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Osprey - General Military - A History of The World in 100 Weapons (OCR-Ogon)
Osprey - General Military - A History of The World in 100 Weapons (OCR-Ogon)
THE WORLD IN
10 0 WEAPONS
CHRIS MCNAB
FOREWORD BY ANDREW ROBERTS
AHISTORY OF
THE WORLDrN
lOOWEAPONS
OSPREY
PUBLISHING
A HISTORY OF
THE WORLD IN
100 WEAPONS
CHRIS M C N A B
F O R E W O R D BY A N D R E W ROBERTS
First published in Great Britain in 2011 by Osprey Publishing,
Midland House, West Way, Botley, Oxford, OX2 OPH, UK
44-02 23rd Street, Suite 219, Long Island City, NY 11101, USA
OSPREY PUBLISHING IS PART OF THE OSPREY GROUP.
E-mail: info@ospreypublishing.com
Foreword © Andrew Roberts, 2011
Introduction © Chris McNab, 2011
Parts l-VIII © Osprey Publishing Ltd, 2011
All rights reserved. Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose of private study, research,
criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, no part
of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic, electrical, chemical, mechanical, optical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner.
Enquiries should be addressed to the Publishers.
Every attempt has been made by the Publisher to secure the appropriate permissions for
material reproduced in this book. If there has been any oversight we will be happy to rectify
the situation and written submission should be made to the Publishers.
A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN: 978 1 84908 520 5
Editing and picture research by Kate Moore and Emily Holmes
Page layout by Myriam Bell Design, France
Typeset in Optima and Minion Pro
Index by Alison Worthington
Originated by PDQ Media, Bungay, UK
Printed in China through Worldprint Ltd
11 12 13 14 15 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
IMPERIAL W A R MUSEUM COLLECTIONS
Many of the photos in this book come from the Imperial War Museum's huge collections
which cover all aspects of conflict involving Britain and the Commonwealth since the start
of the twentieth century. These rich resources are available online to search, browse and buy
at www.iwmcollections.org.uk. In addition to Collections Online, you can visit the Visitor
Rooms where you can explore over eight million photographs, thousands of hours of moving
images, the largest sound archive of its kind in the world, thousands of diaries and letters
written by people in wartime, and a huge reference library. To make an appointment, call
(020) 7416 5320, or e-mail mail@iwm.org.uk.
Imperial War Museum www.iwm.org.uk
www.ospreypublishing.com
FRONT COVER: An 1851 US Navy Colt. (The Bridgeman Art Library © Civil War Archive); The
Soviet T-34/76 Model 1943. (Artwork by Jim Laurier © Osprey Publishing Ltd.); An ornately
decorated halberd made for the Trabanten Guard in the 16th century. (© Wallace Collection,
London/The Bridgeman Art Library).
BACK COVER: Capture of Evreux, 1487 from Chroniques de France ou de Saint Denis, (akg-images);
F-15 Eagle (USAF)
EDITOR'S NOTE:
In the compilation of this volume we relied on the extensive Osprey library of previous
military history publications. Works of particular relevance were Besieged by Dr Duncan
Campbell, Infantry Tactics of World War II by Dr Stephen Bull, Nuclear Dawn by James
Delgano, F-15 Eagle Engaged by Steve Davies, The Katana by Dr Stephen Turnbull, B-52
Stratofortress Units in Combat 1955-73 by Jon Lake, Confederate Ironclad vs Union Ironclad
by Ron Field, Nimitiz-Class Aircraft Carriers by Brad Elward, SPAD XIII vs Fokker D VII by
Jon Guttman, Fw 190 vs B-17 by Robert Forsyth, M1 Abrams vs T-72, V-2 Ballistic Missile,
and Unmanned Aerial Vehicles by Steven J. Zaloga
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 9
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 378
ENDNOTES 378
INDEX 379
FOREWORD
T H E IDEA OF WRITING A HISTORY OF THE WORLD IN ONE The best weaponry affords defensive as well as offensive
hundred weapons is a truly inspired one, for warfare capability, principally through affording the maximum possible
physical distance between the attacker and his opponent.
has been the driving force of history, and we cannot
From the day that the first cave dweller threw a rock at his enemy
really consider the story of mankind without
or prey rather than grappling hand-to-hand, this principle has
inevitably looking at how wars have shaped our governed the development of weaponry, right the way up to the
cultures and societies. That might be a disconcerting stealth bombers and drones of the present day. To strike yet still
comment upon the human condition, but it's remain out of reach of immediate counterattack: that has always
been the key.
nonetheless true.
Magnificently diverse though the hundred weapons presented
Certainly, no-one could be better qualified than
in this superbly illustrated book undoubtedly are, I believe that
Dr Chris McNab to write such a definitive book about all weapons of war can be divided into only eight categories.
the interaction between world history and individual These "families" of weapons comprise:
weapons. His expertise straddles the centuries and all
Artillery - including cannon, howitzers, shells, and
the weapon types, as witnessed by the eclectic nature
anti-aircraft guns
of the books that he has either written, edited, or
Handheld Weapons - axes, swords, pikes, halberds, bayonets,
contributed to, such as Tools of Violence: Guns, Tanks and suicide vests
and Dirty Bombs, Firearms, Fighting Techniques of the Handheld Projectiles - longbows and crossbows, muskets
Oriental World, Guns: A Visual History, The AK47, and rifles, flamethrowers, machine-guns, hand and
rocket-propelled grenades, and bazookas
Gunfighters: The Outlaws and Their Weapons, The
Missiles - Roman ballistae, Greek Fire, torpedoes, V-weapons,
Machine Gun Story, and Deadly Force: Firearms and
SCUDs, Sidewinders, Exocets, Tomahawks, Cruise and
American Law Enforcement, as well as many others. intercontinental ballistic missiles
This tremendous body of scholarship means that his Land Armor - siege-trains, heavy-armored cavalry,
readers are in safe hands when he tells us about the and tracked vehicles (primarily tanks)
Seaborne - triremes, ships of the line, submarines,
weapons themselves, how they were deployed, how
dreadnoughts, cruisers, and aircraft carriers
battlefield tactics evolved to accommodate their lethal
Airborne - zeppelins, fighter planes, poison gas, bombers,
power, and what it was like both to wield and try to helicopters, jet fighters, stealth bombers, and Unmanned
defend against them. Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)
FOREWORD 1
Bombs: landmines, depth charges, atomic bombs, Museum of Tank Construction at Kubinka, about 40 miles
and Improvised Explosive Devices (lEDs) outside Moscow. With no fewer than four hundred different
types of tank it is the largest museum of its kind in the world,
The fascination of this book lies in how human ingenuity - and I heartily recommend it to any reader of this book. What
and inventors of the caliber of Messrs Mauser, Browning, I saw there entirely supports Dr McNab in his contention that
Thompson, Baker, Gatling, Maxim, Vickers, Lewis, Colt, sheer numbers of mass-produced but inferior weapons - such
Kalashnikov, Schmeisser, Messerschmitt, and so on - has as the T-34 that took on and defeated the better but fewer
learnt from past achievements going back centuries to deliver German tanks - can overwhelm superior weaponry, and that
ever more efficiently destructive power. Great commanders simplicity of production and use is vital.
have therefore constantly had to innovate new tactics, and Of course many factors other than numbers can lead to
on occasion entirely new strategies, in order to make the best victory or defeat in battle - courage, leadership, morale,
use of new weaponry. Intelligence, speed of movement, lie of the land, and so on -
Historically, people have been quick to learn how to copy, but none is more important than the amount and quality of
improve, and perfect weapons that have been used against weaponry deployed. In the calendar year 1944, for example,
them. The very nature of warfare, where enemy weapons when Britain produced 28,000 warplanes and the Russians
can be captured on the battlefield and instantly analyzed, and Germans each produced 40,000, the United States
facilitates this important phenomenon. Although in 1 720 BC churned off their production lines no fewer than 98,000
the Hysos invasion of Egypt was immeasurably aided by the warplanes (several marks of which are included in this book).
use of composite bows and chariots, for example, it did not It was an incredible achievement, and an unmistakable
take long for the defeated Egyptians to learn from them and pointer to which side would ultimately prevail. This book is
use both to devastating effect themselves. Similarly, many full of amazing facts; I didn't know, for example, that Sam Colt
weapons intended in an offensive capacity can be quickly created the industrial production line some 60 years before
adapted to defense. Perhaps the supreme example of this Henry Ford, but it serves to remind us that the desire for
came in March 1799 when the British admiral, Sir Sidney military victory, even more than the desire for financial profit,
Smith, captured seven French vessels on their way to Acre, is the true mainspring of industrial development.
which carried the siege train with which Napoleon Bonaparte Some weapons can be useful far outside their allotted hour
had hoped to destroy the city's walls. Once mounted on those in history. Dr McNab reminds us that the ancient order to "Fix
self same walls in defense, the heavy guns meant that Smith bayonets!" was heard as recently as 2004, when a detachment
was able to deny the French the city, and thus halt Napoleon's of the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders had to use cold steel
march on the Orient. after they were pinned down by Iraqi insurgents and started to
Very few weapons have been invented and not used, and run out of ammunition. The attack was wholly successful, and
no weapon can be dis-invented, as the world has discovered the circumstances will thrill the heart of any reader. As for
with the atom bomb. Although Ronald Reagan was routinely other supposedly "obsolete" weapons, there are some military
denounced as a warmonger, it was he who decreed in 1986 historians who argue that the British Army's accuracy,
that the neutron bomb - which was capable of killing people stopping power, and rate of fire would have been higher at
but leaving buildings intact - should no longer be produced, the battle of Waterloo had it used longbows instead of Brown
much to the chagrin of its inventor, Samuel T. Cohen. Bess muskets.
But such examples are rare in history. The sheer aesthetic of some of the 1 6th, 1 7th and 18th
In the course of writing my history of the Second World War, century weapons, including the beautiful workmanship of the
The Storm of War, Lieutenant-Colonel Alexandr Anatolyevich rapiers, halberds, and arquebuses, is beautifully depicted in
Kulikov, formerly of the Red Army, showed me around the this sumptuous Osprey edition, making this book something
A H I S T O R Y OF T H E W O R L D IN 100 W E A P O N S
of a collector's item in itself. Yet however attractive some of bomb made out of Plaster of Paris and painted over to look
these weapons might look, we must not blind ourselves to the like a kerbstone - have led to over half of all British and
terrible uses to which they were designed to be put. In his American casualties in Iraq.
magisterial Nobel Prize Lecture of 1986, the great Jewish Overall for the past half-millennium, the West has had the
novelist Elie Wiesel pointed out that: edge, especially when it comes to retaining control of the air,
which proved to be so important in the Second World War and
Of course some wars may have been necessary or inevitable, other postwar conflicts. Yet with the Chinese now making
but none was ever regarded as holy. For us, a holy war is a decisive strides in weapon technology - especially in the field
contradiction in terms. War dehumanizes, war diminishes, of drones, lasers, nuclear-powered aircraft carriers, and space
war debases all those who wage it. The Talmud says "Talmidei - perhaps the West's days of primacy are now numbered. It
hukhamim shemarbin shalom baolam" (It is the wise men might even be that whichever country can neutralize its
who will bring about peace). Perhaps, because wise men enemies' space satellites first might decide the future hegemony
remember best. of the world, almost without any fighting needing to be done
terrestrially. Whatever the future holds, we know that it is vital
So what of the future? Technological advances seem to have to be on the cutting edge of weapons technology, and this book
been developing exponentially in recent decades, bringing tells us how this has been achieved over the past millennia.
with them ever-deadlier weapons, yet conflicts are becoming I therefore take great pleasure in introducing this fine book
less likely to be state-on-state affairs so much as the kind of to you.
guerilla and insurgency warfare seen around the world since
1945, and most notably recently in the Global War Against Andrew Roberts
Terror. Dr McNab reminds us that IEDs - such as a roadside December 2010
INTRODUCTION
disappoint? The answer is not straightforward, and can't be change produced legions of overworked and impractical designs,
resolved simply by pointing to technological excellence. In the as engineers crafted weapons they felt could achieve superiority on
armored battles of World War II, the Germans on many occasions the battlefield largely by technological virtues. For example, during
fielded armor, artillery, and aircraft that were superior to anything the 1960s the US Army developed the M551 Sheridan Armored
the Allies presented, yet they still lost the Materialschlacht Reconnaissance/Airborne Assault Vehicle, armed with a dual-
(material warfare), overwhelmed by the superior numbers of purpose M81E1 152mm gun/launcher system. The gun/ launcher
often, although not always, inferior weapons. was designed to fire both conventional high-explosive anti-tank
That example alone, however, gives us one important quality (HEAT) shells and MGM-51 Shillelagh missiles from the same tube,
of many influential weapons - widespread distribution. to cover both medium- and long-range gunnery requirements. In
Regardless of its sophistication, if a weapon is not delivered reality, the system was over-complex and inefficient, and the tank's
prolifically, its battlefield effect will be limited. Distribution is itself neglected armor requirements meant that the vehicle suffered high
dependent upon a whole host of factors, including manufacturing losses from RPGs and mines during its service in Vietnam. The
processes, production and purchasing budgets, availability of raw later Abrams tank, by contrast, combined a straightforward, high-
materials, market conditions, and so on. From such complexity, velocity smoothbore cannon with excellent fire control, ease of
the message seems to emerge that in tactical scenarios at least, it operation, and resilient armor to become arguably the best postwar
is far better to have a simpler weapon in the hands of many than main battle tank (MBT) in the world.
an advanced weapon in the hands of few. The AK47 assault rifle, To emphasize simplicity of use, however, is not to say that the
for example, is actually a fairly rudimentary firearm, yet the fact weapon itself cannot be of state-of-the-art technology. Warfare
that 80 million AK-type weapons have been distributed since produces the curious situation in which both the brilliance and
1947 has literally reshaped the nature of post-World War II global brutality of humankind are revealed in the same inventive
conflict. The same could not be said for, say, excellent weapons activities. (Think of the development of the V-2 rocket system
such as the Heckler & Koch HK33 or the Beretta AR70/90. during World War II, for which an estimated 20,000 slave laborers
died.) Whatever their purpose, it is undeniable that machine-guns,
FUNCTIONALITY AND atomic weapons, air-to-air missiles, and helicopter gunships are all
SUPERIORITY astonishing works of engineering and science. Furthermore, since
The AK47 perfectly illustrates another quality that sets a weapon 1945 we have entered a world in which technology truly can be
apart - functionality. Technology and functionality don't always king of the battlefield, in the right conditions and as long as it is
meet happily in the middle, as the goals of inventors and the allied with good tactics and training. In the utterly one-sided 1991
expectations of soldiers are not always the same. While a scientist Gulf War, the US-led coalition was quite effortlessly dominant
might strive to invent a weapon that breaks new boundaries, a over the technologically inferior Iraqi forces. Its major warfighting
soldier wants a robust tool that will simply work well and keep on systems were computer linked through aerial and satellite
working in extremis - any weapon that fails mechanically surveillance platforms that cast an all-seeing electronic eye over
threatens a warrior's very survival. Similarly, the weapon must also occupied Kuwait and Iraq. The result was that thousands of Iraqi
be easy to use, as complex procedures tend to be forgotten in the armored vehicles, artillery pieces, command posts, bunkers, and
midst of battle. During the ancient, medieval, and Early Modern other facilities were wiped out by air-launched weapons before
periods, simple weapons tended not to be too much of a problem their crews were even aware they were under attack, and in
at the infantry and cavalry levels, which were dominated by armored engagements US M1A1 Abrams and British Challenger
blades, staff weapons, and later, muzzle-loading firearms and MBTs destroyed their opponents at thousands of yards without
cannon. (Siege warfare admittedly produced plenty of impractical experiencing significant return fire. At least in terms of
engines that consumed more time, effort, and materials than conventional wars, it does seem that technological advantage, as
warranted.) Yet from the 19th century, the pace of technological long as it is of sufficient scale, can be a war-winning element.
INTRODUCTION
CONTEXTUAL WAR Other technologies boast similar authority over history. The
Having argued the case for technology, we need to pull back a telegraph, radio, ship's rudder, nuclear powerplants, artificial
little. A weapon system may well be available, easy to use, lighting, lasers, GPS, steam engines, internal combustion
reliable, and technologically advanced, but such status still, engines - such inventions have plugged easily into warfare as
ironically, doesn't guarantee that it will be battle-winning. The much as they have altered civilian lifestyles. Many were, in fact,
fact remains that however good the weapon system, it is still first developed within a military context, only later to prove
operated by people, with all their fallibilities. The way weapons valuable for wider, more equable living. Historians, for instance,
are applied tactically, above everything, is critical to what they often credit Henry Ford with establishing production line
achieve. The Soviet T-34 tank, for example, is rightly included in assembly, but in actual fact Samuel Colt was using such
this book, but its achievements would have been that much processes 60 years earlier to manufacture his revolvers. The
greater had thousands not been wasted through amateurish boundaries between civilian and military technology are
Soviet tactics and training - only its huge volumes and therefore more blurred than we care to admit. It often doesn't
exceptional qualities saved it from complete annihilation at the take much to "weaponize" a civilian technology, or turn the
hands of skilled German tank and anti-tank gun crews. Looking core technology of a weapon to more gentle purposes.
further back in time, the pike was little more than a long wooden
pole with a spike on one end, but used in intelligent fashion by PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE
Swiss pikemen or Landsknecht mercenaries during the 15th and Going back to our earlier question about why some weapons
16th centuries, it became a weapon that unnerved an entire succeed and others fail, our analysis hasn't entirely led us to a
continent. In modern times, professional soldiers often rightly definitive answer. Essentially, the viability and performance of
claim that training will more than compensate for even mediocre a weapon system depends on myriad mechanical, industrial,
equipment. (For many years, the US Marine Corps virtually wore personal, and tactical factors all coming together in a single
outdated weapons and equipment as badges of honor.) device, and at an advantageous time and place. Furthermore, in
Following the 1991 Gulf War, many US Army tank crews even one context a weapon system can excel, while in others it
suggested that the outcome of their armored battles would still becomes a positive burden - a 50-ton MBT is a force to be
have been the same if they had been riding in Iraqi T-72s and the reckoned with in open landscape, but stick it in narrow, rubble-
Iraqis had their M1A1 Abrams. strewn streets without adequate infantry cover, then it suddenly
One other contextual point to remember is that the becomes as awkward and vulnerable as a wounded dinosaur.
technology doesn't necessarily have to be of the fighting variety What we have here, nevertheless, are 100 weapons that seem
to dictate the terms of conflict. In fact, although outside the to punch through this complexity to take a deserved place in
scope of this book, there are numerous non-martial technologies history. The technological journey we shall make from the
that have helped mold the face of warfare. The scale and human ancient past to the computerized present is huge, and leads us
cost of wars, for example, were magnified enormously by the from fire-hardened wooden spears through to sea-skimming
introduction of the railways during the 19th century. Railways guided anti-ship missiles. Such a journey is technologically
enabled the effective deployment and sustenance of mass armies fascinating, but we should always remind ourselves that the end
in the field, increasing both the regularity and size of battles, result is endlessly, terribly, the same - people die or suffer a
and driving up the death tolls commensurately. It is noteworthy lifetime of debilitating injury. That same result will unfortunately
that the US Civil War (1861-65) was the first major conflict to be played out thousands, perhaps millions, of times in the future,
rely on rail supply, and it cost the United States 600,000 dead - when weaponry promises to achieve levels of sophistication that
more than the death toll of all subsequent US conflicts make science fiction appear nostalgic. We must therefore
combined - with battles at an average frequency of one every approach the study of fighting technology with fascination, but
four days. also with humility and a certain trepidation.
FLINT AXE
1
T H E A N C I E N T W O R L D 5 0 0 0 B C - A D 5 0 0 117
A B O V E : A beautiful example of an axe-head from the Neolithic these techniques, hence flint weaponry - be it arrowheads,
period and discovered in Wiltshire, England - the same county speartips, knives, or the flint axe featured here - reached
where Stonehenge is found. The Neolithic period is characterized
considerable levels of sophistication. In areas with a
by the advent of ground and polished axe heads. Originally flint
volcanic geology, obsidian was another stone ideally suited
was the metal of choice but it was increasingly replaced with other
harder-wearing metals when these became available, (akg- to creating pressure-flaked blades, which had edges often
images/Erich Lessing) rivaling those of modern blades in terms of sharpness,
although not in durability. Blades could either be straight
use up to 2.5 million years ago. Over time, the techniques of edged or serrated, the latter useful for cutting through bone
lithic reduction refined the rudimentary blades - by chipping or gristle when preparing meat.
away flakes of rock with a hammerstone, a single rock could
acquire a relatively practical cutting edge. Thus prehistoric LEVERAGE AND POWER
man was able to produce a basic range of knives, which Bringing together improved blades with the principles of
would serve as both hunting and cooking implements. leverage, battle axes were developed that were easily
It wouldn't take much of a leap of imagination to realize capable of inflicting a fatal head injury or shattering a limb
that a blade that could kill an animal, could do the same bone. Stone axes would be amongst the most highly prized
to a human. of prehistoric weapons. Examples from the Neolithic period
At some point during this vast period of time, two critical typically feature a cutting head (or a more rounded club
changes occurred. First, fixing a bladed weapon to a hilt or head) fitted into a partially split or bored-through hardwood
grip significantly improved its power through principles haft, and lashed firmly into place with animal sinew.
of leverage, while also providing a protective distance, Greater adhesion between head and shaft was achieved by
albeit a small one, between user and prey/victim. Second, using birch-tar, one of history's earliest glues. Some designs
techniques of lithic reduction were significantly improved, were even more elaborate, fitting the axe head into a
including the use of "pressure flaking" - using antler or sleeve of antler or horn, which was in turn bound to the
bone to chip off very small pieces of rock, producing a shaft. The sleeve served to lessen the impact on the stone
more refined edge. Flint was particularly responsive to when the axe was being used, which in turn reduced the
A H I S T O R Y OF THE W O R L D IN 100 W E A P O N S
risk of splitting the haft. Axe head shape varied from very
broad, rounded configurations to long, thin blades that
created a basic adze.
The hafts from Stone Age axes have not survived to the
present day. Yet based on later examples, haft length was
likely to have been a factor in separating war axes from
general-purpose hand axes. Battle axes typically have a
haft about the length of an adult human's arm, providing
maximum practical leverage and fighting distance. Such
devices laid the foundations of the very idea of weaponry
itself, which once metal-working arrived would reach new
heights of lethality.
COMPOSITE BOWS
Material construction also moved forward. "Backed" bows
appeared, these multiplying the elastic properties of the self
bow by gluing strips of bone or animal sinew to the back of
the stave. More sophisticated yet was the composite bow,
typically made of three layers of material - a wooden core
with animal horn glued to the face of the stave and sinew to
the back. Composite bows were typically shorter than self
bows, but they gave exceptional power - their pull weights
could reach 1501b (68kg) - making them ideal for both foot
A B O V E : The first surviving representation of the composite bow is
that carried by Naram-Sin, an ancient king of Mesopotamia who
B E L O W : Two Turkish composite bows and one set of arrows.
reigned in the 3rd century BC. This is a section of his victory
Despite its small size, the composite bow could pull weights up
monument which is now held in the Louvre Museum and his
attendants are shown carrying composite bows. (Musee National to 1501b (68kg). (akg-images/Erich Lessing)
provide both the strength and the elasticity needed for a good
bow. Power was improved by cutting the bow so that the
sapwood sat on the bowface while the heartwood was on the
inside - the sapwood was more flexible, meaning the bow
could be drawn back further, while the heartwood gave good
properties of compression, both these features adding to the
strength of the bow release.
Some of the earliest extant examples of bows come
from northern Europe (particularly Denmark and northern
Germany), and date back as far as 9000 BC. In their unstrung
form they have either a straight or slightly curved shape, and
T H E A N C I E N T W O R L D 5 0 0 0 B C - A D 5 0 0 121
A B O V E : An artistic recreation of Parthian horsemen from the Assyrian warriors from the 3rd millennium BC (see next
3rd century AD. Parthian horse-archers relied on the composite entry). They revolutionized the art of missile warfare, giving
bow as their main weapon of attack for over five centuries.
the range and penetration that made bows lethally practical
(Artwork by Angus McBride © Osprey Publishing Ltd.)
battlefield weapons. Archers could work dismounted,
operating in units to deliver volley fire, while others such
soldiers and mounted warriors. Composite bows had superior as the Scythians and Parthians could fight from horseback,
range compared to the self bow, despite the reduction using double-arched composite bows on the move with
in length. When the people of Hyksos invaded Egypt, for astounding precision.
example, around 1720 BC, the Egyptians found that their By the time of the rise of ancient Greece and Rome in the
rivals' composite bows outranged their self bows by up to 1st millennium BC, therefore, archery had established itself
200yds (182m). The gradual 50-year takeover of Egypt by the as a key component of both cavalry and infantry warfare,
Hyksos was not only a military affair, but the use of composite although the skill required to be a good archer meant bowmen
bows, amongst other technologies (such as the penetrating still largely formed the secondary portions of the ranks.
axe and the chariot), was a root cause of their success. Bows gave soldiers a lethal ity that wasn't dependant on sheer
Composite bows were first used with militarily significant muscle, auguring the "democratization" of the battlefield
effect by chariot-borne Sumerian, Hittite, Egyptian, and eventually brought by firearms.
CHARIOT
T H E W A R C H A R I O T E M E R G E D O U T OF T H E F U S I O N OF
MOBILE WARFARE
two fundamental social developments. First was The synergy between horse and wheeled cart therefore began its
the invention of the wheel - evidence for wheeled journey. By the 3rd millennium BC, horse-powered carts were
vehicles, mainly unwieldy carts, dates back to the familiar, although the hefty nature of early carts meant that
oxen were preferred for pulling heavy loads. Yet during this
Middle East of the 4th millennium BC. At roughly
millennium the military also saw the potential of the new
the same time, horses became domesticated rather
transportation. Evidence suggests that the Sumerians produced
than wild food, although these animals would have the predecessor of the war chariot, the "battle wagon." These
been generally small and weak compared to many were essentially boxy wooden carts set on four solid wooden
of today's creatures. wheels and drawn by a pair of onagers. Within the cart stood
a javelin-armed soldier, next to the driver. Both speed and
maneuverability were unimpressive - the cart probably
delivered little more than a human running pace and the
four-wheel design meant it would have been hard to turn out of
a straight line. But change was on the horizon...
True war chariots emerged around 2000 BC, possibly in
Central Asia. The four wheels were replaced by only two, these
supporting a small two-man platform made of a lighter wood
frame, typically cedar, with a floor made from leather straps.
B E L O W : A recreation of an ancient Roman lamp A two-man crew fulfilled the same roles - driver and fighter.
with a scene of a chariot race in the Circus Maximus. The soldiers also wore armor, usually made from thick layers
(akg-images/North Wind Picture Archives)
of animal skin protected by scales of bronze or copper. Pulled
by the best horses the state could find, these chariots were fast
- top speed was about 24mph (39km/h) - and nimble.
The chariot's appearance on the battlefield had the same
disruptive effect on tactics, at least on regions with conducive
flatlands, as tanks would have in the 20th century. Their use
spread rapidly, rippling outwards from Central Asia into the
Middle East, India and East Asia, and upwards through
the Mediterranean into Europe. In doing so, the design was
perfected, particularly by the Egyptians, whose takeover by the
Hyksos from 1720 BC had first introduced them to chariot
warfare. The Egyptians replaced the two solid wheels with far
lighter spoked wheels, and moved the chariot axle from the
front or middle of the platform to the rear, producing a much-
improved turning circle. The Egyptians also largely replaced
the javelin with the composite bow (see previous entry) as the
primary chariot weapon. Indeed, the composite bow/chariot
became the defining pairing, the chariot providing fast
deployment, while the bow gave long-range killing capability.
22 A H I S T O R Y OF T H E W O R L D IN 100 W E A P O N S
A B O V E : The famous statue of Boudicca, queen of the Iceni, a Celtic encounters, the opposing forces would thunder at each
tribe, who led an uprising against the occupying forces of the Roman another, fire their arrows on the fly, then mutually about turn
Empire. Despite their use of war chariots, the Celts were eventually
(maintaining fire on the turn) - no one wanted to risk wrecking
overpowered by the better-organized Roman forces. (i-Stock)
an expensive chariot through crashing into each other. The
LEFT: The battle of Kadesh in 1274 BC is one of the most famous Egyptians also pioneered chariots as a defensive shield for
battles of the ancient world. It was a colossal encounter between the the infantry. The infantry would advance behind the chariots,
two-man Egyptian chariot and the three-man Hittite chariot.
the chariots fighting off enemy chariots and bringing their
The latter displayed a major advance in chariot technology as they
infantry up close for a rapid assault on the enemy lines.
were the first to use a spear in conjunction with a chariot. The battle
was a stalemate. (Artwork by Adam Hook © Osprey Publishing Ltd.) In time, chariots became a visible representation of military
wealth, and chariot battles grew to epic proportions - at the
battle of Kadesh in 1274 BC, an estimated 5,000 chariots were
CHARIOT TACTICS involved. Yet by the end of the 1st millennium BC, chariots had
Tactically, chariots provided a means to assault infantry ranks largely disappeared from warfare. Several factors were involved
at range, inflicting attrition and disrupting formations. They in their vanishing, including chariots' unsuitability for use on
did so by zipping across the battlefield at speed, closing to complex terrain, the increasing use of improved archery within
within bow range - but staying outside that of the self bows the infantry and more powerful cavalry forces - individual
used by many enemy foot-archers - and loosing showers of mounts could outpace the chariot. Yet they were used effectively
arrows into the unfortunate soldiery. If the enemy charged, as far afield as Britain as late as the 1 st century BC, and in many
the charioteers could about turn and disappear at speed, but places they lingered on into the new millennium. What chariots
if the enemy spread out, they would provide more isolated demonstrated was that firepower could be transformed by
targets for the charioteers to pick off. In chariot versus chariot mobility, a lesson that remains true to this day.
BRONZE AGE SWORD
j ,
\ \ * ^ a / ^ J ^ 0
BRONZE WEAPONRY
It was really the invention of bronze that ushered in the holding a better, more resilient edge. From the 2nd millennium
age of the sword. Bronze was easier to cast, and could be BC, therefore, we begin to see bronze swords appearing
hammered into more complex shapes. It was a harder metal, throughout the Mediterranean countries, the Middle East, Asia,
26 A H I S T O R Y OF T H E W O R L D IN 100 W E A P O N S
- Homer2
SIEGE TOWER
I }
OPPOSITE: The siege towers of the ancient world have
captured the imagination of historians and engineers
throughout the ages. This is a 19th-century recreation of
the siege of Gaza in 332 BC, when the use of siege towers
was crucial to Alexander the Great's successful assault on
the walled city. (akg-images/North Wind Picture Archives)
| A H I S T O R Y OF T H E W O R L D IN 100 W E A P O N S
A B O V E : Epimachus of Athens was a famous Athenian engineer the Middle East, and Greece. Another option was literally
and architect who coordinated the construction of the Helepolis, to attack the fabric of the wall, or entrances, with various
a massive siege machine, designed to be used in the siege of Rhodes
missile weapons, smashing through at a key point. While
in 305 BC. According to the ancient chronicler Diodorus, 3,400 of
the strongest men were employed to propel the machine, but there doing so, the attackers would have to endure reciprocal
can only have been room for, at most, 800 of them to push against barrages of arrows and other airborne perils, so such a tactic
the joists of the undercarriage at any one time. The Helepolis itself was not without cost.
was divided into nine stories, each of which had two stairways, one
Yet another possibility was not to undermine or go through
for men moving upwards through the tower, the other for men
climbing down, to avoid congestion. Even 800 men may not have
the walls, but to go over them. The most rudimentary method
been enough to move this immense machine, and it is possible that of surmounting defensive walls was escalade - placing ladders
draught animals were used, in conjunction with pulleys anchored in against the walls and climbing up them. While ascending the
the ground beneath the front of the Helepolis. (Artwork by Brian Delf
ladders, the doubtless weak-kneed attackers were exposed to
© Osprey Publishing Ltd.)
all manner of horrors, including arrows, boiling oil or other
incendiaries, rumbling barrages of rocks, or the ladders
equally. An alternative, therefore, was mining - digging being simply pushed away from the wall. The siege tower,
under the foundations of the defensive wall in order to by contrast, offered far more protection to those engaged
promote its collapse. Mining was in use from at least the in an over-the-top assault. Speaking generally, siege towers
5th century BC, with documented instances in China, consisted of a wooden tower structure mounted on four or
T H E A N C I E N T W O R L D 5 0 0 0 B C - A D 5 0 0 131
ABOVE: A French 18th-century reconstruction of the Helepolis demonstrates the inventive use of block-and-tackle for winching
of Epimachus incorporates several errors, such as the number of the machine forwards. No ancient author indicates the methods
wheels (there were in fact eight, although it is not known if they by which these ancient machines were moved, so a definitive
were in two rows, each with four wheels or vice versa), the number answer continues to allude historians to this day. (Collection
of storeys, and the provision of gigantic drawbridges. But it of Dr Duncan Campbell)
That the greatest tower that is constructed may be one hundred than twelve cubits wide: it was raised with four stories, on the
and twenty cubits high, and twenty-three and a half wide, upper of which the scorpions and catapultae were placed, and
diminishing at the top one fifth of its base; the upright piece in those below was kept a large store of water, to extinguish the
one foot at bottom, and half a foot at top. The large tower is flames in case it should be fired. In it was placed the machine
made with twenty floors, and to each floor there is a parapet of for the ram, which the Creeks called kriodovkh, wherein was
three cubits, covered with raw hides to protect it from the the round smooth roller on which the ram worked backwards
arrows... The construction of the tortoise ram is similar: it was and forwards by means of ropes, and produced great effect.
thirty cubits wide, and, exclusive of the roof, sixteen high. This, like the tower, was covered with raw hides.
The height of the roof from the eaves to the ridge, seven cubits.
On the top thereof in the centre rose a small tower, not less - Marcus Vitruvius Pollio3
A H I S T O R Y OF THE W O R L D IN 100 W E A P O N S
more wheels. The wheeled design meant that the tower could
be pushed up close to the defensive wall or fortification,
the occupants partially protected from enemy missiles by the
tower walls. Once the tower was in position, a gangplank
could be dropped between tower and wall, over which the
attackers would then flood across.
MASSIVE STRUCTURES
Siege towers were one of several types of siege engine, but
were arguably the most impressive. In use from early in the
1st millennium BC, they were not simply passive armored
structures, but contained all manner of weaponry to keep the
defenders busy while the tower closed the gap. An Assyrian
relief from the palace of Nimrud, dated to the 9th century BC,
shows what appears to be a six-wheeled siege tower rolling
into action with archers firing from a central tower and a
battering ram projecting from the front of the structure.
Siege towers also reached majestic proportions. The famous
Helepolis ("Taker of Cities"), used during the Antigonid
siege of Rhodes in 305 BC, was about 130ft (41m) high,
65ft (20.6m) wide and was manned by some 200 men on
nine different levels, the levels connected by two staircases.
Three sides of the tower were covered by iron plates to make
A B O V E : From around 200 BC, Roman armies made increasing use of it fireproof, and shuttered firing ports allowed the tower's
siege towers. As a defense against fire, the entire structure was clad in occupants to lay down a fearsome barrage, with on-board
rawhide and layers of rags as shown here. During Rome's Jewish Wars
weapons including large ballistae and catapults.
(AD 66-74), the siege towers were hung with iron plates; the additional
weight penalty presumably offset by the increased protection. However,
Not all siege towers would have been as bold as the
Roman engineers were not always mindful of the extra stress caused by Helepolis, but their general size meant that they would
the heavy cladding and some towers did spontaneously collapse. typically be constructed on-site, almost literally beneath the
(Artwork by Brian Delf © Osprey Publishing Ltd.)
noses of the defenders, the engineers relying on archers to
suppress enemy fire while they toiled. They were most
intensively used during the sieges of the medieval period,
TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS but this era also saw their downfall. The growing use of
OF THE HELEPOLIS OF cannon from the 14th century meant that suddenly flimsy
E P I M A C H U S (as recorded by the wooden siege towers became increasingly vulnerable to
chronicler Diodorus): gunpowder-based return fire, and the labour involved in their
T H E R O M A N S , FOR ALL T H E I R U N D O U B T E D I N V E N T I V E
HEAVY WEAPONS
genius, were never above borrowing good There were several different types of arrow-firing Roman
technologies when they saw them. During the Punic weapon, and we start by looking at the biggest - the ballista. To
Wars of the 3rd century BC, Roman soldiers became modern eyes, the ballista looks largely like a huge crew-served
crossbow. Republican and early imperial Roman ballistae were
acquainted with Greek torsion-powered artillery,
made of wood, the parts secured by iron plates, although later
used either for hurling stones or for launching large,
imperial versions became iron framed and were thus more
destructive bolts. Roman engineers took up these durable and consistent in performance, especially in poor
designs and reworked them, and in so doing created weather. They were torsion-powered devices, the power to the
weapons that not only prefigured gunpowder bow coming from two torsion springs made of twisted animal
sinew, into which the bow arm was inserted. The bowstring was
artillery, but even, albeit obliquely, the advent of the
drawn back by means of lever power, and was held in place by
machine-gun and heavy suppressive fire.
a ratchet. When the string was released, the torsion springs
released their tension and the bow arm whipped forward,
launching either a stone or a heavy dart.
Ballistae were serious weapons. A typical example could
throw a 2.5lb (1.1kg) bolt to an effective range of 300yds
ROMAN REACH
Torsion artillery obviously proved its worth in battle for the c c Ballistae are constructed on varying principles to
Romans, as they went on to develop several different produce the same results. Some are operated by
variations. The scorpio was a particularly interesting offshoot. handcranks and windlasses, others by the means
It remained a torsion catapult, but on a smaller scale than the of capstans, and yet others by means of drums.
ballista - it could be fired by one man, as opposed to the No ballista, however, is made without due
six men often required by the ballista - and had tactical consideration for the weight of the stone that the
distinctions. While the ballista was essentially a siege device, engine is intended to throw. Hence their principle
the scorpio was a battlefield weapon, ideal for delivering
is not easy for everybody, but only for those who
mobile, long-range suppressive fire. Each Roman legion
possess the knowledge of geometrical principles
would take about 60 scorpio into battle, often using them in
used in calculation and multiplication. ^^
concentrated batteries on high ground. From there, the
scorpio of a single legion could fire up to 240 bolts per
- Vitruvius4
minute, accurately and to ranges of between 90 and 360yds
(100 and 400m). They had power enough to punch through
enemy shields and crude body armor, and they show how
the concept of infantry support fire is not necessarily an cheiroballistra and the cart-mounted carroballista, the latter
invention of later times. which could be wheeled about the battlefield in the manner
Beyond the ballista and scorpio, the Romans invented other of light field artillery. There is even evidence for a magazine-
types of crossbow-like weapons. These include the hand-held fed "repeating" crossbow called the polybolos, which could
load, cock, and fire bolts mechanically. A BBC documentary
team studying this weapon reconstructed such a device, and
found that it was capable of firing up to 11 bolts every minute,
possibly giving history's earliest example of automatic fire.
At many levels, therefore, the Roman bolt-firers were at the
forefront of weapons technology for their day. They show that
the many Roman victories were not simply a matter of muscle,
blade, and spear, but were also supported by the intelligent
use of mechanical firepower.
c c Naval warfare depends on skill... Our citizen helmsmen and deck crews are our most
powerful asset, and we have more of them, and of better quality than the whole of
the rest of Greece. ^ y
Pericles, 1.142
ENDURING DESIGN used triremes for centuries, the Romans adding heavier
Triremes, and war galleys in general, were a feature of maritime weaponry such as on-board ballistae and catapults. As time
warfare for more than a thousand years. They defined some of went on, triremes expanded into larger craft such as
the great naval battles of the ancient world, such as Salamis in quadriremes and quinqueremes (these didn't have more banks
480 BC, when some 30-40 Greek triremes crushed a larger of oars, but were wider and had increased numbers of rowers
Persian invasion fleet after luring it into the narrow Salamis per oar). Indeed, the success of the galley design meant that
Channel, where the triremes had the advantage of maneuver. galleys remained a feature of warfare as late as the 18th century,
The Romans, Byzantines, and many other civilizations also the battle of Lepanto between the Christian states and Ottoman
36 A H I S T O R Y OF T H E W O R L D IN 100 W E A P O N S
TRIREME DIMENSIONS
Taking a Greek trireme as a representative type, the
typical vessel would have been about 130ft (40m)
long, 19ft (5.8m) in the beam, and with a height
above the waterline (to the top of the hull) of about
6ft 6in (2m). The draught was just 3ft 3in (1 m), ideal
for moving around frequently shallow coastal waters,
and the flat hull profile meant that the trireme could
be beached easily for amphibious landings. Around
170 individual oars projected from the sides, and
these could take the trireme up to a speed of about
8 knots, although cruising speed was more in the
region of 4-6 knots.
JJ J
sailing ships were now capable of the oceanic voyages
demanded by the "Age of Exploration" (galleys did not perform
well in rough, deep-water seas), the galley was relegated to the HHMM
history it had dominated for so long.
THE ANCIENT WORLD 5000 BC~AD 500 37
ABOVE: A typical attacking formation of Roman legionaries. The expansion. Yet around the middle of the 1 st century AD, both
prior who carries the battle standard leads the attack followed by these types were ousted by a new design, called the
gladius-wielding legionaries who are supported in turn by the
Pompeian type after specimens found in the ash-
spearmen. The inset illustration shows the perfect "chessboard"
battle formation of legionaries. (Artwork by Angus McBride ©
encrusted ruins of that city. The blade length was
Osprey Publishing Ltd.) further reduced to c. 16.5—21.6in (42-55cm),
giving a lighter, faster weapon (it weighed
-the point would have been ideal for splitting light mail armor about 2.2lb/1 kg), and there is some
or pushing between an opponent's ribs. From the time of suggestion that the Pompeii sword
Augustus (r. 27 BC-AD 14), however, the Spanish sword was was derived from those used
challenged by another variant. Known as the Mainz/Fulham by gladiators in the arena,
type gladius (after locations in which examples have been the undeniable masters
found), this sword was shorter and stockier, with a blade of sword craft in
measuring about 20-24in (50-60cm) in length and 2-2.5in ancient Rome.
(5-6cm) wide. It was a highly maneuverable and powerful
close-quarters weapon, which retained the sharp point for
ABOVE: A gladius with
dealing with armored enemies.
the remains of its beautiful
The gladius Hispaniensis has been described as the "sword scabbard, from the late Roman
that had conquered the world," and the Mainz/Fulham type Republic. (© Board of the Trustees of
blade continued this tradition through Augustus' great years of the Armouries, object no. IX 5583)
j A H I S T O R Y OF T H E W O R L D IN 100 W E A P O N S
The Pompeii gladius would serve the Romans until the mid 2nd Thus wielded, the gladius sword became a force for
century AD, before it finally gave way to the longer spatha. building an empire. We must not over-emphasize its qualities
- in many ways, it was a fairly humble sword, suited to
IN ACTION equipping the ranks of a mass army. Yet it did its intended
All of the gladius swords were excellent combat weapons, job superbly well, augmenting the martial talents of the
particularly when wielded in combination with the legionary's formidable Roman Army.
shield and spear. In action, the Roman would typically wear
his sword on his right hip, not his left. (Performing a cross-
draw from the left would have endangered the man standing
to the legionary's immediate left.) The shield would be in his BELOW: The Roman gladius continued to serve as the primary
left hand, and his spear in the right. Advancing alongside his weapon for the legionary well into the 2nd century. Indeed, Roman
comrades, once within throwing distance the legionary would swordsmiths began to develop pattern-welded swords, formed around
a core of multiple iron bars with differing carbon contents to produce
launch his javelin at the enemy, then draw his sword and
different tones, twisted into a screw then hammered and folded
move into close-quarters combat. With his torso protected
countless times, providing a strong yet flexible core. Cutting edges
by the shield, the legionary would hack, slash, and jab, were then welded into the sword ensuring that each blade was entirely
systematically cutting down the ranks or man before him. unique. (Artwork by Angus McBride © Osprey Publishing Ltd.)
HOPLITE DORY
and spear. The state would provide some military training, - it could measure up to 10ft (3m) in length, and weighed about
although being an amateur force meant that much reliance 4.4lb (2kg). At the business end was a broad, leaf-pattern
was placed on the natural toughness, athleticism, and spearhead, while at the other end was a corresponding metal
motivation of the hoplites, rather than high levels of martial butt spike called a sarouter. The purpose of the spike is much
skill (with the exception of warrior states such as Sparta). debated. It almost certainly acted as a counterbalance, to make
What made the Greek hoplite such a daunting warrior was the spear easy to hold and wield. Yet it would have also had
a combination of formation and weaponry. The principal some combat utility - it could have been used as an improvised
weapon of the hoplite was the dory spear. It was unusually long spear point if the leaf point was broken off, or for making
consisted of dense ranks of soldiers standing shoulder to have a double-edged xiphos sword or possibly a
shoulder, typically around eight ranks deep and with a face of scythe-like kopis single-edged blade, both being
up to several hundred yards across. In action, the opposing one-handed weapons. He would also wear basic body
phalanxes would march at each other with their spears armor. In the 5th century BC, this would consist of the
presented, merging into a bloody, surging mass as they came linothorax- multiple thick layers of hemp, linen, and
to blows. The length of the dory created an initial, limited, leather - or interlinked bronze scales. Metal greaves
protective distance between the ranks, but it also meant that would protect the lower legs, while a beaten metal
ranks further behind could stab through or over those in front, helmet provided protection for the skull, neck, and
and still reach their opponents. The spears were thrust
face. The most important piece of protective gear,
repeatedly between the opposing wall of shields, inflicting
however, would be the hoplon shield, made of wood
horrifying, deep injuries on those with whom they connected.
but sometimes with a sheet of bronze on the face.
The phalanxes would eventually merge into a violent,
compressed scrum, the ranks further back maintaining forward
pressure with their shields to keep those in front pressing
forward. This clash was known as othismos - a "shoving (7m) long. Alexander's troops were also professional soldiers,
match" - perfectly encapsulating this form of warfare. properly drilled and trained. In the 2nd century BC, the
phalanx showed its limitations against the Romans, who
PHALANX VICTORIES utilized maneuver, firepower, and rough terrain to break up
Life inside the phalanx was claustrophobic and brutal, but in the phalanx's tight formation, which then left it vulnerable to
the hands of a skilled commander the formation was also sword-wielding Romans. Yet the dory and the sarissa had
extremely effective. Between 334 and 323 BC, for example, demonstrated what could be achieved through a bristling wall
Alexander of Macedon, following in his father Philip's of spears, and that lesson would continue on in modified form
footsteps, used the phalanx to conquer much of Eastern Europe until the Middle Ages.
and central Asia. His phalanx, however, could be between
16 and 32 ranks deep, and they utilized the longer sarissa BELOW: Reconstruction drawings based on positions detailed on
. spear, which could reach up to an arm-breaking 23ft ancient Greek vases to illustrate weaponry training for a Hoplite soldier
with his dory. (© Peter Connolly courtesy of akg-images)
» W I III I l i i i w n
BATTLE TESTED
For five centuries the Byzantine Empire utilized Greek Fire in
combat. In this period, it helped the Byzantines rise to become
one of the most powerful maritime nations upon earth. Greek
Fire helped secure critical victories against Arab siege fleets
around Constantinople in the 7th and 8th centuries, and
subsequently helped defeat various Middle Eastern and Eastern
European enemies during Byzantium's imperial expansion.
It also became a land warfare weapon - the cheirosiphon
hand-operated launcher was mounted on siege towers for
spraying the flame over enemy fortifications and defenses.
Yet by the 13th century, Greek Fire had largely disappeared
from the records, and did not return. Why this occurred is
ABOVE: Greek Fire was not only a naval weapon. It could also uncertain. It was doubtless effective in ideal conditions, but at
be used effectively to protect or seize fortresses, as shown here. anything like extended range, or in windy conditions, its
(Taken from Codex Vaticanus Graecus, c. 1605)
practicality would have been limited. Certainly, the advent of
BELOW: The Byzantine Empire successfully used Greek Fire to cannon in the 14th century would have rendered it obsolete.
dominate huge swathes of the Mediterranean world in the early Yet Greek Fire illustrates that the incendiary
medieval period. Using a flammable composition consisting
weapons of the 20th century
of sulfur, naphta, and quicklime, jets of liquid fire were
had some very
sprayed out of bronze tubes mounted on their own
galleys, as shown in this original ancient ancestors.
manuscript image. On at least
two occasions entire fleets of
Saracen warriors were
destroyed by Greek Fire
from Byzantine vessels.
(The Bridgeman Art
Library)
T H E MEDIEVAL W O R L D 5 0 0 - 1 5 0 0 49
with the aim of puncturing through thinner sections of plate applied. The sword could, of course, be gripped
or gliding between plate joints. Often mounted knights and swung like a bat, but the hand near the pommel
hedged their bets by riding into battle with a cut-and-thrust could also apply pressure to a thrust, or sit above
sword on the hip and a thrusting sword kept at the ready on the crossguard on the ricasso to guide slicing
their saddles. (More about the switch to thrusting swords will actions. Manuscripts such as that by Fiori de Liberi,
be discussed on pp.94-96.) dated to c. 1410, also show longswords being
When discussing the medieval sword, we must acknowledge wielded with just one hand. Note that the blade was
that it was largely relegated to use by those higher classes that not the only offensive feature of the arming sword
could afford it. Consequently, the battlefield was dominated, at
and the longsword. The wide crossguard could be
least in sheer numbers, by the staff weapons, bows, and crude
used to hook an opponent's limbs or sword to
blades of the lower orders. Yet the sword was undoubtedly the
create an opening for attack, and the pommel was
most versatile weapon on the battlefield, requiring skill and
a crude tool for inflicting blunt trauma on a skull
courage to wield properly. Only once firearms established
or chest.
themselves during the Early Renaissance was the value of the
sword thrown into question.
DANE AXE
DECLINE
The Dane axe was certainly effective in action, and over the
centuries it was adopted by several other peoples beyond
Scandinavian shores. Saxon adoption led, in turn, to its
spreading to England and Ireland, and it was also used by
Norman forces, hence its regular appearance on the Bayeaux
HALBERD
MULTIPURPOSE WEAPON
The halberd was such a formidable weapon because it
combined multiple weapons in one multipurpose pole-arm
that was equally dangerous to foot soldiers as mounted
knights. A basic combat halberd (as opposed to the
decorative versions, with their many ornate flourishes)
consisted of a hardwood haft 5—6ft (1.5-1.8m) long and a
head that featured three components. At the front was a large
axe blade, which was surmounted by a long, thin spike or
blade (double-edged if the latter). At the back side of the
head was a substantial hook or "thorn." Used in trained
hands, the head of the halberd was therefore a weapon of
versatility and power. The axe blade could chop down
on men or horses with lethal slicing blows, while the thin
spike was used to puncture plate or mail armor, or simply
could then exploit. Yet ironically, in the early decades of the arquebusiers worked on their flanks to provide counterfire
gunpowder age the pike actually became one of the most against enemy soldiers' missiles.
feared battlefield weapons of its day. The "pike renaissance" At battles such as Grandson (1476), Morat (1476), and
was largely due to the Swiss, who from the 15th century took Nancy (1477), the pikemen proved their worth in great
pike warfare to new levels of influence. victories. Others also mastered the pike along similar lines,
including the European (mainly German) Landsknecht,
SWISS PIKEMEN mercenaries who on occasions fought the Swiss in huge
The Swiss had used pike for many years, but had often relied crushes of pike. In the 16th century, the Spanish developed
more on the shorter halberd, paying the price for this the tercio, a mixed-arms formation of about 3,000 men that
imbalance in defeats such as the battle of Arbedo in 1422, formed pike-, firearm-, and sword-equipped men into mutually
when Milanese crossbows and lancers broke up the Swiss supporting squares, each element aiming to compensate for
ranks. In response to such defeats, the Swiss adopted an 18ft the weakness of the other. Victory at the battle of Pavia in 1525
(5.5m) long pike, but refined the training of pikemen to make showed that the tactic could pay real dividends.
them much more offensively oriented. At the given command
BELOW: Pikemen were used alongside troops armed with early
(the Swiss also pioneered the use of drums to command the
medieval handgonnes during the era of so-called "Pike and Shot"
infantry squares), the pikemen could move at unexpected
tactics. This manuscript image shows the typical formations of the
speed across the battlefield, counterattacking cavalry charges late 16th century; the pikemen form the bulk of the attacking party,
or slamming into less-disciplined enemy ranks. Archers and with arquebusiers on the wings. (Courtesy of Keith Roberts)
The pike square ultimately died out around 1 700, when ABOVE: Scottish pikemen opposing the English cavalry at the
refinements in artillery and the use of flintlock weapons meant battle of Bannockburn in 1314. (Artwork by Graham Turner ©
Osprey Publishing Ltd.)
that pike formations became horribly exposed to gunfire.
The heavy pike became an anachronism, but its longevity and BELOW: Formed infantry with pikes could withstand a cavalry
battlefield success illustrate how the simplest weapon can be assault as they could keep the riders at bay. The length of the
the sling end was drawn down low to the ground using
TREBUCHET MISSILES a system of ropes, pulleys, and windlasses, hoisting the
Trebuchets had limited range, but their missiles gave counterpoise into the air. When the mechanism was released,
much cause for fear. For example, it is estimated that the counterpoise dropped back down towards the earth,
a trebuchet with a 50ft (15m) arm and a counterpoise propelling the opposite end of the arm upwards at speed,
of 20,000lb (9,070kg), could throw a 300lb (136kg) which in turn flung the missile towards the target with a
rock to a distance of 300yds (274m). Examples from howitzer-like trajectory.
history show that some trebuchets were capable of
launching stones up to 3,300lb (1,500kg) in weight, POWER AND LIMITATIONS
which must have had crushing effects on whatever Trebuchets were used in siege warfare throughout medieval
they hit. Such monstrous loads, however, were utterly Europe and the Middle East, and also, from the 13th century
exceptional, and missiles of around 2201b (100kg) at least, by the Chinese and the Mongols. They developed
were typical. Even these rocks delivered a powerful into several different types; variations in the positioning
punch. Trebuchet operators often aimed such missiles and number of the counterpoise, for example, gave the user
at the battlements of fortifications, smashing the
masonry, and killing defenders until the time was
right for escalade or the deployment of a siege tower. BELOW: A modern-day reconstruction of a trebuchet built in
France. The origins of the word are French; loosely translated it
Alternative missiles included dead horses and men,
meant something like "to fall over" or "rotate about the middle," but
designed to spread disease within the enemy fortress. came to mean any large-scale catapult used in siege warfare. (Chris
Hellier/Ancient Art and Architecture Collection)
THE MEDIEVAL W O R L D 5 0 0 - 1 5 0 0 49
ABOVE: An artistic representation of a trebuchet at work against a have destroyed the castle's gatehouse, by which time the
medieval castle. (© Look and Learnt The Bridgeman Art Library) castle's garrison had surrendered anyway.
As with so many other medieval weapons, the trebuchet
greater or lesser degrees of control over accuracy, range, and was rendered obsolete by the invention of gunpowder
rates of fire. They were monstrous pieces of equipment to weaponry. Cannon, when they arrived in the 14th century,
construct, however, a process that had to be done at the site were more portable and, once casting techniques and
of the siege. "Warwolf" - King Edward I's mighty trebuchet gunpowder had improved, delivered a harder punch than
constructed for the siege of Stirling Castle in 1304 - took 54 trebuchet rocks. As an example of mechanical ingenuity,
people three months to complete. "Warwolf" was believed to however, the trebuchet remains an impressive weapon.
ENGLISH LONGBOW
ABOVE: Almost six decades prior to Agincourt, the English forces put in place various ordinances encouraging or commanding
of Edward the Black Prince, son of King Edward III, defeated the lower orders to practice the arts of archery. (Longbowmen
heavily armored French troops at the battle of Crecy in 1346.
were almost all from middle or lower orders of society,
(akg-images/Erich Lessing)
the knightly class believing that killing from a distance was
somehow ignoble.) Longbowmen would typically begin
of the men who used them. Pull weight on the same bows was training in their early teens, and only reach a state of combat
put at 150-160lbf (667-712N). Such enormous draw weights proficiency in their twenties.
required herculean strength from the longbowman, and
skeletons of longbowmen are recognizable from deformities LONG-RANGE WEAPON
to arms, wrists, shoulders, and fingers. The longbow was also The upshot of the training and the bow's power was a lethal
a difficult weapon to master, hence English monarchs often range of hundreds of yards. A reconstruction of a Mary Rose
T H E MEDIEVAL W O R L D 5 0 0 - 1 5 0 0 49
AGINCOURT
During the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453), the
longbow was integral to English victories at Crecy
(1346), Poitiers (1356), and, most famously, Agincourt
(1415). In the latter battle, approximately 6,000 English
soldiers - the majority of whom were longbowmen -
faced a French army of up to 30,000. When the French
knights finally attacked, on October 25, their ranks
were horribly thinned by a sky-darkening hail of
arrows that began to kill and injure men and mounts
well before they could close to fighting distance.
Trained archers could release about six aimed shots
each minute, or 12 unaimed, meaning that the archers
at Agincourt probably fired more than 30,000 arrows
at the French in the first minute.
The devastation caused by the longbow barrage
weakened the French attack, and left dismounted
warriors vulnerable to an English counterattack that
bow fired a relatively lightweight arrow out to 360yds
took the battlefield.
(328m), but a more typical effective range would be in the
region of 247yds (230m). A clue to range capabilities came
in 1542, when Henry VIII ordered that no archer of 24 years
old or more was to shoot his bow at a target of less than On the battlefield, the longbow was a weapon of long-
220yds (201m), such was his concern over declining range attrition. Not only could it reach the enemy at great
longbow skills. distances, the arrows also delivered impressive penetration,
puncturing (with the heavy bodkin point) some types of thin
plate armor and mail. The longbow was, in many ways,
OPPOSITE: Agincourt is one of the great English victories, in
Shakespeare's words, "a small band of brothers" achieving success
superior to firearms for many centuries. Ironically, however,
against a far larger force thanks in part to the skill of their archers. the longbow disappeared at just about the same time as
(Artwork by Gerry Embleton © Osprey Publishing Ltd) the matchlock musket appeared on the battlefield, about
the 15th century. For all their deficiencies, arquebus and
ABOVE: An artistic re-creation of a pair of archers from the
mid-14th to early 15th century. Each demonstrates the two medieval muskets offered remote lethality, just like the longbow,
methods of "stringing" the bows, the one on the right the more but without the years of intensive training. Moreover, periods
common of the two. Modern archery places a leg between the bow of peace resulted in an irrevocable decline in longbow
and string, resting the lower bow tip on the other foot and "bending"
training. Combined with an increasing shortage of yew
the bow around the back of the thigh. This is due to the fact that
modern archers do not have the physical strength for the medieval
wood, and the longbow gradually slipped from supremacy
technique. (Artwork by Gerry Embleton © Osprey Publishing Ltd) into obsolescence.
CROSSBOW
Naturally, there came a point at which simply cocking belt - the hook was attached to the bowstring, and the
such weapons went beyond normal physical capabilities. The crossbowman could therefore use his whole upper body
simple wooden or composite bows were mainly cocked by weight to cock the bow. When prods became too powerful
hand action alone - the crossbowman would put his foot in for even these procedures, mechanical cocking devices
a stirrup at the front of the stock, then span (cock) the were introduced in the form of windlasses and cranequins
crossbow to the trigger catch using both hands and much (rack-and-pinion winding mechanisms). Using these meant
upper body strength. For the most resistant bows, the the crossbow had a very sluggish rate of fire - crossbowmen
crossbowman might also use an assisting hook fitted to his would crouch behind large convex shields called pavises
during their vulnerable reloading phase. Yet they meant that
crossbows could reach velocities equal to those of the
BELOW: A 15th-century depiction of a soldier firing his crossbow
while two companions take shelter behind a large shield. longbow, with greater penetrative power on account of
(Mary Evans Picture Library) the momentum carried in the heavy bolt.
BATTLEFIELD ADVANTAGES
The crossbow's popularity was also based on reasons other
than brute physics. Crucially, while it took years to train an
archer to a convincing level of skill, a crossbowman could
reach proficiency with about a week of instruction. As we
shall see frequently in this book, the equations of force often
prefer simpler, less effective weapons in more hands than
complex, sophisticated weapons in fewer hands. For this
reasons, crossbows were often viewed as threatening the
social order, giving the ability for a commoner with little
training to kill a venerated knight. The British Magna Carta
document pledged to banish crossbowmen from the kingdom
"once peace is restored," and in 1139 Pope Innocent II even
banned the use of crossbows against Christians, calling the
crossbowman "hated of God." Eventually, the rise of firearms
and the crossbow's slow rates of fire - which left its user
particularly exposed to cavalry attacks - meant it fell out of
use in combat by the late 15th century. By this time, however,
it had made a signal contribution to what has been called the
"infantry revolution," the steady shift of battlefield power from
mounted knights to footsoldiers.
LANCE
ABOVE: At the battle of Spurs, August 16, 1513, the army of Henry would swell out at the grip end, and a small, round metal
VIII was besieging the French town of Therouanne when a French shield called a vamplate was sometimes fitted just in front of
force hoping to relieve it found itself facing the main English army.
the grip hand, to protect it against the enemy's weapons.
With the English heavy cavalry bearing down with lances fixed,
the French retreated in haste, thus giving the battle its name. The emergence of the stirrup and improved saddle meant
(Artwork by Graham Turner © Osprey Publishing Ltd.) that the mode of employing the lance changed significantly.
Images from the Bayeaux Tapestry depict many Norman
OPPOSITE: Four English Knights at tournament c. 1445, taken from
knights riding into battle with their lances held aloft above
Sir Thomas Holme's Book of Arms. (akg-images/The British Library)
their heads, or gripping them in an underhand fashion. Yet
Knights fought with many weapons, but the classic a few knights have the lance in the "couched" position -
battlefield combination was the lance and sword. Unlike tucked beneath their armpits in a very solid grip that allowed
spears, lances were heavier, more robust weapons that were for heavy impacts delivered at speed. Actually, earlier
unsuited to throwing. Made from woods such as ash and, 9th-century Frankish images also show Carolingian cavalry
later, cypress, the typical war lance was about 12ft (3.6m) in holding lances in the couched position. Yet whenever the
length, and featured a metal or iron spear head (unlike the practice began, it appears that the couched lance technique
blunt coronal used for tournament jousting). The weapon had become standard by the 12th century.
A H I S T O R Y OF T H E W O R L D IN 100 W E A P O N S
SHOCK TROOPS ABOVE: A modern reenactor charges with a couched lance. The
knight would have to commit his entire body weight to the thrust
The combination of couched lance, stirrup, and high saddle
to avoid being unseated by the blow on his opponent. (iStock)
welded the horse, rider, and weapon into a single, durable
unit. Now the knight could deliver shock charges and ride out could decide a battle. Such was the significance of the lance,
the heavy impact of lance and enemy. The grip also allowed that it endured through the introduction of firearms (although
lances to lengthen, meaning that the knight could strike his with much-diminished authority) and remained in use in the
enemy out of the range of other pole-arms. Once combat 19th century, in dedicated lancer formations. Couched-lance
closed into a cavalry melee, the knight would discard his charges were even conducted by German, Russian, and
lance and fight with his sword. Austro-Hungarian units on the Eastern Front during World War I
Against infantry ranks the charge of couched-lance (1914-18). By that time, the lance had become grossly
cavalrymen could be devastating. The cavalry became the main anachronistic, but its persistence says much about the combined
striking force of the medieval army, the maneuver element that power of a galloping horse and a leveled lance.
S-shaped piece of metal known as a "serpentine," which last quarter of the 16th century, the matchlock became two
pivoted in the middle - the hinge was either on the outside of separate components - a spring-powered cock and a separate
the gun stock or set inside a slot cut into the stock. The upper but connected trigger mechanism, producing the "snapping
end of the serpentine held the slow match. When the gunner, matchlock." Now when the trigger was pulled, it took just a
therefore, pulled on the lower end of the serpentine, the upper split second for the released cock spring to drive the match
part pivoted forward to drop the match onto a pan that held down into the pan, and hence further improve accuracy (there
the priming powder. was less time to wobble off target) and ignition.
This invention was simple, but revolutionary. Its most salient
benefit was that the gunner could now maintain a steady aim
BELOW: At the battle of Pavia in 1525, the higher number of
on the target while firing the gun, and it is notable that simple
arquebusiers within the Hapsburg Imperial army helped to ensure
bladed sights became more common around this time. victory over the French, who had far less matchlocks deployed.
Further improvements accentuated the progress. During the (The Art Archive/Museo di Capodimonte/Gianni Dagli Orti)
THE MEDIEVAL W O R L D 5 0 0 - 1 5 0 0
ARQUEBUS
Matchlock weapons ushered in a new age of warfare, albeit COMMONER vs NOBLE
slowly. The arquebus - a long-barrelled matchlock firearm -
What was so important about the early firearms is that
became a standard feature of many European and Asian
they leveled the playing field between the rough,
armies. They were still inaccurate, dirty, and heavy - they
common soldier and the noble, highly trained warrior.
were typically fired with the front end supported on a forked
A knight with centuries of martial tradition behind him,
rest - and in terms of performance they were outclassed by
bows and crossbows on many levels. Yet they were simple to could be unseated and killed by an individual who
operate and it was easy to train someone in their use. In time, spent most of his life tilling fields, or at least serving in
the arquebus gave way to the lighter, more portable musket, the lower branches of the armed forces. At the battle
which had a barrel length of 4ft (1.2m), a smooth-bored barrel of Pavia in 1525, for example, 1,500 Spanish
of caliber ranging between 0.5in and 1in, and an effective arquebusiers under Habsburg monarch Charles V
range of around 55yds (50m). As we will see in the study of scattered and destroyed a vaunted force of French
the flintlock in the next chapter, the musket age was to last cavalry. Similarly, at the battle of Nagashino, Japan, in
for nearly 400 years, and eventually placed firearms above 1575, some 1,500-3,000 arqubusiers, commanded by
any other type of infantry weapon. Oda Nobunaga and set behind protective stockades,
decimated the cavalry charges of Takeda Katsuyori's
samurai warriors. Once firearms became widely
BELOW: An engraving of a matchlock musket. The matchlock was
distributed, high social status became increasingly
essentially the first mechanical means of firing a gun - a giant step
forward from medieval handgonnes. (akg-images/IAM/World irrelevant in combat.
History Archive)
i p m v t
SNAPHANCE TO FLINTLOCK
A different approach came with the "snaphance" lock. Here the
system for generating sparks was a piece of flint, again gripped
by a spring-loaded cock. This time, the sparks were created by
the flint being propelled against an angular steel arm known ABOVE: An American soldier uses his powder horn to prime the
as the frizzen, which sat over the pan. The s n a p h a n c e lock P a n o f h i s flintlock musket. (The Bridgeman Art Library/Peter
, - *. . a. a. i t Newark American Pictures)
also featured a hinged or sliding pan cover, meaning that the
gun could be loaded but the powder kept dry and in place
ready for later action.
ABOVE: The development of the flintlock mechanism, allied with
rifling, eventually led to far greater accuracy of shot. During the RIFLING
American Revolutionary War, sharpshooters were used to pick off
Rifling is the process of cutting helical grooves in the
high-level commanders such as General Simon Fraser, killed
during the Saratoga campaign. (Painting by Hugh Charles bore of a gun, in order to impart spin to a projectile
McBarron, courtesy US Army Center of Military History) as it is fired. A spinning projectile has a gyroscopic
stability around its central axis, and therefore it flies
The snaphance was a critical step forward in gun design, more accurately and to a greater range. The origins
as it laid the foundations for the flintlock itself, which emerged of rifling are uncertain, but date back to the 15th and
about 1620. In the new lock, the mechanism had both half 16th centuries. Rifling required a tight fit between
cock and full cock modes (half cock allowed loading, but the bullet and bore, which meant that rifled weapons
gun couldn't be fired from this position), but with greater were slower to load than smoothbores, but the
simplicity than those snaphances that had the same feature. accuracy advantages were profound. Standard
The flintlock also combined the frizzen and pan cover in one military muskets were typically capable of hitting
spring-loaded piece, making the gun simpler to manufacture targets at no more than 100yds (91m), but there are
while retaining all the advantages of the covered pan. accounts of 17th- and 18th-century marksmen with
The flintlock was the true beginning of the firearms rifled guns hitting human-sized targets at up to
revolution. The flintlock musket became the standard firearm 600yds (550m), even beyond.
of virtually every modern army in the world, and remained
THE EARLY M O D E R N W O R L D 1 5 0 0 - 1 8 0 0 105
RAPIER W O U N D S
In skilled hands the rapier had both reach and speed,
and built its techniques upon finding the shortest,
quickest route to hit and penetrate the target. Target
areas for the trained swordsman included the chest,
abdomen, and throat. With their narrow blades,
rapiers left slender internal injuries that were difficult
to fix and heal, hence many rapier duels and
confrontations ended initially in injury, only for the
wounded party to die later of infection or slow blood
loss. A straight pierce through the heart, however,
would bring almost immediate death. Note,
however, that in street combat rapiers were used
brutally in combination with punches, kicks, trips
and whatever other advantages the fighters could
throw into the battle.
LEFT: The development of the rapier was a direct result of the huge
advances made in armor design. This armor was designed for
Henry VIII to be worn at the Field of Cloth of Gold tournament in
1520, although it was replaced with different armor at the final
moment. There was no chink in its protection, which completely
covered the body. (© Board of the Trustees of the Armouries,
object no. II 6)
A H I S T O R Y OF THE W O R L D IN 100 W E A P O N S
point. Pure military swords typically retained the cut-and- 200 years, however, the rapier
thrust characteristics required for the multiple targets of had embodied the reality of
opportunity found on the battlefield. The rapier, by contrast, combat on the street - a tool
reflected the needs of one-to-one combat against unarmored to finish the fight decisively
opponents. A man fighting for his life in a narrow back alley and quickly.
would have limited opportunity to make broad swings with a
blade, but with a rapier he could thrust and stab with
astonishing repetitive speed - the blades were exquisitely
balanced for rapid movements.
The rapier bred schools of swordsmanship throughout
Europe, and helped create the sport of fencing that is still
practiced to this day. During the 17th century, long, large- LEFT: A beautiful example
hilted rapiers gradually fell out of use. Firearms were taking of a rapier probably crafted
away the rationale of the sword, and the shorter, lighter, and in Italy but in English use.
The hilt is gold with silver
altogether more decorous "smallsword" came to be the
inlays and fine carving.
preferred side-arm for the gentleman on the street. Fighting
(© Wallace Collection
with the smallsword was more ritualistic and codified, and The Bridgeman Art
hence was largely the realm of the formal duel. For nearly Library)
KATANA
Japanese swords began to develop a definite curve, improving - from a low-carbon billet, folded just a few times, and
their abilities as slashing weapons. By the 13th century, these wrapping this with the high-carbon hadagane outer steel,
blades had reached a state of perfection both in terms of their which was heated and folded up to 15 times to adjust its
cutting efficiency and their manufacture. carbon content appropriately. The finishing was performed
It is worth noting what is special about a traditionally through a complicated mix of heating and quenching (sudden
constructed samurai sword. The challenge for the swordmaker cooling), the quenching process being that which actually
was to produce a blade that was hard enough to retain its gave the blades their curved shape. The skills of swordmaking
edge, but flexible enough to resist shattering. The former and of sword polishing were hard-achieved, although it is
quality is associated with high-carbon steel, the latter with worth reminding ourselves that there were always plenty of
low-carbon steel, and the Japanese swordmaker sought to poor-quality swords in circulation in Japan. But when
combine both types in one single-edged weapon. He produced by a master, the result was formidable.
achieved this by forming the centre of the sword - the shigane
SAMURAI BLADES
By the 15th century there were three blade types that could be
BELOW: A depiction of the 1866 swordfight known as the "Spray
of blood on Kojinyama," from the Shimizu Jirocho Memorial considered typically Japanese. The shortest, essentially large
Museum, Shimizu City. (Courtesy of Stephen Turnbull) daggers, were the tanto. The next stage up in length were the
wakizashi, which were short swords that extended to about reserve of the samurai class. (Note, however, that today the
23.6in (60cm), where the katana roughly began. Tanto and term katana is often used generically to describe all types of
wakizashi could be carried by the members of any social class samurai sword, and some historians argue against the idea
entitled to be armed, including some women. The right to that the katana is associated with any particular length.) For
train with and carry a katana, however, was the exclusive the samurai, the katana and wakizashi were generally worn
1. Ukaketsuzen kennoisei: a defensive position against an enemy 4. Sachu senkennosei: a threatening posture in which the
who has his sword raised ready to cut downwards. swordpoint is aimed at the enemy's throat.
2. Ukaho kennosei: a similar defensive position but with a more 5. Heijozen kennosei: an unusual posture with the sword edge
relaxed or casual posture favoured by some of the more uppermost and supported by the left hand.
experienced swordsmen. 6. Jordan no kamae: a strong posture in which the sword is held
3. Chudan: a strong guard position with the sword held at ready to deliver a devastating downward strike.
medium height.
1. kissaki: the fan-shaped cutting tip of the blade 6. menuki: decorative metal fittings placed under the hilt wrapping
2. boshi: the wave-pattern of the tip 7. saya: the scabbard
3. shinogi-suji: the ridge running the length of the blade
4. hasaki: the fiercely sharp cutting edge toshin: the sword as a whole
5. same-kawa: the wrapping on the helm known as "shark-skin"
but actually the skin of a giant ray
100 A HISTORY OF T H E W O R L D IN 100 W E A P O N S
as a matching pair, although the katana was the primary balanced for both one- and two-handed use. It was easily
battlefield weapon. And a fearsome weapon it was. The capable of separating a head from a body with a single stroke,
katana was designed to deliver powerful slashing attacks - it as depicted in numerous martial paintings or wood carvings
was worn with the blade facing upwards to facilitate a quick from Japan's past.
draw and cut. The key targets were the head, neck, forearms, All swords were eventually overshadowed by the
stomach, and lower abdomen, and a single clean hit on many development of firearms, which eventually subjugated
of these areas could prove fatal. Katana swords had been swordsmanship to weight of lead. Yet the katana represents
developed specifically for speed, being lighter and shorter the perfect blending of sword and warrior, and as such these
than the tachi sword previously favored, and perfectly objects remain venerated amongst collectors to this day.
W H E N LOOKING FOR THE ORIGINS OF THE SABER, The talwar and shamshir, by contrast, were more slender, but the
three blades stand out as formative - the Ottoman curves of the blade could be even more pronounced. Indeed,
in the case of the shamshir the curve was almost impractical,
kilij, the Indian talwar, and the Persian shamshir.
describing an angle of up to 15 degrees from hilt to tip. The talwar
The kilij is a useful starting point, as during the
hilt typically had a pistol grip that swelled in the middle, framed
Early Modern period its influence spread out by a disc pommel and quillons, sometimes with a knucklebow
from Turkey throughout the Middle East and Asia angling backwards. Shamshir hilts were generally plainer, with
(including India), courtesy of the Ottoman Empire, short quillons and a simple L-shaped configuration.
ABOVE: An American Civil War saber. (The Bridgeman Art of bitter fighting, but reinforcements saved the day. It was
Library © Civil War Archive) the most hotly contested clash of sabers in the entire Civil War.
Here the 35th Virginia Cavalry Battalion, later nicknamed "The Grey
BELOW: The road to Gettysburg began at Brandy Station on June 9, Comanches," is shown overrunning the 6th New York Independent
1863, when Union cavalry commander General Alfred Pleasonton Battery, clearly demonstrating the "shock and awe" effect a sabre
launched his cavalry corps against the Confederate forces of General charge could achieve. (The Grey Comanches, painting by Don
J.E.B. Stuart. The Confederate force was almost defeated in 12 hours Troiani, www.historicalimagebank.com)
THE EARLY M O D E R N W O R L D 1 5 0 0 - 1 8 0 0 105
officers achieve proficiency in the blade. dropped dead together. The brass helmet was
The Pattern 1796 was followed by several other British pattern afterwards examined by order of a French officer,
sabers, while other countries adopted their own standards, such who, as well as myself, was astonished at the exploit;
as the French An XI, the classic Russian shashka (whose origins and the cut was found to be as clean as if the sword
stretched back to the 12th century) and the American Model had gone through a turnip, not so much as a dint
1860, to name but a few. (From the 17th century, sword being left on either side of it.5
manufacture was increasingly industrialized, producing many
uniform, standardized patterns of hilt and blade suited to
uniformly equipping large formations.) Indeed, even as late as
the American Civil War (1861-65), saber-armed infantry were
shaping the outcomes of battles, such as at the battle of Brandy
Station in June 1863. It says much about the fighting qualities of
the saber that they were still being swung in action even in the
age of percussion firearms.
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A HISTORY OF T H E W O R L D IN 100 W E A P O N S
PREVIOUS PAGE: A French journal celebrates a bayonet charge SWORD AND KNIFE BAYONETS
during the battle of Ypres, 1915. (akg-images)
Bayonet design, of course, did not stand still. In the 19th
century, the sword bayonet took its place alongside the
The socket bayonet spread quickly throughout the armies socket bayonet. The type was established by the British
of Europe, replacing the pike and giving infantry the rounded Pattern 1800 Baker Sword bayonet, which had a 24in (61 cm)
offensive and defensive capability they had previously blade plus a hilt with a brass knuckle-guard. Sword bayonets
lacked. In the defense, a standard tactic was for one rank of made a strong appearance during the 19th century, but the
soldiers to present their bayonets while the next rank impracticalities of weight and length meant that they became
reloaded to fire, the ranks swapping roles frequently. On the largely relegated to ceremonial or detached use. From the
attack, the "bayonet charge" became a decisive tactical end of the century, therefore, much shorter "knife bayonets"
moment, the point at which the soldiers closed with the made an appearance, these essentially being daggers with a
enemy and sought the final victory. secondary use as a bayonet.
THE EARLY M O D E R N W O R L D 1 5 0 0 - 1 8 0 0 105
•ferr,.
rocket-propelled grenade (RPG), and small-arms fire.
Running low on ammunition, the Highlanders
then fixed bayonets to their SA80 rifles and charged
the enemy, engaging in hand-to-hand fighting.
The insurgents were defeated with up to 35 of their
number killed (British reinforcements arrived during
the fighting), for the cost of only three men wounded.
The action proves that although the rationale for
bayonet has largely gone, it still has a valid place in
the soldier's equipment.
Ik ^mm.
powder (contained in flannel bags) and shot pre-packed in ABOVE: The battle of Malplaquet on September 11, 1709, was one
wooden cases to speed up loading times. These light artillery of the major engagements of the War of the Spanish Succession.
The extensive use of artillery by the Allied army under the
pieces could, in the hands of a well-trained crew, be fired
command of the Duke of Marlborough helped drive the French
faster than a flintlock musket. from the battlefield, although the Allies lost so many troops that
Following Adolphus' lead, more professional armies bought the rivers reportedly ran red with blood for three days. (The
into the use of light artillery, particularly the French, British, Bridgeman Art Library)
ARTILLERY BATTLES
Certain names stand out in this evolution, particularly jean- BATTLEFIELD EFFECTS
Baptiste de Gribeauval. In 1776 he became France's Inspector The two primary ammunition types of field artillery
of Artillery, and pushed through a new method of barrel were round shot and canister. Round shot was simply
manufacture, casting guns as a single block then drilling out
a solid metal ball. This was typically fired to make
the bore. The result was an improved fit between bore and
first graze in front of enemy infantry ranks - the ball
ball - making the guns more powerful - and thinner, therefore
would subsequently bounce through the tight-packed
lighter, barrels of equal strength to the heavier barrels of the
ranks, raking down whole lines of men. Canister
past. He also created a new system of standardized calibers,
consisted of a metal container filled with lead or iron
with an emphasis on lighter battlefield pieces ranging from a
1 pdr through to a 12pdr. balls (packed in sawdust for spacing), or other forms
The steady improvements in field artillery meant that of shrapnel. When the canister was fired from a gun,
gunnery became more central to the outcome of battles. the container disintegrated on leaving the bore and
Armies began to field artillery pieces numbering in the the shrapnel created a terrible short-range "shotgun"
thousands (Russia, for example, had 13,000 artillery pieces effect on enemy ranks. At close range, men and
by 1713), and these became more methodically organized horses would literally be torn apart by canister shot.
into batteries and regiments. Frederick the Great pioneered At the battle of Torgau on November 3, 1 760, for
horse artillery (in which all the artillerymen were mounted), example, some ten Prussian battalions were
forming the first battery in 1 759. destroyed by canister as they led an attack. Artillery
was a science for those designing the guns, but a
horror for those facing them.
T H E HOWITZER OCCUPIES A DISTINCTIVE PLACE IN THE Howitzers sit between mortars and cannon in their capabilities
history and ranks of artillery pieces. In the modern being, in Early Modern history at least, as (or more) maneuverable
as the former but of larger caliber than the latter. They are
world, in which direct-fire gun artillery has largely
indirect-fire weapons, designed to lob shells at high trajectories at
disappeared, the howitzer is the most influential
targets hidden from line-of-sight view.
artillery piece available, but its evolution to this
status has been slow. FIRE SUPPORT
The origins of the howitzer, at least in etymology, date back to
the Hussite Wars (1419-34), when the Hussite army deployed
houfnice- mid-caliber defensive cannon mounted on carts - as
part of their large artillery train. These guns were capable of howitzers largely utilized "bursting shells," hollow round-shot
delivering a punishing bombardment upon massed enemy filled with gunpowder and a fuse. Although the effect of such
ranks, and they were primarily used to defend gaps in the ammunition could be haphazard, howitzers ushered in the
Wagenburg laagers. The word houfnice was in turn translated age of explosive artillery fire.
into German as haubitze, which went on to give us the English
term "howitzer." DIVERSE EMPLOYMENT
Although the Hussites laid the foundations, the howitzer Throughout the 18th century, howitzers firmly established
proper was essentially an invention of the 1 7th century, with themselves amongst the ranks of artillery, and ranged from
Sweden at the forefront. Howitzers were primarily designed diminutive 7pdr guns through to hefty 24pdrs. Fielding a
for siege work, being able to lob shells over fortification walls. variety of howitzer calibers provided defensive and offensive
Yet they soon proved useful in other contexts. Being of flexibility, as illustrated by the British Army at the second siege
relatively low weight and with a short limber trail, they could of Badajoz, Spain, in 1812, when three different calibers of
be wheeled around the active battlefield to provide heavy howitzer were used, each tackling specific defensive
support fire at key points. For example, the howitzers under elements, from manned ditches to bastions.
Marlborough's command in the early 18th century had a Howitzer evolution post 1800 is too complex to relate here
powerful caliber of some 8-1 Oin (20-25cm), but only required in full. Suffice to say that howitzers increasingly diversified,
eight horses to pull one gun; the British 6pdr field gun, by
contrast, required 13 horses. Unlike many direct-fire guns,
BELOW: Boer troops photographed with a howitzer they used
during the Siege of Ladysmith, Second
Anglo-Boer War. (The Art Archive)
T H E EARLY M O D E R N W O R L D 1 5 0 0 - 1 8 0 0 105
the Seas, launched in 1669 with three decks, weighing sited the few guns they carried (around seven) on the
1,675 short tons (1,520 tonnes) and having a crew of bow pointing forward, with other small cannon at strategic
600 men. Navigational instruments improved, with both the points on the deck. The switch to large sailing vessels,
quadrant and the sextant introduced in the 18th century. Later however, meant that the biggest warships could carry up to
in the same century, the problem of determining longitude and even exceeding 100 guns, arranged in broadside ranks
was solved by the marine chronometer of John Harrison. and firing through lidded gun ports in the side of the hull.
The muzzle-loading cannon were set on wheeled mounts,
OCEANIC WARRIORS with the recoil controlled by thick breeching ropes to
The increased capabilities of Early Modern sailing ships stop the gun flying uncontrollably backwards into the ship's
meant that the oceans of the world now became imperial interior. A system of ropes and pulleys returned the gun to
playgrounds and battlegrounds. War galleys had classically firing position.
main truck
main
trajectory of top
main
shot \
top
ABOVE: Nelson's brilliant deployment of his fleet, as well as Tactically, the ideal outcome for a squadron commander was
the superior British gunnery skills, led to a victory at Trafalgar to turn his line of battle so that it passed to the front or rear of
that secured British dominance of the sea for the next 100 years.
the enemy ships, meaning that he could unleash his broadsides
Eighteen out of 33 of the Combined Fleet ships were lost or
while the opponents were unable to bring their guns to bear.
destroyed, while the British lost none. Here the French ship
Redoutable is shown sandwiched between Victory and Temeraire.
(The Art Archive)
BRITISH SHIP RATINGS
The following are ratings for British ships of the line of
The huge, booming broadsides of these sailing ships were
the 18th century, based on the number of guns carried
enormously destructive, but demanded new tactics. In the mid
by the warship:
1600s, the English and Dutch pioneered the "line of battle"
First rate - three decks, 100 guns
tactic, in which fighting ships went into action in a coordinated Second rate - three decks, 90-98 guns
line, hence could turn their broadsides on the enemy without Third rate - two decks, 74 guns (the most numerous
friendly ships being in their line of fire. The ships who were Royal Navy ship of the line during the second
powerful enough to take their position in the line of battle were half of the 18th and early 19th centuries)
known, appropriately enough, as "ships of the line." They came Fourth rate - two decks, 50-60 guns
Fifth rate - frigates, with two decks, 32-36 guns
in numerous different sizes and varieties, but many navies
Sixth rate - frigates, one or two decks, 28 guns
established standardized systems of ranking the boats. The Unrated - any vessels ranked below sixth rate,
British Navy, for example, used a system of "rates" (see feature such as sloops and fire-ships.
box), the "first rate" being the most potent.
THE EARLY M O D E R N W O R L D 1 5 0 0 - 1 8 0 0 105
Yet such precision was relatively rare, and broadside Ultimately, it was the advent of the steam ship in the
engagements were typically brutal affairs, each side pounding 19th century that ended the era of the ship of the line. Not
the other with hails of round, bar, grape, and chain shot. The bound by the winds, steam warships could express themselves
battles were destructive but frequently indecisive-victory could in more diverse maneuver tactics, although as emblems of
come as much through weather and navigation as gunnery. sheer naval power, the great sail ships have few rivals.
HMS VICTORY
Key
1 Poop deck
2 Quarter deck
3 Upper deck
Specifications: 4 12pdr gun
Launched: May 7, 1765 5 68pdr Carronade
Displacement: 3,500 UK tons (3,556 tonnes) 6 24pdr guns
Length overall: 186ft (56.6m) 7 Middle deck
Keel length: 151ft 4in (46.1m) 8 Gun deck
Beam: 52ft (15.8m) 9 Gun ports to 32pdr guns on deck
Draught: 21ft 6in (6.5m) 10 Spot where Nelson was mortally wounded at the battle of
Armament: 30 x 32pdrs, 28 x 24pdrs, 30 x 12pdrs, 12 x 6pdrs Trafalgar, 1805
IMPERIAL WARS
1800-1914
BAKER RIFLE
" u n c o n v e n t i o n a l " tactics of c o v e r a n d c o n c e a l m e n t , these rifles l o a d i n g Ferguson rifles in the late 1 7 7 0 s , but it w o u l d take until
inflicted w o r r y i n g losses o n British forces d u r i n g the A m e r i c a n the b e g i n n i n g of the next c e n t u r y to m a k e rifle-armed troops a
i
| A H I S T O R Y OF T H E W O R L D IN 100 WEAPONS
than the B r o w n Bess musket, a n d therefore m u c h m o r e suited ^ ^ I was startled by the sharp report of a firelock, and
to n i m b l e s k i r m i s h i n g w o r k f r o m b e h i n d c o v e r . at the same moment, a bullet whistled close to my
T h e B a k e r rifle w a s in m a n y w a y s little d i f f e r e n t f r o m head. Instantly starting up I turned and looked in the
p r e v i o u s rifled firearms. Its s i g n i f i c a n c e , h o w e v e r , w a s that it
direction w h e n c e the shot had c o m e ... but nothing
h e l p e d b e g i n the British A r m y ' s s l o w t a c t i c a l shift a w a y f r o m
c o u l d I see. I looked to the p r i m i n g of my rifle ...
u n i f o r m v o l l e y s to fire a n d m a n e u v e r . T h e 9 5 t h Rifles w e r e
w h e n another shot took place, a n d a s e c o n d ball
k n o w n for t h e i r i n t e l l i g e n t u s e of g r o u n d , a n d their a b i l i t y
whistled past me. This time I was ready, and turning
to t a k e s h o t s at r a n g e s in e x c e s s of 2 0 0 y d s ( 1 8 2 m ) - t h e y
q u i c k l y I saw my man; he w a s just about to squat
w e r e p a r t i c u l a r l y f o n d of t a r g e t i n g e n e m y o f f i c e r s , NCOs,
d o w n b e h i n d a small mound, about twenty paces
d r u m m e r s , a n d a r t i l l e r y m e n , t a k i n g o u t p e o p l e of v a l u e a n d
from me. I took a h a p h a z a r d shot at him, a n d
a u t h o r i t y . T h e l e s s o n s of t h e 9 5 t h w o u l d t a k e s o m e t i m e
instantly k n o c k e d him over.
to filter o u t into t h e w i d e r a r m y , b u t w i t h the i n t r o d u c t i o n
of u n i t a r y c a r t r i d g e s , c h e a p e r m e t h o d s of p r o d u c i n g r i f l e d
w e a p o n s , a n d e f f e c t i v e b r e e c h - l o a d i n g later in the c e n t u r y ,
e v e r y s o l d i e r b e c a m e c a p a b l e of l o n g - r a n g e attrition. In the BELOW: A pair of Jager military-pattern flintlock rifles c. 1750 - the
rifled a g e , t h o s e w h o w e r e e x p o s e d w e r e d e a d . direct forerunner of the Baker. (Martin Pegler collection)
DREYSE NEEDLE-GUN
firepower ebbed and flowed in volleys, rather than sporting g u n that took a s e l f - c o n t a i n e d p a p e r cartridge, fitted w i t h
m i n u t e f r o m a s m o o t h b o r e m u s k e t . In o n e d e m o n s t r a t i o n , P a u l y
w h o in 1 8 3 5 patented a n e w b r e e c h - l o a d i n g c a r t r i d g e k n o w n as
P i n f i r e c a r t r i d g e s w o r k e d w e l l ( a l t h o u g h best in r e v o l v e r s ) ,
a n d they w e n t o n to h a v e h u g e c o m m e r c i a l s u c c e s s for s e v e r a l
d e c a d e s . M o r e i m p o r t a n t l y , t h e y b e g a n t h e e v o l u t i o n to rimfire
t h e n c e n t e r f i r e c a r t r i d g e s , w h i c h b e c a m e d o m i n a n t in t h e
BOLT-ACTION
P r u s s i a n g u n m a k e r J o h a n n N i k o l a u s v o n D r e y s e u t i l i z e d the
ABOVE: An original engraving shows the revolutionary new c a s e . B y p u s h i n g the bolt f o r w a r d a n d l o c k i n g the h a n d l e d o w n
design of the Needle-Gun. (akg-images) into a recess in the frame, the g u n w a s ready to fire. P u l l i n g the
decades after the original. (Mary Evans Picture Library/Interfoto) c h a r g e , a n d struck the p e r c u s s i o n c a p to fire the g u n .
IMPERIAL WARS 1 8 0 0 - 1 9 1 4 ||j|
D r e y s e ' s b r e e c h - l o a d i n g f i r e a r m w a s truly r e v o l u t i o n a r y . ABOVE: The battle of Koniggratz during the Austro-Prussian War
use in a scrappy, close-quarters skirmish; once the d o e s not a c t u a l l y b e l o n g to the great S a m u e l C o l t , but a r g u a b l y
to A r t e m u s W h e e l e r of M a s s a c h u s e t t s . ( A l t h o u g h there a r e
shot in the chamber was fired, the best use for the
e x t a n t d i a g r a m s of r e v o l v e r - l i k e m a t c h l o c k , w h e e l l o c k , a n d
pistol was to flip it around and use the butt as a club.
f l i n t l o c k m e c h a n i s m s f r o m a s far b a c k a s t h e 1 6 t h c e n t u r y . )
Multi-shot "ducksfoot" and "pepperbox" handguns
provided better defensive qualities, both using
multiple barrels - the former set in a splayed
horizontal arrangement, the latter in a cylindrical
arrangement around a central axis. Both were
awkward to handle and fire, and the pepperbox also
ran the hand-destroying risk of "flashover," where the
ignition of one chamber ignites adjacent chambers.
T H E C O L T J] R E E C H - L O A D I N G
11 E V 0 L V E K.
FIG. I.
ABOVE: The Colt breech-loading revolver. This illustration shows C o l t r e v o l u t i o n i z e d h a n d - h e l d firearms. T h e first of his g u n s
the revolver (Fig. 1), the breech-disk (Fig. 2), and the cartridge w a s the 1 8 3 6 C o l t Paterson, a 0 . 3 4 i n f i v e - s h o t g u n in w h i c h
(Fig. 3). Illustration from The Mechanics Magazine, London, 1869.
e a c h c h a m b e r of the c y l i n d e r w a s l o a d e d s e p a r a t e l y w i t h
(akg-images/IAM/World History Archive)
p o w d e r , c a p , a n d b a l l . It w a s " s i n g l e - a c t i o n " - the a c t i o n of
c o c k i n g the h a m m e r rotated the c y l i n d e r b e t w e e n shots, a n d
w a s a slightly a w k w a r d first attempt f r o m C o l t , but s u b s e q u e n t
a r m for w h i c h history h a d b e e n w a i t i n g , p r o v i d i n g m e a n i n g f u l
b a c k - u p or s h o r t - r a n g e f i r e p o w e r to e v e r y o n e f r o m T e x a s
C O L T NAVY 1851
R a n g e r s (a m a j o r c u s t o m e r ) to c a v a l r y t r o o p e r s .
SPECIFICATIONS
O f c o u r s e , w e a p o n s s u c h as the N a v y C o l t w e r e just t h e
Caliber: 0 . 3 6 i n
b e g i n n i n g of t h e r e v o l v e r s t o r y . E v e n t u a l l y C o l t patents
Operation: Single-action revolver
l a p s e d a n d n u m e r o u s c o m p e t i t o r s f l o o d e d in, i n c l u d i n g t h e
Feed: S i x - r o u n d cylinder
l i k e s of R e m i n g t o n a n d S m i t h & W e s s o n . P e r c u s s i o n c a p Length: 12.9in ( 3 2 8 m m )
revolvers eventually gave way to cartridge revolvers, Barrel length: 7.5in ( 1 9 0 m m )
radically i m p r o v i n g the speed with w h i c h a h a n d g u n c o u l d Rifling: 7 grooves, r/hand
Weight: 2 . 4 l b (1.1kg)
b e r e l o a d e d . T h e C o l t c o m p a n y itself w e n t o n to p r o d u c e
M u z z l e velocity: c. 700ft/sec (213m/sec)
c a r t r i d g e r e v o l v e r s s u c h as the m a g n i f i c e n t C o l t S i n g l e - A c t i o n
A r m y , w h i c h b e c a m e k n o w n as t h e " P e a c e m a k e r " a n d w a s
ENFIELD PATTERN 1853
in firearms design since the introduction of the the late 1 8 t h c e n t u r y l o o k e d for w a y s to i m p r o v e sporting
f i r e a r m s . T h e p r o b l e m w i t h f l i n t l o c k s , h e f o u n d , w a s that the
flintlock, and which eventually brought the
slight t i m e l a g b e t w e e n the i g n i t i o n of p r i m i n g p o w d e r a n d the
flintlock's 300-year reign to an end.
m a i n c h a r g e w a s large e n o u g h for alert p r e y to e s c a p e b e f o r e
the shot r e a c h e d t h e m . T h e s o l u t i o n w a s a c h e m i c a l , f u l m i n a t e
of m e r c u r y , w h i c h w o u l d d e t o n a t e u n d e r i m p a c t a l o n e a n d
p r o d u c e a v e r y fast, h o t f l a m e . F o r s y t h c r e a t e d a n e w " s c e n t
bottle" l o c k - s o c a l l e d b e c a u s e of its e v o c a t i v e s h a p e - w h i c h
p l a c e d m e a s u r e d a m o u n t s of t h e s u b s t a n c e u n d e r a p i n a n d
h a m m e r a r r a n g e m e n t . T h e r e w a s n o flint, a n d the l o c k t i m e w a s ,
for p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s , a l m o s t instant.
F o r s y t h h a d u s h e r e d in the p e r c u s s i o n a g e . O t h e r s s o o n tried
to i m p r o v e o n it, c r e a t i n g l o c k s that u s e d f u l m i n a t e c o n t a i n e d in
in t h e 1 8 2 0 s , w i t h the p e r c u s s i o n c a p . S e v e r a l n a m e s a r e
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h its i n v e n t i o n , i n c l u d i n g J o s e p h M a n t o n (Britain),
130 A H I S T O R Y OF THE W O R L D IN 100 W E A P O N S
BELOW: One of the most famous battle paintings of all time, The ABOVE: The same 93rd Highlands charge during the Indian Mutiny.
Thin Red Line by Robert Gibb, depicts the 93rd Highlanders standing The mutiny was in part a direct result of the distribution of Enfield
firm in the face of a Russian cavalry charge. They are armed with P53 rifles. To load the rifle, sepoys in the employment of the East India
Enfields with bayonets fixed. Their commander reportedly said, Company had to bite open cartridges that were reportedly lined with
"There is no retreat from here men. You must die where you stand." animal fat, which violated their religious principles. (Courtesy of the
(Courtesy of the Council of the National Army Museum) Council of the National Army Museum)
GATLING GUN
barrel was fed by a rotary, hand-operated, breech- percussion cap, unitary cartridges, a n d effective breech-
l o a d i n g . P r o g r e s s i v e l y , these i n v e n t i o n s m a d e it p o s s i b l e to load
loading, nine-cylinder magazine. By manually
a n d f i r e a g u n w i t h r a p i d i t y a n d c o n s i s t e n c y . In 1 8 5 7 , for
turning the magazine via a handle, the operator
e x a m p l e , Sir J a m e s L i l l i e i n t r o d u c e d a 1 2 - b a r r e l f i r e a r m , e a c h
could load and fire one cylinder at a time without barrel having a hand-cranked multi-chamber revolving
in 1 8 7 0 . T h e M i t r a i l l e u s e h a d n o less t h a n 3 7 barrels, w h i c h
w e r e l o a d e d b y a steel p l a t e h o l d i n g 3 7 c a r t r i d g e s a n d fired b y
a s e p a r a t e b r e e c h - b l o c k w i t h 3 7 f i r i n g p i n s . C r a n k i n g the g u n ' s
^ We were exposed to the Spanish fire, but there was very little because just before we
started, why, the Gatling guns opened up at the bottom of the hill, and everybody yelled,
"The Gatlings! The Gatlings!" and away we went. The Gatlings just enfiladed the top of
those trenches. We'd never have been able to take Kettle Hill if it hadn't been for Parker's
Gatling guns.
Trooper Jesse D. Langdon, 1st Volunteer Infantry,, 1898
IMPERIAL WARS 1 8 0 0 - 1 9 1 4 ||j|
NEW LETHALITY
T h e title of first g e n u i n e l y e f f e c t i v e m a n u a l l y powered R i c h a r d G a t l i n g w r o t e to E l i z a b e t h Jarvis, J u n e 15,
m a c h i n e - g u n , therefore g o e s to R i c h a r d J o r d a n Catling's 1 8 7 7 , to e x p l a i n his r e a s o n s for d e v e l o p i n g the g u n :
i n f a m o u s G a t l i n g g u n , w h i c h he b e g a n d e v e l o p i n g in 1861
a n d w h i c h f i n a l l y r e a c h e d maturity in 1 8 6 4 . T h e G a t l i n g g u n c c M y D e a r Friend.
u t i l i z e d m u l t i p l e b a r r e l s ( a r o u n d ten), e a c h w i t h its o w n
It may be interesting to you to k n o w h o w I c a m e to
c h a m b e r , a r r a n g e d in a rotary r e l a t i o n s h i p a r o u n d a central
invent the gun w h i c h bears my name; I will tell you:
axis. W h e n the operator t u r n e d the c r a n k h a n d l e at the side,
In 1861, during the o p e n i n g events of the war,
the barrel unit rotated. A t the top of the turn, e a c h barrel w a s
(residing at that time in Indianapolis, md.,)
loaded with a centerfire cartridge from a 240-round
I witnessed almost daily the departure of troops to
c y l i n d r i c a l m a g a z i n e , a n d the r o u n d w a s fired w h e n the barrel
the front and the return of the wounded, sick, and
r e a c h e d the 6 o ' c l o c k position. D u r i n g the next 1 8 0 d e g r e e s
of travel, the spent c a r t r i d g e w a s e j e c t e d a n d the c h a m b e r dead. The most of the latter lost their lives, not in
m a d e ready for a fresh cartridge. A l l the operator h a d to d o to battle, but by sickness and exposure incident to the
c o l o n i a l w a r s in A f r i c a to R u s s i a n c o n f l i c t s in C e n t r a l A s i a . R.J. G a t l i n g «
war. For the Confederate South, one of the greatest like craft c a l l e d the Turtle-was d e s i g n e d in 1 7 7 5 b y A m e r i c a n
D a v i d Bushnell. Thereafter various experimental submarines
threats to its strategy and survival was the Union
a p p e a r e d in the A m e r i c a s a n d E u r o p e , a l t h o u g h n o n e ever
naval blockade around its coastline. By cutting off
m a n a g e d to s i n k a n e n e m y vessel, a n d most e n d e d up s i n k i n g
vital supplies, the Northern command not only or b e i n g a b a n d o n e d o n g r o u n d s of cost. T h e Hunley, however,
O n A u g u s t 2 9 , it s a n k w h e n u n d e r t o w , a n d h a d t o b e t o r p e d o , w h i c h w a s m o u n t e d o n t h e k e e l at t h e b o w , a n d t h e
first a c t u a l o p e r a t i o n . Its t a r g e t w a s t h e U S S Housatonic, When the Hunley was about 50yds (46m) from the
CSS HUNLEY
Key
1 Spar torpedo boom coupling
2 Forward ballast tank
3 Commander's station Specifications
4 "Snorkel" air tube
Crew: 8 ( 1 officer, 7 enlisted)
5 Vision port
Displacement: 7.5 short tons (6.8 tonnes)
6 After hatch
Length: 40ft (12.2m)
7 Propeller shaft flywheel
Beam: 3ft lOin (1.17m)
8 After ballast tank
Propulsion: Hand-cranked propeller
9 Rudder
10 Propeller Speed: 4 knots (7.4km/h) on the surface
In o n e final p o i n t of note, the w r e c k of the C S S Hunley was BELOW: An artistic representation of the CSS Hunley attacking
USS Housatonic, Charleston Harbor, February 1864. The Hunley
d i s c o v e r e d in 1 9 9 5 a n d r a i s e d o n A u g u s t 8, 2 0 0 0 . The
approached the Housatonic unseen until it was within 50ft (15.2m)
r e m a i n s of the s u b m a r i n e ' s c r e w w e r e still i n s i d e , a n d t h e y
of its target. Marksmen on the Housatonic fired on the strange "log-
w e r e b u r i e d in 2 0 0 4 w i t h full m i l i t a r y h o n o r s in C h a r l e s t o n ' s shaped" vessel, but were unable to prevent it placing its torpedo.
Magnolia Cemetery. (Artwork by Tony Bryan © Osprey Publishing Ltd.)
Mmitm
"WBBSliii
swnrsffiifttis
NAVAL MINES
k e g s fitted w i t h i m p a c t - s e n s i t i v e f l i n t l o c k m e c h a n i s m s . The
m i n e s w e r e d e p l o y e d in a c t i o n o n the D e l a w a r e R i v e r in 1 7 7 7 ,
but w i t h o u t o p e r a t i o n a l s u c c e s s .
timer. T h e s e w e r e i m p r a c t i c a l , so h e then d e s i g n e d d o u b l e m i n e s
c o n n e c t e d b y a c a b l e , t h e i d e a b e i n g that a s h i p s n a g g e d the
h e a l s o s u b m e r g e d t h e m i n e s , w h i c h w o u l d e n s u r e that t h e y
d e t o n a t e d w e l l b e n e a t h the w a t e r l i n e . In 1 8 0 5 a n d 1 8 0 7 , Fulton
mine concept.
IMPACT DETONATED
It w o u l d b e in the 19th c e n t u r y , h o w e v e r , that m i n e warfare
i n d i v i d u a l s s u c h as P a v e l S c h i l l i n g (Russia) a n d S a m u e l C o l t
( U n i t e d States) e x p e r i m e n t e d w i t h s u b m e r g e d m i n e detonation
u s i n g e l e c t r i c a l current. D u r i n g the C r i m e a n W a r ( 1 8 5 4 - 5 6 ) ,
propellants, changed artillery shells from being Artillery shells b e c a m e c y l i n d r o - c o n o i d a l in shape, with stabilized
ABOVE: Filling a shell with its explosive content c. 1900 W h a t was needed now, however, was a more powerful
(akg-images) e x p l o s i v e to g o inside the shells. T h e history of 1 9 t h - c e n t u r y
e x p l o s i v e d e v e l o p m e n t s is a c o m p l e x o n e , a n d c a n n o t be
percussion fuses, to detonate e x p l o s i v e s o n i m p a c t . S e c o n d , e x p a n d e d o n fully here. S p e c i f i c a l l y in terms of military
the elongated shells c o u l d , by increasing the density of metal at e x p l o s i v e s , h o w e v e r , there are salient points. In terms of
the front (or in the c a s e of m a n y early naval shells, m a k i n g them propellants, a major step f o r w a r d c a m e in 1 8 8 4 w h e n a F r e n c h
totally solid), have significant a r m o r - p i e r c i n g c a p a b i l i t y . chemist n a m e d Paul Vielle invented a nitrocellulose-based
A H I S T O R Y OF T H E W O R L D IN 100 WEAPONS
T h e f i n a l a c t in the e v o l u t i o n of e x p l o s i v e artillery s h e l l s
w a s f u s e s . T h r e e b a s i c t y p e s of f u s e h a d e v o l v e d b y t h e
b e g i n n i n g o f W o r l d W a r I. T h e p e r c u s s i o n f u s e sat in t h e
n o s e of t h e s h e l l a n d d e t o n a t e d t h e e x p l o s i v e o n i m p a c t
d e l a y ) , p r o d u c i n g a useful s h e l l for g e n e r a l a n t i - m a t e r i e l a n d
a n t i - p e r s o n n e l e f f e c t s . T i m e f u s e s t r i g g e r e d t h e s h e l l at a
p a r t i c u l a r p o i n t in t i m e , u s u a l l y w h e n it w a s o v e r the h e a d s
of t h e e n e m y - c o m b i n e d w i t h a h e a v y s h r a p n e l c o n t e n t ,
s u c h s h e l l s c o u l d h a v e a d e v a s t a t i n g effect o n u n p r o t e c t e d
t r o o p s . A r m o r - p i e r c i n g s h e l l s , b y c o n t r a s t , t e n d e d to h a v e
d e l a y e d - i m p a c t b a s e f u z e s , to a l l o w for s o m e p e n e t r a t i o n
s o p h i s t i c a t e d in t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y , a n d i n c l u d e d p r o x i m i t y
fuses, d e s i g n e d to d e t o n a t e the s h e l l w h e n it s e n s e d it w a s
the s m o k e l e s s p o w d e r w a s o n l y s u i t e d to s m a l l a r m s ( a n d
d y n a m i t e , A l f r e d N o b e l , s u c c e e d e d a g a i n b y creating ballistite,
AMMUNITION
w h i c h the British ( i g n o r i n g N o b e l ' s patent) c a l l e d c o r d i t e .
CONFIGURATIONS
Ballistite/cordite g a v e artillery shells the powerful propellant they
( N o t e that a l l t h e s e e x p l o s i v e s , h o w e v e r , w e r e in part T N T . )
FRENCH 75MM M1897
phenomenon were new, but during the 1800s they i n t r o d u c e d s u c c e s s f u l t y p e s in the 1 8 5 0 s . F o r n a v a l g u n s , the
F r e n c h i n v e n t i o n of t h e i n t e r r u p t e d s c r e w b r e e c h brought
were perfected in tandem, extending the range and
m a r i t i m e f o r c e s f u l l y into t h e b r e e c h - l o a d i n g a g e .
accuracy of artillery considerably, and making
Breech-loaders gradually brought more power, and with more
possible the eventual application of indirect fire. p o w e r f u l g u n s c a m e t h e n e e d for i m p r o v e d s y s t e m s of r e c o i l
c o n t r o l , p a r t i c u l a r l y if a g u n c r e w w a s to a v o i d r e s i g h t i n g after
e v e r y shot. T h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y s a w t r i u m p h s in this f i e l d a l s o .
L a r g e r g u n s in static e m p l a c e m e n t s w e r e m o u n t e d o n g u n
c l i m b i n g to t h e rear). G r a v i t y , p l u s a b r a k i n g effect f r o m
the f i r i n g p o s i t i o n . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t r e c o i l c o n t r o l s y s t e m s
for f i e l d g u n s , h o w e v e r , w e r e h y d r a u l i c buffers, t h e s e b r o a d l y
c o n s i s t i n g of f l u i d - f i l l e d c y l i n d e r a n d p i s t o n a r r a n g e m e n t s that
t h e g u n to battery. F r o m the 1 8 9 0 s , c o m p r e s s e d g a s w a s a l s o
u s e d a l o n g s i d e o i l in " h y d r o p n e u m a t i c " s y s t e m s .
u [The French fire] was monstrous... Everything was covered in columns of black smoke,
so high and broad that I could hardly see anything; in between were white shrapnel
bursts. Limbers and riderless horses emerged from time to time fleeing Montceaux. y
German artilleryman, first battle of the Marne, 1914.
LONG-SERVING GUN
BELOW: The crew of the French 75s bombarding the village of
T h e F r e n c h 7 5 m m M l 8 9 7 is a p e r f e c t e x a m p l e of h o w all
Montceaux-les-Provins during the first battle of the Marne in
t h e s e e l e m e n t s c a m e t o g e t h e r in o n e w e a p o n . A n a d v a n c e d
1914. First introduced in 1897, the guns would be ubiquitous in the
early years of the war. (Artwork by Graham Turner © Osprey h y d r o p n e u m a t i c r e c o i l s y s t e m m a i n t a i n e d the g u n ' s p r e c i s e
later Mauser rifle, however, that perfected it. already k n o w n for t h e q u a l i t y of h i s b o l t - a c t i o n designs,
i n t r o d u c e d a n e i g h t - r o u n d rifle w i t h a t u b u l a r underbarrel
magazine. It w o r k e d d e c e n t l y - t h e F r e n c h M o d e l e 1886
f o l l o w e d a s i m i l a r s y s t e m , a n d w o u l d see s e r v i c e in the F r e n c h
A r m y until 1 9 4 0 .
In 1 8 9 8 , t h e G e r m a n A r m y a d o p t e d t h e M a u s e r rifle in
t h e y h a d g o o d c o m m a n d o v e r l o n g r a n g e s , at p r a c t i c a l w a s a rifle that h a d a s e v e n - r o u n d t u b u l a r m a g a z i n e
bullets c o u l d b e l o a d e d a n d fired in as m a n y s e c o n d s .
BELOW: German Stormtroopers engaged in assault training, their
Mausers at the ready. (IWM Q 55483)
COLT M1911
G e r m a n y w a s n o w o n a roll, h o w e v e r , a n d it e v e n t u a l l y
8mm caliber as the Schonberger-Laumann from
1894. It offered little advantage over the revolver,
with its five-round capacity internal magazine, so
sold in unconvincing numbers. A more significant
design, therefore, was the 1894 7.63mm Borchardt
pistol. In a crucial distinction from the Schonberger-
Laumann, the recoil-operated Borchardt actually had
a separate eight-round magazine that was inserted
into the grip.
e s t a b l i s h e d the a u t o m a t i c h a n d g u n as a t y p e w i t h m o d e l s
s u c h as t h e B e r g m a n n 1 8 9 6 , M a u s e r C / 9 6 , a n d the great
Luger P08 of 1 9 0 8 , which fired the 9 m m Parabellum
cartridge that became one of the world's standard
a m m u n i t i o n s for a u t o m a t i c h a n d g u n s a n d s u b m a c h i n e - g u n s .
Other international companies also became semi-auto
handgun producers, including Savage, Browning, Dreyse,
Steyr, a n d Beretta, f l o o d i n g the markets w i t h this n e w form of
f i r e p o w e r . T h e n c a m e the C o l t M 1 9 1 1 .
T h e M 1 9 1 1 d e s i g n a c t u a l l y b e l o n g e d to the great g u n
d e s i g n e r J o h n M o s e s B r o w n i n g . In the e a r l y y e a r s of the
2 0 t h c e n t u r y , B r o w n i n g h a d b e e n w o r k i n g for the B e l g i a n
f i r e a r m s c o m p a n y F a b r i q u e N a t i o n a l e ( F N ) , for w h o m he
h a d c r e a t e d l e g e n d a r y s e m i - a u t o f i r e a r m s s u c h as the M o d e l
1 9 0 0 a n d M o d e l 1 9 0 3 . T h e latter used the s a m e b a s i c layout
REVOLVERS vs S E M I - A U T O
HANDGUNS
It is w o r t h r e m i n d i n g o u r s e l v e s of w h y p e o p l e u s e
a u t o m a t i c s in the first p l a c e , e s p e c i a l l y as r e v o l v e r s
h a v e m u c h to r e c o m m e n d t h e m . R e v o l v e r s offer
ultimate r e l i a b i l i t y - t h e y rarely g o w r o n g , a n d if a
a g a i n , or c o c k the h a m m e r , to m o v e o n to the n e x t
p r o v i d e is e n h a n c e d f i r e p o w e r a n d fast r e l o a d i n g .
A u t o h a n d g u n m a g a z i n e s t y p i c a l l y c o n t a i n at least
m o d e r n v e r s i o n s c a n c a r r y m o r e t h a n 15 c a r t r i d g e s .
F u r t h e r m o r e , o n c e y o u e m p t y a m a g a z i n e it c a n b e
BELOW: A Colt M1911 shown with a World War II-era holster,
e j e c t e d a n d s w a p p e d for a fresh o n e in a matter of
pistol belt, and magazine pouch. (Courtesy of Leroy Thompson)
s e c o n d s , w i t h o u t the f r e q u e n t l y f i d d l y r e l o a d i n g that
The Ml911 w a s his m a s t e r p i e c e , ranking alongside his T h e M 1 9 1 1 's t w o virtues w e r e its p o w e r a n d its s i m p l i c i t y .
ABOVE:
ABOV Despite being
E: Despite being separated
separated by
by several
several ddecades, US troops
ecades, US troops of
of two
two far-removed
far-removed ge
generations perform target
nerations perform target practise
practise
with their trusty Colt Ml9lls (NA RA and USMC)
with their trusty Colt M191 Is (NARA and USMC)
IRONCLAD
the c o n s t r u c t i o n of n a v a l v e s s e l s . O n N o v e m b e r 3 0 , 1 8 5 3 , a
them greater tactical maneuverability in action. (In
T u r k i s h s q u a d r o n of w o o d - b u i l t s h i p s - s e v e n frigates, t w o
balance, they become strategically dependent upon
corvettes, t w o s t e a m e r s , a n d t w o transports - w e r e set a b l a z e
passage between coaling stations.) Furthermore, the and destroyed within minutes by six Russian warships. T h e
outlined in this chapter profoundly altered the long- the v u l n e r a b i l i t i e s of w o o d e n w a r s h i p s to shellfire. B y this t i m e ,
i r o n m e r c h a n t s h i p s w e r e a l r e a d y in p r o d u c t i o n , s o w a r s h i p
range accuracy of naval firepower, and in time gave
d e s i g n e r s n o w reflected o n the p o s s i b i l i t y of g i v i n g their v e s s e l s
birth to the turreted gun as the standard format for
armored protection.
large naval artillery pieces. One way to a c h i e v e this p r o t e c t i o n w a s to c r e a t e the
a p p l i e d , w i t h s e c t i o n s of iron plate as m u c h as 4 i n ( 1 0 c m ) t h i c k
La Cloire d e s i g n e d b y Stanislas C h a r l e s H e n r i D u p u y d e L o m e .
h u l l w a s e n c a s e d in iron a r m o r 4 . 7 i n ( 1 1 9 m m ) t h i c k a n d s h e w a s
ABOVE: The close-range fighting between the rival ironclads,
Monitor and Virginia, on March 9, 1862, is captured perfectly in
O n o u r g u n - d e c k all w a s b u s t l e , s m o k e ,
this engraving. The damage to the smokestack, deck rails, and boat
g r i m y f i g u r e s , a n d stern c o m m a n d s , w h i l e
davits of the Virginia, much of which was caused during the action
the previous day, is clearly visible. (Courtesy of Ron Field) d o w n in the e n g i n e a n d b o i l e r r o o m s the
s i x t e e n f u r n a c e s w e r e b e l c h i n g o u t fire a n d
s m o k e , a n d the f i r e m e n s t a n d i n g in front of
p o w e r e d b y a c o m b i n a t i o n of steam a n d sail. T h e s h i p c a r r i e d them, like so m a n y gladiators, tugged a w a y
3 6 b r e e c h - l o a d i n g , rifled g u n s , a n d s h e f r a n k l y terrified the with devil's-claw and slice-bar, inducing by
British. In response, therefore, they built the large i r o n - h u l l e d t h e i r e x e r t i o n s m o r e a n d m o r e i n t e n s e heat
Warrior. L a u n c h e d in 1 8 6 0 , this vessel d i s p l a c e d 1 0 , 3 1 5 short a n d c o m b u s t i o n . T h e n o i s e of the c r a c k l i n g ,
tons ( 9 , 3 5 8 tonnes) a n d c a r r i e d 4 0 g u n s , a n d w a s briefly the r o a r i n g fires, e s c a p i n g s t e a m , a n d the l o u d
w o r l d ' s most p o w e r f u l w a r s h i p . a n d l a b o r e d p u l s a t i o n s o f the e n g i n e s ,
t o g e t h e r w i t h the roar o f the battle a b o v e ...
IRONCLAD BATTLE p r o d u c e d a s c e n e a n d s o u n d to b e
I r o n c l a d s or i r o n - h u l l e d w a r s h i p s steadily b e c a m e the order of c o m p a r e d o n l y with the poet's picture
the d a y , a n d the w o r l d ' s great n a v i e s b e g a n to field i n c r e a s i n g of t h e l o w e r r e g i o n s . y j
n u m b e r s . T h e w o r l d a l s o s o o n s a w h i s t o r y ' s first i r o n c l a d
versus i r o n c l a d e n g a g e m e n t . T h i s o c c u r r e d o n M a r c h 9, 1 8 6 2 , - Acting Chief Engineer Ramsay,
1 2
i n n o v a t i v e U n i o n i r o n c l a d Monitor in a c t i o n near C h e s a p e a k e
B a y , V i r g i n i a . A l t h o u g h both s h i p s s h a r e d a w o o d - a n d - i r o n
c o n s t r u c t i o n , their l a y o u t s w e r e d r a m a t i c a l l y different. T h e
Virginia h a d a l o n g i t u d i n a l l y t r i a n g u l a r superstructure m a d e
f r o m s l o p i n g iron sheets, w i t h g u n s s t i c k i n g o u t of c i r c u l a r
BATTLE OF T S U S H I M A
D e s p i t e the rise of n e w n a v a l t e c h n o l o g i e s , they r e m a i n e d f o r c e s that s u d d e n l y a t t a c k e d t h e m w e r e w e l l - t r a i n e d
between Japan and Russia on M a y 2 7 - 2 8 , 1905. T h e J a p a n e s e fleet h a d o n l y four battleships but m o r e cruisers
siege warfare. World War I, however, made the h a d limited a m o u n t s of the distrusted M k I impact-detonated
grenade, w h i c h o n c e a r m e d c o u l d g o off in the user's hand if it
grenade a fundamental part of almost every
received a k n o c k . Improvised grenades w e r e also p r o d u c e d b y all
soldier's kit.
combatants to satisfy the insatiable d e m a n d s of trench warfare. striker lever. T h e s o l d i e r t y p i c a l l y kept a g r i p o n the lever until
These varied in both quality a n d ingenuity. A c o m m o n British he t h r e w the g r e n a d e , at w h i c h p o i n t the lever f l e w off a n d
g r e n a d e s d e m o n s t r a t e d their v a l u e in c o m b a t , that situation Army grenade in the next w o r l d war). Germany also
illustre
9H
de C O M B L E S
WORLD WAR 1 1 9 1 4 - 1 8
important P o z i e r e s R i d g e . (It offered o n e of the h i g h e s t machine gun fire grew very intense. W h e n the raiders
g e o g r a p h i c a l points o n the S o m m e front, m a k i n g it ideal approach the wire it was found almost intact and only
for artillery o b s e r v a t i o n . ) T h e a t t a c k s e c u r e d its initial one party (the right) managed to reach the enemy
objectives, but subsequent German counterattacks trench. Immediately after affecting an entry this party
Australian a n d British forces e x c h a n g e d g r e n a d e s w i t h the platoon the supply of bombs soon ran out and after
Germans for m o r e t h a n 12 hours, with the Allied holding the trench for about 1 hour the party w a s
O N S E P T E M B E R 5 , 1 9 1 4 , ONLY A F E W W E E K S INTO
UNDERWATER KILLER
World War I, the British scout cruiser HMS T o r p e d o e s w e r e the p r o d u c t of the ever-fertile 19th century.
Pathfinder was returning from a patrol off the east "Spar torpedoes" w e r e the earliest versions, consisting of nothing
coast of Scotland. At 3.45pm, the afternoon sunny m o r e than a n e x p l o s i v e c h a r g e sticking out from the b o w s of a
ship or early s u b m a r i n e o n the e n d of a long w o o d e n spar. T h e
and unthreatening, lookouts aboard the ship
first true s e l f - p r o p e l l e d torpedo, h o w e v e r , w a s d e v e l o p e d by
reported a torpedo wake off the starboard bow.
English m a r i n e engineer Robert W h i t e h e a d in 1 8 6 7 . D r i v e n by
The officer of the watch gave the command for c o m p r e s s e d air, it had a m a x i m u m s p e e d of 6 knots (11 km/h), a
urgent evasive action, but it was too late. A single r a n g e of a f e w h u n d r e d yards, a n d a n 1 8 l b (8kg) d y n a m i t e
German torpedo, fired from the submarine U-21, w a r h e a d . T h e Austrian g o v e r n m e n t that had c o m m i s s i o n e d the
project a c t u a l l y d e c l i n e d to take o n W h i t e h e a d ' s torpedo, but
slammed into the ship beneath the bridge and
the British A d m i r a l t y w a s far m o r e impressed, a n d bought the
exploded. The detonation in turn caused the ships
rights to d e v e l o p a n d manufacture the w e a p o n .
magazine to erupt, blowing Pathfinder apart and O v e r the next 4 0 years, all m a r i t i m e p o w e r s embraced
causing it to sink in just four minutes with the loss torpedoes, a n d w o r k e d o n i m p r o v i n g l a u n c h systems for both
of more than 200 lives. HMS Pathfinder was the surface vessels a n d s u b m a r i n e s . B y the t i m e w a r broke out in
1 9 1 4 , t o r p e d o e s h a d i m p r o v e d t r e m e n d o u s l y , n o w featuring
first ship - the first of hundreds - to be sunk by a
submarine-launched torpedo.
aircraft to s i n k a n e n e m y s h i p w i t h a n a i r - d r o p p e d t o r p e d o .
BELOW: A torpedo being fired from the British light cruiser HMS battleships look like little m o r e than tempting a n d costly targets.
Cordelia during World War I. (IWM SP 1613) T h a t perspective w o u l d b e reinforced d u r i n g the next w o r l d war.
DREADNOUGHT
d o w n to c l o s e - i n e n g a g e m e n t s w i t h e n e m y t o r p e d o boats.
A s c o m b a t r e v e a l e d , h o w e v e r , t h e i d e a d i d n ' t w o r k . Battles
l a r g e s t - c a l i b e r g u n s ( a r o u n d 12in), w h i c h c o u l d e n g a g e targets
c o m e into p l a y .
A n e w i d e a t o o k h o l d - that of a b a t t l e s h i p a r m e d p u r e l y
(apart f r o m m i n o r d e f e n s i v e a r m a m e n t ) w i t h b i g g u n s of u n i f o r m
caliber. The Japanese actually began laying d o w n such a variants o n the t h e m e , s u c h as the "battlecruiser," still a r m e d
b a t t l e s h i p in 1 9 0 5 , b u t it w a s t h e British w h o w o u l d r e v e a l w i t h h e a v y g u n s but w i t h a r e d u c e d a r m o r c o m p o n e n t to
( 3 9 k m / h ) a n d , m o s t i m p o r t a n t l y , t e n 1 2 i n g u n s a r r a n g e d in 31 knots (57km/h). H e r l a c k of d e c k a r m o r , h o w e v e r , w o u l d
Dreadnought w a s l a u n c h e d o n F e b r u a r y 10, 1 9 0 6 . A t a stroke, T h e fate of the Hood illustrates o n e of the great, s a d ironies
the d e s i g n m a d e all other vessels o b s o l e t e , i n c l u d i n g the R o y a l of the a g e of the battleship. For these majestic, h i g h l y v i s i b l e
in the North S e a off the D a n i s h coast, o n M a y 3 1 , 1 9 1 6 . the G r a n d Fleet. T h e costs to both sides w e r e h i g h - the
a battlecruiser force led b y V i c e A d m i r a l Sir D a v i d Beatty. the battle itself w a s rather i n c o n c l u s i v e , the losses h a d a
ABOVE: A rare photo of the battle of Jutland underway. m o s t to b e b o m b e d into d e s t r u c t i o n b y the R A F . T h e largest
HMS Invicible is shown exploding after being hit by German b a t t l e s h i p s e v e r b u i l t - the J a p a n e s e m o n s t e r s Yamato and
battlecruisers. Jutland was the last major sea action of the war.
Musashi, d i s p l a c i n g 7 2 , 0 0 0 l o n g tons ( 7 3 , 0 0 0 t o n n e s ) a n d
(IWM SP 2468)
a r m e d w i t h n i n e 18.1 in g u n s - w e r e both obliterated by U S air
two world wars, and Lee-Enfield variants would s e r v i c e w e a p o n . T h e n a m e c a m e f r o m the d e s i g n e r s of the g u n ' s
m a j o r c o m p o n e n t s - J a m e s Paris L e e d e v e l o p e d the b o l t - a c t i o n
soldier on in the British Army until 1954, when
a n d t h e m a g a z i n e , w h i l e t h e b a r r e l a n d the r i f l i n g w e r e t h e
they were replaced by the L1A1 semi-auto rifle.
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of o n e W i l l i a m M e t f o r d . T h e L e e - M e t f o r d w a s a
Such longevity alone should command our respect. d e c e n t e n o u g h rifle, c h a m b e r e d in the r i m m e d 0 . 3 0 3 i n c a r t r i d g e
r e p l a c e d g u n p o w d e r as a s m a l l - a r m s p r o p e l l a n t in the 1 8 9 0 s ,
the L e e - M e t f o r d ' s b a r r e l a n d r i f l i n g h a d to b e r e c o n f i g u r e d .
T h i s w a s d o n e b y t h e R o y a l S m a l l A r m s F a c t o r y ( R S A F ) at
E n f i e l d L o c k , n e a r L o n d o n , h e n c e t h e n e w rifle w a s c a l l e d
the L e e - E n f i e l d .
T h e L e e - E n f i e l d M k I w a s i n t r o d u c e d in N o v e m b e r 1895,
to 4 4 . 5 7 i n ( 1 , 1 3 2 m m ) f r o m the L e e - M e t f o r d ' s 4 9 . 5 i n ( 1 , 2 5 7 m m ) .
be proved wrong. r i f l e m e n of t h e B r i t i s h E x p e d i t i o n a r y F o r c e ( B E F ) d e l i v e r e d
BELOW: The three US divisions who served with the British during Rifling: 5 grooves, l/hand
World War I were all issued British weapons, including the SMLE. Weight: 8 . 1 8 l b (3.71kg)
Here men of Company K, 111th Infantry, 28th Division, have M u z z l e velocity: 2,025ft/sec (617m/sec)
recently received their own No. 1 Mark III Lee-Enfields. (NARA)
WORLD WAR I 1 9 1 4 - 1 8 175
marked a new era in flame weaponry. e n g i n e e r R i c h a r d Fiedler p i t c h e d the idea for a flamethrower to
the G e r m a n A r m y , p r o m o t i n g it as an irresistible tool for clearing
e n e m y positions, destroying strongpoints, a n d d e f e n d i n g against
infantry attacks. H i s a u d i e n c e b o u g h t into the idea, a n d between
1 9 0 8 a n d 1 9 1 4 Fiedler (aided b y e n g i n e e r a n d soldier Bernhard
R e d d e m a n n ) d e v e l o p e d t w o p r i n c i p a l m o d e l s of Flammenwerfer
(flamethrower). T h e first w a s the portable Kleinflammenwerfer
( s m a l l f l a m e t h r o w e r ) . T h i s c o n s i s t e d of a large tank of oil,
w o r n o n the b a c k , to w h i c h w a s a t t a c h e d a s m a l l e r tank of
h i g h - p r e s s u r e g a s (air, nitrogen, or c a r b o n d i o x i d e ) . W h e n a
v a l v e w a s depressed, the g a s w a s released a n d forced a stream
of the fuel t h r o u g h a h a n d - h e l d l a n c e . T h e fuel w a s ignited at
the m u z z l e of a l a n c e to project a f e a r s o m e jet of oily, s m o k y
f l a m e to a range of u p to 2 0 y d s (18m). B u r n t i m e w a s just a few
s e c o n d s , h o w e v e r . H i s other m o d e l , the Grossflammenwerfer
(large flamethrower), b y contrast, w a s a far larger d e v i c e suited
o n l y to static d e f e n s e e m p l a c e m e n t , a n d o p e r a t e d b y a s m a l l
c r e w . It c o u l d b u r n for up to 4 0 s e c o n d s , a n d t h r o w its f l a m e out
to 4 0 y d s ( 3 6 m ) .
SCORCHED EARTH
Flamethrowers b e c a m e an established element of G e r m a n assault
tactics for the r e m a i n d e r of the w a r . T w o - m a n f l a m e t h r o w e r
c r e w s w o u l d attempt to b u r n out defenders from f o r w a r d
trenches, suppressing or killing them to p r o v i d e an o p e n i n g for
attacking infantry. There w e r e s o m e notable successes. O n July
3 0 , 1 9 1 5 , for e x a m p l e , an attack of 2 0 G e r m a n flamethrowers
o n the British lines at H o o g e f o r c e d the defenders from their
A H I S T O R Y OF T H E W O R L D IN 100 WEAPONS
trenches, a l t h o u g h the lost g r o u n d w a s later retaken in a w a s a s i n g l e b u l l e t to strike the tank, a n d the operator c o u l d
S o o n the A l l i e s a l s o h a d their o w n flamethrowers and b y s m a l l - a r m s fire as they fled. For s u c h reasons, the U S forces
F l a m e t h r o w e r s c o u l d b e h o r r i b l y e f f e c t i v e . E v e n if t h e t o o k a w a y their r a t i o n a l e . Y e t t h e y a r e not b a n n e d b y a n y
d u m m y turret, a 2 p d r a u t o m a t i c c a n n o n .
vehicles, however, had to be heavily armed,
"Little Willie" never rolled into combat, but it was
resistant to enemy small-arms fire, and have a
u n d o u b t e d l y a p i o n e e r in t a n k d e s i g n , a n d l a i d the g r o u n d w o r k
genuine cross-country capability. for w h a t w a s to f o l l o w . For o n J a n u a r y J 6, 1 9 1 6 , the L a n d s h i p s
W i l s o n , a n d it w a s d e s i g n e d to m e e t a W a r O f f i c e d e m a n d for
a n a r m o r e d v e h i c l e c a p a b l e of c r o s s i n g a t r e n c h 8ft ( 2 . 4 4 m )
to g o into a c t i o n .
T h e M k I w e n t t h r o u g h s e v e r a l stages of m o d i f i c a t i o n
EARLY ACTIONS before it b e c a m e the d e f i n i t i v e British tank of W o r l d W a r I -
g u n s . S p e e d w a s still s l u g g i s h - m a x i m u m p a c e w a s 3 . 7 m p h ( i m p a c t i n j u r i e s w e r e c o m m o n p l a c e ) . T h e i m p a c t of bullets
LEFT: The first tanks stunned the world and postwar they were shipped
to a number of countries for publicity purposes. The tank Britannia was
part of a procession down Fifth Avenue and the of "Heroland"
spectacle. (Artwork by Tony Bryan © Osprey Publishing Ltd.)
The guiding principle to be remembered when of fire, to their mobility and moral effect, tanks can
considering the role of fighting tanks is that they, like all materially assist the infantry by destroying the enemy's
other arms, must be mainly employed to assist the infantry strong points and m a c h i n e gun emplacements, by
both in attack and defence. T h e infantry is the only arm overcoming his resistance and by protecting the flanks
which can seize and hold a position and upon its skill and of the attack. In defence they c a n be employed in
endurance depends the security of the defence. counter attack either independently or in co-operation
T h e employment of tanks, therefore, does not entail with the infantry and can be used, if necessary, to cover
warfare, combat dirigibles were a passing, and not and navy service. T h e t w o services had, a n d w o u l d maintain,
v e r y d i f f e r e n t a t t i t u d e s to t h e u s e o f a i r s h i p s in c o m b a t . T h e
terribly effective, phase. Yet they remain amongst
a r m y l o o k e d u p o n t h e m p r i n c i p a l l y as l o w - l e v e l bombers,
the first serious attempts at long-range strategic
bombing, the later practice of which would have far i
more serious consequences for millions of people.
POLICE WARNING
WHAT TO DO
W H E N T H E
ZEPPELINS COME.
Sir Edward Henry, the Commissioner should know the position of the fire alarm
of the Metropolitan Police, has issued a post nearest to his house.
series of valuable instructions and sug- All windows and doors on the lower floor
gestions as to the action that should be should be closed to prevent the admission
taken by the ordinary householder or of noxious gases. An indication t h a t
resident in the event of an air raid over poison gas is being used will be that a
London. peculiar and irritating smell may be
noticed following on the dropping of the-
New Scotland Yard, S . W . bomb.
J u n e 26, 1915. Gas should not be turned off a t the meter
a t night, as this practice involves a risk of
In all probability if an air raid is made subsequent firo and of explosion from
it will take place a t a time when most burners left on when the meter was shut off.
jieople are in bed. The only intimation This risk outweighs any advantage t h a t
the public are likely to g e t will be the might accrue from the gas being shut off
reports of the anti-aircraft guns or the a t the time of a night raid by aircraft.
noise of falling bombs.
Persons purchasing portable chemical
T h e public are advised not to go into fire extinguishers should require a written
the street, where they might l»e struck guarantee that they comply with the
by falling missiles; moreover, the stieets specifications of the Boardof Trade, Office
being required for the passage of firo of Works, Metropolitan Police, or r
engines, etc., should not be obstructed by approved F i r e Prevention Committee.
pedestrians. No bomb of anv description should b«-
I n many houses there are no facilities handled unless it has shown itself to be of
for procuring water on the upper floors. incendiary type. In this case it may lie
I t is suggested, therefore, that a supply possible to remove it without undue risk.
of water and sand might be kept there, In all other cases a bomb should be left
BO that any fire breaking out on a small alone, and the police informed.
scale can at once be dealt with. Everyone E. R. H E N R Y .
EXTRACT FROM
FOI.IOI3 WARBTIST&
KEEP SAND AND WATEH HANDY.
OPPOSITE: In response to the first Zeppelin bombing raids the Press Bureau.
remain under cover, and advising them f o r
dealing with incendiary fires to keep a-
In view of the possibility of further supply of water and sand readily available.
Daily News offered a leaflet on what to do during an attack, as attacks by hostile aircraft, the Commis-
sioner of Police deems it advisable to call * (Signed) E . * R . H E N R Y ,
well as free "Zeppelin Bombardment Insurance." (Courtesy of attention to the public warning published
Oh .Tune 26 recommending residents to
Commissioner of Police of the
Metropolis.
Charles Stephenson)
u s i n g t h e m to a t t a c k c i t i e s s u c h a s L i e g e a n d A n t w e r p in t h e ABOVE: Luftschiffbau Zeppelin (LZ) 62 - the first of the "Super
e a r l y m o n t h s o f w a r . Y e t t h e a r m y q u i c k l y lost e n t h u s i a s m f o r Zeppelins" that took to the skies in May 1916. Sixteen of these
vessels were created during the war and they would be the mainstay
this a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e s e h u g e , v u l n e r a b l e craft, i n w h i c h t h e y
of the strategic bombing offensive against the Allies. (Artwork by
p r o v e d l u m b e r i n g l y v u l n e r a b l e t o a n t i - a i r c r a f t fire. T a c t i c a l
Ian Palmer © Osprey Publishing Ltd.)
b o m b i n g w a s t h e r e f o r e a b a n d o n e d after t h e b a t t l e o f V e r d u n
b o m b i n g against British t o w n s a n d cities. Both the a r m y a n d the h u g e airframes. Anti-aircraft gunners h a d trouble detecting
ZEPPELIN RAIDS
There w e r e actually t w o principal manufacturers of dirigibles
G e r m a n a i r s h i p s . In c h a r g e o f t h e a i r s h i p c a m p a i g n was
T h e first Z e p p e l i n r a i d w a s c o n d u c t e d o n J a n u a r y 1 9 , 1 9 1 5 ,
S h e r i n g h a m , a n d K i n g ' s L y n n . T h e d a m a g e w a s not e x t e n s i v e
- t w o p e o p l e w e r e k i l l e d , 1 6 i n j u r e d , a n d a f e w b u i l d i n g s hit
- b u t t h e s h o c k to t h e B r i t i s h p s y c h e w a s instant.
A f t e r t h i s first a c t i o n , Z e p p e l i n r a i d s b e c a m e relatively
f r e q u e n t to B r i t i s h s h o r e s (the first r a i d o v e r L o n d o n w a s o n
M a y 3 1 , 1 9 1 5 ) , a n d h a d c u m u l a t i v e l y a p p r e c i a b l e results. In
total, 181 p e o p l e w e r e k i l l e d a n d 4 5 5 i n j u r e d b y Z e p p e l i n
t h o u s a n d s of p o u n d s o f d a m a g e .
damage
ABOVE: Bomb d;una gc ~used
caused b}'
by a single
single 660lb
6601b bomb ddropped
ropped by aa Zeppelin on part of London. Two men were killed. (IW~1
London. Two (IWM LC
LC 30)
30)
Ill A H IST ORY O F T H E W O RL D IN 100 WEA PO NS
ZEPPELIN WARSHIPS
Th e Zeppelins were huge crea tures - the 1914
versions measured up to 525 ft (160m) in length, and
later versions exceeded these dimensions signi ficantly.
Zeppelin L59, fo r exa mple, was 743ft (226.5 m) long,
had a 78ft (23.9m) diameter, and a gas volume of
2,42 0,000ft 3 (68,50Qm3). (Th e hydrogen or, less
commonl y, helium gas was contained in individual
air bags inside the outer covering and metal skeleton
ABOVE: The Zeppelins were ultimately halted by improved ai r frame.) Power came from engines attached to nacelles
defenses over London. A contemporary postcard shows SLll
or gondolas bolted to the frame, and the airships cou ld
caught by searchlights and under attack by anti -aircraft guns.
(Courtesy of Ian Castle) have impressive lift capa bili ties for ord nance or other
supplies- L59 had a max imum useful lift of 51,900lb
perform ance improved, and equipping machine-gun aircraft
(23,500kg). A irshi ps also had excell ent endurance
w ith explosive and incendiary ammun ition made it much easier
capabilities, but navigation w as hea vil y influenced by
to start the fires that were so di sastrous to airships . If they
w ea ther conditions. Their max imum speeds were also
cou ldn' t attack over British airspace, the Roya l Flying Corps
around 50mph (80km/h), making them slow-moving
(RFC) pi lots wou ld wait until th e airships w ere descend ing to
targets for enemy fighters and gunners.
th eir bases over France before atta cking. Th e Germ an Arm y
abandoned raids over Britain in 1916, but the navy persisted
VICKERS MAXIM
maintained the fire, directed onto an area of land 19th century, courtesy of U S - b o r n , British citizen Hiram
magazines; h i s g u n w a s f e d b y a f a b r i c b e l t of c a r t r i d g e s ,
of the guns broke down, the only stoppages coming
d r a w n into t h e g u n m e c h a n i c a l l y b y t h e r e c o i l - p o w e r e d a c t i o n .
from faulty ammunition.
T h e barrel w a s necessarily c o o l e d b y a large water jacket.
T h e M a x i m g u n c o u l d f i r e at a c y c l i c a l rate o f around
In 1 8 8 5 M a x i m r e f i n e d t h e d e s i g n further, i n t r o d u c i n g a s i m p l e r
BELOW: The Vickers saw widespread use until the end of the war. c o m p a n y , w h i c h w o u l d g o o n to p r o d u c e t h e p e r f e c t v a r i a n t
Here it is shown in May 1918 during the final major German of M a x i m ' s i n v e n t i o n .
offensive before the conclusion of hostilities. There was clearly
no time to dig in and the Vickers is simply sited in a local barn.
INDUSTRIAL WARFARE
(IWM Q 6571)
B y t h e b e g i n n i n g of W o r l d W a r I, t h e w o r l d ' s great a r m i e s h a d
a l l a c c e p t e d t h e t e c h n o l o g y a n d l o g i c of machine-guns.
A l t h o u g h n o t a l l m a c h i n e - g u n s at t h i s t i m e u s e d M a x i m ' s
c o p y of t h e M a x i m , n a m e d t h e M G 0 8 . T h e British a l s o u s e d
M a x i m ' s d e s i g n , b u t r e v i s e d t h e internal l a y o u t to m a k e a g u n
that w a s l i g h t e r a n d m o r e m a n a g e a b l e . T h i s w a s t h e V i c k e r s
m a c h i n e - g u n , a d o p t e d b y t h e B r i t i s h A r m y in 1 9 1 2 .
m a c h i n e - g u n t e c h n o l o g y . It fired 0 . 3 0 3 i n r o u n d s at a c y c l i c a l
(the b a r r e l w o u l d n e e d r e p l a c i n g after e v e r y 1 0 , 0 0 0 r o u n d s
WORLD WAR I 1 9 1 4 - 1 8 189
m o u n t e d o n a h e a v y tripod, a n d s i g h t fittings w e r e c o n f i g u r e d
VICKERS MAXIM -
for either d i r e c t or i n d i r e c t fire. T h e f o r m e r c o u l d b e d e l i v e r e d
SPECIFICATIONS
at ranges of u p to 2 , 0 0 0 y d s ( 1 , 8 2 8 m ) , but for t h e latter t h e g u n ' s
Caliber: 0.303in
r a n g e c o u l d g o a s far a s 3 , 8 0 0 y d s ( 3 , 4 7 5 m ) . ( S u c h e x t r e m e O p e r a t i o n : Short recoil
ranges, h o w e v e r , w e r e rarely entertained.) T h e 0 . 3 0 3 i n r o u n d s Feed: 2 5 0 - r o u n d f a b r i c belt
1 9 6 8 . It w a s m o u n t e d o n t a n k s , s h i p s , a n d aircraft, r e s p e c t e d
a s a light a n t i - a i r c r a f t g u n a s w e l l a s a n i n f a n t r y w e a p o n .
BELOW: Vickers were also used by American "doughboys" - here
G u n s s u c h as t h e V i c k e r s d e m o n s t r a t e d that i n d u s t r i a l - s c a l e shown receiving instruction from a British sergeant of the Machine
f i r e p o w e r w o u l d b e t h e d e c i d e r of m a n y battles. Gun Corps in May 1918. (Stephen Bull)
LEWIS GUN
movement either in the form of periodic massive since Maxim's early offerings. New automatic operating
with the infantry in the assault. If footsoldiers wanted breakthrough was made by Captain Baron A. O d k o l e k von
A u g e z a o f A u s t r i a . In t h e m a c h i n e - g u n h e d e s i g n e d , p r o p e l l a n t
to take automatic firepower with them, then they
g a s w a s t a p p e d off f r o m t h e b a r r e l v i a a port, a n d d i r e c t e d into
would need a machine-gun suited to the purpose.
a cylinder, in w h i c h there w a s a piston. T h e piston was
c o n n e c t e d to t h e b o l t b y a n o p e r a t i n g r o d , a n d a s t h e r o d w a s
p u s h e d t o t h e rear a g a i n s t t h e f o r c e of a r e t u r n s p r i n g , e j e c t i n g
t h e s p e n t c a r t r i d g e c a s e a s it w e n t . O n c e t h e b o l t h a d r e a c h e d
l o a d i n g a n e w r o u n d a s it w e n t . In effect, t h e d e s i g n w o r k e d o n
s i m i l a r p r i n c i p l e s to a n i n t e r n a l c o m b u s t i o n e n g i n e . M o r e o v e r ,
t h e g u n w a s c o o l e d b y a i r , n o t w a t e r , r e m o v i n g t h e n e e d for
w e a p o n s not o n l y h a d m a n a g e a b l e r e c o i l - t h e g a s s y s t e m
a b s o r b e d m u c h of t h e r e a r w a r d f o r c e - b u t t h e y c o u l d a l s o
LEWIS G U N (UK) -
be m a d e lighter than r e c o i l - o p e r a t e d guns, opening the
SPECIFICATIONS
Caliber: 0.303in
p o s s i b i l i t y for true a s s a u l t m a c h i n e - g u n s .
Operation: Gas
earlier d e s i g n b y S a m u e l M c L e a n ) , a n d f e a t u r i n g s o m e d i s t i n c t
A HISTORY Or Tir E WORLD IN 100 WEAPONS
WORLD WAR I 1914-18
It was fed from a 47 -round top-mounted pan magazine. For convenient firepower meant that Lewis guns found new roles
the infantryman, one of its best features was its weight- just in aircraft, tanks, armored cars, and even on motorcycles.
261b (11.8kg). In addition, six Lewis guns could be produced in the time it
Finding no initial buyers for the weapon in the United took to make a single Vickers, hence more than 50,000 had
States, Lewis took the gun to a war-ready Europe, where he been made by the end of the war. These included 0.30in
sold thousands to the Belgians (from 1914) and the British versions, belatedly taken into US service.
(from 1915). Surplus stocks of Lewis guns would serve in World War II,
By 1917, every British Army infantry section had a Lewis despite the British adopting the superb Bren gun as its
gun, dramatically increasing the infantry's fire-and-maneuver replacement. (The US forces replaced the Lewis with the
capabilities. Mounted on a simple front bipod, the Lewis could Browning Automatic Rifle- BAR.) World War I ended with
be set up wherever required and spray out 0.303in rounds to the LMG firmly established as part of infantry tactics, in large
an effective range of about 650yds (594m). The value of such part due to the Lewis proving the concept.
A p r i l 2 2 , 1 9 1 5 , at t h e s e c o n d battle of Y p r e s , t h e G e r m a n f o r c e s
the use of poisonous weaponry, the battlefields were
t u r n e d to g a s in a n a t t e m p t to d o so. S t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g , this w a s
soon choked with gas, killing or wounding thousands
n o t t h e first t i m e that g a s h a d b e e n u s e d b y t h e c o m b a t a n t s . In
of soldiers. Yet despite its prevalence between 1914, both the French and G e r m a n s had experimented with
s u c c e s s f u l , b u t at Y p r e s t h e G e r m a n s s w i t c h e d to u s i n g lethal
limitations as much as its possibilities.
c h l o r i n e g a s , p u m p i n g it o u t t o w a r d s B r i t i s h , C a n a d i a n , a n d
F r e n c h l i n e s a s p r e p a r a t i o n f o r t h e i n f a n t r y a t t a c k . U p to 1 , 4 0 0
( C h l o r i n e g a s w o r k s b y irritating t h e l u n g s , c a u s i n g t h e m to fill
w i t h f l u i d s a n d e f f e c t i v e l y d r o w n i n g the v i c t i m . ) D e s p i t e the
A l l i e d c o n d e m n a t i o n o f t h e a t t a c k , t h e B r i t i s h r e s p o n d e d in
k i n d at t h e b a t t l e of L o o s o n S e p t e m b e r 2 4 , 1 9 1 5 , r e l e a s i n g t h e
LEFT: Although the Germans first introduced the use of gas, it was
rapidly adopted by all combatant armies. Here the chlorine gas
from a French attack during the battle of the Somme is drifting
over the German lines, but the risk of the wind direction changing
was high. (Courtesy of Simon Jones)
a l t h o u g h o d o r l e s s it w a s a g r i m b l i s t e r i n g a g e n t , causing
DEADLY MIX blindness, mutilation, lung d a m a g e , a n d death. D u r i n g the
"weaponized" - phosgene a n d mustard gas. Both were gases w o u l d be deployed simultaneously, along with s m o k e
f r i e n d l y l i n e s , a l t h o u g h t h e w i n d w a s still c a p a b l e of c a r r y i n g f o r t h i s r e a s o n , a n d p a r t l y b e c a u s e t h e e l e m e n t of s u r p r i s e
it b a c k w a r d s . Protection against the g a s w a s of almost w a s gone, casualties from gas attacks p l u n g e d significantly
through sludge,
all blind;
Wilfred O w e n
25mm.
MORTAR
rather i n a c c u r a t e w e a p o n s , b u t it is w o r t h r e m i n d i n g o u r s e l v e s
Gobyato designed a mortar device that could throw
of t h e m a n y a d v a n t a g e s t h e y c o n f e r . B y d e l i v e r i n g i n d i r e c t fire
naval shells at a high-angle from a closed position.
at a h i g h - t r a j e c t o r y , a m o r t a r c a n b e o p e r a t e d f r o m a t o t a l l y
The capabilities of Russian mortars so impressed protected position - t h e g u n n e r s c a n r e m a i n o u t of s i g h t .
a r e c o n v e n i e n t to u s e in c o n f i n e d p o s i t i o n s a n d c a n a l s o d e l i v e r
developing its own versions, with 160 produced
a h i g h rate of fire s i m p l y b y d r o p p i n g b o m b s r h y t h m i c a l l y d o w n
just prior to the onset of war in 1914.
the tube. A s low-velocity projectiles, mortar b o m b s c a n also
v e l o c i t y a r t i l l e r y s h e l l s (the s h e l l w a l l d o e s n ' t n e e d to b e a s
t h i c k ) . T h e y a r e a l s o m o r e p o r t a b l e t h a n c o n v e n t i o n a l artillery,
h a v i n g n o r e c o i l m e c h a n i s m (they t y p i c a l l y transfer r e c o i l f o r c e s
d i r e c t l y i n t o t h e g r o u n d ) , l a r g e c a r r i a g e , a n d hefty b r e e c h or
i n f a n t r y o f W o r l d W a r 1 w i t h a n i m m e d i a t e m e a n s of b r i n g i n g
p r o t e c t i v e c o n f i n e s of t h e t r e n c h .
2 5 0 m m . T h e m e d i u m a n d h e a v y m o r t a r s w e r e n o t t h e last
BELOW: Men of the King's Own Yorkshire Light Infantry fuse
w o r d in m o b i l i t y , b u t t h e y c o u l d d e l i v e r s u b s t a n t i a l f i r e p o w e r
shells for the Stokes trench mortars during 1917. (IWM Q 6025)
- the 1 7 0 m m mortar, for e x a m p l e , c o u l d fire 3 5 shells
t y p e s in u s e .
It w a s t h e B r i t i s h , h o w e v e r , w h o c h a n g e d t h e n a t u r e a n d
c a p a b i l i t i e s of m o r t a r s . In J a n u a r y 1 9 1 5 , o n e W i l f r e d S t o k e s
21 m e n to o p e r a t e . ) T h e b a s e of t h e m o r t a r t u b e w a s f i x e d
to a b a s e p l a t e that sat o n t h e g r o u n d , w h i l e t h e u p p e r p a r t
of t h e t u b e w a s s t a b i l i z e d a n d a d j u s t e d o n a b i p o d . E a c h 1 0 l b
~~~ A HISTORY OF THE WORLD IN 100 WEAPONS
ABOVE: Australian soldiers shown loading the Briti sh expl os ive force. Some of th e latest vari eties of C PS-guided
9.45 in trench mo rta r, known to the troops as the "fl ying pig;' mortar round, for example, have a circular erro r probabl e (CEP)
during 1916. (IWM Q 4092)
of just 11 yds (1Om) at ranges of several miles . M any mortars
are now ri va ling heavier tube artill ery in term s of their power,
(4.5kg) bo mb had an impact ca rtridge at its base. To fire th e and by being far cheaper to produce, th eir pl ace on th e future
mortar, th e gunner simpl y dropped th e arm ed bomb down the battl efi eld is assured.
tube; w hen th e bomb hit th e bottom of th e tube, th e impac t
ca rtridge detonated and threw th e bo mb o ut to a max imum
range of 800yds (73 1m). M oreover, th e gunner could send out STOKES MORTAR -
th ese shell s at a rate of 25 rounds every minute. SPECIFICATIONS
Th e Sto kes M o rtar w as a game-changer. It provided even Caliber: 3in
small infantry units with a trul y portabl e indirect-fire ca pability, Crew: 2
and by the end of the war every divisio n co ntained 24 Stokes Length: 51 in (1,295mm) tube
Weight: 1041b (47.17kg)
Mortars. Th e British also fi elded 2in medium and 9.45in heavy
Elevation: 45 °- 75 °
mortars, to provide more substanti al firepower.
Bomb weight: 10.61b (4.84kg) for high explosives (HE)
By the end of th e war, mortars had become an integral part Effective range: 750yds (686m)
of in fa ntry firepower fo r all sides, and remain so to thi s day. Maximum range: 800yds (731 m)
Throughout W orld W ar II and the postwar era their capabilities Maximum rate of fire: 2Srpm
c hanged dramati ca ll y, increasi ng th eir range, accuracy, and
SOPWITH CAMEL
to report on enemy troop movements or positions p o t - s h o t s w i t h a rifle o r r e v o l v e r - but over time military
d e v e l o p e d b y R a y m o n d S a u l n i e r in w h i c h m e t a l d e f l e c t o r p l a t e s
w e r e fitted to t h e b a c k o f t h e p r o p e l l e r b l a d e s , a l l o w i n g a
m a c h i n e - g u n to fire d i r e c t l y t h r o u g h t h e p r o p e l l e r w i t h o u t fear
of t h e o c c a s i o n a l r o u n d s h a t t e r i n g t h e b l a d e s . T h u s e q u i p p e d ,
t h e M o r a n e - S a u l n i e r T y p e L b e c a m e o n e o f h i s t o r y ' s first f i g h t e r
a i r c r a f t , i m m e d i a t e l y r a c k i n g u p a s t r i n g of v i c t o r i e s .
Y e t t h e a d v a n t a g e w o u l d n o t rest l o n g w i t h F r e n c h . W i t h i n
w e e k s t h e G e r m a n s , c o u r t e s y of D u t c h aircraft d e s i g n e r A n t h o n y
t h e m a c h i n e - g u n w i t h t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e p r o p e l l e r b l a d e s , o n l y
f i r i n g w h e n t h e b l a d e s w e r e o u t of t h e b u l l e t ' s p a t h . It w a s
t h e target. B o t h s i d e s - s e e n e x t e n t r y . ) I n t r o d u c e d into a c t i o n in J u n e 1 9 1 7 , it h a d
interrupter g e a r . s p e e d w a s 1 0 9 m p h ( 1 7 5 k m / h ) - a n d a s e r v i c e c e i l i n g of
Fighter aircraft differed from other types b y e m p h a s i z i n g 19,000ft (5,790m). It w a s exceptionally maneuverable,
NAVAL ACE
o n e A u s t r a l i a n C a m e l g o i n g d o w n in f l a m e s w h i l e
Flight S u b - L i e u t e n a n t L a w r e n c e C o o m b e s , D F C , of the
A l e x a n d e r [Flight Lieutenant W i l l i a m A l e x a n d e r ] of 2 1 0
R o y a l N a v a l A i r S e r v i c e ( R N A S ) , c l a i m e d 15 " k i l l s " a s a
got a n e n e m y aircraft a l s o in f l a m e s . I shot d o w n a n
fighter pilot, m a i n l y f r o m t h e c o c k p i t of a S o p w i t h C a m e l .
A l b a t r o s out of c o n t r o l .
Here he recounts o n e action on M a y 11, 1 9 1 8 :
T u r n i n g for h o m e , w e d i s c o v e r e d that a g r o u n d
T h e S o p w i t h C a m e l h a d a n i m m e d i a t e effect o n t h e air
s u p e r i o r i t y s i t u a t i o n o v e r t h e W e s t e r n Front. In total C a m e l s
s h o t d o w n 1 , 2 9 4 e n e m y aircraft, p l u s t h r e e Z e p p e l i n a i r s h i p s .
N e a r l y 5 , 5 0 0 C a m e l s w e r e p r o d u c e d . I n d e e d , a l o n g s i d e other
S p a d , t h e s h e e r n u m b e r s o f C a m e l s m e a n t that e v e n w h e n
better G e r m a n F o k k e r fighters a p p e a r e d in 1 9 1 8 , t h e y w e r e
still t a c t i c a l l y d i s d v a n t a g e d . T h e c o m b i n a t i o n of f i r e p o w e r ,
s p e e d , a n d m a n e u v e r a b i l i t y in t h e C a m e l , p e r f e c t l y e m b o d i e d
t h e a e r i a l c o m b a t e t h o s , a n d s u b s e q u e n t British aircraft w o u l d
s e e k to b u i l d o n t h o s e q u a l i t i e s .
looking for ways to correct the Allied combat service, a t h r e e - w i n g e d aircraft a r m e d with a single V i c k e r s
y e a r b y t h e C a m e l , the t y p e c e r t a i n l y i m p r e s s e d t h e G e r m a n s w i t h
Camel. The subsequent designs of Reinhold Platz,
its e x t r e m e m a n e u v e r a b i l i t y a n d a e r o d y n a m i c s . In response,
Fokker's chief designer, would come too late in the
R e i n h o l d Platz d e s i g n e d the Fokker D r I triplane, w h i c h was
day to change the outcome of the air war, but they d e l i v e r e d in m o d e s t q u a n t i t i e s to f r o n t l i n e s q u a d r o n s f r o m t h e
m o u n t of G e r m a n a c e M a n f r e d v o n R i c h t h o f e n , w h o in his c o m b a t
c a r e e r w o u l d d o w n 8 0 e n e m y aircraft b e f o r e his d e a t h o n A p r i l
2 1 , 1 9 1 8 . T h e r e w a s m u c h to r e c o m m e n d t h e D r I. It c o u l d turn
o n a d i m e , a n d h a d a n e x c e l l e n t rate of c l i m b . T w o 7.92mm
M a x i m L M G 0 8 / 1 5 s p r o v i d e d a i r c r a f t - w r e c k i n g f i r e p o w e r . Y e t in
b a l a n c e , t h e D r I w a s a rather s l o w a i r c r a f t - its t o p s p e e d w a s
1 0 3 m p h ( 1 6 5 k m / h ) - m e a n i n g that it p e r f o r m e d best o n l y at l o w
altitudes, a n d in t h e h a n d s of a s k i l l e d aviator. A l t h o u g h it g a i n e d
a d v a n t a g e b a c k to t h e G e r m a n s .
CROWNING DESIGN
In late 191 7, P l a t z o n c e a g a i n p u t his m i n d to c r e a t i n g a n e w
FOKKER D VII -
a i r c r a f t . T h i s t i m e t h e a i r c r a f t h a d a m o r e d r a m a t i c effect o n
SPECIFICATIONS
the p o w e r struggle a b o v e the W e s t e r n Front. T h e D V I I h a d a
T y p e : single-seat b i p l a n e fighter
s p e e d that m a t c h e d that o f t h e C a m e l w h e n fitted w i t h its
Length: 22ft l O i n ( 6 . 9 5 m )
o r i g i n a l M e r c e d e s D . l l l a e n g i n e , b u t a later B M W p o w e r p l a n t
W i n g s p a n : 29ft 2 i n ( 8 . 9 m )
t o o k its t o p s p e e d u p t o 1 2 4 m p h ( 2 0 0 k m / h ) . S p e e d , i n d e e d ,
H e i g h t : 9ft ( 2 . 7 5 m )
w a s b e c o m i n g t h e h o l y g r a i l of f i g h t e r p e r f o r m a n c e f o r m a n y ,
W e i g h t (empty): 1,5081b ( 6 8 4 k g )
g i v i n g a n a i r c r a f t t h e a b i l i t y to a t t a c k fast a n d disappear
W e i g h t ( m a x take-off): 2,0061b ( 9 1 0 k g )
q u i c k l y . T h e a i r c r a f t a l s o r e t a i n e d its p e r f o r m a n c e a c r o s s t h e
Powerplant: Mercedes D.llla generating 180hp
a l t i t u d e r a n g e (its s e r v i c e c e i l i n g s l i g h t l y e x c e e d e d that o f t h e
( 1 3 4 k W ) , later B M W Ilia
A r m a m e n t : 2 x 7 . 9 2 m m M a x i m L M C 08/15
machine-guns
C a m e l ) , a n d it w a s m a n e u v e r a b l e a s w e l l . It h a s b e e n n o t e d
w a s t h e o n l y a i r c r a f t s p e c i f i c a l l y n a m e d in t h e A r m i s t i c e
a g r e e m e n t of 1 9 1 8 to b e s u r r e n d e r e d .
H a d t h e D V I I a r r i v e d e a r l i e r in t h e w a r , a n d i n g r e a t e r
s u c h a s C a r l D e g e l o w , w h o s h o t d o w n 2 2 a i r c r a f t in a D V I I
b e t w e e n J u l y a n d N o v e m b e r 1 9 1 8 . Y e t w a r s a n d battles a r e
aircraft of t h e c o n f l i c t .
BELOW: A postwar Fokker D VII under inspection by the United ABOVE: The second-highest scoring German ace, Lieutenant
States Air Service. Its 180hp (134kW) BMW engine is on display. Ernst Udet, poses in front of his Fokker D VII. He scored
It was primarily the speed generated by this engine that made the 62 victories in total during World War I before later becoming
Foldcer D VII a remarkable aircraft and difficult to best in a a senior figure in the Nazi party and the Luftwaffe. (Courtesy
dogfight. (R. Watts Album via Greg VanWyngarden) of Greg VanWyngarden)
* f .'
WORLD WAR II
1939-45
LAND MINE
W o r l d W a r II, h o w e v e r , that w o u l d t r u l y e s t a b l i s h t h e e r a of
of choice. Furthermore, a minefield can defend a
m o d e r n m i n e w a r f a r e , a n d t r a n s f o r m h u g e tracts of l a n d into
defined feature or area even without ground forces
lethal l a n d s c a p e s .
being present.
ANTI PERSONNEL MINES
A n t i - p e r s o n n e l (AP) mines, laid in their m i l l i o n s d u r i n g W o r l d
W a r II, b e c a m e t h e s o l d i e r ' s n i g h t m a r e . T h i s w a s p a r t i c u l a r l y so
ABOVE AND RIGHT: The Germans led the way in mine design.
This Tellermine TMi 42 was first manufactured in 1929 and saw
service until the end of World War II. It could be used both as an
anti-tank and anti-personnel mine. (Courtesy of Stephen Bull)
c o m m a n d , after w h i c h t h e r e w a s a s h o r t d e l a y b e f o r e a n
i n n e r c a s i n g , c o n t a i n i n g a b o u t 3 6 0 steel b a l l s , w a s p r o j e c t e d
R e s p o n d i n g to t h e A l l i e d i n t r o d u c t i o n o f e l e c t r o n i c mine
u n d e t e c t a b l e to e l e c t r o n i c d e v i c e s .
C o m b i n e d w i t h t h e d o z e n s of o t h e r A P m i n e s d e v e l o p e d
b y t h e G e r m a n s , s u c h w e a p o n s m a d e l a r g e a r e a s of l a n d
o b s t a c l e s to c l e a r . S c h u - M i n e s , for i n s t a n c e , w e r e s o m e t i m e s
l a i d 12 r o w s d e e p a n d o n l y 2 0 i n ( 5 1 c m ) d i s t a n c e a p a r t .
In r e t u r n , h o w e v e r , t h e G e r m a n s a l s o s u f f e r e d in e x t e n s i v e
A l l i e d m i n e f i e l d s , p a r t i c u l a r l y o n t h e E a s t e r n F r o n t a n d in
e n d o f t h e w a r , d e s p i t e o n l y a c c e p t i n g t h e v a l u e of t h e m i n e
i n 1 9 4 1 . U S m i n e f i e l d s , in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e i r t a c t i c a l
t h e o r y , t e n d e d to b e c o v e r e d b y m a c h i n e - g u n s a n d mortars,
s o t h o s e a t t e m p t i n g t o c r o s s t h e m h a d to c o p e w i t h m u c h
ANTI-TANK MINES
It w a s t h e a d v e n t of a r m o r e d w a r f a r e , m o r e t h a n a n y o t h e r
a l o n g w o o d e n b o x c o n t a i n i n g 7 l b (3kg) of e x p l o s i v e , d e t o n a t e d
for m i n e w a r f a r e , p r o d u c e d s o m e of t h e best A T m i n e s of
the w a r , i n c l u d i n g f o u r m o d e l s of T e l l e r m i n e , e a c h c a p a b l e
of d e s t r o y i n g a n A l l i e d t a n k , o r at least s h a t t e r i n g its t r a c k s .
d e v i c e s , or s e c o n d a r y f u s e w e l l s for fitting t h e s a m e ( s u c h a s
s e c o n d a r y A P mines), to m u l t i p l y t h e d a n g e r a n d p r o b l e m s of
defusing them.
the foot might be b l o w n off, but h o p e that the m i n e a pressure fuse. B e i n g easily triggered b y n e a r b y explosives,
A r m y used A T m i n e s s u c h as the M l , M 1 A 1 , a n d M 4 .
engineers w h o had a g o o d deal of e x p e r i e n c e w i t h
T h i s b r i e f r u n t h r o u g h W o r l d W a r II m i n e t e c h n o l o g y d o e s
S - m i n e s told m e that t h o u g h this idea h a d b e e n
not d o j u s t i c e to t h e s h e e r n u m b e r s of c a s u a l t i e s a n d p r o b l e m s
current for s o m e time it w a s quite erroneous. T h e
m i n e s c a u s e d . M a n y A P m i n e s , for e x a m p l e , c o n t a i n e d o n l y
anti-personnel m i n e has a d e l a y of three or four
e n o u g h e x p l o s i v e to r e m o v e a f o o t o r leg, p u r p o s e l y d e s i g n e d
seconds. W h e n y o u step o n it there is a muffled c l i c k
to d r a i n e n e m y m a n p o w e r t h r o u g h c a s u a l t y e v a c u a t i o n a n d
in the ground. Between three a n d four s e c o n d s after
l e n g t h y r e h a b i l i t a t i o n . M i n e s w e r e l a i d in m i x e d A P / A T f i e l d s ,
this c l i c k - that is, after the c a p has fired - the
o r w e r e l i n k e d to b o o b y t r a p s of f i e n d i s h i n g e n u i t y . U p to
cylinder b l o w s four feet or five feet into the air [to
3 0 percent of all tanks destroyed or d a m a g e d d u r i n g the w a r
detonate]... It is probably best to m o v e three or four w e r e a c c o u n t e d for b y m i n e s , a n d t o t h i s d a y t h o u s a n d s of
yards a w a y from the m i n e a n d lie d o w n . y y p e o p l e across the w o r l d die through both " l e g a c y " m i n e s a n d
t h o s e l a i d in f r e s h c o n f l i c t s .
DEPTH CHARGE
s u b m a r i n e a n d g e n e r a t e e n o u g h p r e s s u r e to c r u s h t h e h u l l .
soon bring major changes.
T h e h e a v i e s t users of d e p t h c h a r g e s in W o r l d W a r II w e r e t h e
A l l i e s , in t h e c o n t e x t of their i n t e n s i v e w a r a g a i n s t t h e G e r m a n
U - b o a t s . If a U - b o a t w a s o n t h e s u r f a c e , it c o u l d b e d e t e c t e d b y
c e n t i m e t r i c r a d a r , b u t o n c e it d i v e d t h e m o s t u s e f u l l o c a t i n g
a n e s c o r t c o m m a n d e r a r e a s o n a b l e i n d i c a t i o n of t h e s u b m a r i n e ' s
H e d g e h o g a n d S q u i d w a s that A S D I C c o n t a c t w i t h t h e e n e m y
MEANS OF DELIVERY s u b m a r i n e c o u l d be maintained w h i l e d e p l o y i n g the w e a p o n .
O n e p r o b l e m w i t h t h i s s y s t e m , h o w e v e r , w a s that A S D I C A s w e l l a s s h i p - d e l i v e r y , d e p t h c h a r g e s w e r e a l s o d r o p p e d in
lost c o n t a c t w i t h a s u b m a r i n e w i t h i n 1 9 7 y d s ( 1 8 0 m ) r a n g e . s i g n i f i c a n t n u m b e r s b y a i r c r a f t d u r i n g W o r l d W a r II, t h o u g h
w h i c h e n t e r e d s e r v i c e in 1 9 4 2 . T h i s c o n s i s t e d of 2 4 s m a l l s h a l l o w d e p t h s a r o u n d 3 0 f t (9.1 m ) .
|A
A HISTORY
HISTORY OfOF THE
THE WORLDININ
WORLD 100
100 WEAPONS
WEAPONS
WORLD WAR II 1 9 3 9 - 4 5 319
D e p t h c h a r g e s c o u l d b e b a s i c w e a p o n s , b u t t h e y w e r e still
r e s p o n s i b l e for s i n k i n g 4 3 p e r c e n t of a l l U - b o a t s d e s t r o y e d in
t h e w a r . In t h e p o s t w a r e r a t h e y h a v e t a k e n o n a l l m a n n e r o f
s o p h i s t i c a t i o n s , f r o m n u c l e a r - w a r h e a d v a r i e t i e s to a i r - d r o p p e d
w e a p o n s that a c t u a l l y h o m e in o n t h e e n e m y submarine.
T o d a y , a s a l w a y s , a s u b m a r i n e ' s b e s t d e f e n s e is n o t t o b e
d e t e c t e d in t h e first p l a c e .
here r e m e m b e r s t h e e x p e r i e n c e of b e i n g t a r g e t e d b y
A l l i e d d e p t h c h a r g e s , a n d t h e a t t e m p t s at e v a s i o n :
our s o c k s g o i n g at 1 . 5 m p h . O f t e n w e t h o u g h t :
w a s a real g a m e of cat a n d m o u s e . 7 yy
O r d n a n c e D e p a r t m e n t a n d a s C h i e f D e s i g n E n g i n e e r for t h e
convincingly, the German Bergmann MP 18 of
R e m i n g t o n A r m s C o r p o r a t i o n b e f o r e , in 1 9 1 6 , h e f o u n d e d his
1918. Yet the Thompson was the gun that truly
o w n venture, the A u t o - O r d n a n c e C o r p o r a t i o n . O n c e the United
introduced both military and civilian worlds to the States j o i n e d W o r l d W a r I in 191 7, T h o m p s o n w a s d r a w n b a c k
t h e S p r i n g f i e l d M 1 9 0 3 , b u t h e a l s o s a w a s o l u t i o n : " O u r b o y s in
manufactured since 1921, making it one ofhistory's
t h e i n f a n t r y , n o w in t h e t r e n c h e s , n e e d a s m a l l m a c h i n e g u n , a
most successful and credible firearms.
g u n that w i l l fire S O to 1 0 0 r o u n d s , s o light that h e c a n d r a g it
w i t h h i m a s h e c r a w l s o n his b e l l y f r o m t r e n c h to t r e n c h , a n d
F o r m 1*281
Thompson
Anti-Bandit Gun
It's the safest gun for policeman, sheriff or guard
lo handle—
—Any man in your force who can shoot a pistol
can shoot a Thompson better!
It's the gnu that safeguards the innocent by-
standers—
It's the safest gun lo shoot in city streets—
—because its bullets do not fly wild—its
extraordinary accuracy is controlled—its
shots arc hits!
When you shoot, you can get your man with a
single shot! The tremendous shock of the .45
calibre bullet knocks him down—and he stays
down! And you have 20 or 50 of these power-
ful, accurate shots instantly available, when re-
quired.
Thompson Guns are in Use by: Police Forces of New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, Boston, Wash-
ington, Detroit, Baltimore, Duluth, San Francisco, Havana, Toronto and many other cities; the
United States Marines; the United States N a v y ; the United States T r e a s u r y Department; the
United States Coast Guard; the National Guard of New York, Kentucky, Indiana, Kansas, Mis-
souri, Connecticut, Massachusetts and North Dakota ; State Constabularies of Pennsylvania, W e s t
Virginia, Connecticut, Massachusetts and Michigan; the T e x a s R a n g e r s ; Northwest Mounted
Police of Manitoba and Saskatchewan; Sing Sing Prison; Nevada and Colorado State Peniten-
tiaries; many Sheriffs, Detective Agencies, Banks, Armored Car Services, Mines, Express Com-
panies, and Industrial Plants throughout the country. Sold only on the side of L a w and Order.
T h o m p s o n a n d a t e a m of t a l e n t e d e n g i n e e r s set a b o u t
c r e a t i n g t h i s w e a p o n . E a r l y m o d e l s e m e r g e d in 1 9 1 9 , but the
first p r o d u c t i o n v e r s i o n w a s t h e M 1 9 2 1 . H e r e w a s a h a n d -
. 4 5 A C P p i s t o l c a r t r i d g e at c y c l i c a l rates o f a b o u t 8 5 0 r p m
(later m o d e l s t e n d e d to w o r k at a b o u t 6 0 0 r p m ) . A m m u n i t i o n
d i s t i n c t i v e 5 0 - o r e v e n 1 0 0 - r o u n d d r u m s . T h e g u n w a s a true
m a n - s t o p p e r , but t h e w a r e n d e d b e f o r e it c o u l d b e tested in
into t h e c i v i l i a n a n d l a w e n f o r c e m e n t m a r k e t s .
g a n g s t e r w e a p o n of t h e P r o h i b i t i o n e r a ( 1 9 2 0 - 3 3 ) . Y e t the g u n
ABOVE: A British patrol in Italy 1944. The patrol leader carries a m o s t p r e v a l e n t p r e - W o r l d W a r II m o d e l , t h e M 1 9 2 8 , was
Tommy gun as does the second man in the line. (US Military) p u r c h a s e d in l i m i t e d n u m b e r s b y t h e U S N a v y a n d M a r i n e
BELOW: Okinawa 1945. A BAR gunner ducks to one side as the C o r p s d u r i n g t h e 1 9 3 0 s , a n d in 1 9 3 8 t h e U S A r m y itself
Tommy-man lets rip with his M1A1. (SSgt Walter F. Klein, NARA) b e c a m e a m a j o r T h o m p s o n buyer, a l o n g with international
c u s t o m e r s s u c h as Britain.
w e a p o n s h a v e b e c o m e true c o l l e c t o r s ' items. T h e T h o m p s o n BELOW: A view of the Model 1921 A C , showing its very distinctive
m a k e s a g o o d c a s e for b e i n g history's greatest s u b m a c h i n e - g u n , silhouette. Many collectors and firearms historians believe this to
life cycles of most weapons. The Browning M2HB d u r i n g the late 1 8 0 0 s , f o c u s e d p r i n c i p a l l y o n g a s operated systems.
is a case in point. It is still the primary heavy In 1 9 0 0 , h o w e v e r , h e s w i t c h e d his attentions to recoil operation,
M 1 9 1 7 . ( A d e m o n s t r a t i o n in w h i c h o n e g u n fired 2 0 , 0 0 0 rounds
w i t h o u t s t o p p a g e h e l p e d to c o n v i n c e the authorities.)
T h e M 1 9 1 7 w a s t h e b e g i n n i n g of a n i m p o r t a n t s e r i e s o f
B r o w n i n g m a c h i n e - g u n s , w h i c h i n c l u d e d the a i r - c o o l e d M 1 9 1 9
v e r s i o n s . T h e y w e n t o n to b e c o m e s t a n d a r d U S A r m y f i r e p o w e r
w e a p o n s t h r o u g h to a r m o r e d v e h i c l e g u n s . Y e t t o w a r d s t h e e n d
of W o r l d W a r I, t h e h e a d of t h e A m e r i c a n E x p e d i t i o n a r y F o r c e s
was attacked by six tanks and waves of infantry. 2 d Lt. their infantry attack to waver. T h e enemy tanks, losing
Murphy ordered his men to w i t h d r a w to a prepared infantry support, began to fall b a c k . For an hour the
c o m m a n d post and continued to give fire directions to 2 d Lt. Murphy, but he continued to hold his position
the artillery by telephone. Behind him, to his right, one a n d w i p e d out a s q u a d that w a s trying to creep up
of our tank destroyers received a direct hit and began to unnoticed on his right flank. y y
224 A HISTORY OF THE WORLD IN 100 WEAPONS
B r o w n i n g t h e r e f o r e s c a l e d u p h i s e x i s t i n g M l 91 7 d e s i g n for
u s e w i t h a 0 . 5 i n c a r t r i d g e , l e a d i n g to t h e M 1 9 2 1 . T h e s h e e r
p o w e r of t h e 0 . 5 i n r o u n d m e a n t t h e M 1 9 2 1 m o r e t h a n f u l f i l l e d
(the t h i c k e r , h e a v i e r b a r r e l h e l p e d a b s o r b a n d d i s s i p a t e heat),
k n o w n appropriately e n o u g h as the M 2 H B .
SUCCESS STORY
In t e r m s o f a h e a v y m a c h i n e - g u n , t h e M 2 H B approaches
of h a r d e n e d steel a r m o r p l a t e at 5 4 7 y d s ( 5 0 0 m ) . p o s i t i o n s . A s w e l l a s s e v e r e a n t i - p e r s o n n e l effects, M 2 s w e r e
a g a i n s t aircraft or g r o u n d p o s i t i o n s .
ABOVE: Men of the 102nd Infantry Division armed with their
trusty ,50cal, Germany, Spring 1945. (NARA via Tom Laemlein) T h e M 2 H B has its limitations - it is w e i g h t y a n d a w k w a r d to
ABOVE: The aircraft carrier continues to play a crucial role in d a m a g e d 19 m a j o r U S vessels. T h e attack w a s a stunning
the United States' defense policy. Here USS George Washington i l l u s t r a t i o n o f n a v a l air p o w e r , a n d p r a c t i c a l p r o o f of a n t i - s h i p
is shown off the coast of South Korea in 2010. (Getty Images)
bombing, a s first d e m o n s t r a t e d by the U S general Billy
Argus. Aircraft with folding wings would take up considerably most important w a r s h i p s o n the w a v e s .
less space in later aircraft carriers. (Courtesy of Angus Konstam)
C a r r i e r s o f f e r e d u n i q u e a b i l i t i e s o v e r o t h e r s u r f a c e craft.
On D e c e m b e r 7, 1 9 4 1 , a n I m p e r i a l J a p a n e s e N a v y (IJN) miles from the ship. Yet other tactical abilities emerged -
H a w a i i . T h e attack by dive- a n d torpedo-bombers sunk or preparatory attacks for amphibious landings; support
p r o t e c t i o n i m p r o v e d later in t h e w a r ) . T h e largest U S c a r r i e r s
c o u l d h o l d m o r e than 1 0 0 aircraft, g i v i n g t h e m e n o r m o u s
strike potential.
W O R L D WAR II 1 9 3 9 - 4 5 227
(October 2 3 - 2 6 , 1944). T h e carrier suffered severe V o u g h t Corsair, well-trained pilots, radar-vectored fighter
d a m a g e o n several occasions, including hits by response, a n d radar-controlled anti-aircraft guns. For these
to b e d e c o m m i s s i o n e d in 1 9 4 7 . T h e c a r r i e r w a s g i v e n t h e c a r r i e r battle in t h e P a c i f i c . In t h e A t l a n t i c , w h e r e t h e r e w a s
d a m a g i n g d o z e n s o f U - b o a t s in t h e p r o c e s s .
S i n c e W o r l d W a r II, a i r c r a f t c a r r i e r s h a v e r e t a i n e d t h e i r
BELOW: USS Independence, July 1943. d o m i n a n c e of the seas, U S n u c l e a r - p o w e r e d vessels s u c h as
(US Navy Historical Center)
USS Nimitz and Ronald Reagan reaching vast proportions,
w i t h c o m p l e m e n t s of m o r e than 5 , 0 0 0 p e r s o n n e l a n d air
s u c h status.
FLAK 88
c o n t a i n i n g 1 . 9 2 l b ( 0 . 8 7 k g ) of h i g h - e x p l o s i v e . T h e s e s h e l l s c o u l d
b e f i r e d at a rate o f 1 5 r p m .
T h e F l a k 1 8 r e c e i v e d c o m b a t testing in t h e S p a n i s h C i v i l W a r ,
w h e r e it a l s o h i n t e d at its p r a c t i c a l i t y a s a n a n t i - t a n k w e a p o n ,
m a d e p o s s i b l e b y a b a r r e l e l e v a t i o n r a n g e of - 3 ° to + 8 5 ° .
TANK KILLER
In 1 9 3 9 , G e r m a n y p r o d u c e d just 1 8 9 F l a k 8 8 g u n s , but its S e r g e a n t J a m e s F r a s e r of the R o y a l T a n k R e g i m e n t
easily d i s p a t c h i n g most A l l i e d tanks in s e r v i c e . W i t h its h i g h bale out. W e baled out a n d w e got underneath the
m u z z l e velocity, and equipped with appropriate anti-tank tank - w h i c h normally o n e w o u l d n ' t do, because
rounds, the Flak 8 8 c o u l d a c h i e v e penetration of a r o u n d 4 . 3 i n the tank is a main target - but w e had no option.
m a d e the F l a k 8 8 f a m o u s . A m o n g s t A l l i e d a r m o r e d troops, the tank, lifted it. I blacked out and w h e n I c a m e to,
8 8 s b e c a m e e s p e c i a l l y feared, a l t h o u g h m a n y kills attributed dazed, I looked round to find three of the tank crew
had been killed. That left myself a n d another lad.
to 8 8 s w e r e in fact c a u s e d b y s o m e of the other e x c e l l e n t
In m a k i n g our w a y a w a y from the tank, w e were
G e r m a n a n t i - t a n k g u n s in s e r v i c e . Y e t 8 8 s undoubtedly
fired on by a m a c h i n e gun, and I w a s hit on the leg.
a c c o u n t e d for t h o u s a n d s of British, A m e r i c a n , a n d S o v i e t
I w a s p i c k e d up by o n e of our o w n squadron's
armored vehicles, and their crews. For Allied pilots,
tanks, taken b a c k to the line, a n d then to the
p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e i n v o l v e d in the U S a n d British strategic
a d v a n c e d field a m b u l a n c e for treatment. 8 y y
bombing c a m p a i g n over G e r m a n y , Flak 88s also threw up
blistering c l o u d s of e x p l o s i o n s o v e r target areas.
| A HISTORY OF THE WORLD IN 100 WEAPONS
FLAK 18 - SPECIFICATIONS
Caliber: 8 8 m m
Length (gun): 1 9 4 . 0 9 i n ( 4 , 9 3 0 m m )
Weight: 10,992lb (4,985kg)
Breech mechanism: semi-auto sliding block
Rifling: 3 2 grooves, r/hand
Traverse: 7 2 0 °
Elevation: - 3 ° to + 8 5 °
M u z z l e v e l o c i t y : 2,690ft/sec ( 8 2 0 m / s e c )
M a x i m u m ceiling: 32,482ft (9,900m)
M a x i m u m g r o u n d range: 1 6 , 2 0 2 y d s ( 1 4 , 8 1 5 m )
W e m u s t not overstate t h e 8 8 ' s c a p a b i l i t i e s . In m a n y w a y s , its ABOVE: A gun crew of an 88 in the Western Desert, May 1942.
p e r f o r m a n c e w a s n o better t h a n g u n s s u c h as t h e British 3 . 7 i n The gun is lowered on to its base and the crew are in the process of
unloading ammunition. (IWM)
M k 3 o r t h e U S 9 0 m m M 1 . Its h i g h m o u n t , f u r t h e r m o r e , m a d e
it e a s y to s p o t a n d kill if it w a s n ' t c a m o u f l a g e d o r p o s i t i o n e d BELOW: The Royal Artillery deploying 88mm guns against their
properly. D u r i n g the w a r years, h o w e v e r , the basic 8 8 m o d e l former owners, December 1944. (IWM B 13292)
b e c a m e t h e f o u n d a t i o n for o t h e r e x c e l l e n t w e a p o n s , i n c l u d i n g
t h e F l a k 41 a n t i - a i r c r a f t g u n a n d t h e P a k 4 3 a n t i - t a n k g u n . Y e t
r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e t y p e , for t h o s e o n t h e r e c e i v i n g e n d of 8 8 s , t h e
e x p e r i e n c e w a s u n n e r v i n g at best, lethal at w o r s t .
M1 GARAND
a r e p l a c e m e n t f o r t h e S p r i n g f i e l d 1 9 0 3 b o l t - a c t i o n rifle f o r
the weapon never reached a standardized model
t h e A r m y . W h i l e w o r k i n g for t h e S p r i n g f i e l d A r m o r y , G a r a n d
nor went into production. In France, by contrast,
d e v e l o p e d t h e rifle t h a t w o u l d b e a r h i s n a m e , w h i c h then
the gas-operated 8mm R.S.C. Modele 1917/1918 u n d e r w e n t a series of trials. T h e 0 . 2 7 6 i n Pedersen, another
the French Army, while the Czechs and Soviets also w h e n s l o w l y t h e G a r a n d w o n t h r o u g h for a v a r i e t y o f t e c h n i c a l
a n d p o l i t i c a l r e a s o n s . It w a s a d o p t e d into U S A r m y s e r v i c e in
established several innovative semi-auto designs
. 3 0 - 0 6 c a l i b e r in 1 9 3 6 , a n d g i v e n t h e n a m e U S R i f l e M l .
during the 1920s. Yet the US M l Garand takes a
unique place in this history as the first semi-auto
firearm to be issued as the standard weapon of an
entire army.
T h e G a r a n d c o u l d n o t b e f u r t h e r f r o m t h e S p r i n g f i e l d it M1 w a s c o m b a t tested in t h e m o s t e x t r e m e terrains: t h e
receiver. T h e operating rod w a s then p u s h e d forward a n d the In fact, t h e G a r a n d g a v e the U S infantryman a distinct
g u n w a s g o o d to g o . E v e r y p u l l of t h e t r i g g e r d i s c h a r g e d a a d v a n t a g e o v e r t h e e n e m y in t e r m s of f i r e p o w e r . In a t y p i c a l
p r o b a b l y b e less t h a n 1 5 0 . T h e f i r e p o w e r a d v a n t a g e w a s b o r n e
trifling. A l l t h e n a t i o n s of t h e w o r l d t o o k note, a n d f o l l o w i n g ABOVE: An Ml Garand adapted for sniper use featuring the M84
for s e m i - a u t o d e s i g n s .
BELOW: A recruit trains with the Ml Garand. (Tom Laemlein)
THE FAME OF THE SUPERMARINE SPITFIRE IS MITCHELL'S CREATION
undoubtedly helped by its looks. Designed by The Spitfire was a development of Mitchell's Supermarine S6B
R.J. Mitchell, the Spitfire's slender fuselage, long seaplane, which won the Schneider Trophy in 1931. When the
nose, and large, elliptical wing suggested the British Air Ministry issued a specification for a new fighter aircraft
in 1934, Mitchell adapted the seaplane to meet the purpose,
supreme aerodynamics that it indeed delivered.
fitting it with a new Rolls-Royce Merlin II engine and eight .303
Yet aesthetics were matched by its capacity to machine-guns. The design was first flown on March 5, 1936,
fight, and it crucially placed Britain on an equal with excellent results. Tragically, given the Spitfire's subsequent
footing against the German, Italian, and Japanese history, Mitchell died the following year, but the Spitfire was
developed further and it entered RAF service in 1938.
air forces for the duration of the war.
A year later, Britain was at war with Germany, and here the
Spitfire began its journey to becoming an aviation legend. Many
myths have accrued around the Spitfire's role in the early war
years, particularly in relation to the Battle of Britain, fought in the
summer of 1940. For example, the lion's share of Britain's fighter
response was in fact borne by the more numerous but slower
and less agile Hurricane. (At the beginning of the battle, there
were 27 squadrons of Hurricanes and 19 squadrons of Spitfires.)
The Hurricane also provided a more stable gunnery platform.
Yet what the Spitfire gave the RAF was a combat aircraft that was
T h e Messerschmitt m a y h a v e h a d a slightly faster t o p speed, itself w e n t t h r o u g h numerous variants during the war.
( 8 0 k m / h ) g r e a t e r t h a n that o f t h e o r i g i n a l M k I. T h e F l e e t A i r
A r m a l s o h a d its o w n v e r s i o n , k n o w n a s t h e S e a f i r e .
T h e Bf 1 0 9 c o u l d o u t d i v e a Spitfire, but the Spitfire
In total d u r i n g the w a r years, 2 0 , 3 5 1 Spitfires w e r e p r o d u c e d .
h a d a s m a l l e r t u r n i n g r a d i u s a n d this s a v e d m a n y R A F
T h e y w e r e f l o w n in a c t i o n a c r o s s all theaters of the c o n f l i c t , a n d
y o u kept o n t u r n i n g a n d t u r n i n g b e c a u s e the
LEFT: An armorer re-arms a Spitfire at RAF Fowlmere.
Messerschmitt c o u l d n ' t turn like a Spitfire a n d I got
The distinctive shape of the elliptical wing is clearly visible.
This was the ideal shape as it created the least amount of drag a w a y with it.9 y y
and had the required strength to hold the guns and the retractable
undercarriage. (IWM CH 1458)
TYPE VII U-BOAT
that he feared the most. The concern was 7 0 9 i n total. T o p u t this f i g u r e into p e r s p e c t i v e , n o t e that B r i t a i n
a n d t h e U n i t e d States t o g e t h e r b u i l t o n l y 3 7 0 s u b m a r i n e s of a l l
well-justified, for during the course of the war the
t y p e s b e t w e e n 1 9 3 9 a n d 1 9 4 5 . ( G e r m a n y ' s total w a s 1 , 1 4 1 . )
German U-boat arm sank around 14.5 million
long tons (14.7 million tonnes) of Allied shipping.
The workhorse of this terrible campaign was the
Type VII submarine.
K r i e g s m a r i n e ' s first s e r i o u s l o n g - r a n g e U - b o a t s i n c e t h e N a z i s
c a m e to p o w e r in 1 9 3 3 . In its i n i t i a l i n c a r n a t i o n , t h e T y p e
V I I A , it h a d a c r u s h d e p t h of 6 5 6 f t ( 2 0 0 m ) , a s u r f a c e r a n g e o f
4 , 3 0 0 n m ( 7 , 9 6 4 k m ) at 12 k n o t s ( 2 2 k m / h ) , a n d a s u b m e r g e d
r a n g e of 9 0 n m ( 1 6 7 k m ) at 4 k n o t s ( 7 . 4 k m / h ) . O n l y ten of t h e s e
b o a t s w e r e m a d e , h o w e v e r , a s d e s i g n e r s q u i c k l y s o u g h t to
m a k e i m p r o v e m e n t s . T h e T y p e V I I B , i n t r o d u c e d in 1 9 3 6 , h a d
its r a n g e e x t e n d e d d r a m a t i c a l l y to 6 , 5 0 0 n m ( 1 2 , 0 3 8 k m ) , a n d
t h e 21 in t o r p e d o c a p a c i t y t a k e n f r o m 11 to 1 4 . T h e m o s t
n u m e r o u s of t h e T y p e V l l s , h o w e v e r , w a s t h e T y p e V I I C , of
F r a n c e fell to t h e G e r m a n s in 1 9 4 0 . W i t h F r e n c h c o a s t a l b a s e s
d e e p into t h e A t l a n t i c , h u n t i n g t h e A l l i e d c o n v o y s in W o l f P a c k
m i s s i o n s that lasted w e e k s o n e n d . T y p e V i l C s b e n e f i t e d f r o m
n u m e r o u s i m p r o v e m e n t s o v e r their p r e d e c e s s o r s , a n d the T y p e
V I I C / 4 1 s u b - t y p e h a d its c r u s h d e p t h i n c r e a s e d b y a n o t h e r
1 6 4 f t ( 5 0 m ) to h e l p it e s c a p e m o r e e f f i c i e n t A l l i e d d e p t h
c h a r g e s . T h e s u b m a r i n e c o u l d d i v e in less t h a n 3 0 s e c o n d s .
LEFT: The foredeck of a Type VII sub complete with 88mm deck
gun. (Courtesy of Gordon Williamson)
THE S I N K I N G OF BARHAM
On November 25, 1941, U-331 - a Type VIIC
Bardia, L i b y a . O n e of the c r e w , H e i n r i c h S c h m i d t ,
r e m e m b e r e d the event:
c c O u r c o m m a n d e r w a s at the p e r i s c o p e a n d s a w the
all w e s a w w a s a w h i t e - g r e y w a l l . T h e c o m m a n d e r
ABOVE: A recruiting poster for the Germany Navy. The Individual Type VII U-boats became famed for their
submarine service was considered the elite branch of the navy. numbers of kills. U-96, for example, served between
(Courtesy of Gordon Williamson)
S e p t e m b e r 1 9 4 0 a n d F e b r u a r y 1 9 4 5 , a n d d u r i n g that t i m e it
c o n d u c t e d 11 p a t r o l s a n d s a n k 2 7 m a j o r A l l i e d v e s s e l s , p l u s
w a s e n c o u r a g e d b y a g r o u p of o f f i c e r s at t h e U S A r m y A i r C o r p s
unescorted) bombers, as opposed to the RAF's
T a c t i c a l S c h o o l . A s a result, in 1 9 3 4 , t h e U S A r m y A i r C o r p s
night-time campaign. Whether this tactic was
( U S A A C ) i s s u e d a r e q u i r e m e n t for m u l t i - e n g i n e long-range
judicious is debatable, but the aircraft itself became bomber. With remarkable speed, Boeing developed such an
Germany from the air. bomber low-wing monoplane with a 4,8001b (2,200kg)
b o m b l o a d that m a d e its m a i d e n f l i g h t o n J u l y 2 8 , 1 9 3 5 . L e g e n d
t h e n i c k n a m e s t u c k . U S p r o d u c t i o n o r d e r s w e r e p l a c e d for w h a t
n u m b e r s at first, b u t i n c r e a s i n g a s t h e w a r in E u r o p e e s c a l a t e d
from 1939.
T h e first m a j o r p r o d u c t i o n m o d e l w a s t h e B - 1 7 E . I n t r o d u c e d
i m p r o v e m e n t s o v e r p r e d e c e s s o r s - a d o u b l e - g u n tail turret;
p o w e r - o p e r a t e d v e n t r a l a n d d o r s a l turrets; a n d a hugely
i n c r e a s e d t a i l s u r f a c e to p r o v i d e better c o n t r o l at high
p r o l i f i c m o d e l , t h e B - 1 7 G ( 8 , 6 8 0 p r o d u c e d ) , h a d a total o f
HARD WAR
In total, n e a r l y 1 8 , 0 0 0 B-1 7s w e r e p r o d u c e d b y t h e e n d o f t h e
1 9 4 5 . A g a i n s t t h e R e i c h ' s h e a v y air d e f e n s e s - w h i c h i n c l u d e d BELOW: A prewar flight of B-17s over New York City in February
r a d a r - v e c t o r e d fighters a n d i n t e g r a t e d a n t i - a i r c r a f t s y s t e m s - 1938. (Courtesy of Robert Forsyth)
244 A H I S T O R Y OF T H E W O R L D IN 100 W E A P O N S
GERMAN ATTACK
a w a y , p i e c e s of metal f l e w off, s m o k e p o u r e d from the
A d o l f G a l land w a s a G e r m a n fighter a c e a n d Luftwaffe
e n g i n e s , a n d they jettison the entire b o m b - l o a d . O n e
c o m m a n d e r , a n d a p i o n e e r of f i g h t e r t a c t i c s t h r o u g h o u t
tank in the w i n g s h a d c a u g h t fire. T h e c r e w w a s b a l i n g
t h e w a r . H e r e h e d e s c r i b e s a n a t t a c k o n a s t r a g g l i n g B-1 7:
out. Trautloft's v o i c e c r i e d o v e r the radio: "Achtung,
a n d took desperate a v o i d i n g action. T h e o n l y thing that A n d then - w i t h the first bursts from four Mustangs -
attackers. In the attack of August 17, 60 B-17s were shot Length: 79ft 9in (22.78m)
Height: 19ft 1 in (5.82m)
down, and a repeated attack on Schweinfurt on October 14
Wingspan: 103ft 9in (31.62m)
resulted in 77 B-1 7s destroyed out of an attacking force of
Maximum speed: 287mph (462km/h)
291 aircraft. A further 121 bombers needed major repairs.
Service ceiling: 35,600ft (10,850m)
These raids alone resulted in a temporary suspension of US
Range: 2,000 miles (3,220km) with 6,000lb (2,722kg)
operations over Germany.
bombload
Only the introduction of long-range fighter escorts in
Armament: 13 0.5in Browning machine-guns arranged
1943-44 (see "Mustang" entry on pp.260-263) balanced the
in twin-gun nose, tail, ventral, and dorsal positions
equation for the B-17s, although the daylight policy remained
and single machine-gun stations along the
costly throughout the war. At the same time, losses amongst
fuselage; maximum bombload of 17,6001b
RAF bombers operating at night also grew severe, but the
(7,983kg), although typical bombload was less
B-17s and the RAF's Lancasters undeniably did heavy than half that figure
damage to German industry. Furthermore, the heavy
defensive firepower made the B-1 7 respected by the fighter
pilots who attacked them. A typical 21 -aircraft "combat box"
of B-1 7Gs had a total of 273 machine-guns, which together
could throw out more than 150,000 bullets every minute.
(The total weight of these bullets was more than the weight of
an entire Focke-Wulf Fw 190.) Indeed, more B-1 7s were lost
due to engine failure as a result of the difficulties of flying
such lengthy missions at extreme altitude and in extreme cold
than were lost to enemy fighters during the course of the war.
The B-17 is historic not only because of its critical role in
bombing the Axis, but also because it represents the end of
an era in terms of aerial bombing. After World War II, the age
of jet and missile rendered mass, daylight raids of hundreds of
aircraft unthinkable.
ABOVE: The Soviet T-34/76 Model 1943. (Artwork by Jim Laurier (55km/h), about 10mph (6km/h) more than the maximum
© Osprey Publishing Ltd.) pace of a Panzer 111 or IV. The armament was I i ke noth i ng ever
''
W O R L D WAR II 1 9 3 9 - 4 5 347
the situation was even worse, as the T-34s had superior Germans destroyed, there were always more to come. Nor
performance over soft terrain. did T-34 design stand still. It went through numerous variants,
Despite their advantages, however, T-34s were wasted including the T-34/85, which had an 85mm gun capable of
in huge numbers through amateurish tactics and poor taking on any of the new generation of German tanks, such
mechanical care in the early years of the war. Furthermore, as the Panther and the Tiger. In 1944 alone, 11,000 of these
German armor and anti-tank weapons improved in quality tanks were produced.
and distribution, meaning that T-34s were ultimately No single weapon won the war, but the T-34 certainly
destroyed in their thousands. And yet, the tank was tipped the armored battle in the Soviet Union's favor. At Kursk
configured for rapid production, and so however many the in July and August 1943, for example, the Soviets were able
to field more than 5,000 tanks, as opposed to nearly 3,000 for
the Germans. The Soviet victory in that battle alone put paid
OPPOSITE: On the attack - a T-34/76 unit advances on the
Eastern Front. (Courtesy of the Central Museum of the Armed to any remaining German offensive ambitions on the Eastern
Forces Moscow) Front. The quality of the T-34 also meant that many of them
soldiered on into the Cold War era, its principles of gunnery,
BELOW: A war-winning tank. A propaganda photo shows the
liberation of a Ukranian village by a T-34 unit. (Courtesy of the armor, and suspension continuing to influence military
Central Museum of the Armed Forces Moscow) vehicle designers to the present day.
TIGER I
BELOW: Images from the so-called Tigerfibel, the principal field The Tiger was, quite simply, the most potent tank on the
service regulations for all Tiger crews. Unlike other German battlefield. It weighed a colossal 61 short tons (55 tonnes), and
service regulations which were rather dry, this book used jokes
had a width of 12ft 3in (3.73m). Its armor was extremely
and cartoons.
resilient, reaching a maximum depth of 4.33in (110mm),
although the boxy configuration of the hull somewhat
W M l + l O h Freund. zwel Selten hot der Sprit.
Mai fdhrst Du und mal fllegst Ou mlt. reduced its efficacy. The Tiger's gun was an armored vehicle
Sprit ist tin KraflitotT
Wenn er vergeul und mlt Luft gemlscht In klelnen
Mengen entzlindet wlrd, trelbt er den Tiger mil selnen
adaptation of the 88mm Flak, a proven tank-killer.
60 Tonnen durch lauter kleine Explasloncn uber die
StraOe. wle eln Kind elnen Relfen durch lauter kleine
Puffe.
Yet there were issues, never entirely resolved. The sheer
Mil 1 Liter Im T a n k kannit Du 200 m welt fohren. Es
steckt die Schlagkraft elnes Rlesen darln, aber tie
wlrkt Ober eine halbe Minute vertellt wle elne Manage, scale of the tank made it slow - maximum road speed was
und das hat der Tiger gern.
FAILED EXPECTATIONS
The Tiger's experience in combat sent mixed messages. When
everything was working well, the Tiger was a terrifying beast
to fight, its accurate, powerful gun dispatching Allied tanks in
disproportionate numbers. In one incident in 1944, following
the Normandy landings, one Tiger
tank destroyed 25 Allied tanks
before it was finally
overcome, holding
up an entire
ABOVE: A Tiger fires during the battle for Kursk on the Eastern
Front, 1943. (Bundesarchiv, Bild 101III-Groenert-019-23A / Gronert) PZKPFW VI T I G E R I -
SPECIFICATIONS
divisional advance in the process. Similar, if not greater, Crew: 5
devastation was repeated on numerous occasions on the Powerplant: Maybach HL 230 P 45 V-12 water-cooled
Eastern Front, the Tiger's crews taking advantage of Soviet petrol engine, developing 700bhp (522kW) at
tactical failures. Matters became even worse for the Allies with 3,000rpm
the later introduction of the Tiger II, which had an even more Armor: 1.02-4.33in (26mm-110mm)
powerful 88mm gun and much thicker, sloped armor. Length: 27ft (8.25m)
Width: 12ft 6in (3.73m)
Yet ultimately, the Tigers fell short of expectations. Their sheer
Height: 9ft 4in (2.85m)
size meant they had no battlefield agility, and were limited in
Weight: 61 short tons (55 tonnes)
their abilities to cross soft terrain and keep up with more mobile
Road speed: 24mph (38km/h)
formations. Mechanical breakdown was a serious issue, the
Cross-country speed: 12mph (20km/h)
tank's weight resulting in overstressed engines, brakes, and Range: 62 miles (100km)
transmissions. On the Eastern Front, mud and snow would Vertical obstacle: 2ft 7in (0.8m)
be trapped in the overlapping wheels and freeze overnight Trench crossing: 5ft 11 in (1.8m)
in winter, rendering the vehicles immobile by the morning. Gradient: 35°
The tanks also had a voracious appetite for fuel - during the Fording depth: 4ft (1,2m)
Ardennes offensive, many tanks had to be abandoned as Armament: 1 x 88mm KwK IV56 gun; 2 x 7.92mm
the Wehrmacht's supplies of fuel began to run dry. MG34 machine-guns (one co-axial, and one in hull)
So in balance, the Tiger was arguably more of a drain on
German resources than was warranted. Nevertheless, in open LEFT: The turret is lowered into place during the later stages
combat most Allied tanks were at a serious disadvantage if of Tiger I production in Germany, 1944. (Bundesarchiv,
they faced a Tiger. Bild 1011-635-3965-05 / Hebenstreit)
M1 "BAZOOKA"
TANK KILLER
It took a lot of refinement to get the bazooka right, and
serious problems included rockets sticking in the tubes and
detonating, or the weapon malfunctioning in very hot or very
cold conditions. Nevertheless, improvements were made to
various models such as the M9 and M9A1, and the bazooka
became a serviceable and useful weapon in US hands.
Although its light warhead could be defeated by the heaviest
tank armor, it was still capable of destroying or disabling
lighter armored vehicles - the M9 could penetrate 5in
(126mm) of armor - but was also useful for tackling enemy
pillboxes, bunkers, or other positions. White phosphorus and
incendiary warheads were introduced, giving the weapon a
broader anti-personnel and anti-materiel effect.
256 A H I S T O R Y OF THE W O R L D IN 100 W E A P O N S
.<# *
MP40
-
"MnMPMWWIMHimUMWWUnWWIWI
CHEAP WEAPONRY
The MP38 was indeed redesigned, and two years into the war
the MP40 arrived. This was largely the same weapon, but
using cheaper production methods and materials, suited to
the varying abilities of subcontractors. The result was a huge
surge in submachine-gun output, with about one million
MP40 units produced during the war. As well as squad and ABOVE: A demonstration of the US Army's equivalent to the
platoon leaders, paratroopers and armored vehicle crews MP40 - the M3 "Grease Gun." (NARA via Tom Laemlein)
The solution, first implemented by the British in October ABOVE: Mustangs that had already seen extensive service undergo
1942 and then adopted by the Americans, was to re-engine a refit before returning to the frontline. (Courtesy of David Mayor)
the Mustang with the Rolls-Royce Merlin engine. In RIGHT: Mustangs return from a bomber escort mission on July 11,
consequence, the Mustang's performance was completely 1944. (Courtesy of Steve Gotts)
LONG-RANGE FIGHTER
The P-51 was a fighter pilot's dream. It could turn, dive, and race
with the best of the German fighters, and its six 0.5in machine-
guns in the wings could smash up anything that fell under the
aircraft's sights. The introduction of the "bubble canopy" in the
P-51 D (the model that first had six rather than four machine-
guns) improved the pilot's visibility for dogfighting, and provision
ABOVE: Mustangs of the 352nd Fighter Group lined up in late
1944. (Courtesy of Bill Espie)
FIGHTER TACTICS
In 1943 and 1944, the Luftwaffe altered its fighter tactics
BELOW: From the spring of 1944 onwards, Mustangs were fitted to cope with the increase in US escort presence.
with the K-14 gunsight. Instead of the typical crosshairs one might Initially, the fighters would make a fast, head-on run at
expect, the K-14 projected a center dot of yellow light surrounded the enemy formations, blasting their targets with fire as
by six diamond-shaped dots. It was a gyro computing gunsight, and
they passed through and escaping before the escorts
the pilot could preset it with the wingspan of a target. Manuals
had time to respond. Necessary increases in the weight
were given to pilots to explain how to use the gunsight and where
the targets should be placed. of German fighter armament (20mm and 30mm cannon
became standard in many fighters), however, slowed
aircraft performance - single-seat fighters needed to be
upgunned to destroy the bombers, as the well-armed
two-engine Me 110s could no longer survive in the new
ff Wrong
Hi H
Focke-Wulf Fw 190s would attack enemy bombers in a
concentrated and coordinated group, while numbers of
H m
lighter Bf 109G fighters took on the escorts. The tactics
had considerable success on occasions, but eventually
the sheer weight of Allied fighter numbers overwhelmed
even this intelligent tactic.
W O R L D WAR II 1 9 3 9 - 4 5
for underwing bombs and rockets also made the aircraft a enough to escort a bomber all the way to Berlin and back from
scourge of enemy ground forces and airfields. southern England. Now the German fighters were no longer
In support of the Allied strategic bombing campaign, the able to give the bombers their undivided attention - instead,
Mustang at first did not have sufficient range to escort they now had to fight for their lives against the US escorts.
bombers all the way to their targets and back. The problem The P-51 was a true workhorse fighter, and despite initial
was progressively solved from late 1943 by the introduction US hesitation over adopting the aircraft, eventually 15,586
of 75-gal underwing drop fuel tanks, which took the were produced. Together these aircraft changed the balance
operational range of a P-51D up to 1,300 miles (2,092km), of fighter power over the skies of the Reich.
MG42
W/ege
processes. What was needed was a weapon with the same roller-locked operating mechanism which gave a blistering
power, but was far cheaper to produce and could be turned rate of fire - 1,200rpm. Furthermore, it was actually more
out in larger numbers. reliable than the MG34, while fulfilling all of that gun's roles.
Barrel change could be performed in a matter of seconds.
DEVASTATING EFFECT German infantry tactics placed machine-guns in a more
The MG42 was that gun. Produced by Mauser-Werke, the central role compared to the Allies, and those who faced the
MG42 utilized inexpensive, simpler manufacturing MG42 gave it total respect. The ripping sound of the gun firing
processes of pressing, stamping, and brought it nicknames such as "Hitler's buzzsaw" and the
welding, plus used a new "linoleum ripper," and single guns were capable of holding
hoped that this revolutionary fighter would tip the flameout, contributing to a high accident rate.
D O W N I N G AN ME 262
But what's this? Tracers fly at him - it is clear that
Although Allied fighters were outperformed by the Me 262,
my wingman was over-eager! I angrily curse Titarenko
some pilots still managed to down jets in open combat. One
under my breath, for I am certain that my plan of
was Soviet ace Ivan Kozhedub, who here describes an
action has now been irretrievably ruined. But his
encounter with an Me 262 over the Oder in February 1945:
tracers unexpectedly help me, as the German pilot
' C , ,
begins to turn to the left - in my direction. The
Quickly whipping around, I give my fighter full throttle
distance sharply narrows and I close with the enemy.
and head off in pursuit of the enemy. I approach his
With uncontrolled agitation, I open fire, and the
tail, getting to within 500 meters of the jet. A successful
Messerschmitt 262 literally falls apart and pieces
maneuver, agility and speed have allowed me to
tumble earthwards.14 ^
approach my quarry.
ABOVE: To prevent destruction by Allied bombers the Me 262 was frequently constructed underground, in this instance in an
underground workshop in the moutainous region of Thiiringia. (Bundesarchiv, Bild 141-2738)
V-WEAPONS
BALLISTIC MISSILE
The V-2 weapon was radically different to the V-1. A towering
missile measuring 46ft 1 in (14.04m) high, it was fired in a long
ballistic trajectory to a maximum velocity of 3,600mph
(5,750km/h) and an altitude that took it to the edge of space.
It carried a massive 2,150lb (975kg) warhead to a maximum
range of 200 miles (320km).
On paper, the V-2 had much to recommend it. There was
simply no defense against a V-2, which would plunge to earth
in complete silence at well beyond the speed of sound. It was
powered by alcohol and liquid oxygen, the rockets burning
for just over a minute, with gyroscopes and accelerometers
again providing guidance. At a pre-set height, the engines
would cut out, and the V-2 would continue to the target in
ballistic free fall.
BELOW: The devastation caused by one of the first V-1 rockets to ABOVE: A V-2 missile ready for launch. (NARA)
hit London. Kentish Town, June 19, 1944. (Mirrorpix)
Th ereafter, more than 3,000 V-2s we re fired at the UK and RIGHT: A V-1 with only partial damage discovered by the USA J
other Western European targets, particularly Antwerp, Ninth Air Force in northern France. (Military History Institute)
Length: 25ft 4in (7.73 m) and started to pu ll or d ig people from the rubble, a
Wingspan : 17ft 6in (5.33 m) process that took 48 hours to co mplete. The final
Warhead: 1,870ibs (85 0kg) Amato! high explosive cas ualty list was 121 people killed and 141 seriously
Maximum cru ising speed: 415mph at 4,500ft injured. Inci dents such as this reinforced the British
(7,670km/hr at 1,375m) government's commitment to devoting significant air
Maximum range: 125-13 0 miles (2 00-2 1Okm) resources to the V-weapon threat.
W O R L D WAR II 1 9 3 9 - 4 5 347
side having vast arsenals of missile-launched warheads capable context, but the threat of nuclear conflict, possible in terrorist
of laying waste to entire continents. Thankfully for humanity, hands or through "rogue states" such as North Korea and Iran,
the Soviet Union and the West never went to war in this has never gone away.
ULTIMATE RELIABILITY
Alan James, a young officer serving with the Rhodesian
African Rifles during the brutal bush war in Rhodesia
in the late 1970s/early 1980s, recounts the following
incident, a stunning testimony to the AK's reliability:
Where the AK excels, however, is its awesome reliability. ABOVE: A member of the Popular Front for the Liberation of
Unlike most other assault rifles, the AK can be severely Palestine reassembles a Kalashnikov assault rifle in Jordan in early
1969. (Library of Congress/Look Magazine Photograph Collection)
contaminated by dirt, snow, water, and all manner of debris,
and it will keep working. It is simple to strip and maintain,
and its fire over its practical range is devastating. In short, here
is a gun to inspire confidence. the Chinese Type 56 - a direct AKM copy also produced in
The virtues of the AK, as noted, mean that it has been made the millions - and the AK74 version in 5.45 x 39mm caliber.
and distributed in greater numbers than any other weapon in AKs alone have made entire wars and insurgencies possible,
history. Just in an official capacity, more than 60 countries have and literally millions of postwar deaths have been dealt by the
adopted the weapon, while illegal distribution has ensured its gun. Kalashnikov certainly gave the Red Army the weapon it
status as the number one terrorist and insurgent firearm in the needed. In doing so, unfortunately, he also created what is
world. It has spawned numerous variants and copies, including today one of the world's greatest security issues.
I
UZI
internal workings. These features created an extremely reliable returns fire with his Uzi sub-machine gun during the battle for Old
Jerusalem on June 5, 1967. (Courtesy of the Israeli Government
weapon for Middle Eastern warfare. (Although the gun will,
Press Office)
like any weapon, jam if the contamination is severe enough.)
The stock was either a fixed wooden or folding wire version. BELOW: An Uzi submachine-gun
with stock folded, (istock)
With the wire stock folded, the gun measured just 18.5in
(470mm) long, creating a concealable, portable weapon.
UZI - SPECIFICATIONS
Caliber: 9 x 19mm Parabellum
Operation: Blowback
Length (stock folded): 18.5in (470mm)
Length (stock extended): 25.6in (650mm)
Barrel: 10.23in (260mm), 4 groove, r/hand
Weight (empty): 8.151b (3.7kg)
Magazine: 25- or 32-shot detachable box magazine
Cyclical rate: 600rpm
Muzzle velocity: 1,312ft/sec (400m/sec)
CONVENTIONAL STRIKES
The expanding US conflict in Vietnam during the 1960s
brought B-52s into the role of conventional rather than
nuclear bombers. The "Big Belly" modification program
from 1965 in particular gave the B-52D a truly awesome
carpet-bombing capability. A B-52D with the modification
could carry up to 108 500lb (252kg) bombs, but other
variants also conducted heavy bombing raids. Used against
M O D E R N WARFARE 1 9 4 5 - P R E S E N T 391
missiles, and in so-called "limited" conflicts. Their utility in ^ As I sat in my foxhole, this bombardment was taking
this role has persisted. In the Gulf War of 1990-91, B-52Gs place eight to 12 miles [12-19km] away. These
flew a total of 1,624 missions (flying from Saudi Arabia, Spain, planes were flying over, non-stop. And from where
and England) to drop 25,700 short tons (23,315 tonnes) of I was, I couldn't see the bombs dropping, but I could
conventional bombs on Iraqi troop positions and industrial feel the "boom, boom, boom-boom, boom," coming
targets. Most recently, since 2001 B-52s have hit remote down. After a day or two of this - it was incessant -
I was thinking, "If I can feel this here; what is it like
targets in both Afghanistan and Iraq.
to be right under it?" I could feel the deep explosions,
the rumbling like a low-frequency vibration, making
things tremble. [The sound] wasn't coming from the
BELOW: Few other weapons in the 20th century have seen such air; it was the whole ground that was emitting this
extensive service as the B-52. First introduced into active service in sound. It is extremely hard to imagine how people
1954, it has also been deployed on bombing missions deep within could endure it. yy
Iraq and Afghanistan over 50 years later. (Courtesy of Jon Lake)
290 A H I S T O R Y OF T H E W O R L D IN 100 W E A P O N S
The carpet bombing strategy is crude (although the B-52 ABOVE: With a white livery due to its previous role at the USAF
Test Centre, this aircraft was nicknamed "Snow Bird." It then
can also drop precision-guided munitions [PCMs]), but its
served during Operation Desert Storm. Here it is shown launching
enormously destructive effects on men, materiel, and morale
a test round from its bomb bay. USAF pilots will continue to train
keep several hundred B-52s in service. Indeed, while the on B-52s for several years to come, with a planned retirement date
USAF currently works on its Next-Generation Bomber currently only set for 2040. (Courtesy of Jon Lake)
projects, a retirement date for the B-52H is provisionally set
for 2040. Exactly how long they will remain so is unclear, but
after more than a half-century of service and with several
more decades of service guaranteed, their place in aviation
history is assured.
USS NAUTILUS
ABOVE: A fast attack nuclear submarine on the surface. The fast Nuclear submarines have changed the balance of world
attack sub was used for surveillance and reconnaissance, primarily
power. As a result of their formidable underwater endurance -
during the Cold War to watch for a break out of the Soviet Navy.
with appropriate food supplies, the latest subs can stay
(US Navy)
underwater for up to six months. They patrol the world unseen,
OPPOSITE PAGE (TOP): Nautilus in a dry ready to deliver nuclear-tipped or powerful conventional strikes
dock being overhauled. (US Navy)
at a moment's notice. By sitting deep underwater, they also stay
BELOW: USS Nautilus (SSN-571). beyond the reach of all but the most specialist detection
(Artwork by Tony Bryan © technologies. Whether such vessels have made the
Osprey Publishing Ltd.)
world a safer place remains to be seen.
UH-1 HUEY
were favorable, and the first production order was for 183 Bell (Corbis)
HU-1 As - the letter designation spawned the infamous "Huey" BELOW: Experiments in 1962 showed that the helicopter could
nickname, which stuck even after redesignation to UH-1A introduce a quantum leap in battlefield mobility when compared to
in 1962. ground-based transport, allowing men and machines to be moved
with unprecedented speed. (TRH pictures)
The subsequent history of UH-1 variants is long and
complex, with multiple versions produced for the US Army,
Navy, and Marine Corps as well as dozens of export models.
A major development was the Model 205 UH-1 D, a stretched
variant that also led to the UH-1 H, with its more powerful
engine. Regardless of variant, all users were won over by the
spacious passenger cabin, rugged reliability, good flying
characteristics, speed of around 127mph (204km/h), and
decent lift capability. In the context of the Vietnam War, it
also became a ground-breaking assault helicopter.
UPGUNNED
UH-1 helicopters became the US forces' workhorse during the
Vietnam War. From the very outset of the conflict, US troops
ABOVE: Vietnam was a true helicopter war, with UH-ls helping
to revolutionize American tactics through gunship conversions BELL UH-1 H - S P E C I F I C A T I O N S
and rapid airborne infantry deployments. These are Hueys from
Type: Utility/assault helicopter
the 1st Cavalry Division (Airmobile), delivering troops to a small
Powerplant: 1 x Avco Lycoming T53-L-13 turboshaft
village near Bong Son during Operation Eagle Claw in February
delivering l,400hp (1,044kW)
1966. (US Marine Corps)
Length (rotor stowed): 57ft 9.5in (17.61 m)
Height: 14ft 6in (4.42m)
began field fitting the helicopters with weaponry such as a door- Main rotor diameter: 48ft (14.63m)
mounted Brownings, or M60 machine-guns, or twin pods of Maximum speed: 127mph (204km/h)
2.75in unguided rockets. Such weaponry proved extremely Range: 318 miles (512km)
useful for, say, suppressing enemy troops around a "hot" landing Weight (empty): 5,21 Olb (2,362kg)
Weight (max take-off): 9,500lb (4,309kg)
zone or self-defense during a medevac operation. By fitting the
Armament: various, but basic configuration of two
helicopters so (even pure utility helicopters acquired armament),
7.62mm machine-guns
US troops in effect created the world's first helicopter gunships.
MODERN WARFARE 1945-PRESENT
Simply bolting weapons to a helicopter, however, could as assault and gunship helicopters, not least on account of
reduce its performance. In response, Bell introduced the the thousands of th em deployed. Weapons mounted on
UH-1 C in 1965, a dedicated gunship variant which had the UH- 1s included M75 40mm automati c grenade launchers,
power and systems to cope with the weaponry. Bell was, at TOW anti-tank missiles, and GE M134 six-barreled 7.62mm
this time, also about to introduce th e AH- 1 HueyCobra Mini Guns, firing at 2,000rpm.
gunship, but throughout the war UH- 1s continued to serve UH- 1s paid a heavy price in Vietnam- 2,591 were lost in
combat or in acc idents. Yet they gave US troops true air
mobility, deploying and extracting troops and thereby saving
BELOW: One of the original roles envisaged for the Huey was as a them long, dangerous journeys by foot or vehicle to the
medical evacuation helicopter and in that role it saved thousands
combat zon es . Since Vietnam, UH- 1s have remained in
of lives in Vietnam. Here, a US Army UH-ID evacuates the
wounded from an armored troop carrier during the riverine service throughout th e world, and are operated by more than
campaign in the Mekong Delta. (US Army) 60 air forces who also recognize its qualities.
SA-2 "GUIDELINE"
motor. The business end of the missile contains a 4291b (195kg) War, so-called "Red Sams" could be used at sea as well. The Soviet
Navy fitted a version of the SA-2 aboard the cruiser Dzerzhinskiy in
high-explosive warhead, which can be contact, proximity, or
1959-62. (Courtesy of Steve Zaloga)
command detonated, depending on the type of fuse. The blast
from the warhead could destroy or damage an aircraft within a In 1960, the United States had a shocking introduction into
typical kill radius of 71yds (65m). SA-2s are radio guided to their reach. On May 1, a U-2 spyplane, piloted by Gary
their targets by signals from a missile command radar, which Powers, was shot down over Sverdlovsk, Russia, despite being
work in tandem with early-warning systems. at extremely high altitude. Another U-2 was shot down over
Cuba in October 1962. Yet the United States would meet the
IN ACTION full challenge of the SA-2 over the skies of North Vietnam, a
Typically working in batteries of six, and with a speed of Mach country that thanks to Soviet supplies had built up the most
3, the Soviet SA-2s were a serious air defense proposition. sophisticated air defense system in the world. US pilots
300 A HISTORY OF THE WORLD IN 100 WEAPONS
EARLY US SAMS
The United States also adopted a variety of SAM
systems during the 1950s and 1960s. Its first was the
Nike Ajax, introduced in 1954. It was command
guided by computer and radar and had a range of up
to 30 miles (48km) at speeds of Mach 2.3. The Ajax
could tackle aircraft up to 70,000ft (21,336m), but the
MIM-14 Nike Hercules, which went into service in
the late 1950s, had more than double the altitude and
range, and could take a nuclear warhead. (Note that
the SA-2 also had nuclear warhead capability.)
Other early US SAMs include the RIM-8 Talos, RIM-2
Terrier, and RIM-24 Tartar - all for naval use - but
also the MIM-23 Hawk, a semi-active radar homing
missile that would be the mainstay US Army/Marine
Corps SAM defense until it was replaced by the
MIM-104 Patriot and the FIM-92 Stinger in the 1990s.
Hawks were never fired by US forces, but were used
with success by export customers such as Israel and
Iran in Middle Eastern conflicts.
ground-breaking weapon.
F-4 PHANTOM
smashed the world absolute speed record when an F-4 flew at South Korea, Spain, Turkey, and the United Kingdom also
1,606.342mph (2,585.086km/h), and in 1962 it also set became Phantom users. The aircraft itself went through a
numerous climb records, with figures such as 114.548 seconds bewildering number of variants, both in the United States and
to reach 49,000ft (15,000m). The performance characteristics abroard. These included the major production variant - the
of the Phantom were irresistible, and the US Air Force adopted F-4E - plus specialist aircraft such as F-4G "Wild Weasel,"
the aircraft as the F-4C, taking deliveries from 1963. used to suppress enemy air defenses.
COMBAT WORKHORSE
The Phantom was soon the premier aircraft of the US Navy,
OPPOSITE: An F-4J Phantom II shown in the typical USAF
US Marine Corps, and US Air Force. During the 1960s and camouflage livery of the Vietnam War. (Artwork by Mark
70s, Australia, Egypt, Germany, Greece, Iran, Israel, Japan, Postlethwaite © Osprey Publishing Ltd.)
308 A H I S T O R Y OF T H E W O R L D IN 100 W E A P O N S
ABOVE: A US soldier takes aim with his M16. The rifle is accurate Its real revolution, however, was its cartridge. It fired a
and lethal over a range of about 650yds (600m), but the performance 5.56 x 45mm round, the diminutive caliber about the same as
of the round quickly drops off over long ranges. (US Army)
a .22 air rifle but with a powder charge that pushed the bullet
out at ultra-high velocity - 3,280ft/sec (1,000m/sec), as
BELOW: The M16 was first adopted by US Special Forces and
opposed to the 7.62mm's 2,800ft/sec (853m/sec). Experiments
airborne troops in 1962 before it was issued to all Army and
suggested that the high velocity generated huge wounds
Marine units serving in Vietnam. Its use spread in subsequent
decades, and to date over 10 million M l 6 s and variants have through imparting devastating shock waves as the bullet
been produced. (US Army) passed through tissue. Soldiers first using the weapon in
Vietnam indeed gave harrowing reports of Ml6 rounds
-A making gaping holes in enemy soldiers, or even removing
entire limbs. Over time, the mythologies of the high-velocity,
R&lltf^Pf small-caliber round have steadily been exposed. The
devastating effects of the Ml 6 round often had more to do
with the bullet fragmenting as it struck the human target at
^ ^ ^ ^ A.
high-velocities; at lower velocities the round often left a clean,
Wjjs/y^ I h M ^ T ^ ^ straight hole.
^M^^tftf* J
PRACTICAL WEAPON
j s-s
Aside from the ballistic arguments, the fact remained that the
ijW^HHa
, v i J H M P Ml 6 brought some definite benefits for the soldier. The round
M O D E R N WARFARE 1 9 4 5 - P R E S E N T 413
The updated M16A2 took over in 1983, introducing a ABOVE: A US rifleman search a bunker in Vietnam armed with
heavier barrel, improved sight system, a combined flash his M16. (US Marine Corps)
DISTANT STRIKES
As with many postwar Soviet weapons systems, the S C U D
was widely distributed, both to Warsaw Pact countries and
Middle Eastern export clients. First combat use came in
the Arab-Israeli Yom Kippur War of 1973, when Egypt
ineffectually fired an unknown number of FROG-7 and SS-1 c
missiles at Israeli cities. During the Iran-Iraq War in the 1980s,
however, nearly 700 SCUDs were exchanged in the so-called
"War of the Cities," both sides having acquired the missile. ABOVE: US Patriot missiles streak into the night sky to intercept
(Iraq's SCUDs included al-Hussein missiles - essentially Iraqi SCUD missiles launched against Tel Aviv. (Getty Images)
interceptor. A delta wing, slender fuselage, and a powerful Middle East. The Israelis acquired an Arab MiG-21 in 1966,
following the airborne defection of a Syrian pilot.
R11 afterburning turbojet gave the MiG-21 the ability
to reach and hold Mach 2. In its very first configuration, BELOW: A MiG-21 taxis along an airstrip. Note the highly swept
it was armed only with two 30mm cannon, but in the delta wings, providing both speed and maneuverability.
PROLIFIC FIGHTER
More than 11,000 MiG-21 jets have been built, equipping the
air forces of over 30 countries. The type has been heavily
battle tested. In the Vietnam War, it became the United States'
most threatening air opponent, fast-moving groups of MiGs
being vectored by ground control units to intercept low-level
US ground-attack missions. In fact, such were the US losses
against MiGs that the US Navy and US Air Force both
developed new fighter schools to teach advanced dogfighting
US HARRIERS
The United States has also been a major user and developer of
Harriers. The CR.1 was modified and taken into US Marine
Corps service as the BAe AV-8A, deliveries beginning in 1971.
Sea Harrier had improved avionics and the Blue Fox airborne The AV-8A was deployed in both land-based and carrier-based
interception radar, and the later FA.2 upgrade also gave it the contexts, and was eventually upgraded to the AV-8C variant
ability to launch AIM-120 AMRAAM (Advanced Medium with new avionics, plus some features from another Harrier
Range Air-to-Air Missile) beyond-visual-range missiles. variant, the AV-8B Harrier II.
Being a subsonic aircraft in a supersonic age, the Harrier This aircraft was a joint McDonnell Douglas/BAe venture,
had plenty of detractors. They were silenced in 1982, when the US company having purchased development rights when
Harriers gave a compelling performance during the Falklands the Marine Corps bought the AV-8A. Entering service in the
War. Just 28 Sea Harriers managed to fly 1,190 sorties while early 1980s, the AV-8B was a substantial redesign, with an
retaining 95 percent serviceability. Utilizing their stunning improved wing, lighter composite fuselage, high-visibility
maneuverability, they shot down 20 faster Argentine jets cockpit, a more powerful engine, and the ability to carry a
for no air-to-air losses, while also proving invaluable in a weapons load of 17,000lb (7,711 kg). Further additions to the
ground-attack role. AV-8B have included forward-looking infrared (FLIR) systems.
326 A H I S T O R Y OF T H E W O R L D IN 100 W E A P O N S
TOP LEFT: The second generation of the Harrier jump jet - the
Harrier AV-8B Harrier II - has been used extensively by the US
Marine Corps. (US Army)
BATTLE O V E R THE F A L K L A N D S
Harrier pilot Lieutenant-Commander Mike Blisset
remembers an engagement with Argentine Skyhawks
over Goose Green during the Falklands War:
ANTI-SHIP MISSILES (ASMS) FIRST MADE THEIR Both types of weapon were deployed in limited numbers during
appearance during World War II, the Germans World War II. In ideal conditions they were both accurate and
destructive, and they damaged or sank dozens of vessels in the
leading the way with the Henschel Hs 293 and the
Mediterranean, including the Italian battleship Roma and the
Ruhrstahl/Kramer X - l , the latter better known as
British battleship Warspite. Crowing Allied air superiority meant
the "Fritz-X." The Hs 293 was essentially an SC 500 that the German guided bombs would have limited effect during
bomb fitted with a tailplane, short wings, and a the war itself, but in the postwar period missiles soon replaced
rocket booster motor. Once the bomb was dropped gunfire and bombs as the greatest danger to shipping.
By this time, the rest of the world had caught up with the miles (12-15km) of the attack - during this phase the altitude
Soviets. Ever more sophisticated ASMs were produced by drops to as low as 10ft (3m). A 3631b (165kg) high-
NATO countries, including the Exocet. The Exocet is a French explosive/fragmentation warhead provides the destructive
weapon that entered service with the French Navy in 1975. Its effect, with a delayed-action impact fuse allowing the missile
immediate strength is its versatility - by 1979 it could be to penetrate the warship before detonation.
launched from land, sea, or air (in the AM39 version), and
had a range of 31 miles (50km). Typical of many modern FALKLANDS WAR
ASMs, the Exocet approaches its target at a "sea-skimming" The shocking proof of the Exocet's effectiveness came in
altitude, reducing the chances of enemy radar detection. An 1982, when the British deployed a huge naval Task Force to
active radar seeker guides it to its target in the last 7.5-9.3 reclaim the Falkland Islands from an Argentine invasion. On
May 4, the Type 42 destroyer HMS Sheffield was struck by an
Exocet launched from an Argentine Super Etendard aircraft.
The missile punched through Sheffield just above the
BELOW: HMS Sheffield, damaged by an Exocet missile attack
waterline amidships. Even though the warhead didn't
during the Falklands War, May 1982. Twenty people lost their lives
in the incident and the ship later sank in the South Atlantic. (Photo detonate, the attack killed 20 people and set the ship ablaze
by Martin Cleaver/Pool/Getty Images) - it eventually sank on May 10. Two weeks later, on May 25,
M O D E R N WARFARE 1 9 4 5 - P R E S E N T 329
USS STARK
On the late afternoon of May 17, 1987, an Iraqi Mirage
F1 aircraft locked its Cyrano-IV fire-control radar onto a
distant target in the Persian Gulf. That target was the USS
Stark, a guided-missile frigate conducting patrols in the
contested region. Although the destroyer's defense systems
recognized the threat, no immediate action was taken, and
the Mirage launched two Exocet missiles, the first at a
closing range of 22 miles (35km). Both missiles tracked in
and struck the Stark, hitting near the port bridge wing.
A total of 29 US sailors were killed immediately, with
another eight men dying later. The reasons for the attack
are still unclear but it provided many lessons for the US
Navy about defense in potentially hostile waters.
LEFT: USS Stark with a hole blown in her hull after being hit
by Exocet missile in the Persian Gulf. Of the two missiles
launched by the Iraqi Mirage fighter jet, one failed to explode,
otherwise the damage would have been far worse. (Photo by
Francois Lochon//Time Life Pictures/Getty Images)
two Exocets struck the container ship Atlantic Conveyor, during the 1980s, mostly by Iraq against Iranian ships and
packed with vital helicopters and vehicles for the land oil platforms during the Iran-Iraq War, but two also damaged
campaign, the ship sinking five days later. the USS Stark in 1987 (see feature box). The Exocet has
Only international restrictions on the sale of Exocets to consequently become one of the most tried and tested ASMs
Argentina prevented more British ships being targeted by these of the postwar period, and it demonstrates how a few missiles
lethal systems. More than 100 Exocets were fired in combat can change the fate of an entire naval campaign.
USS NIMITZ
USS Nautilus, pp.291-293). Not only did nuclear energy give was the world's first nuclear-powered aircraft carrier. It is here seen
underway in the Atlantic in 2004. (US Navy, Rob Gaston)
the Enterprise almost unlimited range, but it freed up huge
amounts of space compared to conventionally powered
BELOW: A catapult crew member directs an F-14B Tomcat onto
tankers - gone was the need for fuel oil storage tanks, one of the four steam-powered catapults aboard USS George
smokestacks, and fume ducts - which could now be devoted Washington. (US Navy, Michael D. Blackwell II)
to aircraft, ammunition, and other systems.
The Enterprise laid the foundations for the greatest series of
US carriers in history, the Nimitz class. In total, ten carriers
of this class were constructed between 1968 and 2006, these
vessels being: Nimitz, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Carl Vinson,
Theodore Roosevelt, Abraham Lincoln, John C. Stennis, Harry
S. Truman, Ronald Reagan, and George H. W. Bush.
ABOVE: A pair of A-lOs in flight over Afghanistan. They have of 23 MBTs. A-10s also performed hundreds of other attacks
made a significant contribution to International Security Assistance on troop positions and artillery emplacements. Such was the
Force (ISAF) operations in the region. (USAF)
aircraft's reliability and killing efficiency, that the US Air Force
OPPOSITE TOP: An A-10 deploys flares over Afghanistan in abandoned an idea to replace it with a close-support version
2008. Despite already seeing four decades of service, the aircraft is of the F-16.
unlikely to be retired from frontline duties until 2028, proving that Through computer system upgrades and various other
the so-called "Warthog" is in fact the true workhorse of the USAF.
modifications, the A-10 still serves in the 21st century.
(USAF)
Coalition troops in both Afghanistan and Iraq have enjoyed
OPPOSITE BOTTOM: An A-10 Thunderbolt awaiting refueling. the security of calling in A-10 strikes against insurgents in
(USAF) hardened or inaccessible positions, and the aircraft fired
311,597 rounds of 30mm ammunition during Operation
Iraqi Freedom alone. A-10s are periodically threatened
The A-10 was first unleashed during the 1991 Gulf War, with replacement by more sophisticated craft. Yet its
and its performance was chilling. A-10 sorties destroyed an combination of survivability and firepower is hard to find
estimated 3,000 Iraqi vehicles, including 900 tanks. In one in any other aircraft, and its utility in low-intensity warfare
day alone, on February 23, 1991, two A-10s destroyed a total is proven.
PRECISION-GUIDED
MUNITIONS
ALTHOUGH BASIC GUIDED BOMBS WERE FIRST USED
LASER GUIDANCE
during World War II (see "Exocet," pp.327-329), Walleyes were used with some success, but the true
modern PGMs emerged during the Vietnam War. In breakthrough in PGMs came in 1972. US Air Force and US
1967, for example, US jets began dropping AGM-62 Navy attack jets had made many futile sorties against targets like
the Thanh Hoa Bridge, on North Vietnam's Song Ma River.
television-guided glide bombs - once dropped, the
bomb sent television images of the target to the pilot
in the cockpit, who then designated an aim point.
Once that point was marked, the bomb would then
fly itself into the target.
OPPOSITE: With a kill ratio that exceeds 105:0, the F-15 Eagle
has never lost an air-to-air dogfight and is undoubtedly one of the
most successful aircraft of all time. Here an F-15A demonstrates
in dramatic fashion the zoom climb, supposedly the best way to
intercept high-flying Soviet aircraft. (USAF)
jflEjS] A H I S T O R Y OF T H E W O R L D IN 100 W E A P O N S
ABOVE: Four F-15Cs take to the skies in the mid-1980s where These included fighters such as the MiC-23 "Flogger" and the
they served as part of the NATO force in Europe. (USAF) superb MiG-25 "Foxbat," which had a top speed of 2,115mph
(3,400km/h), and in demonstrations had climbed to 114,829ft
(35,000m) in just four minutes 11 seconds.
BELOW: Half of an F-15 Eagle's payload on display. The missiles
McDonnell Douglas took a different approach. The MiG-25
complement each other in terms of range - the Sidewinder is used
for close-range targets, while the Sparrow is suited to medium- was primarily a high-altitude interceptor, but the F-15 was
range targets. (USAF) designed as the ultimate close-in dogfighting aircraft. By giving
the aircraft a low wing loading (the ratio of aircraft weight to its
wing area) but two very powerful Pratt & Whitney turbofan
engines, it generated an exceptional blend of speed and
maneuverability that no other fighter could match.
HI TECH HUNTER
The first versions of the F-15 to enter service were the F-15A
(single seat) and F-15B (dual seat) in the early 1970s. The main
single-seat production version was the F-15C from 1979,
alongside the F-15D two-seater (primarily used as a trainer).
A big change in concept, however, came in 1989, with the
introduction of the advanced F-15E Strike Eagle, which had a
M O D E R N WARFARE 1 9 4 5 - P R E S E N T 445
ground-attack capability added to its fighter role, with the BELOW: A glimpse of the improved heat-seeking missile provided
electronics and hardware points to deploy PGMs, "dumb" for the new generation F-15 - the AIM-9L known as "Mike." (USAF)
bombs, and bomblet dispensers. FAR BELOW: A more detailed view of the AIM-9L. The AIM-9L
Regardless of the model, the Eagle is a state-of-the-art is an "all-aspect ratio" air-to-air missile, meaning that it can engage
aircraft. The pilot, sat under a high-visibility bubble canopy, enemy aircraft from all directions, including head on. It ensured that
if a pilot targeted one enemy aircraft with his "Sparrow," and then
receives key tactical, weapon, and flight information directly
acquired another target visually, then he could use his AIM-9L.
on his HUD helmet screen, and the HOTAS (hands on throttle (USAF)
and stick) system means he can access most important combat
functions quickly via the flight control stick. The APG-63
X-band pulse doppler radar enables the F-15 to engage and
destroy enemy aircraft at beyond visual range, using AIM-7M
Sparrow and AIM-120 AMRAAMs, while in close combat the
AIM-9L/M Sidewinder and a 20mm M16A1 rotary-barrel
cannon come into play. The Strike Eagle also includes the
Tactical Electronic Warfare System (TEWS), an ECM system
that jams enemy radar systems and triggers systems such as
chaff and flare dispensers.
F-15s have served with Israel, Saudi Arabia, and Japan as
well as the US Air Force. Indeed, the first air-to-air F-15 kills
came in the late 1970s and early 1980s, when Israeli F-15s
ABOVE: An F-15C test fires the AIM-120 Advanced Medium-
Range Air-to-Air Missile, or AMRAAM, known by the nickname
MIG KILLS "the Slammer." (USAF)
Because of the environmental conditions, I saw it 1991 Gulf War, F-15s helped the Coalition achieve complete
all - even though we didn't have them visually air supremacy in only three days. They also destroyed dozens
when we first fired. Very shortly after firing, I picked of Iraqi armored vehicles, bunkers, and troop positions,
them up. They descended. They were 13,000. Now utilizing the LANTIRN (Low Altitude Navigation and Targeting
they're at 500ft... They're at low altitude, flying in Infrared for Night) navigation and targeting pod system for
echelon formation about a mile between them. And after-dark ops.
I see the missiles go right into impact. I call, "Splash By 2008, F-15s had killed 104 enemy aircraft for zero losses,
two." This means, we got two fireballs out there and proving its worth in the role for which it was conceived. The
the two MiGs are dead that we were going after. Eagle will of course, be replaced, and is already being so in
There were no Iraqi shoots. Our missiles had them
some areas of US service by the F-22 Raptor. Its successors,
head on and they just rocked out of the sky. Real
however, will have a hard act to follow.
small fireballs because they were real low on gas.
From what we could tell, they never locked us
up [acquire the F-15s with their missile lock-on
systems]. They might have been attempting to,
but we didn't get any indications that they had.'7 y y
AH-64 APACHE
AH-64D LONGBOW
Later in the 1990s, a new version of the Apache arrived
in service - the AH-64D Longbow. It was immediately
ABOVE: Apaches are designed as tank-busters, a role which they
distinguishable from its predecessor by the large, mushroom-
expertly performed during the 1991 Gulf War. They also deploy in
close support roles alongside friendly armor, in this case US M2
shaped dome containing the AN/APG-78 Longbow
Abrams. (Department of Defense) millimeter-wave Fire Control Radar (FCR) target acquisition
system. The FCR transformed the Apache's already formidable
BELOW: Apaches are designed to fly at extremely low altitudes
fighting power. Allied to a new Longbow Hellfire "fire-and-
using the terrain and vegetation to hide from enemy eyes and radar.
(Department of Defense) forget" missile, the FCR automatically detects, classifies,
M O D E R N WARFARE 1 9 4 5 - P R E S E N T 347
ABOVE: An Apache is off4oaded to take part in a field exercise in BELOW: Soldiers perform maintenance on an AH-64 Apache
Alaska. (Department of Defense) attack helicopter at Forward Operating Base Speicher in Iraq
during Operation Iraqi Freedom. (Department of Defense)
AH-64D - SPECIFICATIONS
Crew: 2
Powerplant: 2 x T700-GE-701Cs turboshafts
Length: 58ft 2in (17.73m)
Height: 13ft 3in (4.05 m)
Rotor diameter: 17ft 2in (5.23m)
Weight (operational): 15,075lb (6,838kg)
Maximum speed: 171,5mph (276km/h)
Maximum hover altitude: 15,895ft (4,845m)
Maximum range: 1,180 miles (1,900km) with internal
and external fuel
Armament: M230 33mm Gun; 2.75in Hydra-70
Folding-Fin Aerial Rockets; AGM-114 Hellfire anti-
tank missiles; AGM-122 Sidearm anti-radar missile;
AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missiles
jflEjS] A H I S T O R Y OF T H E W O R L D IN 100 W E A P O N S
ABOVE: Before its deployment in Operation Desert Storm, it was was in Israeli airspace. AH-64s are not invulnerable, and have
alleged that the AH-64 would not be able to handle desert conditions, suffered most of their losses from opportunistic anti-aircraft fire,
in spite of the fact that it had been tested on exercise in Egypt and had
but used sensibly they give their operators a versatile command
coped with the all-pervading sand. But it proved to be highly effective
in the Gulf and later in Afghanistan. (Department of Defense)
of the battlespace.
In the words of leading Apache authority Chris Bishop:
and prioritizes multiple ground and air targets, while also
enhancing the pilot's battlefield awareness and coordinating Like an infantryman the Apache uses a combination of stealth,
fire with other AH-64Ds. Apache weapons systems can now agility, and speed of movement to enhance its fighting prowess.
include air-to-air missiles such as the AIM-9 Sidewinder. It can hide, duck, rise, and fight in a fluid, fast-changing
Similarly dramatic changes in avionics and ECM equipment environment. It combines the capabilities of an infantry squad
have further increased the helicopter's survivability. with that of the tank and artillery, using fire-and-maneuver tactics
The AH-64D has been combat tested in both Iraq and at close quarters while at the same time being able to reach out
Afghanistan since 2001. Furthermore, export sales to countries and destroy targets at ranges of several miles with its advanced
such as the UK, Israel, and Saudi Arabia have seen the Apache and highly accurate weaponry.
fight in other contexts. Israeli AH-64s, for example, have
delivered precision strikes to take out leading Hamas or Indeed, the Apache was designed as a mainstay weapon for the
Hezbollah figures in Lebanon, and in May 2001 an AH-64 even US Army and it now occupies a role as important as
used a Hellfire to shoot down a Lebanese Cessna aircraft that anti-tank guns or field artillery enjoyed during World War II.
F-117 NIGHTHAWK
STEALTH BOMBER
The F-117 is really only one half of the United States' stealth
story. In 1987, the US Air Force revealed the existence of
another low observable aircraft, this time a long-range bomber
- the Northrop B-2 Spirit. The B-2 was designed with a similar
M O D E R N WARFARE 1 9 4 5 - P R E S E N T 453
F-11 7 M I S S I O N
point, the tracker caused the sight-line to move, or rather
Lieutenant-Colonel Barry E. Home remembers piloting an
jump, approximately 100 ft south of the target. I regained
F-11 7 against an Iraqi ammunition bunker during the
control and manage to steer the weapon to final impact.
1991 Gulf War air campaign:
The bomb hit precisely in the middle of the double
I approached from south to north, and used only bunker, striking the wall that separated them. The
one weapon. Right after release, I detected that the explosion was absolutely brilliant. It seemed to engulf
thumb tracker was overly sensitive. That caused me the sky all around me. For a moment I was afraid that it
considerable difficulty late in the delivery. At one might even reach up and grab me.18 *
ABOVE: A 2,0001b GBU-27 training round is positioned for loading into the bomb-bay of an F-117 during pre-war
training shortly before the outbreak of the 1991 Gulf War. (Denny Lombard/Lockheed Martin)
ABOVE: The air campaign for F-117 pilots during the First Gulf 6,000 miles (9,656km) and the capacity to deploy ordnance
War came to an end on February 28, 1991. This brought 43 ranging from 80 500lb (227kg) bombs to 16 B-61 or B-63
continuous nights of service for the air crews to a conclusion.
nuclear weapons. The B-2 was used heavily as a conventional
(Courtesy of Rose Reynolds)
bomber in the Kosovo war and in both Afghanistan and Iraq
since 2001. Its survivability is impressive, but the huge cost
strategic purpose to the F-117, but with the ability to deliver of maintaining its low observable qualities have raised a
much heavier payloads, including nuclear weapons. The question mark over its value for money. Nevertheless, aircraft
same stealth technologies were applied, but on a larger scale, like the F-11 7 and the B-2 have established the principles of
and the capabilities are impressive - a range of more than stealth strike capability.
M A I N BATTLE TANKS ( M B T S ) OFFER LAND FORCES
SURVIVABILITY
two main virtues: firepower and survivability. In The Ml was wrapped in composite armor based on the resilient
the modern world, no armored vehicle represents British Chobham type, and no US tank before or since has
these qualities better than the US Abrams. Its first imparted such a degree of armored protection to a crew. It was
powered by a Lycoming gas turbine, which could push the
variant, the M l , went into production in 1980 and
63-short-ton (57.2-tonne) vehicle to a maximum road speed of
was state-of-the-art at every level.
45mph (72km/h). A 105mm fully stabilized gun, with advanced
fire-control, was supplied with 55 rounds. During the 1980s and
1990s, improved versions appeared. The M1A1 replaced the
105mm rifled gun with a superior 120mm smoothbore weapon,
plus upgraded NBC (nuclear, biological, chemical) systems,
while the M1A2 introduced more advanced navigation, fire-
control, and surveillance systems.
The Abrams has more than proved itself in combat. During
the 1991 Gulf War, Iraqi T-72s were completely outclassed by
FIREPOWER
Such superior firepower needs exploring further. The Abrams
tank is fitted with the smoothbore M2S6A1 120mm gun. The
gun's ideal range is around 3,280yds (3,000m), but with the
ABOVE: The gun barrel of an M l Abrams complete with an optical latest fire-control systems some gunners can engage targets
sensor to help assess and engage targets. (GDLS) out past 4,374yds (4,000m).
The velocity of the round - which flies faster than an
BELOW: The 2nd Armored Division, Fort Hood, Texas on exercise
with their newly received Ml Abrams tanks, c. 1983. (Courtesy of
assault rifle bullet - translates into truly devastating target
Steve Zaloga) impact (see feature box). Of course, visually acquiring a
M O D E R N WARFARE 1 9 4 5 - P R E S E N T 355
The Abram's main tank-killer round is the M829A1 truck hitting a wall at 70mph (43km/h), but with the
Armor-Piercing Fin-Stabilized Discarding-Sabot Tracer impact concentrated over an area of less than an inch
(APFSDS-T). This consists of a slim sub-caliber depleted square. Having punched through a tank's armor, the heat
uranium (DU) dart encased in an aluminum sabot that transfer of the round can ignite fuel and ammunition.
fits the bore of the gun. Once the shell is fired, the sabot Pieces of fragmented armor and other objects violently
peels away, leaving the dart - made from one of the fly around the tank interior (lethal detritus such as this is
hardest substances known - to fly onwards at incredible called "spall," and can occur from shockwaves alone,
velocity, with fins acting like the flights on an arrow. even if the rod has not penetrated). Occupants can be
Note that there is no explosive content whatsoever - the literally vaporized.
BELOW: The size of the dust cloud gives some indication of the speeds that the Abrams is capable of - 60mph (96km/h) although limited
to 45mph (72km/h) to ensure that crews do not sustain injuries when traveling cross-country. (Department of Defense)
F -
The spectacular and catastrophic explosions often lifted the turrets
30-40ft in the air and tore the vehicles apart.
Captain Mark Gerges, Commander of Bravo Company,
2-70 Armor, at the battle of Medina Ridge, 1991.
ABOVE: An Abrams fitted with a mine rake. (Courtesy of target far from ensures a hit, and it is here that the Abrams'
Steve Zaloga) onboard digital fire-control computer does much of the
work. A laser range-finder precisely calculates the distance
to the target, and the computer makes automatic adjustments
to the barrel angle based on factors such as round drop, air
M1 ABRAMS - S P E C I F I C A T I O N S resistance, air temperature, gravity, windspeed, ammunition
light tank. All these vehicles were armed to some degree, It is fully armored with aluminum and spaced laminate armor,
typically with one or two machine-guns, but in the late 1960s which combined with an NBC system makes it highly
the Soviets changed the game with the BMP-1 infantry fighting survivable. A two-man turret mounts the heavy weaponry - a
vehicle (IFV). The BMP-1 was as much about combat as 25mm Bushmaster chain-gun firing armor-piercing rounds;
transportation. Troops inside could fire their weapons through a co-axial 7.62mm machine-gun; and twin TOW anti-tank
gun ports, while the vehicle also had a 73mm cannon and missile launcher on the left side. (The M3 also carries Dragon
wire-guided anti-tank missiles. It was largely in response to or Javelin anti-tank systems.)
the BMP-1 's appearance, and to that of subsequent BMPs with With its firepower, protection, and excellent cross-country
even greater firepower, that the Bradley IFV was developed. capabilities, the Bradley steadily began to replace the Ml 13 in
frontline use. The Bradley came into its own during the 1991
FORCE MULTIPLIER Gulf War. Their performance during this conflict won high
The Bradley came into service in the early 1980s, and fell into praise, particuarly for its speed as it could easily keep pace with
two designations - the M2 IFV and the M3 CFV (Cavalry the charging M1A1 Abrams while the Ml 13 could not.
Fighting Vehicle), reflecting differences in tactical use rather
than major differences in design. The M2 has a three-man crew
BELOW: A Bradley rolls through the range during the 3rd Advise
plus space in the back for seven fully equipped soldiers (the and Assist Brigade, 4th Infantry Division's gunnery training at
M3, being a scout vehicle, has three crew plus two scouts). Camp Buehring, Kuwait. (US Army)
M O D E R N WARFARE 1 9 4 5 - P R E S E N T 359
ABOVE: The Combat Information Center, also known as the BELOW: A Tomahawk cruise missile flies toward Iraq after being
Operations Room, onboard US Navy vessels where the decision launched from the cruiser USS San Jacinto on March 25, 2003, in
would be taken and the launch sequence begun for firing a the Red Sea. (Photo by Mark Wilson/Getty Images)
Tomahawk missile. (US Navy)
M O D E R N WARFARE 1 9 4 5 - P R E S E N T 465
FIRST GENERATION
The first generation of operational weapons to emerge came in
the 1960s, with the US FIM-43 Redeye and the Soviet 9K32
Strela-2 (NATO reporting name: SA-7 "Grail"). Measuring 3ft
NEW GENERATIONS
The Stinger came into service in 1981, developed as a next-
generation replacement for the Redeye. Its central improvement
was an infrared guidance system that allowed launches against
aircraft in any aspect to the shooter, even head on. First combat
testing actually came in the hands of British Special Forces the Soviets certainly lost dozens of aircraft during the first few
soldiers in the Falklands War in 1982, who brought down two months in which they faced Stingers, and the weapon system
Argentine helicopters with the system, although the regular army made a definite contribution to the eventual Soviet expulsion
was using a British-made MANPAD, the Blowpipe. from the country.
The most intensive use of the Stinger, however, came when Several stages of enhancement have kept the Stinger
the US supplied some 500 units to the Mujahideen in their in service. The latest missiles include features such as
war against the Soviet occupiers. Previously, the Afghan identification-friend-or-foe (IFF) computers, range extension to
fighters had struggled against Soviet attack jets and Mil Mi-8 5 miles (8km), and countermeasures systems, plus it has been
helicopter gunships with cumbersome Oerlikon cannon and developed for mounts on armored vehicles and helicopters.
small-arms. The introduction of the Stingers radically changed MANPADS have ensured that even at speed and low levels,
the situation. Although accurate kill figures are not available, modern aircraft still operate in a threat environment.
IMPROVISED EXPLOSIVE
DEVICES
AS LONG AS THERE HAVE BEEN EXPLOSIVES, THERE HAVE
TACTICAL ADVANTAGES
been what we now class as improvised explosive IEDs come in a bewildering variety of forms, limited only by the
devices (IEDs). Yet the wars in Afghanistan and imagination and materials of bomb-makers. Common devices
Iraq have tragically sharpened our awareness of include artillery or mortar shells command detonated by a
mobile phone (sometimes multiple shells are "daisy-chained"
these weapons - around 50 percent of US and
together for optimum effect); propane tanks stuffed full of
British casualties have been caused by IEDs.
explosive; bombs placed in animal carcasses or drinks cans, or
even in fake kerbing stones made from Plaster of Paris; vehicle
bombs driven at speed towards the target; suicide bomb vests;
even crude explosively formed penetrators (EFPs) - basic
shaped-charge warheads, sometimes detonated by a person or
vehicle breaking an infrared beam.
The tactical advantages of IEDs are easy to appreciate. They
give the insurgent "standoff" distance, thereby reducing the
risks of casualties from an enemy who usually has superior
firepower resources in direct- or indirect-fire engagements.
Large IEDs maximize the potential to inflict heavy casualties
within a short window of time, and provide one of the few
insurgent resources for tackling heavy armor or protected
installations/buildings. The opportunities and locations for
EFFECTS
More intangibly, but just as important, are the psychological
and social effects of IEDs. The expectation of encountering
IEDs, for example, breeds caution and the need for modified
tactics. Vehicle convoys have to be staggered, with vehicles
moving in a variable, elastic relation to each other to disrupt
the timing of bombers using command detonation systems.
Every suspected IED must be investigated and neutralized
by explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) officers, resulting
ABOVE: US troops undergo IED clearance training at Fort Irwin. in frequent halts in convoy or troop movements. The
(US Army) cumulative effects of these stops deprives a force of control
IEDS A N D C O M B A T STRESS strikes, and had to blow up many IEDs that were
discovered before they could be used against us...
IEDs have a major impact effect on the morale of affected
Imagine this - next time you are driving down the road
troops. The levels of combat stress they induce are
and you are going to work or home, look at every guard
profound. Mark Lachance, a US Army Iraq veteran, here
rail, every trash can, every cement kerb and all those
draws an analogy to illustrate the profound anxiety
things could blow up at any moment... just think about
caused by IEDs:
that... Everything that is there is prospectively your
^^ It's what they do psychologically is what makes them enemy... My Staff Sergeant said it best, "It's like playing
an effective tool. You can take your most war-hardened the lottery, if you play it long enough eventually you
veteran from any country and put him in a Humvee are going to win." That's how it is with roadside
and have him go driving down a road and just have bombs. No-one's protected, no amount of armor can
IEDs blow up randomly and it's going to slowly start save you. Although the first ten times you might
to affect him after a while. I myself was in many IED survive, all it takes is once and you're dead.1'' yy
ABOVE: An IED is destroyed in a controlled detonation. This particular device had been discovered on a major road in
the Yosef Khel district of Paktila province, Afghanistan by US and Afghan National Police troops. (AFP/Getty Images)
r ' •- •
J*. I».'i "i* 1 TajjfaiilC- I":' •
ABOVE: This photograph was taken from a US medevac helicopter planning. Furthermore, the enforced stop would give the
on November 5, 2009. A US Army vehicle burns after it was hit by bombers plenty of time to observe EOD operations, and
an IED. Two US soldiers were killed and two injured in the incident
design countermeasures.
in southern Afghanistan. (Manpreet/Romana/AFP/Getty Images)
While this book often focuses on high-tech developments
in fighting technologies, IEDs remind us that in the realms of
a suspicious location. The security forces, fearing the vehicle insurgency and "low-intensity warfare," simple innovations
contained a major car bomb, would have to go through full with basic explosives can be the most effective tools
EOD procedures, putting a drain on their finances and of warfare.
BALLISTIC MISSILES
COMPETING SYSTEMS
The technological ICBM arms race through the 1950s and
1960s largely revolves around launch systems and propellants.
The threat from each other's missiles meant that ICBMs were
steadily moved to protected underground launch silos.
Furthermore, it became imperative that missiles could be
launched rapidly in response to an enemy attack, hence there
was a shift from liquid propellants - which had time consuming
SUBMARINE-LAUNCHED
BALLISTIC MISSILES
Submarines offered ideal launch platforms for ballistic
missiles, being able to deploy secretly near enemy
coastlines and having a high level of survivability.
The first submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM)
was the Soviet SS-N-4 Sark. Introduced in 1955, it was
severely limited by a short 350-mile (563km) range.
Not so the US Polaris SLBMs, the first of which was
operational by 1960. The A-2 variant had a range of up
to 1,700 miles (2,376km). MIRV technology entered
SLBMs during the 1970s, with the US Poseidon C-3
and Trident I and the Soviet SS-N-18 "Stingray." The
UK also became a major SLBM user, deploying both
Polaris and Trident, and the French had their own
missiles in the M-4 MIRV.
were introduced, first in the form of multiple reentry vehicles which is designed to destroy ICBMs before they can enter
US airspace. (US Army)
(MRVs), such as in the Soviet SS-9 "Scarp" and US Polaris
A-3. MRVs deployed multiple warheads against a single
target, creating a lethal nuclear "footprint," but the United The Soviets were also fielding MIRVs by the late 1970s.
States soon went further with multiple independently Maneuvering warheads (MaRVs), introduced in the US
targetable reentry vehicles (MIRVs), first utilized in the Pershing II IRBM in 1984, allowed targeting corrections
Minuteman III. MIRV missiles could deploy multiple warheads even in the terminal phase, to give warheads an accuracy
against entirely independent targets. approaching that of cruise missiles.
During the 1980s, the theme was accuracy, as improvements Although strategic arms negotiations have reduced global
in computer guidance systems meant that nuclear warheads stocks of ICBMs dramatically since the 1980s, they remain in
could now be delivered to within a few hundred feet of their considerable numbers. New systems produced by states such
aiming point. The Trident I missile, for example, could deploy as North Korea, China, and, potentially, Iran, means that the
eight 100-kiloton warheads on targets at 4,600 miles (7,403km). possibilities of strategic nuclear warfare are not entirely distant.
UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLES
from 2001, the ability to deploy weapons such as the AGM-114 during Operation Desert Shield in November 1990. Naval UAVs
are usually recovered by guiding them into a net. (US Navy)
Hellfire anti-tank and Griffen air-to-surface missiles, and other
ordnance. Predators and other UAVs, such as the US Army's BELOW: The Global Hawk in flight, the largest and most
RQ-S Hunter, were also used in Operation Allied Force over sophisticated of the UAVs currently in use, no doubt thanks
in part to their $35 million price tag. (Northrop Grumman)
the Balkans in 1999 not only to collect intelligence, but also
to identify and illuminate targets with laser target designators,
for laser-guided weapons to destroy.
COMBAT DUTIES
Since that time, these drones have become major contributors
to both surveillance and, increasingly, combat missions over
Afghanistan and Iraq. For example, during 2001-02, Predators
regularly flew over the so-called no-fly zones in sanctioned
Iraq, capturing images of the Iraqi integrated air defense
system. More aggressively, in Afghanistan in 2002, Predator
UAVs took out suspected al-Qaeda leaders, and during the
Operation Anaconda ground offensive they proved their
mettle as a close air support asset, using missiles to provide
jflEjS] A H I S T O R Y OF T H E W O R L D IN 100 W E A P O N S
BELOW: The MQ-1 Predator, the first of the hunter-killer UAVs, suppressing fire against Taliban militia while soldiers on the
and the most successful, seeing extensive service in the ground moved to better fighting positions.
mountainous regions of Afghanistan and Pakistan. It has even
The combat capabilities of UAVs are becoming as powerful
reportedly been used in a close-air support role. (USAF)
as they are controversial. The MQ-9 Reaper, for example, was
introduced into action in 2007. Fully loaded with 3,8001b
(1,700kg) of ordnance, it can fly for 14 hours (28 hours in pure
surveillance mode) and deliver JDAM and laser-guided
bombs. From January 2009 to February 2010, Predators and
Reapers between them have fired 184 missiles and dropped
77 PGMs over Afghanistan. Inevitable civilian casualties have
led to criticism that UAVs encourage easy killing by operators
remote from the realities of war and collateral damage.
There are now literally dozens of different types of UAVs in
service with military forces around the world. Their diversity is
also expanding. At one end of the scale are high-altitude UAVs,
such as the RQ-4A Global Hawk, designed to fly surveillance
missions of 13,800 miles (22,200km), at an altitude of 65,000ft
MODERN WARFARE 1945-PRESENT
Height: 12ft 6in (3.8m) who predict the demise of manned combat aircraft within a
Weight (empty): 4,900lb (2,223kg) generation or two.
Weight (max take-off): 1O,SOOib (4,760kgJ
Payload: 3,750ib (1,701 kg)
Cruise speed: c. 230mph (200 knots)
Range: 1,150 miles (1 ,850km)
OPPOSITE: A mini-UAV is launched in Iraq, 2006. (US Army)
Ceiling: Up to SO,OOOft (15,240m)
Armament: AGM-114 Hellfire missiles; GBU-12 BELOW: Britain is currently investigating whether a Strategic
Paveway II laser-guided bombs; GBU-38 )DAMs Unmanned Air Vehicle Experimental could replace the RAP's
Tornado strike aircraft. BAE developed this craft as a result. (BAE)
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
BGM-109 Tomahawk missiles 360-363 chokutos 97 Enterprise, USS 227, 330-331, 331
"Big Bertha" 1 1 3 , 1 1 3 Christie, J. Walter 246 Epimachus of Athens 2 8 , 2 9 , 30
Bikini Atoll 277 Churchill, Winston 238 Eskimo, H M S 217
bills 57 Cohen, Samuel T. 7 estocs 9 4
Birmingham, USS 225 Colbert, General Auguste-Marie-Frangois Evreux, capture of (1487) 59
Bishop, Chris 348 121 Exocet missiles 327-329
Bismarck 170, 172 Collier, Elisha 127 explosive shells 142-144
Black Hawk Down incident (1993) 322 Colt, Samuel 11, 126, 126, 127-128, 140
black powder 79 Colt M l 911 pistols 151-154 F-4 Phantoms 305-308
Blenheim, battle of (1704) 110 Colt Navy 1851 revolvers 126-128 F-4G "Wild Weasels" 3 0 0 , 3 0 6
Blisset, Lieutenant-Commander Mike 326 Conn, H M S 240 F-14B Tomcats 331
Blowpipe M A N P A D s 3 6 5 , 3 6 6 Conqueror, HMS 292 F-15 Eagles 341-344
Boer Wars see Second Anglo-Boer War Constantinople, fall of (1453) 83, 84 F-117 Nighthawks 349-352
Bon Homme Richard, U S S 326 Coombes, Flight Sub-Lieutenant Lawrence Falklands War (1982) 104, 292, 303, 325,
Borthwick, Captain Alastair 266 203 326, 328-329, 365
Botha, Louis 150 Cordelia, H M S 168 Farmer, George 103
Boudicca, queen of the Iceni 23 cordite 144 Ferrar, Sergeant John 260
bows 17-19 Corunna, retreat from (1808-09) 121 Fiedler, Richard 176
crossbows 72-74 Crecy, battle of (1346) 69, 75 FIM-92 Stinger SAMs 364-366
English longbows 68-71 Crimean War (1854-56) 140 fire arrows 79-80
Brandy Station, battle of (1863) 102 crossbows 72-74 fire lances 81
Brasier, John 271 cruise missiles 360-363 Flak 88 guns 228-230
Britain Crusades 47, 65 flamethrowers 46-49, 176-178
Norman Conquest 54, 55, 56 Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) 371 Flemish warriors 61
Roman invasion and occupation 22, 23 C V S G s see Carrier Strike Groups flintlocks 9, 90-93, 104, 129
Britain, Battle of (1940) 234-235, 234, 237 Florida, U S S 362
General Belgrano, A R A , s i n k i n g of 2 9 2 Hampton Roads, battle of (1862) 156-159, Iran-Iraq War (1980-88) 308, 315, 329
Gentile, Captain Don 260 156, 158 Iraq War and insurgency 7, 8, 107, 282
George V, king of Great Britain and Ireland hand grenades 1 6 2 - 1 6 5 , 1 9 4 ironclads 155-159
180 handgonnes 82, 85 Israeli Air Force 317, 318
George Washington, U S S 2 2 6 , 331 Harrier jets 324-326 Israeli soldiers 284, 285, 286
George Washington class s u b m a r i n e s 292 Harrison, John 115
Cerges, Captain Mark 356 Harry S. Truman, U S S 338 Jacobi, Moritz 140
gladiators 38 Hastings, battle of (1066) 54, 55, 56 yager rifles 120-121
gladius 3 8 - 4 0 HEAT missiles see high-explosive anti-tank James, Alan 283
glaives 57, 60 (HEAT) missiles Jean de Joinville 49
La Gloire 155-156 Heldmann, Lieutenant D.R. Aloys: aircraft Joint Direct Attack Munitions (JDAMs)
Gobyato, Lieutenant-Ceneral Leonid 206 338, 339-340, 340, 350
Nikolaevich 198 Helepolis 28, 29, 30 Jutland, battle of (1916) 171,172
Coddard, Dr Robert 254 helicopters
Golan Heights 320 AH-64 Apache 345-348 K-14 gunsights 262
Golden Spurs, battle of (1302) 61 A H - 6 4 D Longbow 346, 348 Kadesh, battle of (1274 BC) 2 2 , 2 3
Grandson, battle of (1476) 62 UH-1 Huey 2 9 4 - 2 9 7 Kai-fung-fun, battle of (1232) 80, 80
Greek Fire 46-49, 64 Henry VIII, king of England 7 1 , 7 7 Kalashnikov, Mikhail 2 8 1 , 2 8 3
Greek weapons armor 95 Kallanicus 46
dory spears 41-43 Henschel Hs 293 missiles 327 katanas 9 7 - 1 0 0
triremes 34, 34, 36, 37 high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) missiles 320 Kentucky/Pennsylvania rifles 120-121
grenades Hiroshima bombing (1945) 2 7 5 , 2 7 7 Kilij 101
hand 162-165, 194 Hitler, Adolf 251, 267, 270 King, 2nd Lieutenant Cecil F. 204
rocket-propelled 320-323 Hittites 22 Kiszely, Major John 104
Gribeauval, Jean-Baptiste de 110 Homer 26 Kluck, General von 1 74
Groves, Colonel Leslie R. 274 Hood, H M S 170 Knightsbridge Box 229
Guards Chapel incident (1944) 272 hoplites Koniggratz, battle of (1866) 125
Gulf War (1991) phalanx formations 43 Korean War (1950-53) 316
aircraft 287, 303, 308, 326, 337, 341, weapons 41—43 Kosovo War (1999) 350, 352, 363
344, 351 Home, Lieutenant-Colonel Barry E. 351 Kozhedub, Ivan 269
aircraft carriers 333 Housatonic, USS 1 3 7 - 1 3 8 , 1 3 8 Kriegsmarine: recruitment poster 241
APCs 357, 358 howitzers 111-113 Krupp, Alfred 145
carpet bombing 289 Huber, Johann 248 Krupp, Gustav 113
helicopters 346, 348 Hughes, Flight Officer Paterson: aircraft 236 Kubinka Museum of Tank Construction 7
missiles 304, 314, 315, 363 Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) 69, 70, Kursk, battle of (1943) 249, 253
PGMs 339 71, 75, 83 Kurz cartridges 281
tanks 353-354, 353 Hunley, CSS 136-138 Kusunoki Masatsura 100
US dominance 10 Hurricane Katrina 333
gunpowder 84 Hurricanes 226, 234 Lachance, Mark 369
guns Hussite Wars (1419-34) 111-112 Lachish, siege of (701 BC) 46
on aircraft 267 Ladysmith, siege of (1899-1900) 112
cartridge guns 123-124 ICBMs see intercontinental ballistic missiles Lafayette class submarines 292
Dreyse Needle-Gun 123-125 improvised explosive devices (IEDs) 8, 356, lances 63, 7 5 - 7 8
handgonnes 82, 85 367-370 land mines 210-213
lever-action 150 incendiary weapons 46-49, 64, 81, 176-178 Landsknecht 62
see also machine-guns; muskets; pistols; Independence, USS 227 Langdon, Jesse D. 134
rifles Indian Mutiny (1857) 131 laser-guided weapons 338-339
guns/launchers 10 Indonesia 280 Laumann, Joseph 151
Gurevich, Mikhail I. 316 Innocent II, Pope 74 Lawrence, T.E. (Lawrence of Arabia): rifle
Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) 175
108-109, 110 9, 371-373 Le Marchant, John Gaspard 103
interceptors 373 Lee, James Paris 173
halberds 57-60 Invincible, HMS 172 Lee-Enfield short magazine rifles 107,
hammers 57-58 IRA 368, 370 173-175
jflEjS] A HISTORY OF THE WORLD IN 100 WEAPONS
Lefaucheaux, Casimir 124 Marne, first battle of the (1914) 146 Monitor, USS 155, 156-159, 156, 157
Leonardo da Vinci: inventions 73 Mary Rose 114 Mons, battle of (1914) 174
Lepanto, battle of (1571) 36 matchlocks 85-87, 90 Morat, battle of (1476) 62
Lewis, Colonel Isaac 191, 193 Mauser, Peter Paul 150 Mordred 73
Lewis guns 190-193 Mauser C 9 6 pistols 194 mortars 198-200
Lillie, Sir James 132 Mauser Gewehr 98 rifles 148-150 MP40 submachine guns 257-259
"Linebacker" raids (1972) 289 Maxim, Hiram 9, 187 MQ-9 Reaper UAVs 376
London MBTs see main battle tanks Mujahideen 323, 365, 366
V-1 damage 271, 272 ME 262 jet fighters 9, 2 6 7 - 2 6 9 munitions
Zeppelin damage 185 Mesopotamians 18 ammunition configurations 144
longbows 60, 68-71, 94 Messerschmitt Bf fighters 235, 237, 262 explosive shells 142-144
longswords 50-53 Metford, William 173 precision-guided 290, 338-340
Loos, battle of (1915) 194-195 Mexico, US Punitive Expedition into 152 Murphy, Audie 223
Los Angeles class submarines 292 M G 1 5 machine-guns 264 Musashi 172
Lusitania, R M S 168 MG34 machine-guns 264-265, 264 muskets
MG42 machine-guns 2 6 4 - 2 6 6 arquebuses 62, 86, 87
M l Abrams tanks 1 0 , 3 5 3 - 3 5 6 Micro-Uzi 286 bayonets 104-107
M1 Garand rifles 231-233 Midway, battle of (1942) 227 Brown Besses 93
M2/M3 Bradley A P C s 3 5 7 - 3 5 9 MiG-21 fighter aircraft 3 1 6 - 3 1 9 flintlocks 9, 90-93, 104, 129
M2 flash-hiders 233 Mikoyan, Artem I. 316 matchlocks 85-87, 90
M3 "Grease Guns" 258, 259 Mills, William 163 snaphance lock 91-92
M16 rifles 309-312 mines wheellocks 90
M81E1 152mm gun/launcher system 10 land 210-213
M84 sights 233 naval 139-141 Nagasaki bombing (1945) 275, 276
M551 Sheridan Armored Reconnaissance/ Minie balls 130 Nagashino, battle of (1575) 87
Airborne Assault Vehicle 10 mining 28 Nancy, battle of (1477) 6 0 , 6 2
McLean, Samuel 191 Minnesota, USS 158 Napoleon Bonaparte 7
Macgregor, Flight Sub-Lieutenant Norman: Mirage aircraft 318 Naram-Sin, king of Mesopotamia 18
aircraft 202 missiles Nautilus, USS 291-293
machine-guns AIM-9 Sidewinder 302-304, 343 navigation 115
on aircraft 201-202, 201, 245 air-to-air 302-304, 344 neutron bombs 7
Browning M2HB 2 2 2 - 2 2 4 anti-ship 327-329 New York City 243
gas-operated 190-191 anti-tank 359 Nimitz, USS 330-333
Gatlingguns 132-135 BGM-109 Tomahawk 360-363 Nobel, Alfred 142,144
invention 9 cruise 360-363 Normans 54, 55, 56, 77
Lewis guns 190-193 Exocet 3 2 7 - 3 2 9 Northrop B-2 Spirit bombers 350, 352
M G 1 5 264 FIM-92 Stinger 364-366 nuclear-powered aircraft carriers 330-333
M G 3 4 264-265, 264 HEAT 320 nuclear-powered submarines 291-293
MG42 2 6 4 - 2 6 6 ICBMs 9, 371-373 nuclear weapons 7, 274-277
MP40 submachine 2 5 7 - 2 5 9 launched by B-52s 288
Thompson submachine 218-221 Patriot 315, 315 O d a Nobunaga 87
PPSh-41 submachine 259 R-11 313 Okinawa, battle for (1945) 220, 224
Uzi submachine 2 8 4 - 8 6 Redeye 364-365 O p e r a t i o n Allied Force 3 4 0 , 3 6 3 , 3 7 5
Vickers Maxim 187-189 RIM-7 Sea Sparrow 333 Operation Anaconda 375
Magna Carta 74 SA-2 "Guideline" 298-301 Operation Bodenplatte 268
main battle tanks (MBTs) 353-356 SA-7 "Grail" 364-365 O p e r a t i o n Desert Shield 375
Malan, Adolph "Sailor" 237 S C U D 9, 313-315 Operation Desert Storm see Gulf War
Malplaquet, battle of (1709) 109 surface-to-air 2 9 8 - 3 0 1 , 3 6 4 - 3 6 6 O p e r a t i o n Eagle Claw 296
Mannlicher, Ferdinand 151 UUM-44 SubRoc 292 O p e r a t i o n Iraqi Freedom 326, 333, 337,
M A N P A D s (man-portable air-defense V-weapons 270-273 347, 350, 360, 363
systems) 364-366 Mitchell, General Billy 226 O p e r a t i o n Just Cause 349
Marignano, battle of (1515) 61, 8 3 - 8 4 Mitchell, R.J. 234 O p e r a t i o n Southern Watch 333
Marlborough, John Churchill, duke of Mohammed II, Ottoman emperor 83 Ottomans 83, 84, 101
109, 110, 112 Mongols 80, 80 Owen, Wilfred 197
INDEX 383
P-51 Mustangs 260-263 Regensburg, raids against (1943) 245 San Juan Hill, battle of (1898) 134, 135
Panama 349 Resolution class submarines 292 Saracens 47, 4 8 - 4 9
Panzerfaust 256, 256 revolvers see pistols Sargent, John Singer: paintings by 196-197
Parthian horse-archers 19 Rhodes, siege of (305 BC) 28, 29, 30 sarissa spears 43
partisans 57 Rhodesian bush war 283 Saulnier, Raymond 201
Pathfinder, H M S 166 Richthofen, Manfred von 205 Schall, Hauptmann Franz 268
Patriot missiles 315,315 rifles Scheer, Vizeadmiral Reinhard 171
Pauly, Johannes 122-123 AK47 10, 280-283 Schilling, Pavel 140
Paveway II laser-guided bombs 325 assault 2 8 0 - 2 8 3 , 3 0 9 - 1 2 schiltrons 61
Pavia, battle of (1525) 6 2 , 8 6 , 8 7 Baker 120-122 Schmidt, Heinrich 241
Payne, Oscar 221 Dreyse Needle-Gun 123-125 Schweinfurt: raids against (1943) 245
Pearl Harbor attack (1941) 226 Enfield Pattern 1853 129-131 Schwieger, Kapitanleutnant Walther 168
Peninsular War (1808-14) 103, 112, 121 lager 120-121 scorpio 31
percussion systems 129-130 Kentucky/Pennsylvania 120-121 Scottish warriors 61, 63
Pershing, General John 222 Lee-Enfield short magazine 107, 173-175 S C U D missiles 9, 313-315
Petain, Marshal 147 M1 Garand 231-233 Second Anglo-Boer War (1899-1902)
Petropavlovsk 1 4 0 , 141 M l 6 309-312 112, 132, 150
PGMs see precision-guided munitions Mauser Gewehr 98 148-150 shamshir 101
Philippine Insurrection (1899-1902) 153 Winchester 150 shaskas 1 0 1 , 1 0 3
Phoenicians 34, 35 see also carbines Sheffield, H M S 3 2 8 , 3 2 8
pikes 1 1 , 6 1 - 6 3 rifling 92 shields 43, 53
pistols RIM-7 Sea Sparrow missiles 333 Shijo-Nawate, battle of (1348) 100
Colt M1911 151-154 rocket launchers 254-256 ships see warships
Colt Navy 1851 126-128 rocket-propelled grenades 320-323 Shpagin, Georgi 259
Mauser C96 194 rockets siege weapons
revolvers vs. automatics 153 Chinese 79-81 Greek Fire 48, 49
Platz, Reinhold 205, 206 V-weapons 1 0 , 2 7 0 - 2 7 3 Roman 31-33
Pleasanton, General Alfred 102 Roman legionary attack formations 39, 40 siege towers 2 7 - 3 0
Plunkett, Thomas 121 Roman weapons trebuchets 6 4 - 6 7
poison gas 194-198 artillery 31-33 sights and sighting 146, 233, 262
pole-arms 57-60 chariots 21 Six-Day War (1967) 2 8 6 , 3 1 8 , 3 1 9 , 3 2 2
see also lances; pikes gladius 3 8 - 4 0 Skinner, Captain Leslie 254
polybolos 33 siege towers 30 Skyhawks 326
Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine triremes 36, 3 6 - 3 7 smallswords 96
283 Rome: Circus Maximus 21 Smith, Sir Sidney 7
Port Arthur 140, 141 Roosevelt, Franklin D. 274 Somme, battle of the (1916) 164, 165, 180,
Powers, Gary 299 Rough Riders 134 187, 187, 195
PPSh-41 submachine-guns 259 Royal Oak, H M S 1 6 9 , 171
Somme, second battle of the (1918) 191
Preble, U S S 361 Rozhdestvenski, Admiral Zinovi 159 Sopwith Camels 201-204
precision-guided munitions (PGMs) RPG-7 grenades 320-323 Sovereign of the Seas 114-115
338-340 RQ-4A Global Hawks 374, 375, 376 Soviet Union: German invasion (1941)
Predator UAVs 374-375, 376 Ruhrstahl/Kramer X-1 ("Fritz-X") missiles 327
246, 247-248
Prussian Army 125 Russo-Japanese War (1904-05) 140, 141,
Spanish-American War (1898) 134, 135
Puckle, James 132 159, 169, 198 Spanish Civil War (1936-39) 228
Ryskind, Sam 289 spears 14, 20, 21, 22, 41-43
Qadesh relief 20 Spitfires 2 3 4 - 2 3 7
SA-2 "Guideline" missiles 298-301 Spray of Blood on Kojinyama (1866) 98
R-11 missiles 313 SA-7 "Grail" missiles 364-365 Spring Offensive (1918) 192
railways 11 sabers 101-103 Spurs, battle of (1513) 77
rapiers 94-96 Saddam Hussein 315 Sri Lankan special forces 286
Reagan, Ronald 7 saddles 75 Stark, U S S 329
"Red Sams" 299, 300 Salamis, battle of (480 BC) 36 Starling, H M S 216
Reddemann, Bernhard 176 SAMs see surface-to-air missiles stealth bombers 350, 352
Redeye missiles 364-365 samurai 8 7 , 9 7 - 1 0 0 stealth fighters 349
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