2 Chapter 1 Scalars and vectors are hardly sufficient to treat the class of quantities that are of interest in physics, engineering, and applied mathematics. In fact, there are quantities of a more complicated structure whose description requires more than knowledge of a magnitude and a direction. For example, to describe a quantity such as stress, we need to give a force (described by a vector) and a surface on which the force acts. Such a quantity can be described and repre- sented only by the more sophisticated mathematical entity called tensor. As we shall see later, scalars and vectors are actually special cases of tensors. This is in aceord with an important characteristic of mathematics in which concepts of more general nature do incorpo- rate as particular cases those from which the concepts originated in the first place. For the most part in this book, we shall study vectors and ten- sors in the familiar two- and three-dimensional Euctidean spaces. Although in many instances the concepts and results we obtain can be immediately extended to higher dimensional spaces, we shall do so only in few cases. In order to distinguish vectors from scalars, we will use bold- faced letters, A, B,.., a, b,.., to denote vectors, and lower case letters, A, B, .., a, b,.., to denote scalars or real numbers. Tensurs will be represented by their so called components. 1.2 DEFINITION OF A VECTOR A vector may be defined in essentially three different ways: geometrically, analytically, and axiomaticaily. The geometric defini- tion of a vector makes use of the notion of a directed line segment or an arrow. A line segment determined by two points P and Q is said to be directed if one of the points, say P, is designated as the initial point and the other, Q, the terminal point. The directed line segment so obtained is then denoted by PQ, and it is represented graphically by drawing an arrow from P to Q (Fig. 1.1). We denote the length of PQ by |PQ|. Two directed line segments PQ and RS are said to be equal, and we write PQ= RS, if they have the same length and the same direction. Graphically, this means that the arrows representing PQ and RS are parallel, have the same length and are pointing in the same direction. Geometrically, then, a vector is defined as the collection of all directed line segments or arrows having the same length and direc- tion. (Such a collection is also called an equivalence class of directedVector Algebra 3 Q Fig. 1.1 Directed line segments. line segments, and any two members of the class are said to be equivalent.) The common length of the arrows represents the magnitude of the vector, and the arrowhead indicates the direction of the vector. Further, for the purpose of representation, any one of the arrows in the collection can be used to represent the vector. For example, the collection of arrows shown in Fig. 11 defines a vector A, and anyone of the arrows can be used to represent the vector A Under this definition, the algebraic operations on vectors are intro- duced and studied geometrically, making maximum use of our geometrical intuition. One advantage of this approach is that it does not require the introduction of any particular coordinate system and, hence, one can concentrate on the intrinsic vector relations. However, this approach is rather cumbersome and inefficient for computational purposes. a the analytic approach, a vector in three-dimensional space is defined as an ordered triple of real numbers [a,, a), a3] relative to a given coordinate system. The real numbers ay, ay, a; are called the components of the vector. As we shall see later, once a coordinate system is introduced, these components arise naturally from the geometric description of a vector, Likewise, in the two-dimensional space, the xy-plane, a vector is defined as an ordered pair of real numbers [a;,ay]. Algebraic operations on vectors are then per-4 Chapter 1 formed through the components of the vectors. By far this approach is the most convenient for theoretical and computational considera- tions, and it is the approach that we will adopt in. this book. However, it should be kept in mind that the components of a vector are dependent on the coordinate system used. This means that whenever we change the coordinate system in our discussion, the components of the vector will change, although the vector itself remains the same. For example, the components of a vector in the cylindrical coordinate system will be different from its components in the spherical coordinate system. Lastly, the axiomatic point of view treats a vector simply as an undefined entity of an abstract algebraic system called a linear vector space. in such a system, the vectors are required to satisfy certain axioms with respect to two algebraic operations that are undefined concepts. As we shall see later, the sets of axioms for a linear vector space are precisely the properties satisfied by vectors with respect to the vector operations of addition and muitiplication by scalars as developed by either the geometric or the analytic approach. In this chapter, we shall develop the algebra of vectors on the basis of the analytic definition of a vector. We shall use directed line segments oF arrows to represent vectors geometrically and to give goemetric interpretations of our results. Accordingly, we assume a coordinate system in our three-dimensional space. As is customary, we assume a righi-handed rectangular cartesian coordinate system (x, yz). The student may recall that such a coordinate system con- sists of three straight lines that are perpendicular to each other at a common point O, called the origin (Fig.1.2). The lines are designated » (@) Left-handed *()_ Right-handed Fig. 1.2. Rectangular cartesian coordinate system.Vector Algebra 5 as the x-, y-, and z-coordinate axes, and a definite direction on each axis is chosen as the positive direction. The coordinate system is then said to be right-handed if the so-called ‘right-hand rule’ holds; that is, if the index finger and the center finger of the right hand are made to point along the positive x- and y-axes, respectively, the thumb points along the positive z-axis. If we delete the z-axis, we obtain the corresponding cartesian coordinate system in two dimen- sional space, known as the xy-plane. We now define a three dimen- sional vector with respect toa right-handed cartesian coordinate system. Definition 1. A three-dimensional vector A is an ordered triple of real numbers a,,a),a3, written as A =[a,,43/45] a, is called the first component, a, the second component, and aq the third component of the vector. A vector whose components are all zero is called the zero vector and is denoted by 0, that is, 0 = [0, 0, 0]. The negative of a vector A, denoted by - A, is defined as the vector whose compo- nents are the negative of the components of A. That is, if A = [ay, ay az), then = A =[-ay, -ay,-a5)- Definition 2. The magnitude of a vector A =[a), a3, a3], denoted by |A|, is the real number defined by JAj=Var+ atta a) Itis clear that |A| » 0 and that |A| = 0 if and only if A=0. If {A| = 1, we call the vector A a unit vector In the sequel, unless stated otherwise, we shall assume our vectors to be non-zero. 1.3 GEOMETRIC REPRESENTATION OF A VECTOR Let A =[a;,a2,a3] be a given vector and let P be the point with the coordinates a), a, a3. Let us examine the directed line segment or arrow that is drawn from the origin to the point P as6 Chapter 1 shown in Fig. 1.3. From the figure we see that the iength of the arrow is equal lo (a2 + a,2+ a42)'/? which is the magnitude of the vector A as defined in (1.1). The direction of the arrow OP can be described analytically by the three numbers cos a, cos f, and cos y, called the direction cosines of the directed line segment. The angles @, B, and y, known as the direction angles, are the angles made by the directed line segment OPwith the positive x-, y-, and z-coordi- nate axes, respectively. Now, from Fig. 1.3, it is clear that a 1 a la’ 2 a lal’ cos = cos B= cosy = ai (1.2) Thus the direction cosines of OP are proportional to the compo- nents of the vector, In this manner, the length and direction of the directed line segment OP correspond to the magnitude and direc- tion of the vector A. From this discussion it follows that every three dimensional vector is associated with a point in space. Con- versely, every point in space determines a three dimensional vector whose components are the coordinates of the point. The same is true of two dimensional vectors and the points in the xy-plane. Notice that by (1.1) the direction cosines (1.2) satisfy the impor- tant relation P:@payay Fig. 1.3 Geometric representation of a vector.Vector Algebra 7 cos? a + cos*B + costy = 1 (1.3) ‘Thus the vector u=(a,/JA|,a)/[A|,a3/{A|] is a unit vector. This implies that every nonzero vector can be converted into a unit vector, The process of converting a nonzero vector into a unit vector is known as the normalization process, A vector that has been converted into a unit vector is said to have been normalized. We should point out that the representation of a vector by a directed line segment does not depend on the initial point from which the directed line segment is drawn. In other words, a vector can also be represented by an arrow drawn from an arbitrary point in space so long as the arrow has the same length or magnitude and the same direction as the vector. For example, consider the vector A-=[a), a, 4] which is represented geometrically by the arrow OP in Fig, 1.3. Let Q be an arbitrary point with the coordinates x,» Yor Zq) and let R be the point with the coordinates (x, + ay. ¥q + a, Z + aq), see Fig, 1.4. Then the directed line segment drawn from the point Q to the point R aiso represents geometrically the vector A. Fig. 1.4 Representation of a vector from an arbitrary point.8 Chapter 1 This follows immediately from the fact that the directed line seg- ment QR (Fig. 1.4) and the directed line segment OP (Fig. 1.3) have the same length and the same direction cosines. From the above discussion, it follows that if a directed line segment PQ represents a vector A, where PQ is drawn from the point P to the point Q whose coordinates are (x1, y,,2,) and (x2, ¥2, 2g), respectively, then the components of the vector A are given by y= XX Az Ya“ Mir RT = as Similarly, in the xy-plane (a two dimensional space), a vector A = [ay, ay] can be represented geometrically by a directed line seg- ment OP drawn from the origin to the point P with the coordinates (a1, a) as shown in Fig. 1.5. The direction of the vector is uniquely defined by the angle @ = arctan (a, /a,). It is clear that a,=|Al cos, —ag= [A] sin® (1.5) where |A|=(aj2 + a2)!/2 0 ay Fig. 1.5 Vector in the plane.Vector Algebra 9 Example 1. Find the components and the magnitude of the vector A that is represented by the directed line segment PQ, where P: (3, -2, 2) and Q: (1, 1, 4). Solution: Let aj, a;, a3 denote the components of A. By (1.4) we have ay=1-35-4, ay=1-(-2)=3, a3=4-2=2 Hence, by (1.1) jAl =[G4)? + 32+ 2? J = 29 Example 2. Find the direction cosine of a directed line seg- ment which represents the vector A =(2,-1,2]. Solution: The magnitude of the vector is equal to [AL = [22+ (42+ 22q/2 = 3 Hence, by (1.2), the direction cosines of a directed line segment representing the vector are cos 22/3, cos p=-1/3, cosy=2/3 Example 3. If A = [-1, 3], what is the length and the direction of an arrow which represents the vector? Solution: The length of an arrow representing the vector is equal to the magnitude of the vector , which is given by JA = [C1 + 34]! = vio The direction is determined by the angle @ = arctan (3/-1) = 108.43 measured counterclockwise from the positive x-axis. Example 4. A vector A is represented by the directed line segment PQ, where P: Q, -1, 3) and Q: (-1, -2, 4). Find the compo- nents and the magnitude of the vector, the direction cosines of the line segment, and the unit vector in the same direction as A. Solution: Let A =(a,,a),a3]. By (1.4) we have -(l)=-1, ay=4-3=110 Chapter 1 Hence, |A| =[¢3)?+ (1)? + 12]! = vit and, by (1.2), cos @=-3/¥11, cosPps-1/¥11, cosys1/Vvtl Thus u = [- 3/V11,-1/v¥11, 1/V11] is the unit vector in the same direction as A. 1.1 EXERCISES In each of Problems 1 through 6, find the components and the magnitude of the vector that is represented by the directed line segment PQ whose initial point P and terminal point Q are given. (0, 1), 1, 1,2), is (2.-1,3). P:(1,0,-2), 0:8, 1.0). 1 2. 3. 4, 5. 6. In each of Problems 7 through 13, find the coordinates of the initial point P or the the terminal point Q of PQ which represents the given vector. 7 A=[-2,3], 8. [4,-5], 9 {1/2,2/3}, P:1/2,0). 10. 21,4], P:(,-11). i. (-1,3,-2], P:Q,-L,-3). 12, 2G,-1,4). 13. (3, 1,2], Q:(-2, 4,3). 14, If A= [-1, -2, 2], find the direction cosines of an arrow represen- ting the vector. 15. Repeat Problem 14 for A = [1,-3, 2}. 16. Ifa plane vector A is represented by an arrow whose length is 5 units and whose direction is defined by @ = 150°, find the components of the vector, 17. A wind is blowing in the southwesterly direction at 15 mph. Find the x- and the y-component of the wind velocity.Vector Algebra cor 18. Show that the direction cosines defined by equation (1.2) satisfy the relation costa + cos? + cos? y = 19. If A=(2,-1,-2], find the unit vector that points in the same direction as A; in the opposite direction to A. How many vectors are there in vither direction? 20, An aircraft takes off from an airport at the air speed of 100 mph at an angle of inclination of 15 deg. How high from the ground and how far from the airport (on the ground) is the aircraft 10 min after takeoff? 14 ADDITION AND SCALAR MULTIPLICATION We now begin the study of the various algebraic operations which can be performed on vectors. First, we introduce the notion of equatity between two vectors. Fig. 1.6 Equality of vectors.12 Chapter 1 Definition 1. The vectors A = [a;, a, a3} and B= [b,, by, bs] are said to be equal, written A = B, if and only if ay=by, ag=by, ag=bs (1.6) Clearly, two vectors that are equal can be represented geometri- cally either by a single directed line segment or by two directed line segments originating from two distinct points and having the same length and the same direction (see Fig. 1.6). We now introduce the concept of vector addition. Definition 2. The sum of two vectors A =[a;, 2,3] and B= [b, -bz,b3], denoted by A + B, is the vector A+B = (a, + by, ay+ by, a34b;] a7) It follows from the definition (1.7) and the corresponding: properties of real numbers that addition of vectors satisfies the com- mutative law A+B=BHa (18) and the associative law (A+B)+C = A+(B+OQ) (19) for any vectors A,B,C. Further, for every vector A , we have A+0=A (1.10) and A+(A)=0 (a1) A student who has been exposed to the concept of a group in modern algebra will undoubtedly recognize that the properties (1.8) through (1.11) are precisely the axioms satisfied by the elements of a commutative group with respect to the binary operation "+". For this reason we say that the set of vectors forms a commutative group with respect to the operation of vector addition. This con- stitutes part of the characterization of a linear vector space.Vector Algebra 13 Using the idea of the negative of a vector, we can introduce the operation of subtraction or the difference between two vectors. We define the difference A-B of two vectors A and B to be the sum of the vectors A and -B. That is, if A= [a,,a2,a3] and B= [b,,b,,b3), then A-B=A+(-B) [ay ~b),a2-b2,a3-b5] (112) The addition and subtraction of vectors defined above can be demonstrated geometrically using directed line segments or arrows. For convenience we show this for vectors in the xy-plane. Refer ring to Fig. 1.7, let the arrows OP and OQrepresent the vectors A = [a,, a} and B = [b,, b,], respectively, as determined by the points P and Q. Now consider the parallelogram OPRQ with OP and OQ as two of ils sides. Since opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal in length and are parallel, it follows that OP = QR and OQ= PR. Hence QRalso represents the vector A and PR also represents the vector B. Moreover, since OA = a,, OB =bj, we see that OC = OA + OB =a,+by. Likewise, since OD = b,, OE = ay, we have OF = OD R: @, +b), a +by) Fig. 1.7 Parallelogram law of addition of vectors.4 Chapter 1 +OE=b, +a, Hence, the point R has the coordinates (a, + by, a)+ by) and, therefore, the arrow OR represents the vector sum A +B Because OR is the diagonal of the parallelogram formed by the vec- tors A and B, the rule jor the addition of vectors is sometimes called the parallelogram law of addition. The subtraction of two vectors is illustrated geometrically in Fig. 1.8. Notice that in the parallelogram formed by the geometric vectors, one of the diagonals represents the sum of the vectors, while the other represents the difference. Next we introduce the operation of multiplication of vectors by real numbers or scalars. Definition 3. Let be a real number and let A= [a), 4/43] be a vector, The product of m and A, denoted by mA, is the vector defined by mA = (may, may, mas] (1.13) ‘The vector mA is sometimes called a scalar multiple of the vector A. This term should not be confused with the scalar product of two vectors, which is an entirely different operation (Sec. 1.6). Geometrically, if PQ represents a vector A and B = m A, then R Fig. 1.8 Difference of two vectors.