Smakkerup Huse: A Mesolithic Settlement in NW Zealand, Denmark

Author(s): T. Douglas Price, Anne Birgitte Gebauer, Signe Ulfeldt Hede, Charlotte Sedlacek
Larsen, Nanna Noe-Nygaard, Sarah L. R. Mason, Jens Nielsen, David Perry
Source: Journal of Field Archaeology, Vol. 28, No. 1/2 (Spring - Summer, 2001), pp. 45-67
Published by: Boston University
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3181459
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 45

Smakkerup Huse: A Mesolithic Settlement

in NWZealand, Denmark

T. Douglas Price
Anne Birgitte Gebauer
University of Wisconsin-Madison
Madison, WI

Signe Ulfeldt Hede

Charlotte Sedlacek Larsen
Nanna Noe-Nygaard
University of Copenhagen
Copenhagen, Denmark

Sarah L. R. Mason
University of London
London, Great Britain

Jens Nielsen
Kalundborg og Omegns Museum
Kalundborg, Denmark

David Perry
University of Connecticut
Storrs, CT

Excavationsat the site of SmakkerupHuse on the island of Zealand, Denmark, have

revealedLate MesolithicErteb0lledeposits,dating between5000 and 3900 B.C.Preservation
was excellentand a varietyof bone,antler,wood,and otherplant remainswererecoveredin
the waterloggeddeposits,along with stoneand ceramicartifacts.The remainsdocumenta
diversesubsistencebaseutilizing bothmarine and terrestrialfoods,an elaboratewoodtech-
nology,new artifacttypes,and someof the oldestdomesticcowsin Scandinavia.This report
providesbackgroundinformationon the site, and discussesthe artifactsand plant and ani-
mal remains.The questionof domesticanimals in the Late Mesolithicis addressed.

Introduction remains were recovered, along with many other interesting

The archaeologicalsite of SmakkerupHuse is located at
the headwaters of a former fjord, or inlet, now dammed,
known as the Saltbxk Vig on the NWcoast of the island of
Zealand, Denmark (FIG. i). Excavations at the site were
undertaken as part of the Saltbak Vig Archaeological Pro-
ject, a regional investigation of the introduction of agricul-
ture into prehistoric southern Scandinavia (Gebauer and
Price 1990). Excavationstook place at SmakkerupHuse in
1989 and from 1995 through 1997. Some 140 sq m were
excavated, in places to a depth of more than 2 m. A total of
more than 225 kg of flint and other worked stone and 150
kg of bone and antler, wood, and nutshell and other plant
artifacts. These materials were found in waterlogged de-
posits along a former coastline of the sea. The site, dating
between 5000 and 3900 B.C. (calibrated), belongs to the
later Mesolithic, a period known as the Ertebolle.
The site is important for its 1000-year record of cultur-
al deposits and the preservationof abundant subsistence re-
mains and wooden objects. In addition, SmakkerupHuse
documents some of the oldest domestic cattle in Denmark
and a new artifact type-the painted pebble-from the
Mesolithic. This preliminaryreport (a monograph is forth-
coming) includes background on the Mesolithic of south-
ern Scandinavia, a history of research at the site, the geol-
46 SmakkerupHuse: A Mesolithic Settlement in Denmark/Price et al.
Figure 1. The location of SmakkerupHuse in NW Zealand, Denmark, and other sites mentioned
in the text.
ogy of the area, the topographic situation of the settle-
ment, the layout and sequence of the excavations, stratig-
raphy, the finds, dating, and interpretation. Among sever-
al issues that the research raises is the question of how to
define the Neolithic, discussed in the conclusions.
The Mesolithic of Southern Scandinavia
The Mesolithic of Europe is the last phase of hunter-
gatherer adaptations across most of the continent. Because
of a long history of research, substantial public interest,
and excellent conditions for preservation, this period is
perhaps best known in southern Scandinavia. The
Mesolithic of that region began around 8500 B.C. (all dates
in calibratedradiocarbonyears), shortly afterthe end of the
0 10okm
Pleistocene, and ended with the onset of the farming cul-
tures of the Neolithic around 3900 B.C. (TABLE i). The pri-
mary period of concern for the present discussion extends
from 5400 B.C. to 3300 B.C., encompassing the Late
Mesolithic (known as the Ertebolle) and the Early Ne-
olithic (belonging to the Funnel Beaker period, or Tragt-
bager, or TRB) in this area. The Ertebolle is found pri-
marily along the coastal areas of northern Germany, Den-
mark, and in the provinces of Scania and Halland in Swe-
den. The last two phases of Ertebolle are most relevant to
the site of Smakkerup Huse. The middle Ertebolle phase
(4800-4300 B.C.) witnesses the appearance of crude,
thick-walled pottery; small, ceramic lamps appear during
the later Ertebolle (4300-3900 B.C.).

Table1. Relativechronologyof southernScandinavia.
Phases YearsB.C.
Period Facies
Mesolithic
EarlyErteb0lle Trylleskove
5400 B.C.
4800 B.C
MiddleErtebolle Stationsvej 4300 B.C.
LateErtebolle Alekistebro 3900 B.C.
Neolithic
FunnelBeaker(TRB) EarlyNeolithic 3300 B.C
FunnelBeaker(TRB) MiddleNeolithic 0
2800 B.C.
PittedWareCulture
Single GraveCulture 2400 B.C.
Dagger Period 1700 B.C.
The presence of extensive shell middens, a diversity of
extraction camps, the remains of a wide range of fish and
mammals-including seals, dolphins, and whales-and
"species-specific"trapping stations show the diversity of
the subsistence base during the Ertebolle. The importance
of marine resources in the diet is furtherhighlighted by sta-
ble carbon isotope values in human bone from this time
(Tauber 1981; Noe-Nygaard 1988; Richards, Price, and
Koch, in press). The occurrence of cemeteries in Zealand
and southern Scania at this time complements a picture of
more sedentaryresidence and suggests increased social and
ritual complexity (Price 1985, 2000). Significant regional
variation in artifacttypes and styles begins in the later part
of the Ertebolle; differences between eastern and western
Denmark, and among smaller areas within Zealand, have
been reported (Andersen 1981; Vang Petersen 1984; Jo-
hansson 1999). Exchange of exotic materials is indicated
by a varietyof foreign objects in southern Scandinavia.Pot-
tery, ornaments made from the teeth of extinct animals,
and the "shoe-last" axes of amphibolite, originating in a
Danubian context in Silesia, Poland appearin the Ertebolle
of Denmark. Bone combs and t-shaped antler axes were
copied from LBK farmersto the south.
The introduction of domesticates, polished stone axes,
new burial practices, and a new form of pottery marks the
end of the Mesolithic and the beginning of the early Ne-
olithic (Gebauer 1995). Some coastal sites continued in
use during the earliest Neolithic for specialized hunting
and fishing until ca. 3300 B.C. (Skaarup 1973; Madsen
1987). Changes in settlement and subsistence are reflected
in sites that are generally smaller in size and located more
inland than during the preceding Mesolithic (Madsen and
Jensen 1982). Stable carbon isotope data indicate a sub-
stantial reduction in the consumption of marine foods
(Tauber 1981; Richards, Price, and Koch in press). Offer-
ings in bogs and large tombs present new social and reli-
gious patterns in the earlyNeolithic TRB. Ceremonial sites
in bogs (Koch 1998; Bennike and Ebbesen 1986) and sac-
rificial deposits of flint axes, amber beads, and copper or-
naments and axes (Becker 1948; Nielsen 1977; Randsborg
28, 2001 47
Journalof FieldArchaeology/Vol.
1975) are further evidence of increased religious activity
and exchange at this time.
History of Research
The site of SmakkerupHuse was probably first discov-
ered when the Horve-Varslev railroad was built through
this area between 1908 and 1916. Leveling the roadbed
across the inlet with earth from both sides of the valley ex-
posed artifactsof bone and antlerthat were collected by the
landowner. The site was first reported to the Danish Na-
tional Museum in 1952, designated as Viskinge sb. 42 (lat-
er as sb. 86), as a result of Therkel Mathiassen's (1959) sur-
vey of NWZealand. A visit made during this survey record-
ed a flake axe made from a pointed-butt polished flint axe,
an antler axe, the neck of a greenstone axe with an hour-
glass-shaped hole, and four knapped blades, all attributed
generically to the Stone Age. Bjarne Larsen and Egon
Iversen, of the ArkaeologiskForening (Archaeological Soci-
ety) in the nearby town of Kalundborg, found a variety of
flint and bone materials under a thick, heavily mixed layer
of gravel. Lisbeth Pedersen, director of the Kalundborg og
Omegns Museum, visited Smakkerup Huse in 1984 after
the current landowner, Karl Jensen, reported plowing up
the remains of charcoal and fire-cracked rock. Core and
flake axes were collected along with flint debitage. Peder-
sen and Iversen undertook the first professional excava-
tions at the site in 1985 with five test pits excavated
through layers of heavy gravel. The two tests on top of the
beach ridge exposed only plow zone on top of gravel and
sand. Below the beach ridge, three test pits revealed stratig-
raphy consisting of the plow zone, a 1-1.5 m thick gravel
layer with heavy iron staining, followed by a grey sand lay-
er with artifacts. The fids included two core axes, three
long thin blades, four cores, and 19 flakes. The flint was
sharp and without damage from being rolled. Groundwa-
ter allowed only a brief glimpse of the cultural layer be-
neath the beach ridge deposits.
Geology and Topography
The local topography and history of deposition at
Smakkerup Huse is essential to an understanding of the
site and its context. The site is located at the head of the
Saltbzk Vig inlet, at the mouth of the Bregninge stream,
halfway between the opening of the Saltbek inlet to the
Kattegat to the west and the hills that mark the east end of
the streamvalley (FIG. 2). The sediments in the Saltbxk Vig
region result from four major processes: the deposition of
ground moraine by Late Pleistocene ice sheets, the melting
of glacial ice leaving deep layers of outwash sand and grav-
el, the transgression of the sea in the Holocene depositing
marine sand and clay, and the subsequent accumulation of
 Huse:A MesolithicSettlementin Denmark/Priceet al.
48 Smakkerup

Figure 2. The location of SmakkerupHuse at the mouth of the Saltbak Vig. The dark shading shows
present water levels in the Kattegat and the SaltbaekVig. The waters of the SaltbaskVig are maintained
by pumping at -1.2 m below sea level. The lighter shading shows the sea level in the Vig during the late
Mesolithic. The first contour line outside the Saltbak Vig is at modern sea level and the second is at 2.5
m, the approximate sea level during the late Mesolithic. Subsequent contour lines are at 5 m intervals.

organic deposits of peat and organic mud (gytja). Marine
sediments define the extent of the basin of the Saltbak Vig
itself, marking the stand of the sea during the Littorina
(Early Holocene sea) transgressions at a maximum of ap-
proximately +2.5 m asl (Mertz 1924). Beach ridges were
formed along the coast of the Saltbek Vig at that time.
SmakkerupHuse is the name given to a small, higher area
defined by the 2.5 m elevation contour, perhaps 1 sq km in
size. This areawould have been an island during periods of
higher sea levels in the late Atlantic and early Subboreal be-
tween approximately 5000 and 3000 B.C. The Smakkerup
Huse site today is situated along that beach ridge on the
south side of the Bregninge A streamvalley near the mouth
of the SaltbakVig (FIG.2). Directly across the valley on the
opposite bank of the Bregninge stream lies the late Erte-
b0lle settlement of Engelsborg.
The Excavations
Excavations at Smakkerup Huse were undertaken to
look for evidence of an occupation horizon on the coast
and to expose the materials preserved in the waterlain de-
posits next to the settlement. While the settlement areahad
been destroyed by wave action and erosion, deep deposits
of waterlain materialwere preserved and became the major
focus of excavation. Excavations in this area continued
down to in situ layers from the middle Ertebolle period.
The excavations at SmakkerupHuse involved two weeks in
1989 and more substantial seasons during the summers of
1995-1997, consuming more than 400 person-days (FIG.
3). In 1989 a 45 m long exploratory trench was excavated
by machine from the beach ridge north down the face of
the coastal barrierto determine the location and extent of
the cultural layer and its relationship to past marine trans-
gressions. The southern 37 m of the trench contained heav-
ily rolled sand and gravel deposits. In the northern, lower
part of the trench was found a deep layer of gytja contain-
ing material from the Ertebolle period. This, the same lay-
er found by Pedersen in 1985, contained fresh, black flint
artifactsand an Ertebolle potsherd, along with bones from
several different species of animals.
Excavations in 1995 began with a machine to remove
the railroad bed and plow zone from two areas along the
former beach ridge (FIG.3). In the smaller unit, only three
test pits were excavated. In the larger excavation unit, the
 Journalof FieldArchaeology/Vol.
28, 2001 49

3
**- '" +
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'
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-- ..

o N
. +4005
0,

-
1* " "'" " ' ~
."
.t.. .--
.
/
/

'-*---**-*-'........-.. //'*----*-^^^^^ ' . . ........

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1989l ..... . . . . . _ 199
LI

""
-
,u / - ?"---- -- -----
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+ +
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+ +
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490W
+44oS

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,~~~~~~~~~~-
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Figure 3. Plan of the excavations at SmakkerupHuse. The location of the composite section shown in
Figure 5 is marked on this plan with a light gray line (A) in the large excavation units from 1996 and
1997. Dotted lines mark removal of the plow zone by machine while solid lines mark actual excavation
areas. Contour lines mark the moder surface of the area at 20 cm intervals up to the line of the railroad
cut. The grid marks are at 10 m intervals.

floor was cleaned, disturbances drawn, and excavation posits. Excavations were concentrated in the large area to
commenced in square meter units and by naturallayers. In the east almost directly under the former railroad bed and
some areas where the natural level was thick, arbitrary10 just offshore in the waterlain deposits. Excavations in 1997
cm units were removed within the layer. Culturalmaterials were opened to the south of the 1996 unit in hopes of un-
were recorded by layer and level. Sediments were water- covering the beach zone of the settlement and to look for
screened though 4 mm sieves, and sediment samples for an occupation horizon on the land adjacent to the sea. In
flotation were collected in levels with cultural materials. addition, three paralleltrenches were excavatedto the west
One long trench was dug along the upper part of the beach to expose the stratigraphyin this area and to look for more
ridge and was used for water screening; a second, to the cultural deposits.
east and south of the eastern excavation unit, exposed
stratigraphyand facilitated drainage of the excavation area. Stratigraphy
Investigations in 1996 also began with a machine to SmakkerupHuse, and much of the coastline of the Salt-
clear the upper sediments from a large area to the east of bak Vig, was exposed to the sea and subject to marine ero-
the 1995 work. In addition, a trench to the west was made sion during the higher sea levels of the mid-Holocene. It is
from the edge of this new area to follow the coastline de- particularlyfortunate that a small point or projection of the
 Huse:A MesolithicSettlementin Denmark/Priceet al.
50 Smakkerup
coast at the site preserved some in situ deposits along its
lee, or eastern, side. This projection was also the spot used
for the railroad bed across the Bregninge A valley, taking
advantageof naturaltopography. The terrainat Smakkerup
Huse slopes slightly from south to north toward the stream
valley, and to a lesser degree from west to east. Deposits to
the south are closer to the beach with more stone and re-
deposited artifacts.The layers to the north and partiallyto
the east formed in deeper water and contain more gytja and
in situ artifacts.The slope from the south toward the north
is more pronounced under the railroad bed, at the beach
ridge, and becomes more level to the east.
It is important to remember that the excavatedlayers at
Smakkerupwere deposited in the water adjacentto the set-
tement. Waterlainsediments vary in texture and composi-
tion depending on their position along the coast and their
exposure to wave action. Thus, a single deposit may change
from organic mud to fine sand to gravel depending upon
the depth and energy of the water along the shore. These
deposits are largely natural accumulations with the occa-
sional introduction of artifactsor waste as either "outcast"
(materialseither lost or tossed into the water as rubbish) or
redeposited materials eroded from the shore. Many of the
coastal sites of the Mesolithic of southern Scandinavia ex-
hibit a common pattern of two major zones of deposition
of cultural material (Andersen 1983). The actual occupa-
tion or living areaof the site contains primarilysmall items
and preservation is usually poor. The second, outcast or
"dump" zone is in the water next to the settlement where
rubbish was tossed and accumulated in the mud (Andersen
1993a, 1995). Items here are generally larger than on the
settlement; bone, and occasionally wood, preservation can
be very good. During the Littorina transgression and re-
gression at Smakkerup Huse erosion and redeposition of
materials from the settlement area itself took place.
The stratigraphyat SmakkerupHuse is complex because
of the sequence of marine transgressionsand regressions in
the middle Holocene. The melting of the Weichselian ice-
cap resulted in rising sea levels continuing through the
Holocene (Christensen 1993, 1995). The sea finally
reached and slightly exceeded modern levels around 4000
B.C. This period, around the time of the transition to agri-
culture, was marked by a series of transgressions and re-
gressions as the sea gradually adjusted to modern levels.
Four episodes of transgression and regression have been
found in western Zealand (Christensen 1997), and three
are recorded at SmakkerupHuse. The first transgression at
Smakkerup Huse takes place during the High Atlantic
around 5000 B.C. (FIG. 4). A second episode dates to the
Atlantic/Subboreal transition around 3900 B.C., and the
third to the Subboreal around 3600 B.C.The stratigraphy
+1 m
1m
'3 m
Years BC 5ooo 4000
Atlantic | Subboreal
Kongemose Ertebolle Early Neolithic
early I middle I late
Figure 4. The rise in sea level at Halskov, western Sjaelland, in the mid
Holocene (after Christensen 1997).
at Smakkerup Huse, then, is a record of these changes in
the inlet during the middle and later Holocene. The com-
posite section from the excavations in Figure 5 shows the
major layers at the site and the sequence of deposits is sum-
marized in Table 2.
Material for the railroad bed comprises the uppermost
layer, beneath which is a remnant of the plow zone. Layer
3 is a laminated horizon of sand and clay that was deposit-
ed in water with changing current velocity. A thick deposit
of iron-stained coarse sand, Layer 4, marks a substantial
transgression/regressionevent. This layer contained a mix-
ture of cultural material, often rolled and patinated, that
had been redeposited here. Layer 5 is a complex erosion
horizon of grey brown sand and gytja becoming more or-
ganic toward the coast and is likely the product of a trans-
gression episode. Layer 6 in this horizon was a practically
sterile brown gytja deposited in deeper water conditions
perhaps reflecting the onset of the Subboreal transgression.
Layer 7 was deposited as a grey sandy ridge during a pe-
riod of decreasing water level, likely a regression episode.
Several facies of this layer could be distinguished as it
changed from more gravel in the upper half (7G) toward
more fine-grained sand in the lower portion. The density
of shell and shell fragments in Layer 7 increased away from
the coast in both the upper and lower sections. This layer,
rich in cultural material, yielded two bones of domestic
 28, 2001 51
Journalof FieldArchaeology/Vol.

Table2. The majordepositsat Smakkerup

Huse alongwith probableassociatedeventsin
the stratigraphic radiocarbon
sequence, dates,and associatedculturalmaterial.
Layer Description YearsB.C.(cal.) Chronology Archaeology
1 Railroad bed - Recent Historic
2 Plow zone - Recent Stray Finds
3 Sand and clay lenses - Tidal water? Sterile
4 Coarse orange sand/gravel - Subboreal regression Erteb0lle/early Neolithic
5 Grey brown sand/gytja - Subboreal regression Late Ertebolle
6 Brown gytja - Subboreal transgression Essentially Sterile
7G Grey sand with gravel 3920-3930 Atlantic/Subboreal regression Late Ertebolle
7 Grey sand/gytja 4220-4090 Atlantic/Subboreal regression Late Ertebolle
8 Brown sandy gytja 4990-4940 High Atlantic transgression Middle Ertebolle
9 Grey sand 5060 High Atlantic transgression
10 Grey sand with gravel - High Atlantic transgression
11 Brown peat 5430 Freshwatermarsh Essentially Sterile
12 Sand/gravel - Pleistocene outwash channel Sterile

cow 14C dated to ca. 3900 B.C. (AAR-3316 and AAR-
3317) a very early Subboreal date. A dog skeleton found in
the upper part of this layer was dated to ca. 4100 B.C.
(AAR-3318). These radiocarbon determinations are dis-
cussed in more detail in the subsequent section on dating.
Because this layer is the result of regression, it is possible
that at least some of the cultural material therein was sec-
ondarily deposited. This shallow water deposit (Layer 7) at
SmakkerupHuse likely corresponds to a similarepisode re-
ported elsewhere in Denmark. Investigations of the oscil-
lations of the Littorina Sea have reported a period of low-
er sea level around 3900 B.C. at the time of the transition
between the Atlantic and Subboreal (Christensen 1997:
53). At Smakkerup Huse this transition appears as a dis-
tinct sand deposit between the Atlantic and Subboreal gyt-
ja layers. The beach deposits of Layer 7 at Smakkerup sit
on top of layers of Atlantic gytja and underlie a later gytja
that must relate to a later transgression and thus a higher
sea level.
Layer 8 is an intact deposit of brown sandy gytja con-
taining more shell toward the bottom of the layer and away
from the coast as well as a largely in situ outcast deposit
from the middle Ertebolle period. The projectile point
types and radiocarbon dates on hazel nutshell (4940 B.C.,
WG-2573) and a bone awl (4990 B.C., WG-2574) confirm
this age. This layer is rich in organic materials and con-
tained a great deal of worked wood. Severalzones could be
distinguished in this layer. One zone lay along the former
coastline where many of the bone points from the excava-
tion were found as well as a number of vertical wooden
stakes; this may have been a fishing areafor both spearfish-
ing and weirs. A second zone to the east contained three
large slabs of bark and several pieces of the tree fungus de-
scribed below. In addition, numerous chips from wood-
working, as observed at other Mesolithic sites (Andersen
1995), were present.
Extending from the first "shoreline"zone to the north,
we encountered a number of large flat stone slabs that had
originally been placed in the water on the slope of the coast
as stepping stones or pavement (FIG. 6). There were small-
er stones between the largerslabs in places closer to the for-
mer shoreline. Similar stone pavements at the shoreline
have been observed at the sites of Tybrind Vig (Andersen
1985) and Vanget Nord (Price and Petersen 1987). This
zone also contained a large pair of red deer antlers intact
with the top of the cranium. In the northern, deeper por-
tion of the excavation we encountered several pieces of
dugout canoes that must have been abandoned in the wa-
ter. This northern area,perhaps at the edge of a coastal reed
bed, was a boat landing area. In this section Layers 9 and
10 are not present.
Beneath this intact outcast layer is a deep deposit of es-
sentially sterile, brown peat (Layer 11) that formed during
freshwater marsh conditions in the Saltbak Vig. A radio-
carbon date from the upper part of this freshwater peat
provided an age of 5430 B.C. (AAR-3783). This peat is
more than 1.5 m thick in this part of the site and likely sits
atop the outwash sand and gravels of the Late glacial peri-
od, when the Saltbxk Vig was a major outlet for meltwa-
ters from the ice decaying in central Zealand. This layer of
outwash sand and gravel (Layer 12) can be seen at the base
of the south end of the section where layers were deposit-
ed directly on the coast. On top of this basal deposit, Lay-
er 10 is grey sand and gravel marking the truncation of the
freshwater peat by rising water levels. An oak tree in this
layer, likely killed by the onset of the transgression, was ra-
diocarbon-dated to 5060 B.C. (AAR-3782).
Finds
The Late Mesolithic Ertebolle culture of southern Scan-
dinavia is characterized by an elaborate blade technology
with distinctive projectile points and core axes. Ground
52 Smakkerup
Huse:A MesolithicSettlementin Denmark/Priceet al.
stone appears as axes, adzes, and other tools. Projectile
weapons had specialized tips of bone, wood, and antler, as
well as of stone. A wide range of fishing gear, including
nets, weirs, spears, leisters (spears with multiple prongs),
hooks, and harpoons is known from this period, along
with dugout canoes and paddles. Pottery appeared after
4700 B.C. in the Ertebolle period and takes several forms
including pointed base cooking vessels, small oval bowls
that likely served as oil lamps, and small cups (Andersen
1991; Gebauer 1995).
Stone tools define the chronological phases of the old-
er, middle, and younger Ertebolle (Vang Petersen 1984).
Transverse points with oblique angles and soft-hammer
blades characterize the Trylleskov, the oldest of the three
Erteb0lle phases on Zealand. Flint points become more
regular and symmetrical through the Ertebolle with core
axes predominant in the Trylleskovphase, replaced by sur-
face retouched flake axes in the Stationsvej phase. Core ax-
es are elaborated with specialized retouched edges in the
Alekistebro phase of the late Ertebolle. Blade knives with
transverseretouch are common. Burins, scrapers,and bor-
ers vary proportionately in the different phases.
Lithics
The vast majority of lithic remains at Smakkerup Huse
were pieces of flaked stone but examples of ground and
polished stone artifactswere also found. Fire-crackedrocks
were common and their presence is simply noted here
along with the unmodified, flat stone slabs used as step-
ping-stones from the shoreline into deeper water (FIG. 6).
FLAKED STONE
Almost 25,000 pieces of flaked flint were recovered
(TABLE 3), and the assemblage was typical of
the Ertebolle
of a few distinctively Neolithic ar-
period with the addition
tifacts in Layer 4. Flakes and blades are the most abundant
artifactsand this pattern is reflected in the number of flake
and blade cores as well. Hard-hammer blades are some-
what more common at Smakkerup Huse although soft-
hammer blades dominate in Layer 8. Burned flint pieces,
constitute
exposed to fires in the settlement area, usually
between 8 and 15% of the total flint in a layer.
The proportion of retouched tools in Mesolithic assem-
blages in southern Scandinavia is low (Johansson 1999;
Stafford 1999) and our site proved no exception. Re-
touched pieces are listed in Table 3 in the categories of re-
touched flakes and blades, points, axes, scrapers, drills,
notched pieces, and burins. The most common categories
of the retouched tools are points and axes. Projectile points
and their preforms are abundant; 365 were found at
Smakkerup Huse, almost 60% of the retouched
tools.
502W
420S
+i.o a; -
j^-S
9'l,9 42 tA' 12 ;:
-5Z ll X X
/' / / / / ?
Drain 10
+0.0 asl _
llPj Stone
Wood
1.0 asl -
Figure 5. Composite stratigraphyat SmakkerupHuse showing major
strata. See also Table 2.
These points are typical for the middle and late Ertebolle.
The leading and trailing edges of the point are the sharp
edges of the blade and the sides are retouched. The leading
edge is usually broader than the trailing edge and flares out
slightly. Through time the points become more symmetri-
cal and parallel-sided. More than half of the points were
found in Layers 4 and 5 where they must have been rede-
posited from the settlement area. There is a tendency for
the transversepoints in these upper layers to be more par-
allel-sided as is expected for later Ertebolle materials (Vang
Petersen 1984).
The flaked stone axes at SmakkerupHuse are fairly typ-
ical for the late Mesolithic. Forty-nine flaked flint axes were
recovered in the excavations. Nineteen of these are core ax-
es and the rest are flake axes. All of the axes are generally
small in size. Core axes are poorly made and often difficult
to distinguish from flake axes. Nine of the core axes were
and
fragments, with an equal number of bit and butt ends
one indeterminable.Three pointed core tools (core borers)
were found and are not included here with axes. Six of the
core axes exhibit specialized edge trimming that is distinc-
tive of the middle and late Ertebolle. The specialized axes
were more or less equally distributed through the stratig-
surface-re-
raphy. Of the 30 flake axes, the symmetrical,
touched axes were the dominant type (12 examples); 5
flake axes were atypical; 4 were of the asymmetrical, sur-
face-trimmed type; and there was one bit end fragment. In
addition two flake chisels were found. The symmetrical,
surface trimmed flake axes are the best and most well
shaped flake axes, but even these appear irregular, small,
and of poor quality.
Table 3 also shows the distribution of flaked stone tools
in the
by layer at SmakkerupHuse. There are no artifacts

railroad bed material (Layer 1) and relatively few in the
plow zone (Layer 2) at the site. There are two major zones
of artifacts, each reflecting marine transgression; one in
Layers 4 and 5 and a second in Layers 7G, 7, and 8. Layer
4 is the coarse sand horizon containing secondarily de-
posited materials largely eroded from the coastline during
the last regression. The large number of projectile points in
this layer is almost certainly a result of this secondary de-
position from the settlement. Layer 5 is a sand and gytja
lens that is likely a mix of late Ertebolle material both out-
cast and eroded from the shore. Layer 6, an otherwise ster-
ile brown gytja, contained only a few, likely introduced, ar-
tifacts. Layer 7/7G of grey sand and gytja is the richest
horizon at the site with a large number of artifactsfrom the
late Ertebolle Alekistebro phase (TABLE i). Layer 8 is an in-
tact deposit of brown gytja with artifacts primarily from
the middle, Stationsvej phase of the Ertebolle (TABLEI).
There is a clear increase in flake axes from the lower to the
upper levels at Smakkerup Huse. Only 3 flake axes were
found in the lowest culturallayer (8) and 13 flake axes were
found in the upper Ertebolle horizon (Layer 7/7G), while
the remainderwere found in the erosion layers above (Lay-
ers 4 and 5). Conversely, core axes are the most common
axe type in the lowest Ertebolle horizon (n= 11) and few-
er were found in the upper Ertebolle horizon (n= 3). Eight
came from the higher erosion horizons (Layers 4 and 5)
where all levels are mixed together.
GROUND OR POLISHED STONE
The most significant ground stone artifactwas one-half
of a greenstone axe (trind0xe). The bit-end fragment was
105 mm long and 45 mm in diameter.The trindoxe, typi-
cally a cylinder of hard, heavy stone shaped by pecking, is
28, 2001 53
Journalof FieldArchaeology/Vol.
50lW
410S
known from the middle and late Mesolithic of southern
Scandinavia. In Denmark they are more common in the
west. Several other worked pieces of stone include an oval
slab of fine-grained sandstone 126 x 94 x 17 mm with
small depressions or cups on one surface and the sides. An-
other was a polygonally shaped slab of sandstone 129 x
114 x 20 mm and the single polished surface was striated
with several lines.
Several fragments of Neolithic polished flint axes are
known from Smakkerup Huse, including two specimens
found during earlier surveys. Two small fragments of Ne-
olithic polished flint axes were found in our excavations,
both in Layer4. No other definite Neolithic materialswere
encountered in the excavations, suggesting at most an
ephemeral presence by post-Mesolithic peoples.
Ceramics
While pottery is well-known from the second half of the
Ertebolle period, after ca. 4700 B.C., only nine sherds were
found in our work, largely in the upper layers (5, 7G, and
7). The differences between Ertebolle and Early Neolithic
utilitarian ceramics are not pronounced (Koch 1998), but
the latter have a flat or rounded base and thinner walls,
along with finer temper and a different coiling technique.
The identification of Ertebolle vs. Early Neolithic pottery
was a concern at SmakkerupHuse because of the presence
of the domesticated cows in the same layers. One sherd
came from a lamp of the middle to late Ertebolle, with soot
residue on the inside rim radiocarbon-datedto 4500-4440
B.C. (WG-2575). A small
cup clearly belongs to the
youngest Ertebolle a form that only appears, for ex-
phase,
ample, in the level at the Ertebolle site of Ringk-
upper
loster (Andersen 1995). An extroverted neck sherd is like-
 28, 2001 55
JournalofField Archaeology/Vol.

Table 3. The number of artifactsper category of flaked stone tools, ordered here in standard
European typology, by layer at SmakkerupHuse. The total number of retouched tools used
to calculate the last column, percent of tools, was 620. Soft blades = soft-hammer production;
hard blades = hard-hammerproduction.
Layer 1 2 3 4 5 6 7G 7 8 9 10 11 12 Totals %Tools
Flakes 0 25 0 3588 4114 43 2171 5703 1643 18 10 51 0 17,366
Soft blades 0 2 0 272 262 1 191 309 143 0 0 4 0 1184 -
Hardblades 0 2 0 195 211 4 159 271 168 1 0 7 0 1018
Totalblades 0 6 0 679 678 8 451 800 412 2 1 13 0 3050
Burnedpieces 0 1 0 444 636 3 582 938 449 40 28 17 0 3138
Ax sharp 0 0 0 7 8 0 9 8 5 0 0 0 0 37 -
Flakecore 0 1 0 35 44 1 23 48 74 2 1 1 0 230 -
Bladecore 0 0 0 4 7 0 6 14 16 0 0 1 0 48 -
Microblades 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 2 0 0 0 0 6 -
Retouchflakes 0 0 0 7 11 0 10 15 9 0 0 0 0 52 8.4
Retouchedblades 0 0 0 24 24 0 16 17 22 0 0 0 0 103 16.6
Point 0 2 0 99 76 0 38 87 21 0 0 1 0 324 52.3
Pointpreform 0 0 0 19 6 0 4 10 2 0 0 0 0 41 6.6
Flakeaxe 0 0 0 9 5 0 5 8 3 0 0 0 0 30 4.8
Coreaxe 0 0 0 4 1 0 0 2 6 0 0 0 0 13 2.1
Specializedcoreaxe 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 1 3 0 0 0 0 6 1.0
Polishaxefragment 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0.3
Scraper 0 0 0 1 3 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 7 1.1
Bladescraper 0 0 0 1 2 0 3 0 1 0 0 0 0 7 1.1
Largeflakedrill 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 4 0 0 0 1 0 7 1.1
Bladedrill 0 0 0 3 5 0 0 4 2 0 0 0 0 14 2.3
Smallflakedrill 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0.3
Notchedblade 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0.2
Burin 0 0 0 2 0 0 2 4 3 0 0 0 0 11 1.8
Burinspall 0 0 0 7 4 0 0 3 0 0 0 1 0 15 -
Microburin 0 0 0 6 2 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 11
Totals 0 39 0 5412 6101 60 3670 8253 2986 65 40 97 0 26,723

number of examples have been reported (Andersen 1983;
Andersen 1987; Christensen 1990; Gron and Skaarup
1991; Hartz 1999). A complete large dugout from the site
ofTybrind Vig in Denmark (Andersen 1987) measures al-
most 10 m in length and 0.65 m in breadth. The sides of
this canoe are 25 cm high and 1-2 cm in thickness, the bow
is a rounded point and the stern is a board inserted at the
back end of the boat. Near the stern of this canoe there is
an oval fire platform, similar to the one we have, made
from clay and small stones 3 cm thick and 70 x 40 cm in
size.
A fragment of an archerybow was found positioned ver-
tically, likely recycled as a wooden stake. Made of elm, one
end had been delicately carvedto a point. The piece was 19
cm long, 4.5 cm wide and 2.1 cm thick at the break, with
a rectangularcross section with oval corners. Similar bows
are known from several other sites,
including Ringkloster
and TybrindVig (Andersen 1985, 1995).
More than 50 worked wooden stakes of
varying length
and diameter were found both standing
verticallyand lying
horizontally in the deposits. Such stakes were likely fences
and fishweirs, common at coastal Mesolithic sites in south-
ern Scandinavia (Andersen 1995; Pedersen 1997). All of
these pieces had been worked, some just cut away from the
tree and others sharpened to a point; in some cases the bark
had been removed (FIG. 7). There are three types of cuts
seen on the base of the stakes. One is a single facet from
one axe blow with the remainder of the limb snapped off
from the tree. A second type of cutting resulted in a chisel
or v-shaped point on the stake created by two or three
blows. The third type of base is a neatly rounded point like-
ly resulting from sharpening of the stake after it was re-
moved from the tree.
Analysis of 32 stakes indicated that all were hazel (Cory-
lus avellana L.), varying in age from 5 to 12 years at the
time of cutting, with a preference toward seven year-old
branches (FIG. 8). The mean diameter of the stakes is 2.8
cm with many fragmentes more than a meter long and
quite straight, often exhibiting the swollen base typical of
coppiced trees (Rackham 1980; Rasmussen 1990). Hazel
normally does not growth in long, straight sections unless
coppiced. Growth rings showed that 22 of the stakes were
harvested at the end of the summer growing season. One
branch five years of age was harvested early in the growing
season (spring), as was another 10 years old. Harvesting of
preferred 7-year-old branches may have been concentrated
56 Smakkerup
Huse:A MesolithicSettlementin Denmark/Priceet al.
162
8
4-
5 6 7 8 9101 12
Year of Cutting
Figure 8. Histogram of hazel stake ages at cutting.
during one time of year, with more opportunistic cutting
in other seasons. It is interesting that the main harvest
would have taken place at the end of the fishing season,
perhaps to cure the wood over the winter before its use in
a weir.
All of the wood remains included in this analysis docu-
ment a long-term practiceof coppicing hazel trees and pur-
poseful management. Since the maximum nut production
of a hazel tree does not occur until around fifteen years of
age, this evidence suggests one goal of husbandry was us-
able wood in addition to nuts.
Plant Remains
Most plant remains were hand picked from wet-sieved
materials, including an enormous amount of nutshell. One
additional archaeobotanical sample consisted of the 1-2
mm fraction of one 10-liter bulk sample. Both sample types
are thus highly biased. The archaeobotanicalassemblage is
dominated by hazel, oak, and hawthorn. The wet screen-
ing also recovered large pieces of fungus and a small frag-
ment of wickerwork described at the end of this section.
Thousands of fragments of hazelnut shells (Corylusavel-
lana L.), very few whole but a number of them burnt, were
collected during water sieving at Smakkerup Huse. The
shells were concentrated in Layers 5, 7, 8, and 11 with the
highest number in Layer 7. Hazelnut shells are abundant
at other coastal Mesolithic sites (e.g., Tybrind Vig and
Bjornsholm [Andersen 1985, 1993b]). Special locations
for harvesting and roasting enormous quantities of nuts are
known in northern Germany (e.g., Bokelmann 1991). All
evidence points to the fact that hazel nuts were an impor-
tant component of Mesolithic diet and could be stored for
months (Kosina 1991).
Both acorn shell and cupule (acorn cap) fragments were
present in wet-sieved samples from Smakkerup, but they
cannot be tied to human activity as they are mostly un-
charred and many are immature. They likely indicate that
oak was growing near the site, but charred acorn shells
were present in very low numbers, raising the possibility of
human consumption. It is difficult to assess the importance
of acorns in the diet, however, since the nutshell is very thin
and does not preserve well. Remains of buds and small
sterile or immature whole acorns (barely, if at all, exserted
from their cupules) were also present but, as with similar
remains at other Ertebolle sites (e.g., Bokeberg III in Reg-
nell et al. 1995; Mollegabet II in Gron and Skaarup 1991;
Mason, Hather, and Hillman in press b; Halsskov in
Robinson and Harild in press; Tybrind Vig in Kubiak-
Martens 1999), their interpretation is problematic. They
may have entered the site with twigs, carried in for some
purpose or they may indicate the presence of nearby, over-
hanging trees. Quercus wood charcoal is present in some
samples, indicating its likely use as fuel.
Crataegus(hawthorn) fruits were recovered via wet siev-
ing, usually in the form of the pyrenes (stones), though oc-
casional whole fruits are present, sometimes somewhat im-
mature. Where identifiable to species these appearto be of
C. monogynaJacq. Since Crataegusfruits are edible, these
may be food remains. They are a frequent find at the Erte-
b0lle site of Mollegabet II (Gron and Skaarup 1991; Ma-
son, Hather, and Hillman in press b) and Ringkloster (An-
dersen 1998). Crataegusfruits in Scandinaviatoday are col-
lected in the fall afterthe first frost when the fruit is less bit-
ter.
Other specimens present in the wet-sieved samples are
largely unidentifiable, mostly consisting of fragments of
petiole or peduncle (leaf or fruit stalks). It is likely that they
derive from one or other of the taxa alreadyidentified. One
charredfragment of plant tissue was examined under SEM
and identified as parenchyma,possibly deriving from roots
or tubers. Such finds are increasingly common on Euro-
pean Paleolithic and Mesolithic sites (Holden, Hather, and
Watson 1995; Kubiak-Martens 1996, 1999; Mason,
Hather, and Hillman in press a; Perry1997, 1999, in press;
Robinson and Harild, in press; Zapata et al., in press), ow-
ing to improved techniques of recovery. Other plant re-
mains, from the 1-2 mm fraction of one 10 liter bulk sam-
ple, included both charred and waterlogged plant remains.
The bulk of charred remains were wood and stem or rhi-
zome of Equisetum (horsetail) with a small number of
charred fragments of Tilia bark. There were several frag-
ments of possible parenchyma and cf. Gramineae stem (re-

sembling Phragmites)and one seed each ofJuncus, Galium,
and Gramineae. Mats made of Tilia bast are known from
other Ertebolle sites, such as Tybrind Vig, and Phragmites H. Strehle, personal communication 2000) or willow
stems would provide useful thatching material. The pres-
ence of Equisetumis harder to explain, but it is interesting
that it has been noted also at Mesolithic sites in the Nether-
lands, where it was the most ubiquitous class of vegetative
remains (Perry 1999).
The bulk sample also yielded fragments of wood, bark
of
(notably Tilia), stem, leaf of both dicots and monocots,
roots, Bryophytes, bud scales (many of Quercus type), as
well as fungal sclerotia, small snails, fragmented oyster
shell, fish bones, foraminifera, and insect remains. There
were also a large number of uncharred seeds, with abun-
dant Chenopodiaceae (largely cf. Chenopodiumalbum, also
Suaedamaritima, among other species) and Ruppia mariti-
ma. Other species present in smallernumbers included Ur-
tica, Rubus, Rumex, and cf. Malus. The presence of abun-
dant seeds ofRuppia, a submerged maritime plant of salt-
water pools, and considerable numbers of foraminifera,
which live largely in sub- or inter-tidal zones reflects the
waterlain deposition at SmakkerupHuse. Many of the re-
mains found are of ruderal species (characteristicof dis-
turbed habitats, in some cases especially maritime habitats,
and also producers of large numbers of seeds). Most of
these species have edible seeds, greens, or fruits, and many
have been recovered from other Ertebolle sites (Kubiak-
Martens 1999; Regnell et al. 1995).
Some of the more unusual finds at the site were pieces
of tree fungus or polypores (Fomesor Polyporusfomentar-
ius), known in Danish asfrsvamp or tondersvamp(fire fun-
gus or tinder fungus). This fungus grows commonly today
as a thick shelf, white-brown in color, on birch and beech
trees (Mason and Hather in press). Over ten pieces more
than 10 cm in diameter were found here and many pieces
were also found at the submerged site ofTybrind Vig of the
west coast of the Danish island of Funen (Lange 1994).
Fyrsvampis well known as a tinder or punk for use in start-
ing fires. Its use as tinder is mentioned in the Icelandic
sagas and the fungus was included in the fire-making kit of
the Iceman (Chapela and Lizon 1993; Poder, Puimpel,and
Peintner 1994). One thin, flat piece of fyrsvamp had the
texture of leather, but an amino acid comparison showed
this object not to be skin. The piece resembles felt;
perhaps
there was some cloth-like use for the material.
A wicker fragment, probably a fish trap,
perhaps a bas-
ket or a bag, was approximately 35 x 15 mm and consists
of six cross-strandswoven with two pairs of thinner, braid-
ed strands. Each pair of strands is twisted so that it crosses
over between each of the cross-strands. This pattern is
known from fish traps at other Danish Mesolithic sites.
28, 2001 57
Journalof FieldArchaeology/Vol.
While the plant species is unknown, the materialis not bast
(beaten bark), but perhaps heather (P. H. Mikkelsen and
(Myrhoj 1997). Heather likely would not have survived
well in marine environment (L. Pedersen, personal com-
munication 2000).
Animal Remains
The faunal remains from 1989 were identified by Tine
Trolle-Lassen;the non-fish bones from the excavations in
the 1990s were studied by Hede (1999). The fauna in-
cludes 16 species of mammals, 5 of birds, and 1 amphibian
(TABLE 4). No human bones were recovered. A total of
1773 bones, representing at least 70 individual animals,
could be identified as to species from the approximately
22,500 fragments that were examined. In general the bone
material is well preserved but heavily fragmented from
butchering, the extraction of marrow, and the manufacture
of bone tools.
The remains of forest game animals are most common
among the mammals and include red and roe deer and wild
boar (FIG. 9). Several fur-bearing taxa are present, includ-
ing marten, beaver,otter, dog, and wildcat, with similar as-
semblages known from other Mesolithic sites: Agernams
(Richter and Noe-Nygaard in press), Ringkloster, and Ty-
brind Vig (Andersen 1985, 1995). While fish (discussed
below) dominate the marine fauna, sea mammals are rep-
resented by two species of seals (Halichoerusgrypus and
Phocahispidae).Less than 1% of the total number of bone
fragments could be identified as bird; such a small show-
ing is common at late Mesolithic sites owing to the fragili-
ty ofthin-walled bird bones. Small mammals, no doubt un-
derrepresented here because of the size of the screen, in-
clude squirrels, hedgehogs, and two kinds of voles. While
the voles may occur naturally (cf. Noe-Nygaard 1995),
squirrels and hedgehogs had economic value (Aaris-
Sorensen and Andreasen 1993).
Two domesticated species were present, dog and cow.
Bones from several individual dogs were found, including
one partially articulatedskeleton. Cutmarks on the last in-
dicated that it was skinned before the carcasswas thrown
in the water. Stable carbon isotope analysis of the dog col-
lagen produced a negative value of -10.2 parts per thou-
sand (ppt). What is striking about this value-the lowest
reported for a dog in southern Scandinavia-is that it sug-
gests an almost exclusively marine diet for this animal. Sta-
ble isotope ratios in dogs have been used as a
proxy for hu-
man diet in Mesolithic studies (Noe-Nygaard 1988,
1995). Three bone fragments were identified as the upper
joint of the radius and the lower joint of a metacarpus and
a metatarsus from domestic cattle. Identification is
58 Smakkerup
Huse:A MesolithicSettlementin Denmark/Priceet al.

Table 4. Species of animal bones identified from excavations at ppt) compared to modern individuals and to prehistoric
SmakkerupHuse. roe deer at SmakkerupHuse (n= 3, mean = 21.76 ppt) are
Minimum
Number of interpreted as a result of increasing forestation of the area
Talon Scientificname Commonname Elements around SmakkerupHuse. This conclusion matches the re-
Mammal Cervuselaphus Red deer 732 sults from investigations in the nearby Amose region
Roe deer 664
Capreoluscapreolus
Susscrofa Wild boar 270 (Noe-Nygaard 1995). The red deer sought most of its food
Bos domesticus Domestic cow 4 in the shaded forest vegetation, while the roe deer browsed
Domestic dog 39 in the more exposed vegetation of the forest rim along the
Canisfamiliaris
Vulpesvulpes Fox 1 coast. The stable carbon isotope values of the wild boar
Felissilvestris Wildcat 10
Martes martes Marten 4 (n= 3, mean = -20.08 ppt) are slightly less negative than
the deer, possibly the result of feeding on vegetation along
Lutra lutra Otter 17
Halichoerusgrypus Grey seal 3 the beach.
Phocahispidae Ring seal 2 The vast majority of the faunal remains (96%) come
Castorfiber Beaver 4
from Layers 5, 7G, 7, and 8, with a pronounced abundance
Sciurusvulgaris Red squirrel 1
Water vole 8 in Layer 7. Animals equally distributed in all layers are the
Arvicolaterrestris
Clethrionomysglareolus? Bank vole? 8 most common species including red and roe deer, pig, dog,
6
Erinaceuseuropaeus Hedgehog otter, and water vole. There is little change in the propor-
Amphibian Bufo sp. Toad 1 tions of red deer, roe deer, and wild boar over time; red is
Bird Anas sp. Duck 1 38-50%, roe is 25-43%, and boar is 10-16% in the four
Swan 3
Cygnussp.
Turpusmenula Blackbird 2 layers. Dog is represented in all four layers and particular-
Tetraourogallus Capercaillie 3 ly in Layer 7G with the articulated skeleton. The cow
Haliaeetus albicilla White-tailed eagle 2 bones are found in the higher Layers 5, 7G, and 7, a cir-
Fish Gadusmorhua Cod 805 cumstance that likely reflects the rough contemporaneity of
Merlangius merlangus Whiting 2
2 these layers and the presence of secondarily deposited ma-
Clupeaharengus Herring
Platichthys Flounder 1708 terials. The fur-bearing species are more common in the
Belonebelone Garfish 620 lower layers, but we note that there are many more identi-
Scomberscombrus Mackerel 81 fied individuals in those layers. While there seems to be
Myoxocephalus scorpius Bullhead 5
50 more variety in Layer 8, given the relatively small sample
Squalesacanthias Spiny dogfish
Eel 157 size, there is little substantive observable change over time
Anguilla anguilla
Rutilus rutilus Roach 16 in the faunal remains at SmakkerupHuse.
Bream 2
Abramis brama
2
The bone treatment and fragmentation pattern at
Luciopercalucioperca Zander
Esoxlucius Pike 101 SmakkerupHuse is consistent with those for prey animals
at other late Mesolithic sites in southern Scandinavia(Noe-
Nygaard 1977, 1988, 1995; Trolle-Lassen 1987, 1992).
Few differences could be seen in these patterns among the
straightforward based on the size and thickness of the
bone. Although it is sometimes difficult to distinguish do- three major species-red deer, roe deer, and wild boar-at
mesticated cattle from Bos taurus, the aurochs (Degerbol the site, with bones reduced to fragments via marrow frac-
less
and Fredskild 1970; Grigson 1974; Rasmussen and turing or tool production. Juvenile animal bones are
Richter 1991; Noe-Nygaard 1995), that animal had been fractured than adult bones. Red deer (Cervuselaphus) did
extirpated on the island of Zealand at least 1000 years pri-
show some difference in the representation of elements;
or to the occupation of SmakkerupHuse (Aaris-Sorensen solid bones with little meat, such as phalanges, and the dis-
a tal ends of limb bones are present but the proximal end is
1980). The cow bones are from adult animals; there is
the is terminat- often missing, likely because of scavenging dogs, who left
complete fusion of the diaphysis, epiphysis
ed and the suture is obliterated. Radiocarbon dates from tooth marks on bone fragments from a range of species.
indicates
two of the cow bones and the articulateddog skeleton are Analysis of bone, teeth, and antler fragments
discussed below in the section on dating. Stable carbon val- that the site was definitely occupied in the summer, fall,
ues for the domestic cow bone collagen (n=2, mean = and winter, and likely year-round (FIG. io). In common
-21.5 ppt) seem to indicate that they were feeding along with Mesolithic sites throughout southern Scandinavia,
the forest rim or in more open grass areas, compared to there are few indicators of spring in the fauna. There areju-
other species. veniles, no more than a year old, of both red deer and wild
The '13C values from red deer (n=4, mean = -22.87 boar that must have been born in the spring or early sum-

Figure 9. Proportion of estimated minimum number of individuals
(EMNI) by major species at SmakkerupHuse.
mer. Antler development in red deer and roe deer indicates
summer and winter occupation. Fully developed red deer
antler attached to the skull reflects a period from Septem-
ber through February;roe deer carrydeveloped antler such
as found at SmakkerupHuse in the summer months, May
through October. Fur-bearing animals such as otter and
beaver are usually hunted in the winter when their pelts are
in prime condition. Age estimates from the mandibles of
wild boar show that they were taken during summer, fall,
and winter.
Fish and Shellfish
The fish remains comprise 11,140 bones, of which
9332 were identified as to species or family by Larsen
(2000). Nearly all were collected by water sieving with 4
mm screens. Thirteen species, including three flatfish, are
represented (TABLE 4). The majority of the bones come
from either small species (e.g., roach, Rutilus rutilus) or
small individuals from species that have large adults (e.g.,
cod, Gadus morhua). Small fish are often caught uninten-
tionally in fish traps as secondary catch (Enghoff 1994). Of
the identified fish bones, approximately 70% came from
cod, 18% from various flatfish, 7% from gar, and the re-
maining 5% were other species. The vast majority were
saltwaterspecies, including the spiny dogfish, whiting, gar,
and mackerel. Freshwater species include zander, roach,
bream, and pike.
The fish species at SmakkerupHuse are coastal dwellers,
some living out their lives along the coast in in-shore envi-
ronments of the eel grass zone, such as the bullhead
(My-
oxocephalusscorpius).Gar (Belone belone) and dogfish are
found around the coast in the summer while
feeding on
smaller fish. None of the identified species are
solely deep-
water dwellers. The fish represented are found
primarily
during the warmer half of the year. Some of the species are
only found in the summer today in Denmark, such as gar
Journalof FieldArchaeology/Vol.
28, 2001 59
and mackerel (Scomberscombrus),and thus may be season-
al indicators. Zander (Luciopercalucioperca)is an indicator
of warmer climate during the Atlantic episode; its present
habitat is in the south of France. The majority of the fish,
such as the small cod and flatfish, are taken in shallow wa-
ters during the summer. The evidence for the importance
of fishing at Smakkerup Huse consists of the fish bone,
oyster shell, the placement of the site near the mouth of the
fjord, and fishing equipment, such as bone fish hooks and
awls. Recall also the dugout canoes and the bones of grey
and ring seals. Large oyster shells, some burnt, were pre-
sent in the cultural layers, clearly collected nearby and eat-
en at the site. Many other species of shells were also found
at the site, but with the exception of oysters and perhaps
the blue mussels are largely naturallypresent in the site.
BoneandAntlerArtifacts
A number of worked bone artifactswere found includ-
ing a bird bone awl, a possible needle, 2 perforated tooth
pendants, a worked tooth, 55 awls (Danish: prene), 6
points, 6 fish hooks, 1 possible hair pin, 1 dogfish spine,
and several pieces of worked antler including fragments of
two retouchoirs and an axe. In addition, one complete rack
of red deer antler and a large piece of a single antler, both
with cut marks, were excavated.Another rackof antler had
been found nearby during the construction of the railroad.
Some of these items are briefly described below to provide
a sense of their form and variety.
Bone spikes (Danish: prene), asymmetricalthough very
uniform in size and shape, were made from the proximal
ends of roe deer metatarsals. The discarded distal ends
make up the principal presence of roe deer metatarsals in
the faunal remains at SmakkerupHuse. Although awl-like
in shape, these objects were used as a spike for a fishing
spear or, less likely, a leister, since no leister prongs were
found. There were 54 found in a distinct zone parallel to
the coastline a few meters from the water's edge. The arti-
facts must have accumulated there as a result of spearfish-
ing from the shore. The average length of the 32 intact
specimens is 82 mm and the average weight is 3.9 g.
Two intact fishhooks and four fragmentary specimens
were recovered, all with a distinctive shape and carvedfrom
bone. The shank of the hook has a small knob of bone for
attaching the line; the curve of the hook is thicker than the
shank and ends in a barbless point. Five of the hooks were
small, ca. 15 mm in length by 7 mm wide, appropriatefor
small fish and eels. The hooks were cut from a thin, flat
piece of bone between 1.4-1.7 mm thick, perhaps a scapu-
la. Bone points, however, were made by
grinding and pol-
ishing a dense piece of bone into a round, narrow, sym-
metrical shaft with a sharply pointed end. A total of six
60 SmakkerupHuse: A Mesolithic Settlement in Denmark/Price et al.
Month/Indicator J F M A M J
Reddeerantlerdevelopment
Reddeerjuvenile
ontogeny
Roedeerantlerdevelopment
Wildboartootheruption
primefur
Otter/beaver
I I t I
Figure 10. Seasonal indicators at Smakkerup Huse.
were found at SmakkerupHuse of which three were intact.
A little larger than bone spikes, intact bone points averaged
90 mm in length with a diameter of 7 mm.
The awl of bird bone is an artifact not usually seen on
Zealand; in Jutland, where it is more common, it is nor-
mally made of swan bone. The specimen from Smakkerup
Huse is bird bone (species indeterminate but not swan),
polished to a beveled, hollow point on one end and broken
on the other. The preservedlength is 118 mm, the bone di-
ameter is 6 mm, and the point is beveled over 39 mm. A
pin of bone from Smakkerup closely resembles an object
reported from atop the head of a female burial from Ved-
bak (Petersen 1990). Our specimen is 172 mm long and
approximately 7 mm in diameter, polished to straighten
and create a point at one end. One of the eight dogfish
spines showed clear evidence of use as a fine piercing tool
with its point slightly rounded and reduced from use, per-
haps from working skin or leather. Similar specimens are
known from other Mesolithic sites (Larsen 2000; Noe-
Nygaard 1971, 1995).
Two fragmentaryantler axes, one of indeterminate type,
were found at Smakkerup Huse. One is a small piece ap-
proximately 4.5 cm in length and 2 cm wide preserving
perhaps one-third of the shaft hole. Two joining fragments
are from a typical Ertebolle type, made on the main beam
of red deer antler with the shaft hole near the burr,or coro-
net, of the antler (Andersen 1995).
Tooth pendants, most commonly of red deer, are known
from Mesolithic residential sites in southern Scandinavia
and are also well known from burials (Larsson 1989,
1990; Petersen 1990; Nielsen and Petersen 1993). Such
root
pendants are either perforatednear the tip of the tooth
or incised with thin lines around the root, presumably to
facilitate binding. Two examples, both of red deer, were re-
covered at Smakkerup Huse. A canine tooth is perforated
at the tip of the root with an hourglass-shaped hole ca. 2
mm in diameter. The second, an incisor, is unusual in that
it is both perforated and incised with pairs of lines across
the root between the perforation and the enamel; these in-
J A O N D
I I I
cisions are likely decoration. A third tooth was heavily
worn, with the root ground on two sides to a point. Its
function is unknown.
OtherFinds
A small amber pendant (ca. 15 x 10 mm) of inverted-T
shape, with a groove for stringing near the top of the neck,
was recovered in the excavations. Amber is found occa-
sionally at Mesolithic sites in the Baltic region, often in the
form of jewelry. The most unusual find from Smakkerup
Huse was an oval, white quartzite pebble painted with
black bands and three dots (FIG. II). The bands range from
4-12 mm in width, two running around the pebble, on its
short axis. A wide line on either side of the pebble connects
the two bands. Another wide line runs from front to back
over the wider end of the oval pebble, connecting one of
the tranverse bands. Two circular dots, approximately 10
mm in diameter, were placed on the corners of the wide
end of the pebble and a third at the narrow end. The char-
coal-based paint has fragments of charcoal visible under a
microscope. There are no comparable examples from Scan-
dinavia and the closest parallelsknown are the painted peb-
bles of the Azilian, ca. 4000 years earlier,of southern Ger-
many and France. In fact several illustrated examples of
Azilian pebbles closely resemble the pattern seen on our
piece but are found on smaller, flat pebbles.
Dating
The artifactsat SmakkerupHuse are late Mesolithic, of
the middle and late Ertebolle period, specifically its Sta-
tionsvej and Alekistebro phases, between 4800 and 3900
B.C. There are only a few items from later time periods,
such as the polished axe fragments and a projectile point of
the Pitted Ware Culture found on the surface. Eight radio-
carbon dates are listed in Table 5. Five dates were obtained
from the AMS laboratory at Aarhus University (AAR).
Three of these were samples of fauna and two were pieces
of wood from geological contexts. Three experimental
dates were also obtained from a NEC accelerator mass

:?
:. .: . : .
Figure 11. Five sides of the painted pebble. The object is 7.7 cm by 5.3 cm by 3.5 cm (drawing by Kurt
Petersen).
spectrometer in Middleton, Wisconsin, in January 1998
(WG). No stable carbon measurements were made on
these three samples and no corrections for marine reservoir
effect have been made for any of these dates. Reported cal-
ibrations are highest probability values at ? 1 s.d. (Stuiver
et al. 1998).
The dates for the two bones of domesticated cow found
in Layers 7G and 7 are virtually identical. The boundary
between these two layers was vague in the field and these
layers may have formed at about the same time. The two
cow bones are among the earliest in southern Scandinavia
and date from the transition to agriculturein this area.The
Neolithic in western Sjalland begins around 3950 B.C.
(Fischer in press) but the absence of other Neolithic mate-
rials in Layer 7G/7 at SmakkerupHuse suggests that these
cattle come from a very late Mesolithic context. The do-
mesticated dog bone (see above, "Animal Remains") in
Layer 7G is slightly older than the two cow bones and per-
haps a bit too old.
Three dates were obtained on materialsfrom Layer 8, of
which those from a hazel nutshell and a bone point arevery
similar. The third date came from soot residue on a sherd
of a ceramiclamp, perhaps from burning oil extractedfrom
marine mammals, and is several hundred years younger
(4466 B.C.) and is thus problematic. The remaining two
measurements were obtained from natural features at the
site. There were a number of stumps and trunks of oak
trees in Layer 9. One stump at 0.33 m asl yielded a radio-
carbon date (5082-4959 B.C.). This date likely marks the
28, 2001 61
JournalofFieldArchaeology/Vol.
t.
drowning of the tree by the High Atlantic transgression in
this area and corresponds very closely with the latest die-
off of oak trees in the Halskov fjord 35 km to the south
(Christensen 1997). Another determination was made on
a small fragment of wood from the peat of Layer 11 at an
elevation of -0.23 cm asl to obtain an age for the freshwa-
ter marsh. While there were rising sea levels earlier in the
Atlantic period, the sea had not, at this time, penetrated the
Saltbek Vig.
Discussion
The excavations at SmakkerupHuse document the na-
ture of coastal settlement during the late Mesolithic in
southern Scandinavia. Although the actual living area has
disappeared,deposits in the water next to the site preserved
a great deal of information regarding the environment, set-
tlement and subsistence, technology, and other aspects of
human adaptation in the middle Holocene. The stratigra-
phy provides a history of environmental development in
this areafrom the meltwater drainage of decaying ice at the
end of the Pleistocene to the freshwater marsh and river
regime of the Bregninge A in the early mid-Holocene. The
continuing rise of sea level brought the sea into the river
drainage, creating the fjord at around 5000 B.C., when
SmakkerupHuse was first occupied. Subsequently a series
of marine transgressions and regressions over the next mil-
lennium created the rich deposits that are described here
while the settlement area itself was erased by coastal ero-
sion. Specific information on the size and nature of the set-
62 SmakkerupHuse: A Mesolithic Settlement in Denmark/Price et al.

Table5. RadiocarbondatesfromSmakkerupHuse.
Labno. Material Layer 3/12C 4CB.P YearsB.C.cal.
AAR-3316 Cow bone 7G -21.4 5059?68 3945-3789
AAR-3318 Dog bone 7G -10.2 5319?65 4174-4044
AAR-3317 Cow bone 7 -21.6 5060?61 3885-3795
WG 2573 Hazelnut shell 8 - 6060 ?60 5004-4902
WG 2574 Bone point 8 - 6100 60 5069-4935
WG2575 Lamp residue 8 - 5650 70 4547-4442
AAR-3782 Oak wood stump 9 -25.4 6140 60 5082-4959
AAR-3783 Wood fragment 11 -28.3 6495 ?60 5412-5371
in peat

tlement, and the numbers of dwellings and individuals at
Smakkerup Huse, will never be known. Nevertheless we
know that the site was occupied over a relativelylong span
throughout much of the 5th millennium B.C., but whether
this occupation was continuous or recurrent is uncertain.
Elsewhere, settlements in the later Mesolithic were often
long term, frequently containing material from both the
Stationsvej and Alekistebro phases of the Ertebolle (e.g.,
Andersen 1993a; Larsson 1997).
Smakkerup Huse, near the juncture of the freshwater
stream and the salt water inlet, was well situated with re-
spect to a great variety of freshwater and marine resources.
The settlement must have been situated directly on the
coast of the Saltbxk Vig. Such coastal location is typical for
the later Mesolithic (Andersen 1993a, 1993b) and provid-
ed immediate access to the inlet, good spawning ground
for cod and flatfish, with terrestrialresources nearby.There
is evidence of year-round settlement at SmakkerupHuse in
the plant and animal remains. The terrestrialfauna points
to residence during summer, fall, and winter, and the ma-
jority of fish remains contain smaller fish and species that
are common along the coast in the summer time. Oysters,
on the other hand, are best in the winter and spring before
they spawn and are not eaten much today in the summer
and fall. Leafy plants and seeds were likely collected in the
summer and hazelnuts and white hawthorn fruit ripen in
the fall. Growth rings in the hazel stakes indicate that some
cutting was done in the spring, completing the annual cy-
cle at the site. Ecologically, coppiced woodlands require a
good bit of year-round attention as they attract deer and
other herbivores that, unless discouraged, will eat the
young shoots. Overall, the argument is strong that the site
was occupied throughout the year.
The terrestrialfauna is dominated by the three primary
game animals of the later Mesolithic-red deer, roe deer,
and wild boar-along with several fur-bearing species-
marten, fox, beaver, otter, wild cat, and domestic dog.
Aquatic remains include a variety of salt- and freshwater
fish, along with seal and oyster. The small size of the fish
emphasizes the use of the littoral zone, likely within the
fjord, ratherthan deeper waters. The importance of marine
foods is reflected in the wide variety of fishing equipment.
Plant foods are dominated by the ubiquitous presence of
hazelnuts, which could have been stored for a number of
months and may have been an important staple in the diet
(Zvelebil 1995). Acorns were present and probably eaten
but the evidence is not yet sufficient. There is evidence for
various fruits including the white hawthorn and charredre-
mains suggest that roots were also part of the diet.
The technology of the late Mesolithic emphasizes
wood, bone, and stone. Because of preservation in water-
logged sediments, parts of the wood and bone technology
survive to complement stone tools. Hazel stakes, the most
common of the wood assemblage, functioned in fishing
fences or weirs. What is probably a fish trap of woven
stalks, and the elm bow add to our knowledge of Mesolith-
ic lifeways. Several pieces of dugout canoes were found,
and numerous wood chips may be in part a product of their
manufacture. The fyrvamp fungus, likely used as tinder, is
common at the site. The fyrsvamp "felt" is reported here
for the first time. Horsetail, phragmites reeds, and lime
tree bark probably represent raw materials; the reeds may
have been used for thatch and the lime bark for flooring.
Tools of bone and antler, including carefilly crafted bone
fish hooks, were used for fishing, hunting, and other pur-
poses. Antlers were employed as hammers and flint-knap-
ping tools. Most of the stone tools were of good quality
flint available in the region either on beaches or in the
ground moraine. Flint blades are the single most important
component of the lithic assemblage. Many of these are un-
retouched and often not counted as tools in traditional ty-
pology. Nevertheless, these simple blades were the major
stone tool of the Mesolithic; many types such as scrapers,
borers, and burins are uncommon and clearly not a major
part of the Mesolithic assemblage. There is in fact a re-
markablerarityof stone tools other than blades, projectile
points, and axes, but a large quantity of debitage suggests
that many tools may have been made and used elsewhere.
Core axes and flake axes are present throughout the de-
posits and one ground stone axe was recovered.

The ceramics in the later Ertebolle at the site are almost
indistinguishable from the undecorated sherds of Early
Neolithic pottery in this area. In fact, Ertebolle pottery
outside of a few areasin southern Scandinaviais, common
characterizationsto the contrary,not particularlythick and
is reasonably well made. In addition, there are several dif-
ferent forms represented, even in the small assemblage at
Smakkerup Huse including small cups, oval lamp bowls,
and larger jars.
The perforated teeth, the amber pendant, the painted
pebble, and the hair pin are reflections of aesthetic experi-
ence beyond the necessities of subsistence and daily life.
Such objects are known elsewhere from Mesolithic graves
as well as isolated finds. While the perforated teeth were
likely sewn on clothing and the amber pendant was prob-
ably a piece of jewelry, the painted pebble remains enig-
matic.
There is some suggestion of interaction between the
folk at Smakkerup Huse and western Denmark, although
the site is on the west coast of the island of Zealand. Some
artifacttypes at the site are more common on the island of
Funen and the peninsula of Jutland than they are in eastern
Zealand and southern Sweden. Trindoxe, for example, are
more common in Jutland than in Zealand. Ertebolle ce-
ramics in Zealand are normally thicker and coarserthan the
examples from Smakkerup Huse, while those from the
west exhibit thinner walls and finer construction. The bird
bone awl from Smakkerup Huse is largely unknown on
Zealand, but more common to the west in Jutland and Fu-
nen. SmakkerupHuse is remarkablysimilar to the late Er-
teb0lle site ofTybrind Vig, submerged off the west coast of
the island of Funen (FIG. i; Andersen 1985, 1987), and oc-
cupied intermittently from the early Ertebolle until the be-
ginning of the Neolithic.
What is Neolithic at Smakkerup Huse?
The presence of cattle bones in Layer 7/7G at
Smakkerup Huse raise the question of what defines the
Neolithic. Domestic cattle are "Neolithic" by definition
and, at SmakkerupHuse, are radiocarbon-datedto the very
beginning of the EarlyNeolithic period (3900-3800 B.C.).
These bones were found, however, in a layer where all the
artifactual materials belong to the Ertebolle period. The
question then becomes whether this is a late Mesolithic site
with domestic cattle or an Early Neolithic site with a
Mesolithic assemblage.
This problem is present at other late Mesolithic sites in
southern Scandinavia (Petersson 1999;
Rowley-Conwy
1995a, 1995b; Schwabedissen 1981) where "Neolithic"
artifacts have been found in Mesolithic contexts.
Pottery,
t-shaped antler axes, bone rings, and bone combs represent
28, 2001 63
JournalofFieldArchaeology/Vol.
ideas or items borrowed from the Neolithic inhabitants of
Central Europe. Items of source-specific raw material such
as Danubian shafthole axes (Fischer 1982, in press; Fisch-
er, Pedersen, and Hald 1997) moved from the Neolithic of
eastern Europe into the Mesolithic of southern Scandi-
navia. Antler and bone items were copied in local material
in the Ertebolle and waste from their production is not un-
common. Clearlythere was contact between contemporary
Mesolithic and Neolithic societies. These items began to
appear in Mesolithic contexts in the middle and late phas-
es of the Ertebolle, more than 500 years before the intro-
duction of domesticated plants and animals. It is, in fact,
remarkablethat domesticates appearso late in the sequence
in northern Europe (Price 2000; Rowley-Conwy 1995b).
Reports of cereal pollen in pre-Neolithic contexts (e.g.,
Kolstrup 1988; Schiitrumpf 1972) are not generally ac-
cepted since pollen may be mobile in sediments and there
are no charred examples. At the sites of Loddesborg and
Vik in southern Sweden, Jennbert (1984) has document-
ed casts of domesticated cereals in Ertebolle pottery dating
to ca. 4000 B.C., shortly before the beginning of the Ne-
olithic (Koch 1998).
Early domesticated cattle also appear.The late Mesolith-
ic site of Rosenhof in Holstein, Germany, (Schwabedissen
1972) yielded bone of domesticated cow with a radiocar-
bon date of ca. 4850 B.C. (Hedges et al. 1993). It is not im-
possible that this cow was stolen from Neolithic farmersto
the south. Other early cattle from Zealand are known from
Early Neolithic contexts at 0garde (3940-3840 B.C.) and
Snevret Hegn (3800-3650 B.C.) (Koch 1998).
It is certainly the case that most late Ertebolle coastal
sites in northern Germany, Denmark, and southern Swe-
den witness a continuation of settlement into the Early Ne-
olithic. Bjornsholm, for example, is a huge shell midden in
the central Limfjord area of northern Jutland and dates to
the late Mesolithic and Early Neolithic (Andersen 1993b;
Andersen and Johansen 1992). The site is of particularim-
portance because of the presence of midden and settlement
remains from both periods, along with evidence for an
earthen long barrow. The Ertebolle layers at Bjornsholm
date from 5050 to 4050 B.C. and the Early Neolithic from
3960 to 3530 B.C. The Ertebolle levels at the shell midden
of Norsminde in eastern Jutland date from ca. 4300 to
3800 B.C. while the subsequent Early Neolithic layers are
from ca. 3775 to 3425 B.C. (Andersen 1991). The Ne-
olithic layer at Norsminde was characterizedby an abun-
dance of Funnel Beakerpottery, polished flint axes, and the
remains of domesticated animals and plants. In all these
cases Neolithic artifactsaccompany the introduction of do-
mesticated species.
There are only four pieces of Neolithic material at
64 Smakkerup
Huse:A MesolithicSettlementin Denmark/Priceet al.
SmakkerupHuse: two small flakes from polished flint axes
found in Layer 4 (the redeposited material from the last
transgression) that lie stratigraphically above the cow
bones; and two pieces of reworked pointed-butt polished
flint axes from the site that were collected from the surface
some years ago. These Neolithic pieces are thus likely later
than the cattle bones, and we conclude that Smakkerup
Huse was essentially a Mesolithic settlement when the
cows arrived.
Smakkerup Huse provides striking evidence of prehis-
toric life-yet the picture remains ambiguous and puz-
zling. The Mesolithic peoples at Smakkerup Huse were
technologically sophisticated foragers living 6000 years
ago in sedentary communities, successfully exploiting the
land and the sea. The evidence tells us a great deal about
technology and economy but little about organization and
even less about ideology. The relationship between for-
agers and early farmers at this critical transition in the pre-
history of northern Europe is complex and remains a sig-
nificant question for research.
Acknowledgments
We owe a great debt to many who participated and as-
sisted in this excavation. The landowners Karl and Bente
Jensen were unstinting in their hospitality and willingness
for us to dig large holes in their field. The participants in
the excavations, devoting energy and enthusiasm, included
Jennifer Derfler, Michael P. Jensen, Kasper Johansen,
Dorthe Pedersen, Lisbeth Pedersen, Erika Price, Michael
Stafford, Todd Surovell, and Beth Wormaster. Charlie
Christensen, Soren Andersen, Anders Fischer, and Peter
Rasmussen visited the excavations and/or provided valued
assistance in various forms.
Trolle Bagger of Kalundborg very kindly identified the
stone materials from the excavation. Jan Heinemeier as-
sisted with the radiocarbon dates from Aarhus. Helle
Strehle and P. H. Mikkelsen pursued the analysis of the
fungus and wicker in the Conservation Department at
Moesgard in Aarhus. Specialized analyses of the fyrsvamp
and the painted pebble were done by Arne Jensen of the
Department of Protein Chemistry at the University of
Copenhagen and Mads Chr. Christensen of the Depart-
ment of Conservation at the National Museum of Den-
mark, respectively.
This project was the result of collaboration with the
Kalundborg og Omegns Museum, our base of operations
and the source of much of the logistic and technical assis-
tance for the project. The Museum's fostering of interna-
tional projects is one of its great strengths. The staff of the
museum was helpful and hospitable beyond all expecta-
tions and their kindness is greatly appreciated. We would
particularlylike to thank Finn Petersen, Irene Nielsen, Jor-
gen Christensen, Kurt Petersen, and Leif Hammerlev. A
major driving force behind the Saltbak Vig Project and the
excavations at Smakkerup Huse has been the director of
the Kalundborg og Omegns Museum, Lisbeth Pedersen,
who holds a special place in our hearts and deserves our
most sincere appreciation.The Saltbak Vig Archaeological
Project was originally organized by Lisbeth Petersen, Anne
Birgitte Gebauer, Anders Fischer, and T. Douglas Price.
The Graduate School of the University of Wisconsin kind-
ly provided the funding for these excavations.
T Douglas Price, WeinsteinProfessorof EuropeanArchaeolo-
gy and Directorof Laboratoryfor ArchaeologicalChemistryat
the Universityof Wisconsin-Madison,is interestedin the tran-
sition to agricultureand archaeologicalchemistry.Current
projectsincludethe analysisof strontiumisotopesin prehistoric
burialsfor informationon migrationand field excavationsat
late Mesolithicsitesin easternDenmark.Mailing address:
Universityof Wisconsin-Madison, DepartmentofAnthropolo-
gy, 1180 Observatory Drive, Madison WI 53706. E-mail:
tdprice@wisc.edu
Anne Birgitte Gebauer,HonoraryFellowin the Depart-
ment ofAnthropologyat the Universityof Wisconsin-Madi-
son, has a degreefrom the UniversityofAarhus, Denmark.
Her interestsincludeceramicsand theNeolithic, the transi-
tion to agriculture,and archaeologicalmethod.
Signe UlfeldtHede, a Ph.D. studentat the GeologicalIn-
stitute at the Universityof Copenhagen,is interestedinfaunal
and sequencestratigraphy.Her
analysis,geomorphology,
Ph.D. projectinvolvesHolocenesea levelchangesin a near-
shorelake basin using stratigraphic,biological,and isotopic
variablesfor palaeoenvironmentalreconstruction. E-mail:
signeuh@geo.geol. ku.dk
CharlotteSedlacek,a Ph.D. studentat the GeologicalInsti-
tute at the Universityof Copenhagen,studiesfishremains,hy-
E-mail: charlottesedlacek@hot-
drology,andgeomorphology.
mail.com
Nanna Noe-Nygaard,Professorat the GeologicalInstitute
of the Universityof Copenhagen,studiesfaunal analysis,
taphonomy,sequencestratigraphy,isotopicgeochemistry of hu-
man beingsand animals, lake development,and the transi-
tion to agriculture.Currentprojectsincludethe reconstruction
of lake levelsand environmentalchangein the LI.Amose
basin of westernZealand. E-mail: nannan@geo.geol.ku.dk
Sarah L.R. Mason,formerResearchFellowat the Institute
ofArchaeology,UniversityCollegeLondon,is interestedin the
ethnobotanyand archaeobotanyof hunter-gatherersand wild
plant usefor all periodsthroughoutthe temperatezone.
Jens Nielsen, archaeologistat the Kalundborgog Omegns
Museum in Kalundborg,Denmark, is interestedin the Stone

Age and the recoveryof workedwoodremainsand has exca-
vatedfor manyyears.
David Perry(Ph.D., New YorkUniversity)doespaleoeth-
nobotanywith a specificfocus on woodand nut remains,espe-
ciallyhazel nutsfrom sitesin NwEurope.
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