n in t he pl a n e o f w th e r e fo r e lie o n a c on ic .

I f w e t a k e a n o th e r o r d er o f t he s y s t e m s f o r i n s t a n ce , ,

a nd r oj e ct fr o m t h e s a m e oi n t 0 w e o bt a i n a n o th e r h ex a g o n
p p , ,

w h o s e v e rtic es l ie o n a co n ic with it s P a s c a l li n e T hi s h ex a go n
, .

will n o t c o i n cid e with t h e fo r m er ; in t h e p a rtic u l a r i n s ta n ce w e ,

s h a ll h a v e i n s t ea d o f t h e v e rt e x o bt a i n e d b y t h e i n t e r s e cti o n o f t h e
,

li n es which a r e t h e p r oj e cti o n s o f R P a n d P Q t he v e r te x o bta i n e d ' ’

b y t h e p r oj e cti o n s o f t h e li n e s RP a n d P R ; a n d s o o n
’ ’ ’
As w e .

s h e w in s e cti o n ( 4 ) b e l o w it is h o w e v e r p o s s ibl e s o t o s p e ci a li s e t h e
,

fig u re a s t o o bta i n a l w a ys t h e s a m e c o n ic in t h e p l a n e at .

D a li n g n o w w ith t h e fig u r e Q or S w e h a v e t h e fift ee n p o i n t s
( )
3 e , ,

s u ch a s 1 2 which w e ma y c a ll t h e C r e m on a p o i n ts ; w e a l s o h a ve
,

th e fifte e n li n e s e a ch c o n t a i n i n g th r e e o f th e s e p o i n t s wh os e s y mb o l s
,

fo r m a s yn th e m e s u ch a s 1 2 3 4 5 6 A n y t w o o f t h e C r e m o n a
, .

o i n t s wh o s e s y mb o l s h a v e a n u mb e r in c o mm o n m y be j o i n e d b y a
p
a li n e ; f o r i n s t a n c e t h e li n e j o i n i n g t h e p o i n t s 1 2 a n d 1 3 is s u ch a

li n e T h e s e li n es w e ca ll t he P a s c a l li n e s ; th e i r n u mbe r is s i x ty
. .

A p l a n e c o n t a i n i n g th r e e Cr e m o n a p o i n t s w h o s e d u a d s y mb o l s a r e
fo r m e d with fi e o f t h e s ix n u mb e r s a s f or i n s t a n ce t he p l a n e
v ,

2 3 6 4 6 5 is c a ll e d a T pl a n e ; it c o n t a i n s fo u r P a s ca l li n es ( 64 65 ;
,
-
.
 E n u n c ia tion a nd p r oo f of th e i n id en c ces 22 7

46 41 ; 56 51 ; th r e e s u ch p l a n e s p a s s throu gh
14 an d
P a s c a l li n e I n a ll th er e a r e fo r t fi e s u ch l T h r
a n
y y a ne s v
-
e
.

p e a re .

h o w e v e r a l s o s e t s o f fo u r P a s ca l li n es which m e e t in a p o i n t F o r .

i n s t a n ce t h e p o i n ts 6 4 6 1 a r e th o s e which in te rm s o f t he s ix
, ,

fu n da m en t a l p o i n t s F G H R S T h a v e t h e s y mb ol s T R T F
, , , , , , , .

T he lin e j o i n i n g th es e c o n t a i n s t h e p o i n t R F ; thi s w e d e n o te by
E vid e n tl y th e r e a r e fift e e n s u ch p o i n t s which w e ca ll P l uck e r ,

p o i n t s ; a n d f o r i n s ta n c e th r o u gh t he p o i n t
, , th e r e p a s s t h e
fo u r P a ca l li n e 2 1 24 3 1 3 4 5 1 5 4 a n d 61 64 T he P l uck e r
s s , , .

p o i n t s lie in thre es u p o n tw e n ty li n es ; f o r i n s ta n c e t h e p o i n t s
wh os e s y mb ol s a r e r e s p e ctiv e ly G —H H —F F G , , , ,
-
,

l ie u p o n a li n e S u ch a li n e is c a ll e d a g li n e o r a C a y l e y S a lm o n
.
-
,
-

li n e T he P l ck er p o i n t s a l s o l ie in s i x es u p o n fiftee n p l a n e s F o r
. u .

i n s t a n c e t he p o i n t s [3 4 ]l ie o n a p l a n e .

S u ch a p l a n e is c a ll e d a n I p l a n e o r a S a lm o n p l n e -
T he P a s ca l, a .

li n e s l ie in thr ee s in p l a n es in t w o di s ti n ct w a ys A p l a n e c o n t a i n i n g
, .

thre e Cre m on a p o i n t s wh o s e d u a d s y mb ol s c on t a i n on ly thr ee o f

t he n u m b e r s f or i n s t a n c e t h e p l a n e o f t h e p o i n ts 2 3 3 1 1 2
, , , ,

e vid e n tl c o n t a i n s t h e th r e e P a s c a l li n e s 1 2 1 3 2 3 2 1 3 1 3 2
y , , . .

S u ch a pl n e is c a ll e d a G p l a n e o r a S t e i n e r p l a n e ; t h e t o ta l
a -
,

n u mb e r o f s u ch pl a n e s is tw e n ty A ga i n a p l a n e c o n t a i n i n g th r e e .

C r e m o na p o i n t s wh o s e d u a d s y mb o l s a ll c o n ta i n o n e n u mb e r in
c o mm o n f o r i n s t a n c e t h e pl a n e o f t h e p o i n ts 4 1
,
42 4 3 e vid e n tly , , ,

c o n t a i n s t he thr e e P a c a l li n es 4 2 43 4 3 4 1 4 1 4 2 S u ch p l a n e
s , , . a

is c a ll e d a K p l a n e o r -
Ki r km a n pl a n e ; t h e t o ta l n u mbe r o f s u ch
,
a

p l a n e s is s i x t y
L a s tl
.
y it is n e ces s a r
y t o r e fe r t o fift e e n li n e s e a ch
, ,

o i n i ng a C r e m ona o i n t t o t h e P l uck e r o i n t wh os e s mb o l is
'

j p p y
fo r m e d w ith t h e s a m e n u mb e r s f or i n s t a n c t h e li n e j o i n i n g , e

1 2 to S u ch a li n e is c a ll e d a n i li n e o r a S t e i n e r P l uck e r li n e -
,
- .

T h e P a s ca l li n e will a l s o b e c a ll e d k li n e s
s T h e r e a r e c e r ta i n -
. .

th e o r e m s o f i n ciden c e a m o n g t he v a ri o u e l e m e n ts in a dditi on t o s

th o s e which h a v e b een r e fe rre d t o F or i n s ta n c e a P a s c a l li n e o r .

, ,

k li n e li e s in o n e G p l a n e a n d in th r e e K p l a n es ; thi s fa ct w ill b e
i

- - -
, ,

d en o te d in t h e s u mm a r y w e n o w giv e b y w r iti n g

“
, ,

er s e l a K pl a n e c o n t a i n s n o t o n l
-
thr ee k li n es a s w e h a v e s ee n -
v
y y , , ,

b u t a l s o o n e g li n e ; thi s fa ct w ill b e de n o t e d b y w r iti ng K

-
3k .

Te m a
y th e n s u mm a ri e t h e d e fi n iti o n s a n d t h e i n cid e n c es r e fe rre d
s ,

t o which will b e imm e di a t e l y p ro v e d a s fo ll o w s : [A dd ]

, , .

60 k li n e s P a s c a l li n e s 1 2 1 3
-
, , ,

60 K p l a n e s Ki r km a n p l a n e 1 4 1 5 1 6
-
, s , , ,

20 g li n e s C a yl ey S a lm o n li n es
-
,
-
,

2 0 G p l a n e s S te i n e r pl a n e s 5 6 64 4 5 ;
-
, , , ,

1 5 i li n es S t e i n e r P l ii c ke r li n e s 1 2
-
,
-
, ,

1 5 I p l a n e s S a lm o n pl a n e s
-
, ,

15 —2
2 28 N o te II
7 4 0,

T he p r o o f o f th e s e la s t th e o re m s o f i n cid e n c e is imm e di a te
( 1 ) T he k li n e 1 2 1 3 li e s in t h e G p l a n e 23 3 1 1 2 ; a n d in
- -

t h e K—
, , ,

p l a nes ( 1 2 1 3 ( 1 2 1 3 ,
(12 13
, , , , ,

h e K pl a n e 1 4 1 5 1 6 c o n t a i n s t h e li
( )
2 T -
, g ne
,
-

a n d t h e k li n e s -
16 14 14 15 , . .

( 3 ) T h e
g
—li ne
[ 1 3 ] li e s in t h e G
p l a ne ( 2 3 3 1 it -
, ,

li e s in t he K p la n es ( 4 1 4 2 -
( 5 1 52 ( 6 1 62
, , , , , ,

a n d it li e s in t h e I pl a n e s -

[ 6D
1

( 4 ) T h e G
p
-
l
a n e 5 6 , 6 4 , 45 o n a n s t he
g n e c t i - li
-
li
t h e k n e s 4 5 4 6, 5 6 64 65 , a n d a sol t he i - li n es
( 5 6 , [ k
5 6 ( 6 4 , f 6 4 k ( 45 , [ D
4 5

( )
5 T h e i - nli
e 1
( ,2 li es in t h e G -
pla n e ( 1 2 s , 23 ,
( 1 2 , 2 4 , ( 1 2, 25, ( 1 2 ,
2 6,
( 6) T h e I p la n e
-
c o n ta i ns the g
-
li n es
i 1),
3 4 [ h
45 [3 5 h
i3 4 h
It is i n t er es ti n g h o w ev e r fu rth e r
, , , to re m a r k th a t , t he re l a ti o n s
e x re s s e d b v
p
3k ; Si ;
ca n be v e rifi e d by c o n s id e ri n g on ly a s i n gl e th r e e fo ld s pa c e w hich
fo rm s p a r t o f Q th er e b e i n g in Q fifte e n s u ch s p a ces ; a n d t he
,

r e l a ti o n s e x r es s e d b
p y
7 40
ca n be ver ifi e d b y c o n s ide r i n g o n ly e l e m e n t s p a s s i n g thr ou gh a
s i n gl e oin t of Q th e re b e i n g fift e e n s u ch p o i n t w hich c o rre s p o n d s
p , ,

d u a lly in Q t o t he th r ee fo ld s p a c es j u s t s p o k e n o f F o r if w e c o n s id e r .

t h e s p a c e d e t e r mi n e d b y fou r o f t h e s ix fu n d a m e n t a l p o i n t s s a y b y ,

G H S T which c o n t a i n s t h e p o i n t s 2 3 2 5 2 6 3 5 3 6 5 6
, , , , , , , , , ,

it is a t o n c e s een th a t thi s c o n ta i ns
fo u r K pla n es fo u r G pl a n es o n e I pla n e ;
-
,
-
,
-

it c on ta i n s a l s o
twe lv e k li n e s fo u r g —
-
li n es s ix i li n es
, ,
-
.

C o r re s p o n di n gly c on s id e r e l e m e n t s p a s s i n g thro u gh t he P l u ck e r
,

oint th e r e a r e o f s u ch ( cf t h e Fr o n t is ie e o f t h e v o l u m e )
p p . c

fo u r k li n es fo u r g li n es o n e i li n e ;
-
,
-
,
-

an
y p l a n e o f t h e c o m l e t e fig u r e Q
p w hich c o n t a i n s o n e o f th e s e

li n es n e ce s s a rily c o n t a i n s t h e p o i n t T h e r e p a s in a l l thro u gh s

thi s p o i n t
twe lv e K p l a n es fou r G pla n es s ix I pla n es ;
-
,
-
,
-
23 0 N o te II
o bt a i n e d j o i n i n g D t o t h e s ix p o i n t s P Q
, b e n a m e d r es p e ctiv e l y ,
’

, .
, , ,

r ; it is e a s o s e e th a t th es e a r e t h e o n l li i
’ ’ ’

p g r
y t n
p g , , , , , y e s
p a s s

thr o u gh D which l ie o n t he c u bic s u rf c e T h e n fu rth er it is a t a .

, ,

o n c e cl e a r th t n l a n e m e e t s t h e c u bic s u rfa c e in a c u bic c u rv e ;

y p a a

th u s a p l a n e c o n ta i n i n g t w o o f t he li n e s p q r will c o n ta i n a ,
’

,
’

fu r th e r li n e ly i n g e n tire ly o n t he c u bic s u rfa ce T h e re by w e o bta i n .

fift e e n fu r th e r li n es o f t h e s u r fa c e a ny o n e o f which m a y b e de n o te d ,

b y a d u a d s y mb o l s u ch a s g r T h e r e a r e h o w e ver n o o th e r li n e s
’

, .

l y i n g on t h e s u r fa c e F o r w e h a ve e n u m e ra t e d a ll th o e which p a s s
. s

th o u gh D ; s u pp o s e th e n o n e which d o e s n o t p a s s th r o u gh D a n d
r
,

c o n s id er t h e c u r v e in which t h e c u bic s u rfa c e is m e t b t h l a ne

y e
p
-

o i n i n g D t o thi s li n e ; thi s c o n s i s t s o f t h e li n e a n d a c u r v e o f t h e
j ,

s e c o n d o r d e r ; b u t thi s c u rv e o f t h e s e c o n d o rd e r h a s t h e r o er t
p p y
o f b e i n g m e t in t w o o i n t s c o i n cidi n g a t D b v li
p y e e r
y n e in t h e
p l a n e d r a w n thr o u gh D a n d m u s t th e r e fo r e it s e lf c o n s i s t o f t w o
,

li n e s i n te r s e cti n g a t D T he p la n e is th e re fo r e o n e o f tho s e b e fo r e
.

c o n s id e re d dr a w n th r o u gh t w o o f t he li n e s p g
, r N o w c o n s id er ,
’

,
’
.

t h e th r e e li n e s o f t h e s u r fa c e 9 r a n d which l ie in a p l a n e ’

, , .

T h e fi r s t li n e 9 is e vide n tl y m e t b y t h e fo u r li n e s gp g r gp g g
’ '

, , , , , ,

in a dditi o n t o g r t h e o th r li n e r is e vid e n tly m e t b y t h e fo u r li n es

’ ’

e , ,

n a dditi o n t o r e s ide t h e fo u r li n e s which

’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’
i
'
r
p ,
r r
r
p r
g , , g
,
B .

m e e t b o th 9 a n d r a t t h e p o i n t D th e re r e m a i n th e n o f t he t o t a l
’

, ,

twe n ty o n e li n es o f t he s u r fa c e j u s t s ix n a m e ly th o s e wh os e s y mb o l s
-
, ,

a r e t h e d u a d s fr o m h es e s ix li n e s d o n o t lie in t he
’ ’

p r
p g T , , , .

p l a n e of
g r a nd
g r ; e a ch m u s t m e e t
,
’
th e n e ith e r
'

q or r or
q r ; , , ,
’

,
’

b u t e a ch m e e t s t w o li n e s o th e r th a n g a n d r o f t h e li n es o f t h e
’

, ,

s u r fa e which a s s thr o u gh D ; it c a n n o t th e n f o r e x a m p l e m e t
c
p , , , e

a l s o t h e li n e s i n c e e l s e thre e o f t h e li n e s th r o u gh D w ou ld l ie in
9 ,

a
p l a n e a n d t h e c o n ic U
,
0 w o u ld br e a k i n t o t w o li n e s which we ,

s u p o s e n ot t o b e t he ca s e T h u s th e s e s ix li n es a l l m e e t t h e
p .

li n e gr '

"
C o n s id e r f o r i n s t a n c e r p ; t h e p l a n e c o n t a i n i n g 9 a n d r p m u s t
’ '

, , 7

th e n m e e t t he c u bic s u rfa c e in a n o th e r li n e b y a n a r gu m e n t a pp li e d ,

a b o ve thi s o th e r li n e m e e ti ng b o th q a n d p w ill h a v e f or s y mb o l ’ ’

,
r r ,

a d u a d n o t c o n t a i n i n g e ith er (7 o r thi s s mb o l is
’ ’
or or r r
p ; y , ,

the n p g t h e s y mb o l s o f t h e th r e e li n es q r p p g c on t a i n i n g a ll
,
’

,
r
’

,
’

,
’

t h e s ix s y mb o l s p g r p q r 1 1 thi s w a y w e s e e th a t th e re a r e
' ’ ’

, , , , , . 1 ,

b e s ide t h e p la n e c o n ta i n i n g 9 a n d th r e e p l a n e s thro u gh t he r
’

li n e gr e ch c o n ta i n i n g t w o o th r li n es w ith d u a d s y mb o l s Wh e n c e
’
a e .

w e s ee th a t t h e fift e e n li n e s o f t he c u bic s u r fa c e o th e r th a n th o e , s

throu gh D l ie in th r e e s in fift e e n p l a n e s o f which thre e pl a n es

, ,

p a s s thr o u gh e v e ry o n e o f th es e li n e s .

If de s ire d t h e e q u a ti o n s o f t h e fift ee n li n e s c a n b e o bt a i n e d wh e n
, ,

t h e s ix p o i n t s o f i n t e r s e cti o n o f t h e c o n ic U 0 a n d t h e c u bic 211 O ,

a r e giv e n F o r if a x . by cs 0 with t 0 b e t h e e q u a ti o n o f t h e , ,
 E xa mp les of p a r ti u a rc l p r op er t ie s 23 1

j oi n of two of th es e s x
p o i nts ,
p p o s e f o r i n s ta nc e tha t c
i an d w e su , ,

is n o t z e ro a s t h e p l a n e j o i n i n g D t o thi s li n e c o n t a i n s a li n e
,

of t h e c u bic s u rf c e t h e s u b s tit u ti o n f or z
a , in t he q u o ti e n t ,

M U o f ( u p by )/e m u s t re d u e thi s t o a fo r m lw + my ; t he li n e
, , c

in q u es ti o n will th e n b e giv e n b y t h e t w o e q u a ti o n s a s by cz = 0 ,

H a vi n g bta i n e d t he fig u r e o f fift e n p la n es a n d t he li n e s l y i n g
o e ,

in thre e s o f th e s e w e c a n d e n o t e a ny o n e o f t he p l a n es b y a du a d
,

fo rm e d fro m t w o o f t he s ix n u mb e r 1 2 3 4 5 6 a n d t he li ne o f s , , , , , ,

i n te rs e cti o n o f three o f th es e p l a n es by a s yn th e m e o f th r ee d u a ds ,

s u ch a 1 2 3 4 5 6 fo r m e d fro m t h e d u a d s which re p r es e n t t h e three

s ,

p la nes
p a s s i n g th r o u gh t h e li n e W e s h a ll th en h a v e a fig u r e which
.
,

o mbi n a t o r i a ll h a s t he s a m e r o p e rti e s a s t he fig u r e S c id r d ’
c
y , p o n s e e

a bo v e s e ci a li s e d h o w e v e r b t h e fa ct th a t t h e fift e e n li n e s a r e
, p y
a rr a n g e d in s e t s o f fi e a l l o f which h a v e a c o mm o n tra n s v e r s a l
v

a s s i n g th r o u gh D an o f t h e li n e s m ee ti n g t w o o f t h e t r a n s
p y ,

v e rs a l s T h es e s e t s o f fi e a r e t h e s y s te m s o f s yn t h e m es c o n s ide r d
. v e

a b o v e in ( l B u t t h e i n ci d e n c e th eo r e m o bta i n e d a b o v e will h o ld s

f o r t h e s p e ci a li s e d fig u r e a n d a ft e r p roj e cti o n o n t o t he p l a n e t = o
, ,

th e s e giv e t h e p ro p e rti es o f t h e P a s ca l fig u re which a r e t h e o cca s i o n

.

o f t he r es en t n ote
p .

It m a y b e re m a r k e d th a t o n a ge n e r a l c u bic s u r fa c e which do es ,

not os s e s s a n o d e th e r e a r e s e t s o f fift e e n li n e s s u ch a s th os e h e r e
p ,

d en o t e d by t he d u a d s y mb o l s g t o ge th e r with twe lve o th e r s e a ch r

’

, ,

o f t h e s ix li n es h er e fo u n d a s i n g th r o u gh D b e i n g r e l a c e d b
p s
p y a
p a ir o f s k e w li n e s M o re o v er w e s h a ll fi n d th a t t h e g e n e r a l fig u re
.
,

Q in fo u r dim e n s i o n s h e re c o n s id e re d is o f fu n da m e n t a l im p o rta n c e
, ,

f o r t he t h e or v o f t h e ge n e r a l c u bic s u rfa c e .

( )
5 W e n o w giv e s o m e
p a rtic u l a r ex a m l es o f t h e th eo r
p y .

’
Ex . 1 .
f
T he p a ir s
jg S tein er
p
o l a n es L
con u e t 01, 8 , «y ,
a te y .

d en o te t he n u mbe rs 1 , 2 , 6 , in a ny o rd e r I n t h e fig u re Q , th e re .

a s s , a s w e h a v e s e e n , thr o u gh ea ch o f t he thr ee C r e m o n a p o i n t s ,
p ,

r
y a
’
,
'
thr e e o f t h e fift e e n li n es which a r e fu n d a m e n t a l in

t he fig u re ( b es id e t w o k li n e s j o i n i n g thi s p o i n t t o t he o th e r t w o ) ;
-

a n d t h e n i n e li n e s s o o bt a i n e d m e e t in thre e s in t h e p o i n t s

T h e t w o S t e i n er pl a n e s a n d ( 8 7,
y d , 018 ) a r e c a ll e d
’ ’

y 01 ,
r 7

c o nj u ga te I n t h e P a s ca l figu r e th e re a r e t w o c o rres p o n di n g S t e i n er
.

o i n t s , which a re in fa ct c o nj u g a t e t o o n e a n o th e r in re ga r d t o t he
p
fun da m en ta l c o n ic I n t he figu re S , w e h a ve t w o S te i ne r p o i n ts ;
.
’

thro u gh e a ch o f th es e th e re p a s s three C re m o n a p l a n es , i n te rs e cti n g

in p a i r s in thre e P a s ca l li n e s which p a s s thr o u gh t h e p o i n t T he .

t hr e e p l a n es thr o u gh o n e o f t he t w o S t e i ne r p o i n t s m ee t t he three
pl a n es thr o u gh t he o th e r S te i n e r p o i n t in th r ee tri a d s o f li n es , o f
which a ny t w o a re th e n in p e rs p e ctive , t he a x i s o f p e rs p e ctive b e i ng
a P a s c a l li ne By pro je cti o n t o t h e pl a n e a s w e o bta i n th e n a s imil a r
.
23 2 N o te [ I
re u lt
s , f which th e e l e m e n t a ry pr o o f is i n dic a t e d in m o re d e ta il
o

bel o w .
( E x 5 S e e a l s o v S t a u dt, Cr elle, a , p
. . . .

E x 2 T he S tein e r p la n es a n d S tein er P l izcker l in es

. .
-
T he p la ne .

d e t er mi n e d b y t he Cr e m on a p o i n ts 2 3 , 3 1 , 1 2 , is t h e s a m e a s t ha t
d e ter mi n e d by t h e th r ee p o i n t s F, G, H , o f t h e s ix fu n da m en ta l
p o i n t s T he S t e i n e r P l uck e r li n e de te rmi n e d b y j o i n i n g t h e C re m o n a
.
-

o i n t 1 2 t o t h e P l uck e r p o i n t i s th a t j o i n i n g t h e t w o fu n d a
p
m en t a l p o i n t s F, G T h e tw e n ty S te i n er p l a n e s a r e th u s a ll t h e
.

pl a n e s ea ch c o n ta i n i n g th r e e o f t h e s ix fu n da m e n ta l p o i n t s , a n d
t h e fifte e n S t e i n e r P l uck e r li n e s a r e a ll t h e li n es e a ch j o i n i n g t w o o f
-

the s e p o i n t s I n t h e fig u re S , t h e S t e i n e r p o i n t s a r e th en th e i n te r
.
'

s e cti o n s in th r e e s , a n d t h e S t e i n e r P l uck e r li n es t h e i n t e r s e cti o n s in

-

tw o s , o f s ix pla n es , which , s o f a r a s t he c o n figu ra t i o n is c o n ce r n e d ,

m a y b e t a k e n a r bitra rily T h e c o rres p o n di n g p o i n t s a n d li n e s in
.

t he P a s c a l fig u re a r e th e n t h e p r oj e cti o n o f thi s v e r y s im p l e co n
fig u ra ti o n ( Cf p . . .

E x 3 T he s ep a r a tio n of the co mp le tefi g u r e into s ixfi g u r es I n t h e

. . .

figu r e Q , th e n o ta ti o n a t o n c e s u gge s t s th a t w e c o n s ide r t oge th e r

t he s e t o f fi ve C re m o n a p o i n t s s u ch a s 1 2 , 1 3 , 1 4 , 1 5 , 1 6 ; a n d th e re
will b e s ix s u ch s e t s , e a ch p o i n t b el o n gi n g t o t w o s e ts T he five .

p o i n t s o f a s et a r e s u ch th a t t h e j o i n o f a n y t w o is a P a s ca l li n e ,
a n d t h e pl a n e o f a n
y thr ee is a Ki r km a n p l a n e I n th e fi g u r e S ,
'
.

w e h a v e th e n s ix s e t s o f fi ve C r e m o n a pl a n e s , o f which a n t wo
y
m e e t in a P a s c a l li n e , a n d a n y thre e in a Ki r km a n p o i n t I n t he .

pl a n e m , t he s i x ty P a s ca l li n e s a r e th u s divid e d i n t o s ix s e ts o f t e n ,
m e e ti n g in thr ees in t en Ki r km a n p o i n t s , e a ch o f t h e P a s ca l li n es
c o n ta i n i n g three o f t h e Kirkm a n p o i n ts T h e c o n figu ra ti o n , in
.

ea ch o f t h e s ix a rti a l fig u r e s is th a t o f t w o t r i a d s in e rs p e ctiv e ,
p p
with th e ir c en t r e a n d a x i s o f p e r s p e ctiv e T h e s e p a rti a l figu re s
.

we re c o n s ide re d b y e r o n e s e V
‘
.

S te iner p o in ts ea ch i n thr e j old p er sp ect ive

w ith a tetr a d of Kir kma n o in ts
p .

I n t h e fi g u r e Q , t h e s ix C re m o n a
p o i n t s 2 3 , 3 1 , 1 2 , 41 , 42 , 43 ,
which l ie in t h e three fo ld s p a ce
o f t h e fo u r fu n da m e n t a l p o i n t s

F, G, H , R , give fo u r S te i n e r
'

pl a n es ,

at : ( 2 4, 6 :

8 :
2
a nd fo u r Ki r km a n pl a n e s ,

T he pl a n e s a , a
'
m ee t in th e
‘
23 4 N ot e [ I
th e o re m p oi n ts
t h e s ix P Q R l ie o n a c o n ic P r o v e th a t , ,
’
.
,

QQ R R U U m e e t in a p o i n t s a y L ; a n d s i mil a r l y R R P P V V
’ ’ ’ ’ '

, , , , , , ,

m e e t in a p o i n t s a y M ; a n d lik e wi s e ,
WW m e e t in a p o i n t
, , ,
’

e t the p o i nt s ( P Q d e not ed
’ ’ ’
sa
y N , L .
( Q R P ( RP Q R ) b , , ,
e ,

r e s p e ctiv e l b X Y Z a nd the o i n ts R P Q)
y y ,; p ,P ), ,

Q R ) b e de n o t e d re s p e ctiv e ly b y X Y Z P ro ve
’ ’ ’
, , , , .
,

th a t X L X a r e in li n e a s a l s o Y M Y a n d Z N Z ; a n d tha t
, ,
’

, , ,
’

, ,
’

t he li n e s X LX Y M Y Z N Z m e e t in a p o i n t P ro v e a l s o
’
, th a t ’
.
,

th e li n e s YZ P P Q R m e e t in a p o i n t a s d o t h e li n es Y Z P P Q R ;
,
’

,
’

,
’ '

,
’

,
’

th a t t he li n e s Z X Q Q R P m e e t in p o i n t a s d o Z X Q Q R P ; ' ’ ’ ’ ’
'

, ,
a , , ,

a n d th a t t h e li n e s X Y RR P Q m e e t in a p o i n t a s d o t h e li n e s
’ ’

, , ,

X Y R R P Q T h u s a n y t w o o f t he t r ia d s U V W; L h1 N ; X Y Z
’ ’ ’ ’

, , .
, , , , , ,

a r e in
p e r s e cti v e a s a l s o a r e a n y t w
p o f t he t r i a d s U V
, W ; L M N o
’
,
’
,
’

, ,

X
'

,Y Z t h li n es X U Y V Z W m e e ti n g in a p o i nt a s d o
’

,
’
e , , ,

X U , Y V Z W,
’ ’ ’ ’ '

S he w a l s o , th a t t h e li n e s U U , V V , WW a r e P a s ca l li n es e a ch ' ’ ’

f o r a p r o p e r o r d e r o f t he s ix p o i n t s P , Q , e t c , o n t h e c o n ic , th e ir
'

p o i n t o f m ee ti n g , G, b e i ng a S t e i n e r p o i n t ; a n’d , th a t t h e a x i s
o f p e rs e ctiv e o f t h e tri a d s U , V , W a n d U , V , W is a P a s c a l li n e ;
’ ’

p
 E lem en ta r y p r oof B ibli og r a p hy 23 5

th a t th e ax s i of p er s
p tiv e o f
ec t he t r i a ds U ,
V, W a nd L , Ill ,
N
is a Pa s c a l li n e i o f p e r s p e ctiv e o f t he tri a ds
,
an d th t t hea ax s

U V , W M N is a P a c a l li n e ; a nd th a t th e e th r e e
’
a nd L
’ '

, ,
.
, s s

P a s ca l li n e s m e e t in a S te i n er p o i n t She w a ls o tha t t he li n e .
,
s

X L X Y M Y Z N Z a r e P a c a l li n e s m e ti ng in a Kirkm a n
’ ’ ’

, ,
s , e

th a t t h e li n e s X U Y V Z W a r e P a ca l li ne s m e e ti ng in a Ki
, , s ,

p o i n t a n d th a t t h e li n e s X U
,
Y V Z W a re P s c l li n e s m e e ti n g
’ ’

,
’ ’
,
’ ’
a a ,

in a Ki r km a n p o i n t .

T h e s e fa ct s m a y a l l b e o bt a i n e d b y a p p lica ti o n o f D e s a r g u es
’

th e o r e m .

T h e y m a y l o b e o bt a i n e d b y s h e w i n g th a t w ith th a t a s s o ci a ti o n
a s ,

R e t c w ith t h e y s t e m s w hich h b e e n a d o p te d in thi s

'

of P Q , , ,
. s as

n o te t h e p o i n t s U V W U V W a r e t h e r es p e ctiv e T p o i n t s
’ ' ’
-
, , , , , ,

( 56 2 1 , , (56 3 1,
,
1 2, ( 64 , 2 1 , ( ( 56
64, 1 2 , ,

th t V V , WW a r e t h e r e s p e c
li UU tiv c l
’ ’
t he n e s
’
so a , e Pa s a

li ne s ( 1 2 , I 3 ), ( 3 1 , T en a t h e p o n s L , M , N a r e t he h th t i t
r es e
p cti v eT
p o n s -
i t 1 2 , 4 5 , T en a t h e h th t
p o n s i t X Y , ,
Z a r e t he es e
p e T
p o n s
( 2 5 r
, 6 3 ,
ctiv ( 1 i t
5 , 6 2 ,
-

( 3 5 , 6 1 ,
a n d t he
p o n s
’

, a r e the e si t X Y Z
p e e T p ro n s
’
ctiv -
i t
( 24 , 6 1 , ( 1 4 , 6 2 , ( 3 4 , 6 1 , so a t h e ne s
’
, th t
Y Y li
’

,
Z Z XX '

a r e, r es e
p e
y , t h ctiv l
e Pas a n e s ( 63 , ( 6 2 ,
c l li
( 6 1 , 6 2 ) a n d t h e

li ’
nes Y Z , Y Z a r e , es e
’

p e
y , t h e Pa s ar nes (24, ctiv l c l li
( 2 5 ,

w ith imil
s ar es u r
s f or Z X , Z X , lt , X
’
Y
’
T he p o n s XY ’ ’
. i t
(RP ,
’ ’

( P Q , R R ) a r e , r es p e e t
y ’ ’ p
,
h
'

e T o n s
(ctiv l
3 1 ,
5 6 , i
54 ) -
t
( ,
23 5 6 , ( 1 2 , 5 6 ,
t h e n e s , X U ,
Y V a r e li X U
, r e s
p e e
y, ctiv l
t he P a s a nes ( 4 1 ,c l li ( 51 , ( 42 , a nd s o on .

6
( ) F o r t h e e r a u r e o f t he lit a t
e r , t h e r ea e r m a
y on s u : m tt d c lt
c l
P a s a , E s s a i p ou r les con iq u es Oeu vr es , B r u n s ch vig g e t
B o u t r o u x , P a s , 1 908 , , p 2 45 ri I . .

B r ia n c h on , M
émoir e s u r les lig nes d a 2 or d r e 6

t i r
S e n e , Gerg on n e s An n X V I I I Ges Wer ke , , p 45 1 I
’
. . .

l ck r
P u e , U e ber ein n eu es P r i n c ip d er
’

eo metr ie , Cr ell e, ( 3 0)
1 8 G v
p 2 7 4 A s o C r ell e , x xx i
. . l p 3 3 7 v . .

H e s s e , C r ell e, xx i v
4 0 ; Cr ell e, X L I p 2 69 ; p . .

Cr elle, L X V III p 1 9 3 , a n d C r elle, L x x .

p 1 v . .

l v ri t b gi i g
Ca y ey , a ou s n o e s , e n n n 1 84 6 ( Col l P a p er s , , pp 3 2 2 , . I .

s ee
p rtic l rl
a u a VI y P a er s ,
p p 1 2 9 . .

r m
G o s s a nn , C r el le, L V III p ( 1 8 6 1 1 7 4 . .

t dt
V o n S a u , C r ell e, m m p 1 42 . .

B a u e , A bh d er k ba y er A lf d Wis s ( Mu n
r . .
) x1 .
p 1
. 1 1 . . ich . .

K irkm M a n, a n ches ter Co u r ier , J u n e a n d A u u s , 1 8 4 9 ; Ca m b a n a g t .

Du b M a th J ou r v p 1 8 5
—
. . . . .

V
er o n e s e , M em or ie d r Ace d L in cei , I .
pp
. 6 4 9 7 03 ; . . .

a nd C r m
e o n a , in m v l m
t he s a e o u e , pp
8 5 4 — 874 . .

lv t r I
Sy e s e , Co ll P a p er s , , p 9 2 , a n d 1 1 , p 2 65 ( 1 8 44 a n d
. . .
23 6 N o te II
S a lm o n , Con ic S ectio ns , 1 8 7 9 , p p 3 79—3 83 .

Kl u g , L , D ie Confi g u r a tion cl es P a s ca l s chen S echs eckes , Ko l o zs v ar

.
‘ .

( A A Ajt a i), 1 8 98 , p p 1 1 3 2
. . .
-
.

C r e m o n a , fil a th An n a l x m
. .
p 3 0 1 . .

Ca s t e l n u o v o , A tti I s t Ven et v
.
p
. 1 24 9 ,
a nd V I .

p .5 2 5 .

Ca p o ra li , M e mor ie di g eometr ia , Na pl e s ( B P e ll e r a n o ) , 1 888, .

1 3 5 2 3 6 2 5 2 a nd 1 1 , 1 8 78 , 79 5
pp .
, , ; p . .

Jou b er t , C omp t R en al , 1 8 67 , pp 1 025 , 1 08 0

. . .

R ichm o n d , T r a ns Ca m l) P hil S oc x v
. . . pp 2 67 3 02 ; a l s o
. .
-

. J
Qu a r t (f Ma th xx x r
. . pp 1 2 5 —1 60, a n d M a th An n a l L
. . . III
pp 1 61 —1 7 6 A l s o Qu a r t J of Ma th x xx i v
. . . .
p p 1 1 7 . .

1 54 .

L We d e ki n d , Ma th An n X V I
. . .p 2 3 6, with a bibli ogra p hy . .

A ck n o wl e dgm e n t s a r e d u e t o Mr F P Whit e , S t J o b u C o ll eg e,
’
. . s

C a mb r idg e , f o r a s s i s ta n c e in t he p r e pa ra ti o n of thi s n o t e .
23 8 N o te III
o f T 1 a n s f o 1 m a t io n a n d G r o u p T h e o ry a r e n o t c o n s id e re d ( s ee
-

S L ie , T r a nsf o r ma tio ns g r up p en , 1 1 1 , 1 8 93 , w hich giv e s a n e x

.

h a u s t iv e a n a l y tic a l s t u dy o f t h e R i e m a n n H e lmh o lt z pro bl e m )

-
.

Fu r th e r , t h e a r bitr a ry limita ti o n o f t he s y mb o l s a d o p te d 1 n Cha pte rs

I V a n d v l e a d s t o t h e o mi s s i o n o f m a n
y g e n e ra l l o gic a l q
u es t i o n s
—
.

C f , f o r ex a m p l e , D e h n , M a th An n a l L
. . . III pp 40 4 4.3 9 ,
a nd

Ma th A n n a l Lx
. .
pp . 1 66 —1 7 4 ; R . M L
o o re , T r
. A m. er.

. . III
Ma th S oc V ( 1 907 ) ( a n d H ilb e r t s Gr u n d l a g en )
’
.
 23 9

ADD I TI ON S

p 27 4 , it f ol l o w s , b y E x 3 , t h a t t h e d r ec t or con c o f t h e g e n
I n Ex i i iv
i
. . . .

c o n c , in r e s p e ct o f B a n d
’
t u
’ ’ ’ ”
o ch e s A B a n d A O , a t B a n d C
'
' "
Ca nd
p a s s es
,

i ,

t h r o u g h t h e p o n t , N , w h e r e 00 m e e t s A B , a n d t h r o u g h t h e p o n t , M, w h e r e
' ’ ’
i
B B m e et s C A
’
i f
F r om t h s it ol l ow s t h a t A A c on t a n s t h e p o n t o f n t e r s e c t on
' ’ ’
i i i i
i i ifi i
.

o f R M a n d C N , t h a t is , o f B B
’ ’
a nd Th s s m p l ca t o n w a s s u g g e s t e d
b y Mr R J L iv i
y o n s , o f t h e U n e r s ty of S y d n e y , t o w h om a l s o s e e r a l ot h e r v
i
. .

o f t h e f ol l o w n g r e m a r k s a r e d u e

if i f i iv
.

\V e m a y r e m a r k a l s o t h a t t h e l n e s r o m t h r e e p o n t s A , B , , r e s p e ct el y C
j i
c o n u g a t e , in r e g a r d t o a c o n c , t o t h e o n s of t h r e e o t h e r p o n t s A , B , C , b e
’ ’ ’
ji i
c on c u r r e n t , t h e s a m e i s tr u e o f t h e l n e s r o m A , B , 0 r e s ect
’ ’

p i f
e l y c o n ug a t e
’
iv j
t o t h e c or r e s p on d n g o n s of A B , i ji
Wh e n th e c o n c is a p o nt- p a r , t h e r e s u l t C i i i
i
.

is r e ma r k e d b y S t e n e r , Wer ke, I , p 1 5 7
i if i
. .

An d c om p a r e Moe b u s s t h eo r e m ( V o l 1 , p 6 1 ) t h a t
’
a l n e m ee t B C , C A ,
’ ' ' '
.

Q
'
’ ’
R , s o t h a t A P , B Q , OR a r e c on c u r r e n t , a n d m e e t B C, CA , A B
’ ’ ’ ’
A B in P , ,
’ '
i n P , Q, R , t h e n A P , B Q, C R a r e co n c u r r e n t ( S e e a l s o t h e Ad d t on t o p
’
. ii .

p 2 9 Th e r es u lt in E x 7 s u g g e s t s t h e c o n s d e r a t on i i of a t h e or em w ih t
id i i i i d di i
. . .

w e b ea r n g s , r el a t n
g t o t h r e e t r a d s o f t a n g e n t s o f a c on c . S e e th e a t on

to p 1 45 .

p 30 f
Th e p r oo o f E x 8 m a y b e g e n a s f ol l o w s ( R J L y on s ) : B y con iv
i i i i iv i
. . . . .

f
s id e r in g c o n cs t h r o u g h t h e o u r p o n t s A , B , 0, 0, w h c h d e t e r m n e a n n o l u t on
o n I J, w e s ee t h a t t h e f o u r
p a r s of r a y s ( 0A , 0L ), ( OB , OM) ( 00, ON ), ( 01 , OJ) , i
i i i
,

a r e in n v ol u t on H e n c e it f ol l o w s t h a t t h e f o u r p a r s o f r a y s ( 0A ,
iv i i i
.

( 0B , ( 00, ( OI , OJ ) a r e in’ n’ o l u t on Wh e n c e , c o n s d e r n g t h e
i
.

r a n g es o n A B , A C, b y B C, OI , OJ, M N , w e s e e t h a t M 1 t o u c h es t h e c o n c
'

i
t o u c h n g B C, CA , A B , 01 , OJ, I J, a n d , t h e r e or e , b y s y m m et r y , p a s s es t h r o u g h f
L (
’
. Cf
Ex 3 , p . . .

p 32
F or t h e t h e o r e m o f E x 1 0 s ee H e s s e , D e 0r d , Or el le ,
vi XX j
. . . .

xx p 3 01 An ot h e r e w o f t h e p r oo t h a t
’
a r e co n u g a t e is a s f
i
. .

L
,

fo ll o w s ( R J y o n s ) : ’Le t y , z b e t h e p ol a r s o f Y , Z , m e e t n g in T, a n d l e t a
i i X i i i
. .

v a r a b l e l n e t h r ou g h m e e t t h e s e in Y ] a n d Z 1 ; t h e n t h e p o n t o f n t e r s e c t o n
( X 1 ) of YZ , a n d Z Y1 d e’ s cr b e s t h e l n e T B u t , i
P b e t h e p o n t o f c o n ta c t i X if i
X
.

o f o n e t a n g e n t f r om , a
n d Z P , YP m e e t y a n d z in a n d B , it c a n b e
p r o ed Q v
th a t
’
, X Q
, R a re
in l n e Th u s P l e s 0 11 AT ; a n d i
l es on t h e p ol a r o f X
.
'
i Xi .

v
p 3 4 To p r o e , in E x 1 1 , t h a t QMM is a s el p o l a r t r a d , w e m a y a r g u e f
-
i
i i j
. . .

a s f oll o w s ( R J Ly o n s ) : As t w o l n e s w h c h a r e c on u g a t e , in r e g a r d t o t h e
i i i j i
. .

c o n c 2 , m e e t t h e p ol a r of a n l l ow s
y p o n t of e t h e r in t w o c o n u g a t e p o n t s , 'it f o
i v i
t h a t t h e n o l u t o n o n MN , b y c o n cs t h r o u g h t h e f ou r p o n t s
’
R , Q , R c on i i Q
i i
’
,

t a n s t w o p a r s ( b y QR , Q R , a n d QQ , R R ) w h c h b ot h c o n s s t o f p o n t s
’ ’ ’
i i i
j
c o n u g a t e in r e g a r d t o 2 H e n c e M, N a r e l k e w s e con u g a t e . i i j .

p 45
F or t h e t h e o r e m o f E x 2 0, it is e a s y t o p r o e t h a t t h e s ix t a n g e n t s v
i i i i i
. . .

o f tw o c on c s a t t h r e e o f t h e r n t e r s e c t o n s a r e t o u c h e d b y a c o n c Th e t a n
i i iv j i i
.

g e n t s a t t h r e e p o n t s o f a c on c m e e t t h e r e s p e ct e o n s o f t h e o t h e r t w o p o n t s
in t h r e e c o ll n ea r p o n t s ; a n d , i i if
t w o l n es be d r a w n n t e r s e ct n g t h e o n s o f i i i ji
i i i
t h r e e p o n t s , t h e s ix l n e s o b t a n e d b y o n n g e a ch o f t h e t h r ee p o n ts t o t h e ji i i
i i ji
t w o p o n t s w h e r e t h e Op p os t e o n is m e t b y t h e t w o l n e s , t o u c h a c o n c ( c f i i
vi i i
.

p 1 2 1 b e l ow) H a n
g s o d e t er m n e d a c o n c it i s t o b e s h e w n t h a t a n y t a n g e nt

i iv i i j i i
. .
,

of th s meets the t w o g e n c on c s in h a r m o n c a l l y c o n u g a t e p a r s of p o nt s .
24 0 A d d it ion s

B u t t h e r e is a i m pl v i f th th m s i i i ih h h y f
e ew o e e or e a s s oc a t n g t w t t e t e or o
i
t h e d r e c t o r c on i hi h i v l ly
c, w h l m
—
c f h n h y f q
o ve s o n d i s uc
,

e e e nt s o t e t e or o ua r c
f
s u r a c es as
p l i d i
a re C h p ex v (p a ne Giv n i i pl a en tw o c o n cs n a a ne ,

f hi h I J i i tk bi y p i lyi g i
. .

o w c a re two 0
n t e r s e ct o n s , h a e an ar t ra r o nt n ot n n t e
i ib y q d i f i i g h li
, ,

pl a ne f h o t d d
e c o n cs , a n e s cr e an ua r c s u r a c e co n t a n n t e nes

OJ Th th en gi e i m yb g d d h p j i f mO f
two ve n c o n cs a e re ar e as t e r o e c t on s ro o
i f h q d i A y li ig i l p l
.

t wo pl a ne Bs e ct on s , a, I f h o t e ua r c n ne o t e or na a ne ,

i g i h f h gi i i p i hi h j g i g d
, .
,

m e et n e t er o t e ve n c o n c s n tw o o nt s w c a r e c on u a te n re ar

to th th e o i ( d th f e r c on c ti g h an i i h m i g ) l‘ie re o r e c u t n t e c o n cs n a ar on c r a n e es

0 11 a pl 7 h a n e, g h 0 Th t i f h q d i f b y h pl y i
r ou e s ec t o n o t e ua r c s ur a ce t e a ne
,

p i p i
,
.

m by h pl
et t i e a n e or P P d by h pl
n tw o 6 i t o nts QQ ’
an t e ane n wo o nt s
'

suc h h ht aty OP OP t e ra h m s i l ly p d b y OQ OQ ‘ ’
are h li ar
,

on ca se a ra te
’
t e
,

n es
,

jg ih p i y N
, ,
’
h h h
’
PP QQ are t u s c on u a te to o n e a n ot er w t r es e ct to t e c on c ow

p t iv p l
, .

l etA B 0b h e t f h pl
e r es B yi
ec g d t th q
e o es o d i t e a n es a n re ar o e ua r c
, ,
i v l y h p l l i f P P d QQ i g d
, ,

h
’
f CA OB
’
s u r a c e, s o t at p a r e res e ct e t e o ar n es o an n re ar

t thi
o f It
s s u r a ce . i l y f ll b y th i p i y f p l d p l h OA ea s o ow s , e r ec r oc t o o e an o a r, t at

OB a re j g l i i g d h v l pi g
c on u a te n es n re f h arf d to t e en e o n c on e o t e s u r a ce ra w n
,

w i h vt 0 e r texhi h h h q d i
w c f toucl g h i y; h
es t e ua r c s u r a ce a o n t e c on c or t at

g m t A B i d i v i d d h m i ll y by h i
,

t h e se en s e ar on c a t s c on e

p i v l pi g h g iv
.

N th ow l f e D
oc u s h h o th a o nt t s uc t at e en e o n c on e o t e en
q diua f r c s u r a c e, d ivi d h g iv 0, g m A B h m
es i llty i e i ly en s e en t ar on c a s ea s s e en

q di i by y pl h g h A B i ,

to b h
e a n ot erf ua h r c s u r a ce, w os e s e c t o n an a ne t r ou s
t h di e i f h
r e c t or i f b y h i pl i g d A d B ;
c on c o t e s e c t on o 12 t s a ne , n re ar to an
na m ly h e i hi h i h l
t e c on c w f p i D f c hi h D A D B
s t e oc u s o a o nt ,
’
or w c
’ ’
a r e c on

j g t l i i g d th
u a e n es n re i f Th q d i f ar to e s ec t o n o i A Q e
,

ua r c s u r a ce (I)
,

c o nt a n s
i ti
. .

an d B d l an h a so t B f by h p l
e co n c s e c pl f A B i
on s , a , , o Q , t e o ar a n es o ,
n

re g d t ar o S2
Th p i C p k f h li hi q d i
.

e o nt s o en o d t h pl
us
y es on t s ua r c an as t e a ne

gh 0 h p i ib h i i i h i h i m by
, , ,

p a s s es h t r ou 0d t e o nt es c r es t e c o n c s ec t o n n w c 1
< ) s et
q di
,

t h e g t
ta n e n
p l f O 1 V h
a ne f h
o p l Q 7at h e r e or e t e a ne t ou c es a ua r c c on e

ihv ip l i g d i f by
.

w t 0 ( h p l
er t ex a t t e f h
o a r r ec r oc a n re ar to Q o t e s ect on o < 1)
hi t g ) Th i h h li ig i l pl t h , ,

t s pl
an en t h
a ne I i h s s ews t at t e ne n t e or na a ne, ou c es
i ; hi h i h p p i i ,
.

a c on c w c s t e re os t on

I f f = 0 b th q i q i f i
.

2
e f d (y) ( ) b A
e e u a t on o d B h S2, an z e an t e e u a t on o <1) s
q i v l p f th l i l i g i b l i
x , ,

fi Th f h e e u a t on o t e en e o e o e ne s ve n e ow n

h Ad d i i h Ad d i i
.
g

t e p 1 4 2 ( Cf l
t on to .
p . . a so t e t on to .

p 4 9 Th p p i i e f E 25 i
ro lly os t d i
t on h o d p x.
g ph s r ea s ta e n t e s e co n ara ra

d i g ( R J Ly i
. .

o f p 44 p rece ) F n
y p l on s m h or a n c on c , ou t o ar t o S2, e et s t e
i p i jg i g d d hi
. . . .

p l o ar f J i o g d n re A Bar to Q n o nts con u a te n re ar to Q an t s

i ,
, , , ,

p l
o a r con t a n s h p l 0 f I ] i
t eg d o e, ( Cf l p 8 o0b l ) n re ar to 9 a so e ow
i i i i i i
. . . .
,

Th p p e ro i i osG k t on T h G m s l C
n
‘ as f n, C e eo etr ca ons tr u c t on o a on c

C m b i dg 1 85 2 p 3 3 S l F a r e, A ,
d M h . . ee a s o a u re, ou v . nn . c at . x xx

p 23 4
i gi g li i f G k i h m L U 0 V = 0 W= 0
. .

’
Th f ll e o ow n s a e ner a s a t on o as n s t eor e : et
i i hi h i i p l
, ,

b e an y h t r ee d b c on c s , a n 2 ll h e a ; l b
c on c w c s n o ar to a t es e e t <1) e

t h di e i f i g d
r e ct or c o n c o bi y p i
2 n I J Th
re ar i h to tw o ar tra r o nt s er e s t en a

d fi i i AU + V + W = O h i h p hi h A
, .

e n te c on c 1¢ h gh I v d J i w c a s s es t r ou an n w c p, v
t i li d p p i i hi i , ,

a r e c er a n Th g
co n s t a n t s i h e en era se re os t on s t at t s c on c c u t s (I) a t
ight g l i h p G ki
.

d J( m i h p
’
r an es w t I p r es e ct hto an v. as n s t e or e s t e ar

f hi i hi h U V W li i i i i
.

t i l
cu a r ca s e o t s h h n w p c g t d a re t e t r ee n e- a r s co n t a n n a r a

f p i
, ,

o lf p l
o nt s s e i g d
-
o ar n re ar to 2 .

p 6 5 It m y b i d ht h h m f h
a e n ot c e id d t a q i
t e t e or e o t e c ent r o oe s n ot r e u re

i l vi g i p i
. .

m b h h m f h th
’
P ppa th us s eore ut t e t e or e o t e or oc e n t r e , a s n vo n s x o nt s

i i v l ti q i hi (V l p
,

n n o ud on , oe s r e A th u re l t d th s m i th o . 1, . no er r e a te e or e s at
24 2 A d d it i o n s

p f i
1 07 F o r a u n ct on of a r e a l a r a b l e h a in g a n t e d iff e r e n t ia l c oe ffi v i v fi i
i i i
. .

c e n t , t h e r e is a t l e a s t o n e z e r o o f t h s b e t w e e n t w o z e r os o f t h e u n ct o n Th e f
i i i f i i
.

f o l l o w n g e x t e n s on t o a p ol y n om a l u n ct on o f a co m p l e x a r a bl e
( in t h e v
fi rst i
n s t a n c e o f t h e t h r d or d e r ) s e e m s t o d e s e r e m e nt on : Let ( a l , i v i
( a 2, 62, 1 ) ( a 3 , b3 , 1 ) b e t h e c o or d n a t es o f a n y t h r e e p o n t s , n ot l y ng on th e l n e i i i i
i
Th e t a n g e n t a l e u a t o n s o f t h e s e p o nt s w l l t h e n b e u a 1 q i i i
e tc , s a y I U
0, e t c I t oll o w s t h a t t h e e u a t o n U 2 U 3
: U3 I f I U2 0 is t h e q i U U :

i i i ji i
. .

q
t a n g e n t a l e u a t o n o f a co n c t o u ch in g t h e t h r e e o n s o f t h e p o n t s In pa r
i i ji i i
.

t ic u l a r t h e p o n t o f c on t a c t w t h t h e o n o f t h e p o n t s U 2 , U 3 , o b ta n a b l e b y
t h e o p e r a t o r u a/au
’
is t h e p o n t U 2 + U 3 = 0 Th s is t h e i i
i i i ji
.

h a r mon c of the p o nt U2 U 3 = O, in w h ch t h e o n m e e t s a = o ( w h o s e c oor

d in a t e s a r e u = 0, w w t h r e s p e c t t o t h e t w o p o n t s U2, U 3
'
Th u s i i
i i i ji iv i
.

t h e r e e x s t s a c on c t o u ch n g t h e t h r e e o n s of t h e g e n p o n t s , a t t h e m id
p o i
n t s o f t h e s e o n s w t h r e s ec t t o a = o E x 2 9 ,
p ji
( p i
i i ji i
. .

N o w t h e c oor d n a t e s o f t h e l n e o n in g a p o n t ( x , y , z) t o t h e p o in t ( 1 i,
on 2 O, a r e z, iz, x iy ) ; if
t h e s e b e s u b s t t u t e d f o r u , v, w in t h e t a n g e n t a l i i
q i i
e u a t io n o f t h e c on c , t h e r e s u l t w l l e x r e s s t h a t t h e ta n g e n t r o m ( x , y , 2 )
p f
p a s s es t h r ou h t h e p o n t ( 1 , i,
g i
Th e s u b s t t u t on in u a 1 + c b1 + w l e a d s t o
“ i i
( l+ i b1 ) H e w r te g f or ( x + iy ) z if i 1
a n d y l f or a 1 + ib1 , a n d
—
a z n
e ce , w
i —
,

i i
.

”
a ls o w r te g f o r ( x iy ) z e co n c ( c f
1 ’
a nd f o r a i b etc t h e f oc o f t h
y
i i i i i
l l 1 ,
. .

p 1 1 9 ) a r e t h e n t e r s e c t o n s of t h e t w o l n e s e x p r e s s e d b y t h e s n g l e e u a t o n
. q
—
(C r ) z

w i h th t l i
t e wo n es e x p r e s s e d b y t h e r e s u l t o f s u b s t t u t n g C, f or i i “
i nhi tq i s e u a t on . Th i q i
s e u a t o n is ob ta n a b l e b
y d ff e i
r e n t a t n g , in r e g a r d t o g, i i i
t h q i
e e u a t on

(5 7 1) (C 7 2) (C 7 3) 0 .

We m a y t h u s s a y , if on t h e p l a n e r e p r e s e n t n g a co m p l e x a r a b l e a t r a d of i v i i
i
p o n t s b e g en iv
t h e f o c o f t h e c on c t o u c h n g t h e o n s o f t h e p a r s i i i ji i
o f t h e t r a d a t t h e r m id i
p o n t s a r e g e n by i -
i iv
i i i
A p r e c s e l y s m l a r t r ea t m e n t d e t e r m n e s t h e ta n g e n t a l e u a t o n of a c u r e i i q i v
o f cl a s s ( n — i
l ) t ou c h n g t h e o n s o f n a r b t r a r y p oiii t s , t a k e n in o r d e r , e a c h ji i
a t it s m id i
p o n t ; a n d d e t e r m n e s t h e f oc o f t h s c u r e
-
i i i v .

p 1 14 F or th e fi n a l s ta t e m e n t in E x 8 , s e e Mo r l e y, B u ll A mer Ma th
i
. . . . . .

S oc . 1
p 1 1 6, . a nd t h e N ot e , P r oc Oa mb P h l S oc x x
. . . .
p 1 1
. 9 .

p 1 2 6 It ma y b e v er ifi ed t h a t t h e t a ng e n t s at t he c o mm o n po i n ts o f the
i
. .

t wo c r c l es

x2
2
2 um h2z3
‘0 x
2 2
2 br 1122 2 0
y , y e

t o u ch t h e c on c i A [re é ( a b) By 2 = 2
2
,

w h er e ( a b) 2
B
*1
=
=h2 a b i
Th s c o n c h a s f oc i i at t h e ce n t r es of

i i i ii
, .

th e tw o c r cl e s ; it s t a n g e n t s cu t t he t w o c r c l e s h a r m on ca l l
( C f t h e Add t on
y . .

to p .

p i ii
1 4 2 Th e s m pl c t y o f t h e t h e or y o f t h e n a r a n t s of c on cs is r ea d l y i v i i i
i i i i fi i
. .

s e e n w t h t h e u s e o f a c e r ta n s y m b o l c a l n ot a t o n , r s t n t r o d u ce d by a ley
y C
( P a p er s , 1 , p 9 5 etc b u t s y s t e m a t s e d b y C l e b s c h ( B in a lg F or men,
. . i . .

1 8 72 )
C id fi
o ns di y bi ery q d ti f m + 2h y + by
rs t a n Ch g or na r na r ua ra c or ax
2
x
2
an e

i ii g i
.
,

th e n ot a t o n , w r f d y d f h b N
t n x 1, x2 or x a n an a n , ( 1 1 2, (1 22 or a ow nt r o

j i
.
, , ,

d uce t w o s y m b l b h d y l f l g b b b l
o s , a l , a 2, s u
p e ct to t e or na r aws o a e ra , u t ca a e

of i p i
n t e r r eta t mb ly i p d f d i g t th
on a s l nu ers on n ro u cts o t w o, a c co r n o e ru e
Th h f m en b t
p d by
e or x 22 ca n e re r es ente

( at, x 1 + ) hi h i a 2 x
p 2
d by } A d 2
ym b l i f m
,
w m c ig s ex r es s e a . n a s o c or a ,c a
,,
ea n n
 A dd ition s 243

( a 1 x1 +a +a 1a 2 be
re re
p i ng a 1 2 $1 y 1
i v i i
~

a m (x 1 2
s e n t s a n 321 y l y y )
x2 1 + x zy z T h s a n s h es w h e n t h e p o n t ( x 1 , x 2)
i j i i i
.

is t h e h a r m o n c c on u g a t e o f t h e p o n t ( y 1 , y 2 ) in r e g a r d t o t h e p a r o f p o n t s
iv v
g en b y th e a n s h n g of th e or g na l f or m i i I w e h a e a s econ d u a d r a t c ii f v q i
f or m o r b} , t h e c on d t on t h a t t h e
p a r of p o nt s g e n b y t h e ii i i iv
va n s h n i i
g of on e o f t h e s e f or m s s h ou l d b e h a r m o n c in r e g a r d t o t h e p a r o f i i
i iv i
p o n t s g e n b y t h e ot h e r , w h c h is
“ 11 622 2 a mbl z “ 22 61 1 0:

ca n be r e p r e s e nte d s y m b ol c a l l i y by ( a l bz i w h ch ca n be w r tt e n i
We c a n n ot , h ow e ver, ih f
w t ou t u r t he r c on
—
v i e n t o n , e x p r e s s in t h e
s y m b ol c i f or m , f o r i n s t a n ce , th e di imi
s cr n a n t a n a gg 2
ii q
a 12 of t h e or
g na l u a d
r a t ic , i
s n ce
2
a 1 a2
2
( a1a2 2 ) va n sh esi We th u s re pl h di
a ce i mi t e s cr na n t by
l im
.

$( 1
’
Wh e r e
’
a 1 a 22 a gz a u a re u ly
t b a te tO e a n , 0 1 2, 0 22,
a nd i n t r od u c e s y m b ol s d
’
l , a 2 ,
’
to r ep r e s e nt a ll
'
et c hi h l im w c a re u t a t el
y
q iv ih ,

i f ,
.

e u a l en t w t a
l,
a 2. Th e n we ha v e th e s y m b ol c or m
’z 2 ’2
az 02 a 1 2 61 1 61 2 .

or %( a l a2
’
a za l)
b e w r tt e n
' 2
a nd th i s ca n i
Wh e n we
,

q i
p a s s t o a u a d r a t c f or m in t h r e e h om og e n e ou s a r a b l e s x 1 , x 2, x 3 , v i
if i i
w e s m l a r l y i n t r o d u ce t h r ee s y m b ol s a l , a 2 , a 3 , t h e e u a t o n o f a c on c m a
y q i i
b e r e p r e s e nt e d b y ( a 1 x 1 + a 2 w h ch m a y b e w r t t e n a x2 = 0 T hen i i
ii i
.

t h e c on d t on t h a t t w o p o n t s , (x 1 , x 2, x 3 ) a n d ( y 1 , y 2, y 3 ) , o r s a y ( to) a n d (y ),
j
s h o u l d b e c on u g a t e in r e g a r d t o t h s c o n c is r e p r e s e n t e d by a x a y Th s is o h i i i
vi i i i
.

o n s a t o n c e on n t e r p r et a t on B u t a l s o it m a y b e r e m a r k e d t h a t t h e p o n t s ,
i ji i i i
.

on th e l n e o n n g (x ) a n d (y ), w t h c oo r d n a t e s ( Am1 + y 1 , A1 72 + y 2 ,
i i
w h c h l ie 0 11 t h e c on c a x2 = 0, c o r r e s p on d t o t h e t w o a l u e s of A g e n by t he v iv
e q u a t on i
Az a x2 + 2 Ad ,c a ll a
2
,,
0,

w h i ch is a nd, in t h a t t h e s e p o n t s s h o u l d b e h a r m on c in
or d e r i i
r eg a r d toit is (x ) a nd ( y) n ec e s s a r
y t h a t th e t w o a l u e s of A s h ou l d b e e u a l v q
a nd of O
p p os te s g n T h s i i ,

i q
l e a d s t o t h e e u a t on a x a y = 0 A s m l a r m e t h o d i i i
iv ii i i i
. .

a t on c e g e s t h e c o n d t o n f or a l n e , o f c oo r d n a t e s u l , u 2 , u 3 , t o m e e t t w o c o n c s
ax
2=
0, bx 2=
0, in t w o p a r s o f m u t u a l l y h a r m o n c p o n t s i
F or (y ), ( e) b e a n y i i if
i i i
.

“ “
t w o p o n t s o f t h s l n e , a n d t h e r e f or e

1 3 2 23
—3 3 2 2:
“
3 1
3
3: 3

th e c on d ii
t on tha t the r oot s o f o n e o f the q u a dr a t c e i q i u a t on s in A

s h ou l d b e h a r m on i c c on u a t e s
g j in r eg a rd t o th e r oo t s o f th e ot h e r is (p . 111)

b 2
2 a y a z b,, bz + a , 2 b,,
. .

w h i ch is -
a ,, by or

2=
[ (a 2 b3 a3 bz) u 1 + ( a 3 b1 01 b3 ) u 2 + ( a 1 b2 b
a z 1 ) u 3] 0 .

Th i s we wr i te I t is t h e t a n g e n t i al e q u a t o n of i th e c o n c ofi E x 2 0, .

p 44
ii i i
.

2=
Th e c on d t o n t h a t t h e l n e ( i t ) s h o u l d t ou c h 0, f o u n d a s t h e t h e con c a x
ii
co n d t o n t h a t t h e f or m e r o f t h e t w o u a d r a t cs in A s h o u l d h a e e u a l r o ot s , q i v q
}
is ca a } b u t a s t h s n o l e s t h e c o e ffi c e n t s in t h e e u a t on o f i i v v i q i
i i i
.

t h e c on c t o t h e s e c o n d d e g r e e , it c a n b e e x p r es s e d s y m b o l c a l l y o n l y b y n t r o
d u c in g o t h e r s ym b ol s a l , a 2 , a 3 , u l t m a t e l y e u a l e n t w t h a ], a 2, a 3 ; n a m e l y
’ ’ ’
i q iv i
by w r t n g it a s ii ’z
a} a
y )
2 ’ ’
a ,, 2a , a , a , a , 0,

1 6— 2
 244 Ad d ition s

or Th i i —
q i
is th e t a n g e n t a l e u a t on of t h e c on c I t is e r u s ua l
s
y
—
i v
i iv
.

t o w r t e 011 , a 2, a 3 r e s p e c t e l y f o r a 2 a 3
’ ’
a 3 a2 , a3 a 1
' ’
a 1a3 , a a2
’
— ’
a 2a 1 ; the n
i
t h e t a n g e n t a l e u a t o n is w r t t e n u a 2 = q i i 1

i i i i
To e x pr e s s s y m b ol c a ll y t h e d s c r m n a n t of t h e c on c , w h ch is of t h e t h r d i i i
i i i
d eg r e e in t h e c oe ffi c e n t s , it is s m l a r l y n e c e s s a r y t o u s e t h r e e u l t m a t e l i
e u q iv a l e nt s e ts o f s y m b ol s , s a
y ( a ), T h e m e t h o d c a l m a n n e r o f nt r o
y
i i
i i i i
““
d u c m g t h es e is t o op e r a t e o n t h e r ea l c u b c f o r m o f t h e d s c r m n a n t

i n s u c ce s s w n by
1 1 0 22 33 2 61 23 0 3 1 “ 12 e tc .

a 8
o t o . + a 23 0 0 0
,
aa 23
s o r e d u c ng i it t o a f or m l i n ea r in e a c h of

(a n o .
) 0 0 0
, (1 23

a nd t h e n t o r e p l a c e e a ch coe ffi c e n t b y t h e s y m b o l s , by a , a, b y a , a, i
,
i i i
Th e r e s u l t is t h a t t h e d s c r m n a nt is r e p r es e n t e d by fl a a a ”) 2, w h e r e ( a a ’a ”)
’

i
m e a n s , a s b e f o r e , t h e d et e r m n a nt o f t h r e e r ow s a n d c ol u m n s of w h c h t h e i
i
d a g on a l t e r m is a l a g a s
’ ”

i i i i
.

H e n c e w e m a y e x p r e s s t h e d s c r m n a n t o f t h e c on c Aa x2 + bx2 = 0, f o r m e d
i
f r om t w o d ff e r e n t c on c s a ,, = O, bx2 = 0, in t h e or m i f

w h er e
'
b, b , b
”
a re a ls o e q i
u va l e n t s y m b ol s ; so t h a t , in t h e n ot a t on o f i p 1 4 2 of
.

t h e t e xt ,

-
A = 16=

W i
h enc e , u s ng a s a b o e a 1 = a 2 a 3 , et c
= v
Bl b2 b3 b3 b2 , e t c w e m a y
’ ’ ’
—a 3 a 2 ’
—
i ii i
. .

w r t e 6 = § b4 , An d the c on d t on tha t the con c a z z = 0 s hou l d be ou t

2

p ola r to the c on c u 3
2=
i
0 is exp r es s ed by a 5 2=
0
i i i iv i
.

q
Th e e u a t o n o f th e d r e c t o r c on c ( p 2 6 ) o f a g e n c on c a ,, = O, in r e g a r d
iv i i ii i jii
.

t o t w o g e n p o n t s (y ), ( z), b e n g t h e c o n d t o n t h a t t h e l n e s o n n g t h e
v a r a bl e
p i
o nt ( r
) t i
o (y ) a n d ( 2 ) s h o u l d b e c o n u g a t e in r e s p e c t t o t h e c on c j i
i jii
.

v
e n el o p e O, is e x p r e s s e d , in t e r m s o f t h e c oor d n a t e s ( c ), ( w ) o f th e s e o n n g
i
l n e s , b y c a w a = 0, or , a t u l l er l e n g t h , b y (xy a ) f
T h s l a s t , in t e r m s i
q i
o f t h e e u va l e n t s y m b ol s ( a ), ( a ) f o r t h e p o n t e u a t on of t h e c on c , 011 b e n
’

g i -
q i i i
a s b e f or e , is t h e s a m e a s
’ ’
a 2a 3 a 3 a 2 , et c .

aza z

th i s, in u n s ym b o l i ca l f o r m , is

a nd i v ifi
is t h e n e a s l y e r e d t o b e t h e c on d t on t h a t t h e s eg m e nt o n ng (y ) t o ii jii
ivi
( 2 ) s h ou l d b e d d e d h a r m on ca l l y b y t h e t w o ta n g ezn t s r o m ( w) t o t h e c on c , i f i
w h os e e u a t o n q i
w t hi( 5) a s c u r r en t c oo r d n a t e i s a a
5
2
i
v if ii i
, , x .

I t is e a s y a l s o t o e r y ( a ), t h a t t h e c on d t o n t h a t t h e l n e ( u ) s h o u l d m e et
th e c on c s i bx 2=
0, cx 2=
0 in t h r e e p a r s o f p o n t s in n ol u t on , is e x i i iv i
pr es s e d by
b b = 0;
( c u )( c a u )( a u )
i
t h s is t h e n t h e t a n g e n t a l e i q i
u a t on o f th e c ub c eni v e l op e c on s id er ed b e l o w , in
ii
t h e Ad d t o n t o p 1 4 5 , a n d ca l l e d the C yl y
a e a n of the thr ee c o n es i ; a n d ( b),
i i
.

th a t t h e Ja c o b a n of th e t hr e e c on c s is e xpr es s ed by ( a bc) a , b,, c, = 0 .

24 6 A dd ition s

w h os e t a n g e n t a l e u a t o n i q i is
h a e t w o c omm o n p o nt s , u 0 I f th e t h r e e c on c s i v i
b id i
.

w e m a y s u p po s e , es e t h e t h r e e c o e ffi me n t s a , t h a t a l s o t h e t h r e e c o e ffi c e n t s
i
b a r e z e r o T h e d e t e r m n a n t is t h e n t h e p r o d u ct of a c a n d a f a ct or l n e a r in i
i i i i
.

v
u , v, w ; t h e e n e l o p e t h e n c o n s s t s o f t h r e e p e n c l s o f l n e s , t w o w t h c e n t r e s

a t t h e c om m on p o n t s , a n d a n ot h e r i
I , in m et r ca l t e r m s , w e s p ea k o f t h e c on c s f i i
i i i i i
.

a s c r cl e s , in t h s c a s e , t h s is t h e t h e or e m t h a t a n y l n e t h r o u g h t h e r a d c a l
i i
ce n t r e o f t h e c r cl e s , in w h c h t h e t h r e e r a d c a l a x e s o f t h e c r c l e s c o in t e r s e c t i i
i
( p 70 a b o e), c u t s t h e c r cl e s in t h r e e p a r s of p o n t s in n ol u t o n I t h e t h r e e
v i i iv i f
i i i
. .

c o n c s b e s u c h t h a t t h e r e is a p o n t w h os e p o l a r l n e is t h e s a m e f o r a l l , w e
fii
m a y s u p p os e t h e coe f c e n t s 9 , h in a l l t h e c o n cs t o b e z e r o t h e d et e r m n a n t i i
then a g a n d i ivi
d e s b y u , a n d t h e e n e l o p e c on t a n s t h e p e n c l o f l n e s t h r o u g h v i i i
t h e c o mm o n p ol e I n m e t r c a l t e r m s w e m a y s a y t h a t t h e t w e l e c om m o n i v
i i
.

ch o r d s o f t h r e e c on c s w h c h h a e a co mm o n c en t r e , ot h e r t h a n t h e s ix c om m on v
i
d a m e t e r s , a l l t ou ch t h e s a m e c on c o n e r s e l y , b y c o n s d e r n g t h e l n e s of i C v i i i
i i i
.

v
t h e e n e l op e t h r o u g h t h e nt e r s ect o n s o f t w o of t h e c on c s , w e p r o e t h a t if v
i v i
t h e cu b c e n e l o p e c o n t a n a p e n c l o f l n e s t h r o u g h a p o n t , t h e n t h s p o n t is i i i i i
i
e t h e r comm on t o t h e t h r ee c on ic s , o r h a s t h e s a m e p ol a r l n e in r e g a r d t o a ll ; i
i
t h e f o r m e r r e q u r e s on l y o n e con d t o n f or t h e c on c s , w h l e t h e l a tt e r r e u r es ii i i q i
tw o
i i f h i i
.

N o w , r e t u r n n g t o t h e h yp oth e s s o t r ee t r a d s o f t a n g e nt s o f a g i e n c on c , v
we ma
y t a k e f o r t h e c on c s i U
V , W t h os e of w h c h ea ch c o n ta n s t h e s ix in i i
,

ii f
t e r s ec t ion s a r s n g r o m t w o t r ia d s of t a n g e n t s Th e c u b c e n e l op e b e l on g n g i v i
i i ii i
.

to U
V , W m u s t t h e n c o n t a n a ll t h e n n e ta n g e n t s o f t h e o r g n a l con c, e a ch
,

i
of w h c h is a c o m m on c h o r d o f t w o o f t h e c o n c s V , W As a c u b c e n e l o p e i U i v
i ii i i
.
,

co n t a n s in g e n e r a l o n l y s ix t a n g e n ts of t h e o r g n a l c on c e n ve l o p e , w e n f e r
i v
t h a t t h e c u b c e n el o p e in t h s c a s e c o n s s t s o f t h s c o n c e n e l op e , t og e t h e r i i i i v
w th a i i i
p e n c l of l n e s t h r o u g h a p o n t , a n d h e n ce , in g e n e r a l t h a t t h e t h r e e i
i U i
,

co n c s V , W h a e a c om m on p o n t v
o n v e r s e l y , t h e t h e or e m s t a t e d a s t o C
i i i i i
.
,

t h e n n e c om m on c h or d s o f p a r s o f t h r e e c o n c s w h c h h a e a c o m m on p o n t v
( o t h e r t h a n t h e c h o r d s t h r o u h th s
g p o n t ) — t h a t t h es e n n e c h o r d s t o u ch a i i i
c on c — ol l o w s a t o n ce
i f
ii i
.

I n r e g a r d n o w t o t h e p r o p os t o n r e f e r r e d t o a b o e , f r om w h c h a p r oof o f v
i
t h s r e s u l t m a y b e c o n s t r u ct e d n d e p e n d e n t l y o f t h e c u b c e n v e 10 p e : Le t t h e i i
i
l n e s B O, GA , A B , a s w el l a s t h e l n e s B O ,
’ ’
a n d t h e l ne i i
i
SI , b e n n e t a n g e n t s of a c o n c Q L e t f d e n ot e t h e con c c o n ta n n g A , B , O, i i i i
i i i J
.

; a nd l et H be t h e f ou r th
’ ’ ’
t h e co n c c o n t a n n g A , B , O , S , I ,
’
S , I, J, a n d f
c o mm o n
p o n t o f t h i
e c o n ics f ,f
i

’
F u r t h e r , l e t B O, B 0 m e e t I J i n
’
a nd
’ ’
X X
iv iv i
.
,

r e s e ct
p e l y
'
a n d H A , H A m e e t I J in
’
r e s e ct
p e l y w h l e H S m e e t s If U U
i , ,

i i i
, ,

in K, a n d t h e c o n c Q t o u ch e s I J in F Th e n t h e n vol u t o n d e t e r m n e d b y t h e
i i i X U i
.

J
t w o p a r s I, a n d K, F c o n t a n s t h e pa r s a nd X ,
’
; a n d h e n c e c on t a n s U ’

i ,

f o u r o th e r p a r s o b ta n e d b y r e pl a c n g A b y B o r O a n d A by B or G i ’ ’
F or i ’

i
.

t h e t r a d s A , B , G a n d S , I, J a r e ( E x 2 1 , p 4 5 ) b ot h s e l p ol a r in r e g a r d t o f -

i i i i
. .

t h e s a m e c o n c , w t h r e s p e ct t o w h c h f a n d Q a r e p ol a r r e c p r o c a l s ( E x 2 4 ,
i i
.

p t h u s the r a n e of
g p o n t s A , B , O, S , I, o n t h e c o n c j; a s s e e n r om a n y J f
i i i i
.

o n t 0 o f t h s c o n c , is r e l a t e d t o t h e r a n g e , on a n y ta n g e n t of t h e c o n c Q ,
p
i i
o b t a n e d b y t h e n t e r s e c t on s o f th s w t h t h e r e s p e c t i i i
e l y o p p os t e t a n g e n t l n e s iv i i
o f Q , B C, CA , A B , I J , J S , S I We c on s d e r t h s r a n g e on I J ; if B C, CA , A B , i i
iv X i
.

C
OA OB , O , OS m e e t I J r e s p e c t e l y in Y Z P R T t h e s e l a s t f o u r a r y ng
Q v
v
a s 0 a r es o n ], a n d F b e t h ei .

p o n t
, , , , , , ,

w h e r e Q t ou c h e s I J , w e n f e r t h a t t h e r a n g e i i
P , T, I, J is r e l a t e d t o t h e r a n g e F , , I, w h ch s h e w s t h a t X
P b el ong t o J i X
iv i
t h e n ol u t o n d e t e r m n e d b y I , J a n d T, F
,

i ,

I n p a rt c u l a r w h e n 0 is a t H , i
i iv
.

t h e p o n t s P , T b e c o m e t h os e a b o e d e n ot e d b y K r e s
p e c t e l y, a n dv w e h a e U v
v
, ,

t h e r e s u l t s ta t e d a b o e T o c o m pl e t e t h e t h e o r e m u n d e r c on s d e r a t on , it is t h e n i i
i i i ii
.

f
t o b e s h e w n , r o m t h e r e l a t on s o b ta n e d , t h a t t h e c on c c on ta n n g A , B , O
”

’ ’ ’
a n d A , B , 0 h a s H f o r it s f o u r t h n t e r s e c t on w t h f o r f
’
i i i .
 Ad d ition s 24 7

I t c a n b e s h e w n t h a t a ny t h r e e co n c s O, V O, W = O m a y b e r eg a r d e d i U :

a s t h e p ol a r c on c s o f t h r e e p r o p e r l i y c h os e n p o n t s w t h r e s p e c t t o a s n g l e i i i
i
cub c c u r e, s a y F v An y con c h U + p V + v W= O is t h e n t h e p ol a r co n c of i i
i i i
.

a n ot h e r p o n t , in r e g a r d t o t h e s a m e c u b c F Th e c u b c e n e l op e w e h a e v v
i i
.

d s c u s s ed is t h e n c a l l e d t h e Ca y ley a n o f F I t is c l e a r r o m o u r d e d u c t on t h a t f
i i i i
.

a n y l n e of t h e C
a y l e y a n m a k e s u , w t h a n ot h e r l n e a d e e n e r a t e c o n c o f
p g
,

t h e s y s t e m AU + p V + v W = O ( a n d t h e ot h e r l n e is t h e n e d e n t l y a l s o a l n e i vi i
of t h e a le a n)
y y C I w e n ow c on s d e r t h e c on c e n e l o pe s w h c h a r e in p ol a r
f i i v i
i i i
.

t o a l l of U
= O V = O W = O t h e s e e x r e s s e d in ta n e n t a l c oor d n a t e s w l l
p g
i i
, , , , ,
q f
e u a ll y or m a l n e a r s y s t e m o f t h r e e t e r m s , s a y in w h c h
a , r a r e pa r a met er s ( c f a n d w e ma
p p y, d u a l l y t o w h a t h a s p r e c e d e d ,
'

i i i i i i
. .
,

c o n s d e r t h e l oc u s o f t h e p o n t s o f d e g e n e r a t e p o n t
pa r s b e l on g n g t o t h s
-

i
l a t t e r s ys t e m B u t a p o n t p a r in p ol a r t o a co n c c o n s s t s ( p p 3 6 , 1 4 4 ) o f t w o
-
i i i
i i j i
. .

o n t s w h ch a r e c on u g a t e in r e g a r d t h e r e t o T h u s t h e l oc u s w h os e c on s d e r a
p
i i i i j
.

t o n is s u g g e s t e d is t h a t o f p a r s o f p o n t s w h c h a r e c o n u g a t e t o o n e a n ot h e r
i
in r e g a r d t o a ll th e c on c s o f t h e s ys t e m h U + p V + v W 0 S u c h p o n t s a r s e : i i
i
.

f
n a t u r a l l y r om w h a t h a s b e e n s a d F o r on a n y t a n g e n t o f t h e a yl e ya n t he r e C
i i i i iv i
.

is a p a r o f p o n ts w h c h a r e t h e d ou bl e p o n t s of t h e n ol u t on c u t t h e r e on
i
b y a ll t h e c omic s of t h s s y s t e m ; a n d t h e s e a r e c on u g a t e t o o n e a n ot h e r in j
r e g a r d t o a l l t h es e c o n c s i
Th u s t h e l oc u s s u g g e s t e d is t ha t of p o n t s w h os e i
i
.

p o l a r l n e s i n r e a r d to
g 0 V = O W = U
O a r e c o n c u r r e n t ; a s w e s e e a t on c e
i , ,

i
b y f o r m n g t h e d e t e r m n a n t a l e u a t on w h c h e x p r e s s es t h e c on d t on , t h e q i i ii
i v
l oc u s is a c u b c c u r e I t i s t h a t k n ow n a s t h e J a c ob a n o f t h e t h r e e c on c s i i
fi ii i i
. .

An ot h e r d e n t o n o f t h e c u r e is p os s bl e , n a m e l y t h e l oc u s o f t h e p o n t of v
i i i
n t e r s e c t o n o f t h e t w o l n e s o f a l n e p a r o f a d e g e n e ra t e c o n c o f t h e s y s t e m i -
i i
h U -i p V + v W = O—a s w e m a y e a s l y p r o e ; a t a d ou b l e p o n t o f t h e n ol u t o n , i v i iv i
o n a ta n g e n t o f t h e a l e a n, b
y y C
y t h e s e c on c s , t h e r e a r e t w o co n c d e n t n t e r i i i i
i i i i
s e c t on s o f t h s l n e w t h a c o n c o f t h e s y s t e m ; t h e r e is in f a c t a l n e p a r , o f i i i -

C
t w o t a n g e n t s o f t h e a y l e y a n , w h c h n t e r s e c t a t t h s p o n t F r om t h s it f o l l o w s i i i i i
i i
.

th a t w e m a y r eg a r d t h e C
a l e a n a s t h e Ja c ob a n o f t h e s s t e m o f c on c
y y y
v
e n el o pe s , in p o l a r t o t h e o r g n a l s y s t e m ; o r t h e Ja cob ia n o f ii
ii i
t h e or g n a l s y s t e m a s b e n g t h e l oc u s o f p o n t s r om w h ch t h e p a r s of t a n g e n t s i f i i
t o 6 , Q , i f f o r m a p e n c l in n o l u t o n i iv i
i
.

I n r e g a r d t o t h e m a t t e r s h e r e d e a l t w t h r e f e r e n c e m a y b e m a d e t o H es s e ,
U e be r C i
a r ven d r f ten or d n , Cr el le , x x x v r a le ,
y y u r ves o f the th r d C C i
i i i
.

or d er P a p er s , 1 1 , p 3 8 1 ; r e m on a , In t r od u z on e a d u n a te or a g eometr ca C
i
.

d e lle cu r ve p ia no, B ol og n a , 1 8 6 1 ( Op er e, t S a l m on , H g her P l a n e Cu r ves ;

iq i i
.

P c u et ( l oo . v
S e e r a l o f t h e f ol l o w n g e x a m p l es a r e s u g g e s t e d b y t h s l a s t .

( ) a In a s y s t e m o f c on cs i h U + ju V + v W= O a r e t h r e e w h os e e q i
u a t on s c a n

b e t a ke n t o h a v e th e f or m s

+ 2 my z = = 0,
2 2
a y + 2 m z x

w h e r e m is a c on s t a n t ; an d t h e s ys t em of c o n cs i in p ol a r t o t h i s s y s te m is b a s e d
u p on t h r e e ex pr es s e d by
ma 2 —v w = 0, m vz —w a = o, m w
g — u v= 0 .

( b) Th r e e c o n cs i ha vi n
g tw o c om m o n p o i
n ts ca n be s u pp os e d t o h a ve e q ua

=
( 1,
i

a nd t h e Ja co bia n of t he s e h a s the e q u a t on i
2
2 ( z 2 xy ) : O .

Th e c o n c z i
2r y = 0 c u t s z
a l l t h r ee g iv e n c o n cs a t r i ig h t an
g l e s in r e s p e ct o f

t h e t w o c o m m o n p o n ts i .
24 8 A d d i tio n s

( 0) Th r e e c o n i cs w i th a c o mm on
p ol e a nd
p ol a r l i n e a r e c a a b l e of
p t h e f o r ms
= 1 2, 3
( i , )
a nd the i i
Ja c ob ia n c on s s t s of th e c omm on p ol a r l ne 2: = 0, t og et h er w ith a p a r
r i i
o f l in e s t h r o u g h t h e c omm on p ol e .

( d ) Th r o u g h t h e f ou r co m m o n p o nt s o f a n y t w o of a s e t o f t h r ee c on cs i i
c a n b e d r a w n a con c t o h a e t w o g i
en p o n t s a s c o n u g a t e
p o n t s T he t h r e e v iv i j i
i i
.

s u c h c o n cs h a e f o u r c o m m o n p o n t s v .

( e) I f c on cs i i
w h ch a r e r e c t a n g u l a r
g i y h y p er b ol a s in re ard to tw o arb tr a r
p i o nts I J ( p 83 ) b d h gh e
g iv ra w n
p i A B t y li
r ou hi h i tw o en o nts an ne w c s
t ig h i i p i fp i f
, .
,

g d t I J
,

a r
gl
t an AB i es to t th n re a r o cu s e s e c on cs n a rs o o nts o
an i vl in o u t on
, ,

—
.

(f ) I y m
n a s f i
s te A U I V lo W = 0 h
c on c s i hi h i - i l p
' '
V t er e s on e w c s a c r c e,
sa y Q ih p w t r es bi
ect y p i to tw o I J Th i l ih
ar t ra r y o nts e c r c e, w t ce n t r e o n a n
ih i h t d bl p i f
.
, ,

t an
g t en f t h oC y l y e f U a V W e h an o w c c on ta n s t e wo ou e o nts o
i v l ti hi i l ig ht g l ( p , , ,

th e n o u o n on g t th
t s ta n ent , c u s Cf e c rc e 9 at r an es
l i ti f G ki m g iv h Add it i
. .

b v i
’
th g e en er a sa on o th as n s t p 49
e or e en a o e n t e on o . .

(9 ) G iv y f en a n i h h
o u r c on c s , li h ig h i i
t ere a r e t r ee n es ea c cu tt n t e con cs n
f ou r p i f p i t
a rs o f h o n s om i v l ti tTh e sa i f e li
n ly i o u on er e a r e n a ct tw o n ea r n
i vlp hi h ig v
.

d p d
e en en t c on c e n y e o i p les , t
sa ll h f 9 Q w c are n o ar o a t e ou r en
i (p ig
, ,

c o n cs d i h t m
an h + n =O h t e s th d g
s e e pQ t er e a r e r ee ener a t n
y e
it pi pi
.

n o a o nt- a r .

p 1 4 7 Th f m hi h p i f q d ti p l y mi l U U h m
’
e or to w c a a r o ua ra c o no a s o o
i i i i
. .
, ,

g e n e ou s i v b
n n l ar a b m l l
e s , ca n
y d d b y l e s f u m ta n e o u s re u ce n ea r tr a ns or a t on

o f t h v i bl e ar a d p des , p h e h en f h di
s u im i
on t l q e c i i a r a ct e r o t e s cr n a n ta e u a t on n
h f h q
o t e d ti U ua ra W c pp h h h di im i e su f b h U os e ere t at t e s cr na nt o ot

d U i h h Th v i ib i l i i h ll i l d d i
’
an s ot er t a n z er o
p e a r ou s os s t es a re t en a nc u e n
i g F m ym b l m h h h m b f 9
.

th e s a te
t m f ll en t o ow n : or a s o ( s w er e t e nu er o
i i i
u
, ,

I m « f
y b a e n , or n l y 1 d h p t v g or p q on an t e os e nt e ers r

di g
, , ,

h v a e a m q l su e C ua p to n t k p v i bl or r e s y on
5; n to a e ar a es , s a
i fi i
.

c or r es p d i ong d n k q
’
v
to b l ta
y e n ; d ar a l l y “ es , s a
p d g an na co r r e s on n
v i bl v i bl 5
o a ,

to d z, k ta e r y ar a Th es sa Q h e n ar a es are t e t ra ns
f m d v i bl di g i d p i i
, ,

or e ar aTh es p en , c o r r es f q
on d n to w r te ow n a a r o ua ra t c

i i i i ly y
.

p y l
o m
no l i 5 a s n f f m g v m m d o or d s en e a te sa an c or r e

s
p d
on i g n b i t
to q d wr
p i
1,
f q e d i
ow n a
p l y m i l i a r o
y ua ra t c o no
,

a s n 711 , ry , s a Q
an d ;Q
’
fi l ly q
na p di g d c or r e si d p i
on f q d n i to z, wr te ow n a a r o
q
ua ra t c
q

p y l
o m
no i q
l i ( a s ( n y d W
,

T h l f
sa h f m h
an i h h
’
e ru e or t e or s w c t es e
i
1, r, r .

p l
o y m
no l m y h
a s v i h a m i a h e s d t m ye sab t d f e n ea c ca s e , a n a e s ta e or 6 p, 6 p
'

on ly ; h t es e a r e r e s
p iv l y e ct e

e p = §l fp f z £ p ‘
l‘
9 p + £ 1 §p 1 + £ z 51; - +£p - l £1 .

Th e r ed u c e d f o r m s f or t h e t w o or ig i na l
p ol yn om i als a re t h en s i mpl y

t h es e c o n t a n e x pl c i i i ly t onl y t h e c on s t a n t s 9 , l
xr , w h os e n u mb e r m a y b e
n , or n Th e s e con s ta n t s n ee d n ot a l l b e
or o n l y 1 . i
d ff e r e n t, a n d , in t h e
e x t r e m e c a s e , m a y a ll b e e u a l q
i i
.

F or t h e c a s e o f t w o c on cs c on s d e r ed in t h e t e x t , t h e s y m b ol s 9 2 (pl , 9 3 c or
r e s o n d t o t h e c a s e s o f t w o , o r t h r ee , co nc d e nt
p n t e r s e c t on s , r e s p e c t ely i i i i iv
iv iv
.

F o r t h e ot h e r c a s e s g e n in t h e t e x t th e r e s p e c t e s y m b ol s , in o r d e r , a r e
3 1 (pi 9 1 9 1 951 , 9 2 9 1
2 50 A d d ition s

( 0) We
m a y h a e t w o s e ts o f f ou r p o nt s , or m or e , on a l n e or o n a c on ic , v i i
a p ol a r t o o n e a n ot h e r , t h e c o n d t o n , a s f o r t w o s e t s o f t h r e e p o n t s , b e n g t h e ii i i
v i i ii
a n s h n g o f t h e b l n e a r 1 n va r ia n t o f t h e t w o e u a t on s w h c h d e t e r m n e t h e q i i i
s et s P r o ve , f o r e x a m p l e t h a t a n y co n c d d n g h a r m o n ca l l y o n e o n o f a i ivi i i ji
i i i iv i
.
,

t r a d o f p o n t s w h ch a r e s e l p ol a r in r e g a r d t o a g e n c on c Q , m e et s Q in f
-

f i i
o u r p o n t s w h c h a r e a p o l a r w t h t h e f o u r n t e r s ec t o n s of Q w t h t h e o t h e r t w o i i i i
i i
.

jo n s o f t h e s e l p ol a r t r a d f -
.

p 1 55 A d i s c u s s io n
f o u n d in E m of n on - Ar ch im e d ea n g e o m e t r
y w il l b e
i H ilb
. .

r iq u es , E n z y kl op ii d i e d Ma th W s s 1 1 1 , 1 , p p 1 1 7—1 2 9 ; e r t , Gr u n dl a g en
i
. . . .

d Geom K Th a h l e n A bs tr a kte Geom S e e a l s o t h e t r e a t s e of Ve r on es e , V

i i
. . . . .
,

F on d a m en t d i g eometr a , P a d o a , 1 8 9 1 v .

1 5 7 F o r e x p os t o n o f s om e o f t h e m a n y p r oof s of t h e e x s t e n ce o f t h e
p ii i
i q i
. .

r o ot s o f a n a l g e b r a c e u a t o n , r e f e r e n c e m a y b e m a d e t o N e tt o s A lg e br a , 1
’

( 1 8 96 ), p p 2 5 , 1 73 ; a n d t o E n r u e s , L e Ma tema t che elemen ta r , 1 1

. iq i i
p 1 86
. .

p 165 If w e
g e n p o n t in r e g a r d t o a g e n
c a n c on s t r u c t t h e p ol a r of a iv i iv
i i i
. .

w h c h is t h e in t e r s e c t ion o f t h e
p ol a r s o f’
’
c on c , w e c a n fi n d t h e p o n t P
a i
p o n t P in r e g a r d t o t w o g i e n c o n c s As P m o e s o n a n a r b t r a r y l n e , P v i v i i
d e s c r ib e s a c on ic t h r ou g h t h e t r a d of p o n t s s e l — i i i
.

p o l a r in r e g a r d t o b ot h c o n c s f
( s ee p i i
Th s t r a d is t h e n d e t e r m n a bl e b y t a k n g t h r e e a r b t r a r y l n e s i i i i
i i i i
.

Th e r e a d e r s h ou l d c on s u l t t h e d e ta l e d d s c u s s on i n P once l e t, Tr a te d es
’

P r op r iéte s P r ojectiues p 1 93 , et c
’

1, . .

1 7 8 F or a n
p . . i
e nt r e l y i
d ff e r e n t d i s c u s s on i s ee i
H l b e r t, Gr u n dla g en de r
Geom 1 9 2 3 , p 1 1 7 . . .

181
p S e e a l s o B on ol a , in E n r u e s , Le Ma tema t c he elementa r , 1 1 iq i i
j
. .

p 3 09 ; K Th a h l e n , A bs tr a kte Geom V
pp 2 5 8 , 2 6 1 ; J H el m s l e v
i
. . . . . .
,

Ma th A n n L x rv p 4 7 2 ; H l b e r t , Gr u n dl a g en ,
p 3 3 ; a n d the
g e nera l

i
. . . .

r e f e r e n ce s in N ot e 1 1 1 , p 2 3 7 , a b o e Th e u a d r a n g l e f o r w h c h t h r e e a n g l e s v q
i i i
. .

a r e r g h t a n g l e s is s o m e t m e s c a l l e d a a mb er t u a d r la ter a l L q .

18 6
p A n o t a b l e d e d u ct o n t h a t t h e t h r e e p o s s t es f o r t h e Ab s ol u t e i ib il i i
i i i i i i i
. .

c on c w h ch a r e d s c u s s e d in t h e t e x t a r s e l o g c a l l y r o m t h e p r o p e r t e s w h ch f
s e e m t o c h a r a ct e r s e t h e s p a ce o f ou r e x p e r e n ce is i
ou n d in Lie , Tr a n sf or m a i f
ti on s g r up p en , 1 1 1 , 1 8 93 ( in p a r t c u l a r , Th e o r 28 , p S e e a l s o P o n ca r é s i i ’

i i i i
. .

f
d s c u s s o n s in h is ou r ol u m e s o f e s s a y s ( P a r s , F l a m m a r on ) a n d t h e g e n e r a l v
r e f e r e n ce s 1 n N ot e 1 1 1 , p 2 3 7, a b o e v
i i
. .

Th a t , in t h e G r e e k e ff or ts t o c o n s t r u c t a l og c a l t h e o r y o f o u r c o n c e p t on o f
ii i i
r g d s ol d b o d e s , E u c l d s p o s t u l a t e o f t h e u n i u e p a r a l l e l w a s r e cog n s e d a s i ’
q i
i
t h e a d o p t o n o f o n e a l t e m a t iv e , s e e m s c l e a r r om t h e w o r d s of Gem n u s f i
q
70 B c ) u ot e d in P r oc l u s s Comm en ta r y on E u cl d , B o ok 1 ( P 4 5 0
’
i “
i
. .

S e e H e a th s H s tor y of Gr e ek Ma t h (Ox f o r d , Th e f a ct t h a t
’
11,
p 22 7 :
i i
.

t h e s t r a ig h t l n e s c on e r g e is t r u e a n d n e c e s s a r y , b u t t h e s ta t e m e n t v
th e y w ll
i
” .

s o m e t m e m e e t “is n ot n e ce s s a r y
’

Vi i v i i i vi
. .

In th e e w a d o p t e d in t h s ol u m e , u l l c l a r t y is o b ta n a b l e on l y b y g ng f
“ i
u p , b e s d e t h e p os t u l a t e o f t h e u n ue
p a r a l l el , a l s o t h e p os t u l a t e o f a b s ol u t e iq
i i
l e n g t h , t h s b e n g r e g a r d e d a s on l y o n e o f p os s b l e c or r es p o n d e n c es b e t w e e n i
i
o n e p a r o f p o n t s a n d a n ot h e r p a r o f p o n t s i i i
Ci i i
.

B a r e r e f e r e n c e ma y b e m a d e h e r e t o l ff or d s s u g g es t o n f or p a r a l l e l l n e s ,
’

fi
d e n e d 1 n r e g a r d t o o n e o f t h e t w o s y s t e m s o f g e n e r a t o r s o f a n a b s o l u te u a d r c q i
s u 1 fa ce i
t h e l n e t h r o u g h a g e n p o i n t p a r a l l e l , in t h s s e n s e , t o a g e n l n e , iv i iv i
v f
i s t h e t r a n s e r s a l r o m t h s p o n t t o t h e t w o g e n e r a t or s o f t h e u a d r c w h c h i i q i i
i i
m e e t t h e g ve n l n e I n t h s c on n e x o n a l s o t h e r e a d e r m a y p r o e t h a t , co n i i v
iv i i
.

s id e r e d r e l a t el y t o th e m a g n a r y s u r f a ce x 2 + y2 t h e a ng l e , a ,
 Ad d ition s 251

b et w e e n a n y t w o nt e r s e c t ng g e n e r a t o r s o f t h e s u r f a ce mz + y 2 —
i m2 i
1 5 t h e s a m e , g 1 ve n b
y t a 1 1
2
§ a = m 2
; a n d t h e n t e r a l be t w ee n a n y t w o i v ne ig h
i
b o u r ing p o n t s o f t he s u r f a c e is g e n b y iv
2 2
ds d v2
'
a u 2da d o c os a ,

w h e r e u , u a r e c on s t a n t a l o n
gg e n e r a t or s Re g a r d e d r e l a t e l y t o th e f o r m e r , iv
i i fi i
.

t h s l a t t e r is t h a t c a ll e d C
l ff o r d s s u r f a c e ; it s w h ol e e x t e n t is n t e , a n d t h e
’

g e om e t r y u p o n it is E u c l d e a n S e e Kl e n , A bha n d l 1 p 3 62 i . i . . .

p . 199 . F or a f u l l er d i s c u s s on i t he r ea der ma y s ee B i a n ch , i Geometr ic

d if er en zia le, 1 1 p p 4 3 4 , 5 06 ,
. etc .

p . 2 02 . Th e d o 2 ca n a ls o be e xpr es s ed by
*2
do = t 2
-
( d t2
d22 + dx 2 dy 2)
2 2 “2
1
.
-
y ) dx -
y )
d z
2
( x dy
[ (W
"
[d (x /t) l 01 [4
2
61 1

p . 2 06
I n r eg a r d t o t h e h s t or y o f t h e
. i s ta r p e n t a g on s ee H e a t h, H i st .
of
G r eek Ma th ( Ox o r d , I , p 1 61 . f . .

p . 2 18 . fi
F o r c on g u r a t on s in g en e r a l t h e r e is a n A r t c l e , E S t e n t z , Kon i i . i i
fig u r a tion e n d e r p fr o G eo m E n z
y k l d er M a t h W is s 1 1 1 1 , pp 4 8 1 —51 6
i fi
. .
, . . .

V
,
. .

F or t h e p a r t c u l a r g u r e of p 21 8, s ee e r o n es e , B eha n dl u n y d er p r o
f
i i fi
. .

u n d S c hn e d en s , Ma th A n n x rx 1 8 8 2 Th s g ure
i vi i fi
. .
, .

m a y b e r e g a r d e d r om m a n y p o n t s o f ew f F or n s ta n ce , f or t h e g u r e o f t e n
i i i i i
.

l n e s a n d t e n p o n t s in a p l a n e w e m a y s t a t e t h e t h e o r e m : Om t t n g f ou r l n e s
of th e fi i
g u r e of w h ch n o t h r e e m e e t in a p o n t , a n d t h e r s ix n t e r s e ct o n s , i i i i
i
t h e r e r e m a n s a s e t o f f o u r p o n t s ; a n d t h e r e a r e , in a l l , fi v e s u ch s et s o f f ou r i
p o nts i i
I a n a r b t r a r y p o n t , 0, b e t a ke n in t h e p l a n e , t h e fi ve c o n c s , e a ch
f i i
i i
.

t h r o u g h 0 a n d on e s e t o f f o u r p o n t s , h a e t w o u r t h e r p o n t s P , , in c omm o n ; v f Q
f— i i i
,

a n d 0, P , Q is a s e l p ol a r t r a d in r e g a r d t o t h e c on ic w t h r es p e c t t o w h ch
t h e w h ol e g u r e is s e l p ol a r fi Of t h s r es u l t ( A f
D x o n , u a r t J of Ma th
-
i C i Q
i iv j i
. . . . . .

‘
x x m , 1 8 89,
p a s m p l e p r oo c a n b e g e n b y p r o ec t o n ( c f V o l I of f V
i
. . .

t h s b ook, p 1 1 ; a l s o V o l 1 1 1 , p
fi i i i
. . .

F or t h e g e n e r a l g u r e , a s m pl e n ot a t o n f o r t h e p o n t s a n d s pa c e s m a y b e
e xpl a n e d a s i f
ol l o w s : L e t t h e a g g r e g a t e o f ( k + 1 ) n d e p en d e n t p o n t s w h c h i i i
i
d e t e r m n e a s p a ce [k ] , o
f k d m e n s on s , b e c a l l e d a s i mp ler , a n d a fla t s p a ce o f i i
i i
( k 1 ) d m e n s on s l yi ng t h e r e n b e ca l l e d a p r me S u pp os e , in s p a ce o f ( n 1 ) i i
i i i i iv i
.

v
d m e n s on s , w e h a e t w o s m p l e x e s , e a ch of n p o n t s , in p e r s p e ct e b y 71 l n e s
i i ii i
.

f r o m a p o n t 0, e e r y l n e c o n t a n n v
g a er t e x o f e a c h s m p l e x D e n ot e t h e v
i i i
.

v e r t c e s of o n e s m p l e x b y t h e
p a r s o f s y m b o l s ( a l ) , ( a 2) , a nd the

c o r r es p o n d n g i v i
e r t c e s o f t h e o t h e r s m p l e x b y ( bl ), ( b2 ), t h e ce n t r e i
of per s p ec t iv i
e , 0, b e n g d e n o t e d b y ( a ir) Th e e d g e o n n g t h e e r t c e s ( a r ), jii v i
i i i i v i
.

( a s ) of o n e s m p l e x w l l m e et t h e e dg e c on t a n n g t h e e r t ce s ( br ), ( bs ) o f t h e
i
o t h e r s m p l e x , s a y in t h e p o n t ( r s ) Th e én ( n l ) p o nt s ( r s ) l ie in a p r m e, i — i i
i i i
.

w h ch w e m a y d e n ot e b y [ a b] I n a l l , n c l u d n g 0, w e t h u s h a e . v
1 + 2n + § n (n
i ( ) i hi h p ( ) h
p o nt s pa n w c or a as th e ra n
g e o f v a l u es a b, 1 , n ; a nd e v ery

p i i ig h f i
,

If
,

in l ne om
th r ee f h ym b l (
o n ts o s uc s o s as pa ) ( or ) ( p) a re r tt n t e ou r

p i id h p im
, ,
.
,

o nts ( ( ) (b a n a n n ( b, ) f or
n a m om e n t , w e c o ns er t e r e

i i g 0 d h ( 2) p i
c on t a n n
,

an t
,

e
,

n
,

o nt s (a l ) (a 2) ( hi i ll i
a h n t s w c o n ta n t e

i ( bl ) ( b2 ) ( b l l h § ( —2 ) ( —3 ) i i
, , ,

o nts n a n d , a l s o, a t e n n nt e r s e ct o ns

hi h ih p qi ( Th i p i m i ll h i
, , ,

p q) i n w c ne t er n or s n 1) or n . l s r e a so w t u s c on ta n

1 + 2 (n —2 ) ( n
 252 Ad di tion s

or {g n ( n1 ) p oin t s ; a n d w e m a y d e n ot e i t b y [n 1 , n ] We m a y l k e w s e d e i i
i i i ii fi i
.

n ot e t h e
p r m e c o n t a in n g a l l t h e p o n t s o f t h e or g n a l r s t s m pl e x , ot h e r
t h a n ( a r ), b y [ br ], a n d s m la l y d e
r i i
n o te t h e p r m e s o f t h e s e c on d s m l e x b
p y i i
s y m b ol s fi
[a r ] Th e w h ol e g u r e t h u s c onta in s t h e p r im e [a b]a n d t h e p r m es
. i
[o r ] [ br ] [ r s ];
, , in a ll

or

i i
p r m e s [p a ] Th e p r m e [ p a ]t h e n c ont a n s a l l p o nt s ( r s ) in w h ich n e t h e r r n or i i i
i
.

s is on e o f p o r a ; a n d it m a y b e p r o e d t h a t it c o n t a n s a l l t h e § ( n 1 ) (n 2 ) v
i fi i
p o n t s of t h e g u r e w h ch a r e c om m on t o t h e t w o p r m es [p r ], [ a r ], w h a t e e r i v
7 ma
y b e
- =
r a , b, 1 , n) I n ow w e r epl a c e a , b b y (n + 1 ) a n d f the
i fi
.

n ota t on e x pr e s s es t h a t t h e u r e is c o m p l e t e l y s y mm e t r ica l , a n d m a y b e
g
i i
in it a t e d b y t a k n g a n y o n e of t h e 5( n 1 ) ( n 2 ) p o n t s a s c e n t r e o f p e r s p e ct e i iv
o f t w o s im p l e x e s p r op e r l y t a k en in t h e g u r e ; a n d it is n ot on l y t h u s s e l du a l , fi f -

i q
b u t t h e r e e x s t s a u a d r ic l oc u s , e x p r e s s e d b y a s n g l e u a d r a t c e u a t on con i q i q i
i
me et n g n h om og e n e o u s c oor d n a t es of t h e S p a c e , in r e g a r d t o w h ch t h e p r m e i i i
[p 0 ] is t h e p ol a r of t h e p oint ( p a ), f or e e r y o n e of t h e (n + 2 ) a l u es of p v v
an5 a

i fi i
.

A r e m a r k m a y b e a d d e d in r e g a r d t o a p a r t c u l a r c on g u r a t on , n ot r e f e r r e d
i i
t o in t h e t e x t , e s p e c a l l y a s t h s c a n b e u s e d t o ll u s t r a t e t h e t h e or y , e x pl a n e d i i
in p p 1 6 5 — 1 73 of V ol 1 , o f t h e r e p r e s e n ta t ion of m a g n a r y p oin t s a n d l n e s i i i
fi i
. .

b y m e a n s of t r ia d s of r e a l e l e m e n t s Th e g u r e r e f e r r e d t o is th a t of n n e
i i i i
.

p o n t s in a p l a n e l y n g b y t h r e e s on t w e l e l n e s , f ou r o f w h ch p a s s t h r o u g h v
i
e ve r y o n e o f t h e p o n t s ; s o t h a t t h e o n o f a n y t w o o f t h e n n e p o n t s c on ta n s ji i i i
a n ot h e r o f t h e m Ta k e a n y f o u r o f t h e s e p o n t s o f w h ch n o t h r e e l ie in a l n e , i i i
ji ji fi i
.

s o t h a t t h e o n o f t w o o f t h e m m e e t s t h e o n o f t h e o t h e r t w o in a f th p o n t
i
o f t h e n n e ; d e n ot e t h es e f o u r b y t h e s ym b ol s A , B , D , s u b e ct t o C j
s o tha t th e fi
,

f th p o n t o n th e p a r of o n s i s A + O or B + D i i ji
i i
.

v
Th e n it c a n b e p r o e d t h a t t h e n n e p o n t s a r e t h os e r e p r e s e n t e d in t h e s ch e m e
A, DI , D
A I , A + O, 01
l B, B1 , 0
in w h ic h , if 0) d e n ot e o n e of th e tw o r oot s o f we ha v e

A1 = A (o B, B1 = B (0 0, Cl : C —D co ,
D1 = D co A;

th e s e l e a d t o

A + B1 B + 01 —D a1
2
1
= 0, C + D1 —m A 2
1
= 0, D + A1

and th e t w el v i fi
l n es o f t h e g u r e a r e t h o s e c on t a n n g t h e t r a d s o f p o n t s in
e i i i i
i
t h e s ix l n e s a n d c ol u m n s o f t h e s ch e m e , w th t h e s ix c on ta n n g t r a d s o f t h e i i i i
i
s ch e m e in w h ch n o t w o e l em e n t s a r e in t h e s a m e r o w a n d col u m n ( c or r e s p on d
ing t o t h e t e r m s in t h e e x pa n s on o f a d e t e r m n a nt ) i i
fi i i
.

Th u s a l s o t h e g u r e c on s s ts o f t w o p l a n e t e t r a d s of p o n t s , e a ch o f ou r f
p o i
n t s o n ji i
e d in o r d e r , w h ch a r e n s c r b e d a n d a l s o c r c u m s c r ib e d t o on e a n i i i
ot h e r , t h e s e t e t r a d s h a
.

vi
n g t h e s a m e d a g on a l p o n t w h c h is t h e n n t h p o n t i i i i i
of t h e g u re fi T h e t v i
w e l e l n es c on s is t t h e n o f t h e f o u r o n s o f b ot h t e t r a d s ji
i i
.

t og e th e r w t h t h e t w o d a g on a l s o f b ot h t e t r a d s
i i i
.

R e c u r r n g t o t h e r e p r e s e nta t on e x p l a n e d in V ol 1 , p 1 6 5 , it f ol l ow s t ha t t h e
i i fi i i
. .

f ou r m a g in a r y p o nt s o f t h e c on g u r a t on , ot h e r t h a n t h e p o n t s A , B , C, D ,
A + O, a r e r e p r es e n ta bl e b y t r a d s of p o n t s o n t h e c r os s o n s of A , i
w th B i ji C i
q i ii i
a n d D, r e u r in g n o a d d t o n a l p o n t s b u t t h e n t e r s ec t io n s of t h es e c r os s o n s ; i ji
i i
a n d t h a t t h e s ix m a g n a r y l in e s of t h e c on g u r a t on , o t h er t h a n t h e s ix o n s fi i ji
i
of A , B , C, D , a r e l k e w is e r ep r e s en ta b l e b y t r a d s o f l n e s a l r ea d y d r a w n Th s i i i
i
.

int e r e s t n g r e m a r k is d u e t o Mr T G R oom . . .
 255

I NDE X

( Th e n u mb e r s r e f e r t o pa g es . S ee a ls o p 23 7
. a nd t h e Ad d t ii ons , p .

Ab s ol u t e c on c , i p r op e r t i e s r el a t iv e t o, m on c h o r d s o f c r c l e a n d co n c ,i i 79 ;
1 66 j i f m q di
by p r o e c t on h ro
gh h a
p i
ua r c, h ji t r ou t ree o nt s w os e o ns
1 96 h p b l i h f t ou c a a ra o a , c o n t a ns t e oc u s ,
A gl b
n e et w e e n
t i l i p d 81 ;
w o c r c es ili y i l f
nt er r et e i 85 aux ar c rc e o a c on c,
on a q d i 1 93 ua r c, 88 1 1 9 1 3 3 ; q i f 1 07 1 0 ; e u a t on o 8
,

A gl p p
n e roi f i l 75
e r t es i l h gh
or a c r c e, f i mil i d c rc e
,

t
,

r ou c e n t r es o
,

s
,

tu e
A g l
n u ar i vl f n te r i g l 1 77
a s f
or a tr i l ih
an e, , lio two c r c es , w t c en tr e on ne
f 132 ; f Lb h o cen t r es , a te r o a ts c ew
A h m i
n ar on c , i ym b l
or k y 1 82 ;
cr o s s - r a t o ,
gl b s o i l s an e et w e en tw o c r c es

p i i p d q d i 1 93
,

f or f ou r 1 66 ; mpl
o nts , f 210 exa e o nt e r r ete on a ua r c,
Ap l o ar i d 1 1 4 1 1 7 1 2 4 1 47
tr a s C i l i ,

df l li on e , c r c u a r s e c t o n s a n oca n es ,
A y mp
s f
t ot es i 77 o
,

a c on c,
,

2 09
, ,

A il i y i l
ux ar f c rc e i 8 5 88 C fig i o a c on c , m m pl f 21 2 ;
on u r a t on s so e exa es o

p im y h
, , , ,

1 19 133 m 218 ; la r ar t e or e s ee a so
d f i f i 77 1 60
,

II
,

A x es a n oc o N
a c on c , ot e

A i l i i f h m C f l i 79 1 1 9 ; p l f ,

x s f o r e a t on , or ax s o o o o n o ca c o n cs , o a rs o

g ph y 1 6
ra fi dp i i g d h h xe o nt n re ar
,

t e r e t o, tou c
90 ; i i f
,

p b l a a ra o a, n t e r s e ct on o ta n
B a u er , 23 5 g i g ht g l d ib e nt s at r an es es c r es a
B ip u n ct u al i i g dt t i d co n c , i l 133
n re ar o a r a c r c e,
of p i 1 23
o nt s , C i Ab l 1 6 6 1 96 on c , s o u t e,

B ly i L b C i d h vi g id ,

o a -
h
o ky g m t y
a ts c ew s eo e r an o n c c o n s t r u ct e : a n tw o tr a s,

g l f
e o p ll l i m
a ra 1 8 2 ; i el 1s8 2 ; l i
y g c r c e, h
,

i l fp l n o n a n ot e r co n c , a s s e -
o ar

eq i di u s v 1 83 ; h y l
ta n t cu r e,
,

i d 4 5 g iv lf p l i d dor oc c e, tr a s, en s e -
o ar tr a an

1 83 i p i i th m i i m l
nt e r r e t a t on p l wd p l 46 ; g iv
n a lf p l o e an o a r, en s e -
o ar

li i l 203
n e s a s c r c es , id d p i 46 ; g iv tr a an tw o o n ts , en

B os c o vi h 8 8 c h p i d t p i f t r ee o nts a n wo a rs o c on

B ir a nc h hon s
,
’
m 25 2 3 5 t e or e j g p i 1 65 u a te o nts ,

i d 1 86 C i fi p p i d fi i i 1 0;
, , Q

B u rns e, on c , rst ro e rt e s : e n t on ,

d g 1 0; g f 1 1 14 ; e en e r a t e, ta n en t o

C p l i 23 6 d fi i i
, ,

M l f 13 ; P
’
a ora ,
i a c a ur n s e n t on o ,
as

C l v 23 6
a s te nu o o, l h m 13 16 N 11 R ca
’
s t e or e ot e e

f i t v l d d d i v l i
, , ,

C yl y m
a e
’
s ea s u r e o d l dn er g a e u ce 14 ; a te ra n es a n n o u t on on ,

f mLg
ro a 1 9 5— 1 9 7 ; C yl y
u er r e s
’
sy m b l pp l i d a 1 6 e 9 7 ; p l o s a e t o, o ar

li li l d fi i i
, ,

S lm a on 2 27 ne s , 20 ; d 22 ; n es , ua e n t on , tw o
C ent r e a n d f i q i
a x es o h gh f
a c on c , e p i t u a t on h li t r ou our o n s to t ou c a ne,

f
r e erre d 118 t o, 24 ; f th gh t p i h ou r r ou wo o nt s t o t ou c
C en t r es f imil i d o s f t i l tu e o h li 39 ; d
w o c r c es , l f th i 41 ;
t r ee n es , ua o s,

112 i h ght p i iig co n c s t r ou wo o n t s con t a n n

C e nt r o i d f h p i 64 o t ree h
o nts , h f f g iv p i 61t e t r ee s o ou r en o nt s ,

Ci l d fi i i
rc e : e d n t 65
on an i pl ce n t r e , h 33 ; i con c o u t o ar to a n ot er, tr
i l
c r c es ig h g l at r tt i g
t an g l
es , l y or i m
cu i b dn 48 an u ar c r cu s cr e

h g
o rt l l y 66 ;
o on a i l i l 6 6 ; C mi c oa x a i d i h i d 53 1 21 ;
c r c es, o c s a s s oc a t e w t a tr
,

l im i i g p i t n d di l
o nt s a n i 66
,
i h m i lly j g
ra ca ax s, c on c ar on c a c on u
,

a te
,

to a

i v i i g d 67 ; Miq l
n e r s on n re ar ig v t o, 1 22 ; lue F
’
s b h e n on e , s ee a s o e u er ac
’
s

h t m 70 ; i l
e or e d m i d by c r c es h m Ni
et e r p i ne i l d Bit eor e ne o n ts c r c e, a n

i i
, ,

th ff
r ees o mou r i p o nt s
p t l
e et n a o nt , u nc u a

d h i t
p
li
e r c e nt r e s i l 71 C i h g h f p i e on a c r c e , th i
o n cs t r ou ou r o n ts e r

7 ;
an

2 g l an
p p i e f 7 6
ro ; m er t e s m m or , l f p l co i d 2 3 ; t co on se -
o ar tr a , cu
256 In d ew
a n a r b it r a r y l i ne in p a irs of p oints p ol a r l i n es of a i
p nt
o in r eg a r d t o
v
in in ol u t ion , 1 2 ; c o n u g a t e p o n t s j i c on f oc a l 9 0, c on ic s , 1 20 ; of l in e
in r e g a r d t h e r e t o, 3 8 ; p ol e s of a i
m e e t n g t w o c on ics in p o n ts c on i
i
l ne in r eg a r d t h e r e t o, 4 1 ; t w o s u ch , j u a t e in r e a r d t o a t h r d c o n c ,
g g i i
i
w h os e e g h t ta n g e n t s a t t h e com m on 1 27 th e s a m e g e n e r a l s e d , 1 3 4 ; o f i
p o i
n t s m e e t in t w o p o n t s , 4 2 P on i ji i i
l in e o n n g p o n t s of t w o c ir cl es b i
c el e t s p o r s m , 55
’
i s e ct e d b
y r a d ic a l a x s , 1 3 2 i
C i
on cs t ou ch n g f o u r l n es : ta n g e n t si i q i i
E u a t o n o f a l n e , 9 8 ; of a p oin t , 1 00 ;
i
f r o m a p o n t a r e in n o l u t o n , 2 5 ; iv i i
o f a c on c , 1 01 ; o f t a n g e n t , a n d p o
i i
d r e c t o r c r cl e s a r e c oa x a l , 80 i i
l a r , 1 04 ; o f a c r c l e , 1 07, 1 08 ; of a
C i
o n cs , t w o , r e d u ce d e u a t on s , 1 4 6 q i i
c on c r e f e r r e d t o s e l f - p ol a r t r ia d ,
C j
on u g a t e d a m e t e r s o f a c on c, 7 7i i 1 07 ; o f c oa xia l c r cl e s , 1 09 ; o f c on c i i
C j
on u g a t e l n e s , 2 6 , 3 1 i r ef e r r e d t o c e n t r e a n d a x e s , 1 1 8 ; o f
C j
on u g a t e p o n t s , 28 , 3 1 g e n thr e e i iv c on f o c a l c on c s , 1 1 9 ; o f a p l a n e, i
p o n t s i
o f a c on c , l n e c o n u g a t e t o i i j 1 9 0, 1 9 1
one ji
o n m e e t s o th e r o n s i n c on ji q ii
E u d s ta n t c u r e, 1 8 3 v
j u a te
g i
p o nt s , 28 ; c on u g a t e p o n t s j i i i
E u c l d s d s t a n c e, a n d t r ia n g l e, 1 8 4,
’

in r e g a r d t o c o n c s t h r ou g h f o u r i 1 85
p oin t s , 3 8 ; c on u g a t e p o n ts , l y n g j i i E x p on ent a l u n c t on , 1 57 i f i
on t w o c on c s , en e l o p e o f o n i v ji E x t e nt , b et w e e n t w o l n e s , in i el l ip ti c
of , 1 2 7 c o n u g a t e m a g n a r y p o n t s , j i i i p l a ne , e q ua l to tw i ce the i r a ng u l a r

1 58 i nt e r v al, 1 88 ; of ap l a n e , 1 8 8, 2 01 ;
C i
o n t a ct , p o n t o f , o f c o n c , w t h o n e i i of a tr i an
g l e, 1 8 8, 2 03 ; of a c r cl e , i
o f fi ve g iv
e n ta n g en t s , 2 5 1 89
C i
o o r d n a t e s o f a p o n t , 9 7 ; o f a l n e , 99 i i Ex ter i or a nd i n t er o r i p o i
nt s of a r ea l
C or r e s p o n d e n c e o f t w o p o n ts in r e i c on c , i 1 5 9, 1 64
g a r d t o c o n c s t h r o u g h f ou r p o n t s , i i
i
3 9 ; o f f o c o f c o n c t o u ch n g t h r e e i i ’
F e u e r b a ch s t h e or e m, 5 9 , 75 , 89 , 1 1 3 ,
i
l n e s , 7 7 ; of p o n t s o f a c on c , 1 3 5 i i i
1 2 2 ; H a m l t on s e x t e n s on o f , 59 ,
’
i
C r e m on a , 2 1 9 , 2 3 5, 2 3 6 1 17
C i
r os s r a t o, o r a n h a r m o n c r a t o , f o r
-
i i if
F t ee n p o nt s on t ee n i
n es , t h r e e fif li
f i
o u r p o n t s , 1 66 ; e x a m p l e o f , 2 1 0 o n e a c h , N o t e II
C i u b c s u r f a ce w t h n o d e , a pp l e d t o i i i
F g u r e d et e r m n e d b y ( n + 2 ) p o n t s , i i
fi
P a s ca l s g u r e b y r e m on a , 22 9
’
C h y p er p l a n e s , in n dim en s on s , i
C v u r e o f t h r d o r d e r , 2 29 i 2I8
F o ca l di s ta n c es f or a c on c, in g e n e ra l i
De l a m b r e
’
s f or m u l a e in s p h e r ca l i tri f o r m , 2 09 , 2 1 1
g on o m e t r y , 2 05 i
F oca l l ne s o f a c on e, 2 09
i
De s m c t e t r a d s , 2 1 3 , 2 3 3 i
F o c a n d a x e s of a c on c, 7 7 ; o f a i
i i
D r e c t o r c o n c o f a c o n c , 2 6 ; d r e c t or i i p a ra b ol a , 8 1
i
c r c l e , 80, 9 5 , 1 2 5 , 1 2 7 , 1 5 1 F on t e n é , 7 5
i i
D r e c t r x of a p a r a b o l a , 8 1 i
F o u r l n es in f ou r d m e n s on s , g u r e i i fi
i i
D s cu s s on o f a t u r n n g p o n t in t h e i i iv f
d e r e d r om , 2 2 5
i
l og c a l t h e o r y , 1 5 3
i ’
i
D s t a n c e , R e m a n n s or m u l a in s p a c e f Ga s k i n s
’
t h e o r e m , f o r c on i cs t h r ou g h
o f c o n s ta n t c u r a t u r e , 1 9 9 v t w o p o n ts i ou tp ol a r t o a n ot h e r c o n c, i
i
D o u bl e p o nt s of a n n ol u t on , 3 , 1 5 8 iv i 48
i
D u a l t y in r e g a r d t o a c o n c , 2 1 , 2 2 ; i G a u s s , 1 54 , 2 3 7
d u a l of P a s ca l s t h e or e m, 2 5
’

G r os s m a n n , 2 3 5

v
E l e e n p o n t c on c , 4 1-
i i H a m l t oni ’
s m o d ca t on ifi i of F e u er
i i
Ell p t c , h y p e r b o l c a n d p a r a b ol c i i b a ch
'
s t h e o r em , 5 9 , 1 1 7

pl a n e, 1 86 H a r m on i c, c on di i f
t on or t w o pa i rs of

i i i
E l l p t c n t e g r a l , r om t w o c on cs , 2 1 1 f i i
p o nt s t o b e, 1 1 1 ; h a r m on i im g
c a es ,

v
En e l op e of a l ne c u tt n g t w o c on c s i i i 37
in h a r m on c co n u g a t es , 4 4 , 1 2 5 ; ofi j H a t t on , 6 2
 In d ex
i
c r c l es h a r m o n ca l l y , 6 6, 1 2 6 ; in i Pro j ivi y
ec t t i
o n a c on c r e s ol u b l e i nt o
v i
e r t n t o or t h og o n a l c r c l e s , 6 9 i s uc c e s s i o n of two iv n ol u t o n s , i 50
O u t p ol a r c on c s , 3 3 —
3 6 ; a l g e b r a c c oni i
ii
d t on f or , 1 4 2 ; a n d t r a ng u l a r l y i Q u a dra t i c s y s t em of co n cs , i in p ol a r
i
c r c u m s c r b e d c on c , 1 4 6 i i to a n ot h e r c o n c , i 1 45
Q u a dr i c s u r f a ce , e l e m e n ta r y
p ro
p e r t es i
’
Pa pp u s t h e or e m , c o m p l et e g u r e , 2 1 5 fi o f 1 90
P a r a b ol a , 8 1 ; o b t a n e d a s e n e l o p e o f i v Q ua d il t
,

r a er a l w ih
t th r e e r ig ht an
g les ,
p ol a r s o f a p o n t in r e g a r d t o c on i 1 81
f oca l c on c s , 9 0 i
i
P a r a b ol c , o r E u c l d e a n , p l a n e , 1 8 6 i Ra d i ca l a x s o f i two i
c r c l es , 66 ; r a d i ca l
P a r a m e t e r e x p r e s s on f or a g e n e r a l i a x e s of th r ee i
c r cl e s m e e t in a p o i n t,
con c , 1 03 ; i f or c o n c r e f e r r e d t o i
it s c e n t r e a n d a x e s , 1 1 8 Ra ng e of i
p o n t s o n a c on c , 1 4 , 5 2 ; i
P a s ca l s t h e or e m , 1 3 ; a n d r el a t e d
’
on v
a r a bl e l ne, b i i
y c on c a n d o n s i ji
r a n g es o f p o in t s o n a c on c , 1 5 i o f t h r e e p o n t s of t h s , 2 8 i i
v
con e r s e o f , 1 6 ; d u a l o f , 2 5 ; P a s i i
R e a l a n d m a g n a r y p o n t s , 9 , 1 60 i
c a l s hex a g r a m mu m my s ti cu m , 2 1 9 ;
’
r ea l a n d i
m a gi n a r y s y m b ol s , 1 54 ;
i
P a s ca l l n e , s y m b ol f or in g e n e r a l r ea l a n d m a i i
g n a r y c on c , 1 63 i
fi g u r e , 2 2 3 , 22 7 ; P a s ca l s fi g u r e d e
’ '

i
R e a l t y o f c omm on h a r m on c c onju i
riv f e d r om f o u r d m e n s o n s , 224 i i i
g a t e s w t h r e s p e ct t o t w o g ve n i
i
P e d a l l n e o f t h r e e p oin t s of a c on c , i i i
p a r s , 1 58 ; r e a l t y a r e l a t e t e r m , iv
2 9 ; o f a c r cl e , 71 ; p e d a l o f c on c i i i
1 6 0 ; r e a l t y o f c om m o n s e l p ol a r f -

f
f r om oc u s is a u x l a r y c r cl e , 8 5 ; ii i i
t r a d of t w o c o n cs , 1 64 i
o f p a r a b o l a is t a n g e n t a t e r t ex , 8 2 ; v i
R e c p r oc a l p ol a r o f on e con c in r eg a r d i
p e d a l c r cl e o f a
p oi nt f or t h r ee i t o a n ot h e r , 4 7, 1 4 0, 1 4 7
i
l ne s , 87 ; w h e n p o nt m o e s on a i v R e c t a n g u l a r h y p e r b ol a , d e n t on , 8 3 fi ii
i
l n e t h r o u g h c r c u m c e n t r e , 88 ; p e i i
c on ta n s o r t h o c e n t r e o f t h r e e o f it s
i
d a l l n e f o r a t r a d in in ol u t o n , 1 3 9 i v i i
p o n t s , 8 4 ; c on u g a t e d a m e t e r s o f , j i
P e r p e n d c u l a r l n e s , 63i i e xa m pl e s of , 84 t h r o u g h t h r ee
q
P l a n e , e u a t on of , 1 9 0, 1 9 1 i i
p o n t s , l oc u s of c e n t r e s , 88
P l ii c k e r , 22 7 , 2 3 5 Re l a t e d r a n g e s on t h e s a m e l n e , 1 ; i
P oin ca r e, 1 9 7 ii
c o n d t on t w o r a ng e s b e r el a t ed ,
i i
P o l a r l n e a n d p o n t , in r e g a r d t o a a bb r e vi
a t e d a r g u m e nt f o r , 8 re

i f
c on c , 2 0 ; s e l p ol a r t r a d , 2 3 ; p c i -
i
l a t on o f t w o r a n g es r e d u c e d t o t w o
l a r s o f t h r e e p o n ts g e a t r a d ini iv i v i
in ol u t on s , 6 , 5 0 ; e n e l op e o f l n e v i
p e r s e ct
p e iv i
w t h or g n a l , 2 7 ii 3 1 ji i
o n n g c or r e s p on d n g p o n t s o f t w o i i
i i
1 2 3 ; p o l a r l n e s o f a p o n t in r e g a r d r e l a t e d r a n e s on a c on c , 5 2
g i
i
t o c o n c s t h r o u g h f ou r p o n t s m e e t i R ic h m o n d , 2 1 9 , 2 3 6
i
in a p o n t , 3 7 ; p ol e s o f a l n e in i i
R e m a n n s S p a c e , a s d e r ed r om p r o
’
iv f
r e a r d t o c on c s t h r o u g h f ou r p o n t s
g i i je ct iv e s p a c e , 1 9 9
l ie o n a c o n c , 4 1 ; d u a l o f t h s , 4 2 , i i i i
R g h t a ng l es , l n e s a t , 6 3 , 1 1 0 c r cl e s i
9 0 ; p ol a r r e c p r oc a l o f o n e c on c in i i c u tt n i g a t, 1 1 0, 1 1 1
r e g a r d t o a n ot h e r , 4 7 , 9 1 , 1 4 0, 1 4 7 ;

p ol a r s o f a po n t in r e g a r d t o c o n c s i i S a l m on , 5 9 , 2 2 7, 2 3 6
t h r ou g h fiv
e s o f s ix p o n t s t o u c h a i S c h o nt e , 2 3 6
i
c on c , 6 1 ; ol a r r e c p r o c a l o f a c e r i S eg r e , 2 3 6 , 2 3 8
i
ta n p a r a b o a g e s t h e r e c ta n g u l a r p iv f— i
S e l p ol a r t r a d , in r eg a r d t o a c on c , i
h y p e r b ol a o f Ap o l l on u s , 9 1 i 2 3 ; o f t w o c on cs , a l g e b r a c d e t e r i i
i
P o l y n om a l , r o ot s o f , 1 1 0, 1 3 5 , 1 5 7 i i
m n a t on o f , 1 4 0 ; s el - con u g a t e t e f j
P on c e l e t s th e or e m , f or p or s m o f t a n
’
i t r a d , H e s s e s t h eo r e m , 3 1
’

g e n t s o f c o n c s t h r o u g h o u r p o n ts , i f i i i
S m il t u d e , c e n t r e s of , f o r t w o c r c l es , i
5 5 , 96 i
1 1 2 ; c r c l e t h r o u g h , w t h c e n t r e on i
i iv
P os t e a n d n eg a t e r ea l s y m b ol s , iv il n e o f c e nt r e s , 1 1 2, 1 3 2
1 55 S oa l , 6 2
 In d ex 2 59

S ph e r e , d ivi i
s on o f s u r f a c e nt o ou r i f Ta yl o r , H M 61 ; J P 75 ; C 88
i i
,

i ,
. . . . .
,

q
e u a l a n d c o n r u e nt t r a n l e s , 1 97
g g Te t r a d s o f o nts of a co n c w ho s e
2 07
,
ji o ns t o u c a n ot h e r c o n c , 9 6 , 1 2 7 ; i
i i i
S p h e r c a l a n d e l l p t c g e om e t r y, 1 78 ; s e e a l s o P on c el et s t heor em
’

i
s ph e r ca l g e o m e t r
y a n d pla ne g e o i
Th r e e c on c s r el a t e d in a p a r t c u l a r i
m e t r y , 1 96 , 1 9 7 w a , 1 49
y
S t a u d t , v o n , 2 3 2 , 23 5 ; t h e o r e m o f Tr id a s, i
t w o , o f p o n t s o f a c on c : t h e r i i
S ey d e w tz , 28 i ji o ns t o u ch a n ot h e r c o n c , 2 9 ; t w o i
i
S t e n e r , 72 , 2 1 6 , 23 1 , 2 3 2, e t c s el fp
-
ol a r tr i a ds
p o n t s of a n a re i
i i
.

v
S y l e s t e r , 2 20, 2 3 5 ot h e r c o n c , 8 5 , 4 5 , 48 ; t h r e e t r a d s
i
S y m b o l s a pp l e d t o n ol u t o n s , 4 ;iv i i
o f p o n t s o f a c o n c a r e in
p e r s peci
a i i ii
pp l e d t o n t a l t h e or e m s f or a iv i i
t e w t h a n ot h e r t r a d , 5 2 ; r e l a t on i
i
c o n c , 1 6 ; s y m b o l o f a l n e , 9 9, 1 00 ; i i i
of a c on c t o a t r a d o f g e ne r a l
i
a p p l e d t o g e n e r a l t h e o r y o f c on cs , i i i
p o n t s , 5 3 ; c e n t r o d a n d o r th oce nt r e
C i
h a p 1 1 1 ; a p pl e d t o m e a s u r e m en t i
of a t r a d, 64

i i fi ii i
.

o f n t er a l s , v
ha p C v Tr a n g l e , d e n t o n of , 1 73 ; t r g o n o
i
.

S y n t h e m e , 2 20 m e t r c a l f o r m u l a e f o r , 1 76 , 1 77,
1 79
Ta n g e n t i 11 14 ; h
of a c o n c , w en ta n i i i
T r a n g u l a r l y c r c u m s cr b e d c on c , 4 8 , i
g i
e n ts a t i f i
n t e r s e ct o n s o
,

tw o c o n cs 1 45
m ti ee p i n 4
tw o 66 o n ts ,
g 2, ta n e nts i i
T w o c o n cs , e n u m e r a t on o f r e d u c e d
f
o tw o i i c o n cs i ih
at n t e r s e ct on s w t q i
e u a t o n s i n a l l c a s es , 1 4 6

li i 54 ; i i ii
,

a m ne , h e et o n a n ot er c on c , T w o- t w o r e l a t o n on a c o n c , c on d t o n
g l
en e r a g f ta n i en t h i h o a c on c w c iv f
it b e d e r e d r o m a g e n e r a l in vol u
tou c h h li
es t g iv
ree p i nes a t en o nt s , i
t on , 1 3 7
5 ; 8 g ta n mm e nt sp i co f on to a rs o

ht i hi h h h li
r e e c on cs w c V t ou c t ree n es , e r on e s e , 23 5
6 0; g ta n f f l
ents o i h i h V
c on o ca c o n cs w c e r t ex of a
p a ra b ol a , 8 2
a re at r ig h g l m t t an i l es ee on a c r c e ,

133 W ll a a ce l i ne (p e da l l i ne ) 29 , 7 1
T g
an i l d i t d g i l W ill
e nt a c oo r na es an ta n en t a e 139
,

q i f l Wh i
, ,

e 00 1 05 1 6 ; f
u a t on , 1 0 o c o n oc a t e, 23 6
i 1 19
c on c s ,
, ,
C AM BR I D GE : P R IN T E D BY
W . LE W iS M A
.

AT T H E U N I V E R S I T Y P R E S S