CHAPTER 2

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

This chapter presents the review of related literature and studies underlying the

framework of the study. It includes the conceptual model of the study and the operational

definition of terms.

Review of Related Literature and Studies

Thermoelectric Effect

The thermoelectric effect is the immediate change of temperature contrasts to electric

voltage and the other way around. A thermoelectric device makes a voltage when there is an

alternate temperature on each side. On the other hand when a voltage is connected to it, it makes

a temperature distinction (known as the Peltier effect). At atomic scale (particularly, charge

carriers), a connected temperature gradient causes charged bearers in the material, regardless of

whether they are electrons or electron holes, to diffuse from the hot side to the cold side, like an

classical gas that extends when heated; henceforth, the thermally inducted current.

This impact can be utilized to create power, to quantify temperature, to cool objects, or to

heat them or cook them. Since the heading of warming and cooling is dictated by the extremity

of the connected voltage, thermoelectric devices make very convenient temperature controllers.

Generally, the term thermoelectric effect or thermoelectricity envelops three separately effects,

the Seebeck effect, the Peltier effect, and the Thomson effect. In numerous course readings,

thermoelectric impact may likewise be known as the Peltier– Seebeck impact. This partition gets

from the independent discoveries of French physicist Jean Charles Athanase Peltier and

Estonian-German physicist Thomas Johann Seebeck. Joule heating, the heat that is created at
whenever a voltage is connected over a resistive material, is to some degree related, however it is

not generally termed a thermoelectric effect and it is usually regarded as being a loss mechanism

due to non-ideality in thermoelectric devices). The Peltier– Seebeck and Thomson effect can on

a basic level be thermodynamically reversible, though Joule heating is not.

Seebeck Effeect

The Seebeck effect is the change of heat straightforwardly into electricity at the

intersection of dissimilar electrical conductors. It is named for the Baltic German physicist

Thomas Johann Seebeck.

As shown in Figure 1, the conductors are two unique metals signified as material A and

material B. The junction temperature at A is utilized as a source of perspective and is kept up at a

moderately cool temperature (TC). The junction temperature at B is utilized as temperature

higher than temperature TC. With heat applied to junction B, a voltage (Eout) will show up across

terminals T1 and T2 and thus an electric current would flow constantly in this closed circuit. This

voltage is known as the Seebeck EMF, can be expressed as Eout = a(TH - TC)

Where:
  α = dE / dT = α A – α B

 α is the differential Seebeck coefficient or (thermo electric power coefficient) between

the two materials, A and B, positive when the direction of electric current is same as the

direction of thermal current, unit is V/K.

 Eout is the output voltage in volts.

 TH and TC are the hot and cold junction temperatures, respectively, in Kelvin.

Peltier Effect

Peltier found there was a opposite phenomenon to the Seebeck Effect, whereby thermal

energy could be consumed at one unique metal junction and released at the other junction when

an electric current flowed inside the closed circuit

In Figure 2, the circuit is altered to get an different configuration that illustrate the Peltier

Effect, a phenomenon opposite of the Seebeck Effect. In the event that a voltage (Ein) is

connected to terminals T1 and T2, an electrical current (I) will flow in the circuit. Because of the

present flow, a slight cooling effect (QC) will happen at thermocouple junction A (where heat is
absorbed), and a heating effect (QH) will happen at junction B (where heat is removed). Note that

this effect might be switched whereby an adjustment toward electric current flow will turn

around the heading of heat flow. Joule heating, having an extent of I2 x R (where R is the

electrical protection), additionally happens in the conduits because of current flow. This Joule

heating effect acts opposition to the Peltier Effect and causes a net diminishment of the available

cooling. The Peltier effect can be expressed mathematically as QC or QH = β x 1 = (aT) x 1

Where:

 β is the differential Peltier coefficient between the two materials A and B in volts.

 I is the electric current flow in amperes.

 QC and QH are the rates of cooling and heating, respectively, in watts.

Thomson Effect

As per the Thomson effect, when an electric current is passed through a conductor having

a temperature gradient over its length, heat will be either absorbed by or expelled from the

conductor. Whether heat is absorbed or expelled depends on the direction of both the electric

current and temperature gradient. This phenomenon is known as the Thomson Effect.
Thermoelectric Generator

A thermoelectric generator (TEG), also called a Seebeck generator, is a solid

state device that converts heat flux (temperature differences) directly into electrical energy

through a phenomenon called the Seebeck effect (a form of thermoelectric effect).

Thermoelectric generators function like heat engines, but are less bulky and have no moving

parts. However, TEGs are typically more expensive and less efficient.

Thermoelectric generators could be used in power plants in order to convert waste

heat into additional electrical power and in automobiles as automotive thermoelectric

generators (ATGs) to increase fuel efficiency. Another application is radioisotope thermoelectric

generators which are used in space probes, which has the same mechanism but use radioisotopes

to generate the required heat difference.

How Thermoelectric Generator Work?

Thermoelectric power generation requires three major pieces of technology:

thermoelectric materials, thermoelectric modules and systems that interface with the heat

source.

Alphabet Energy has made major advances in all three areas, enabled by

breakthroughs in nanotechnology.
Thermoelectric material

Thermoelectric materials generate power directly from heat by converting temperature

differences into electric voltage. These materials must have both high electrical conductivity (σ)

and low thermal conductivity (κ) to be good thermoelectric materials. Having low thermal

conductivity ensures that when one side is made hot, the other side stays cold, which helps to

generate a large voltage while in a temperature gradient. The measure of the magnitude of

electrons flow in response to a temperature difference across that material is given by

the Seebeck coefficient (S). The efficiency of a given material to produce a thermoelectric power

is governed by its “figure of merit” zT = S2σT/κ.

For many years, the main three semiconductors known to have both low thermal

conductivity and high power factor were bismuth telluride (Bi2Te3), lead telluride (PbTe),

and silicon germanium (SiGe). These materials have very rare elements which make them very

expensive compounds.

Today, the thermal conductivity of semiconductors can be lowered without affecting their

high electrical properties using nanotechnology. This can be achieved by creating nanoscale

features such as particles, wires or interfaces in bulk semiconductor materials. However, the

manufacturing processes of nano-materials is still challenging.

How Thermoelectric Material Work?

Thermoelectric materials generate electricity while in a temperature gradient. In

order to be a good thermoelectric materials must have the unique combination of both

high electrical conductivity and low thermal conductivity: a rare set of properties for one

material to hold. Nanotechnology can now be used to lower the thermal conductivity of
semiconductors whose electrical properties are excellent, but manufacturing

nanomaterials is not trivial.

Anything—steam, for instance—will flow from hot to cold in a temperature

gradient. In a thermoelectric material, electrons do the same thing. The extent to which

electrons flow from hot to cold in an applied temperature gradient is governed by the

Seebeck coefficient, also known as the thermopower.

In order for a thermoelectric to establish a large voltage while in a temperature

gradient, its thermal conductivity must be low. This ensures that when one side is made

hot, the other side stays cold. For many decades, the only semiconductors known to have

both low thermal conductivity and high power factor were bismuth telluride (Bi2Te3),

lead telluride (PbTe), and silicon germanium (SiGe): three expensive compounds using

rare elements.

Today, low thermal conductivity can be achieved by creating nanoscale features

such as particles, wires or interfaces in bulk semiconductor materials. These nanoscale

features lower the thermal conductivity of the semiconductor and do not affect their

strong electrical properties.

The efficiency of thermoelectric materials is governed by their “figure of merit” z.

A large z is important in creating an efficient thermoelectric generator, but it is not the

only important metric.

Thermoelectric Module

A thermoelectric module is a circuit containing thermoelectric materials that generate

electricity from heat directly. A thermoelectric module consists of two dissimilar thermoelectric

materials joining in their ends: an n-type (negatively charged); and a p-type (positively charged)

semiconductors. A direct electric current will flow in the circuit when there is a temperature

difference between the two materials. Generally, the current magnitude has a proportional

relationship with the temperature difference. (i.e., the more the temperature difference, the higher

the current.)

In application, thermoelectric modules in power generation work in very tough

mechanical and thermal conditions. Because they operate in very high temperature gradient, the

modules are subject to large thermally induced stresses and strains for long periods of time. They

also are subject to mechanical fatigue caused by large number of thermal cycles.

Thus, the junctions and materials must be selected so that they survive these tough

mechanical and thermal conditions. Also, the module must be designed such that the two

thermoelectric materials are thermally in parallel, but electrically in series. The efficiency of

thermoelectric modules is greatly affected by its geometrical design.

How Thermoelectric Module Work?

A thermoelectric module is a circuit containing thermoelectric materials that

output usable electricity. There are several types of efficient thermoelectric materials, but

not all are capable of operating in a power generation circuit, or “module,” under typical

waste heat recovery conditions.

 A thermoelectric module for power generation must operate in a very large

temperature gradient—and thus be subject to large thermally induced stresses and

strains—for long periods of time. They must also be able to withstand a large number of

thermal cycles, which cause mechanical fatigue. These two requirements represent some

of the toughest thermal and mechanical environments that any electronic device must

withstand.

Furthermore, the geometrical design of a thermoelectric module will greatly effect

its efficiency. The technology that goes into the design, joining and assembly of a

thermoelectric module is copious.

A thermoelectric module requires two thermoelectric materials to function: one,

an n-type (negatively charged) semiconductor; the second, a p-type (positively charged)

semiconductor. This is so that a continuous circuit can be made whereby current can flow

and power can be produced. With only one type of thermoelectric material, a voltage

would be induced but current would never flow. These two n-type and p-type

semiconductors form a thermoelectric “couple,” but do not form a p-n junction. Both

must have high “figure of merit” z and tightly controlled properties.

The two types of thermoelectric materials must be configured within the module

such that they are electrically in series, but thermally in parallel. The module must

therefore have internal wiring that accomplishes this, as well as junctions and materials

that survive the harsh mechanical conditions it is subject to. A selection of materials that

minimize thermal expansion coefficient mismatches—and the technologies to fabricate

them and their interfaces—is of utmost importance in a thermoelectric module.

Thermoelectric System

Using thermoelectric modules, a thermoelectric system generates power by taking in heat

from a source such as a hot exhaust flue. In order to do that, the system needs a large temperature

gradient, which is not easy in real-world applications. The cold side must be cooled by air or

water. Heat exchangers are used on both sides of the modules to supply this heating and cooling.

There are many challenges in designing a reliable TEG system that operates at high

temperatures. Achieving high efficiency in the system requires extensive engineering design in

order to balance between the heat flow through the modules and maximizing the temperature

gradient across them. To do this, designing heat exchanger technologies in the system is one of

the most important aspects of TEG engineering. In addition, the system requires to minimize the

thermal losses due to the interfaces between materials at several places. Another challenging

constraint is avoiding large pressure drops between the heating and cooling sources.

How Thermoelectric System Work?

A thermoelectric power generation system takes in heat from a source such as hot

exhaust, and outputs electricity using thermoelectric modules.

A thermoelectric module needs a large temperature gradient to generate

electricity: something that is technically challenging to implement in real-world

applications. In a power generation system, the heat for the hot side of this temperature

gradient must be supplied efficiently from a heat source such as an exhaust flue. The cold

side must be cooled by air, water, or another suitable medium. To supply this heating and

cooling, technologies known as heat exchangers are used on both the hot and cold sides.

A thermoelectric power generation system can be thought of as two heat exchangers,

 each of which have to move heat to (or from) the hot (or cold) side of the thermoelectric

modules.

Maximizing the efficiency (or, conversely, the total power output) of a

thermoelectric power generation system requires extensive engineering design. Trade-

offs between total heat flow through the thermoelectric modules and maximizing the

temperature gradient across them must be balanced. The design of heat exchanger

technologies to accomplish this is one of the most important aspects of engineering of a

thermoelectric generator.

In operation, the entirety of a thermoelectric power generator actually sits in

multiple large temperature gradients. It also contains interfaces between materials at

several places that require low thermal losses. The challenges of designing a reliable

system that operates at very high temperatures are many. In addition, the system must not

cause large pressure drops in the heating and cooling sources, another difficult

engineering constraint.

Source: https://www.alphabetenergy.com/how-thermoelectrics-work/

Thermoelectric Circuit

A thermoelectric circuit composed of materials of different Seebeck coeffiecient (p-

doped and n-doped semiconductors), configured as a thermoelectric generator.

Advantage of Thermoelectric Generator

 Easy maintenance: They work electrically without any moving parts so they are

virtually maintenance free.

 Environment friendly: Thermoelectric generators produce no pollution. Therefore

they are eco-friendly generators.

 Compact and less weight: The overall thermoelectric cooling system is much

smaller and lighter than a comparable mechanical system.

 High Reliability: Thermoelectric modules exhibit very high reliability due to their

solid-state construction

 No noise: They can be used in any orientation and in zero gravity environments.

Thus they are popular in many aerospace applications.

 Convenient Power Supply: They operate directly from a DC power source.

Disadvantages of Thermoelectric Generator

 Low energy conversion efficiency rate

 Slow technology Progression

 Limited Applications

 Requires relatively constant heat source

 Lack of customer/industry education about thermoelectric generators

Can Magnifying Glass Produce Energy?

Light (particularly sunlight) can be used to create heat or generate electrical

power. This is referred to as solar energy. It is a clean form of energy production, which

doesn't pollute the environment as some other forms of energy production do.

There are two forms of solar energy. The first is solar thermal conversion, which uses

sunlight to create heat in liquids or in air. The second is photovoltaic conversion, which uses

sheets of special materials to create electricity from the sun. "Photo-" means "light “and”

voltaic" means "producing electricity."

SOLAR THERMAL CONVERSION

Sun thermal conversion system utilize reflectors or mirrors to focus daylight to a

great degree extreme levels of heat. (Solar based signifies "of the sun," warm signifies "of

warmth" and transformation signifies "changing something from one form to another.

You can undestand this better on the off chance that you consider the case of

utilizing an magnifying glass to begin a fire. You may have known about this or even

attempted it some time recently. You can hold an magnifying glass under the sun, and

focus the light on a little heap of flammable materials. The magnifying glass will make

the sun's heat substantially more stronger, and will light the materials on fire. It has been

said that an magnifying glass one meter in diameter, held under the sun, will make a ray

sufficiently hot to melt stone.

If you would hold a magnifying glass flat under the sun and put your hand under

it, you would need to move your hand away very quickly in order to avoid burning

yourself.
 Solar thermal conversion systems use mirrors or reflectors to concentrate sunlight

onto containers full of liquid. Sometimes water is used. Sometimes other liquids are used,

which retain heat better than water.

The liquids are heated up to high temperatures, and this produces steam. The

steam is used to turn a turbine. The turning motion of the turbine is used to create

electricity.

How does a rotating motion create electricity? When you set up a coiled wire or

similar device to rotate between two magnets, it generates an electric current. This is how

electric generators work, as well as windmills, nuclear power plants, and other energy

plants which use such things as coal, gas, or petroleum.

Windmills use the wind to create the turning motion. Nuclear power or fossil fuels

are used to heat water up, thus creating steam to turn the turbines.

Solar heating is another form of solar thermal conversion. In solar heating, an

absorber is used to take in sunlight and convert it to heat. The absorber could be

something simple, like black paint, or it could be a special ceramic material. A heat

absorber is considered to be a good one when it collects at least 95 percent of the sun's

radiation.

The absorbers are then used to heat a fluid, which is then circulated to warm up

buildings or to create hot-water supplies.

PHOTOVOLTAIC CONVERSION

As covered above, photo means "light." It comes from the Greek word "phos,"

which means "light."

"Voltaic" means, "producing electric current." The word comes from the name of

Alessandro Volta, an Italian physicist who was a pioneer in the field of electricity during

the 1700's. (His name is also where the word "volt" comes from.)

Photovoltaic means, "creating electrical energy when exposed to light."

A "cell" is a device that produces electricity. An example of an electrical cell is a

flashlight battery.

Photovoltaic cells produce electricity when they are exposed to light. They

usually consist of panels. The panels contain two layers of different materials.

When light hits these two layers, one of the layers becomes positively charged,

and the other becomes negatively charged.

This works similarly to a regular flashlight battery, which has a positive end and a

negative end. When a wire connects the two ends, they produce an electric current.

When the two layers of material in a solar cell are exposed to light, they create an

electric current.

Source: http://www.coloradosolarenergy.net/index.php/alternative-energy-

learning-center/understanding-energy
Conceptual Model of the Study

On the basis of the foregoing concepts, theories and finding related literature, studies and

insights taken from them, a conceptual model was developed as shown below.

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

Knowledge
Requirements Analysis
1. Thermoelectric Design
Battery (Load)
generator
Creation/Fabrication
Hardware Requirements
Testing and
1. Magnifying Glass Implementation
2. Peltier Plate
3. Battery
4. Heatsink
5. Fan

Figure 1. The Conceptual Model of the Study

 Solar/Heat Powered Gadget Charger

A Project Study
Presented to Faculty of the
College of Industrial Technology
Technological University of the Philippines
Manila

In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for Bachelor of
Technology Major in Power Plant Engineering

by
ANATALIO, ALVIN JAY G
AQUINO, MARK BRYAN JR
CANAYONG, JOSHUA GLENN
CRUZ, JUAN MIGUEL
MATIAS, RANDENN DARWINN

October 2017