NORTHERN EUROPEAN NEOLITHIC: MATERIAL, LOCATION &

PERMANENCE

Jake Kestly
ART103
November 12, 2014

The Neolithic European era art and architecture were more than
just stones stacked on top of each other in the ground but rather, had
significance in the raw materials that were used as well as where
several sites were positioned relative to the constellations, sun, and
the like. There is an argument to be made that the societies in this
area of the world in this era were actually the first astronomers of
sorts---all having a great understanding of the winter and summer
solstice, and changes in patterns. Not all Neolithic European sites had
this significance in material and positioning, but a lot of them did, and
certainly the sites that will be looked at---Stonehenge, Newgrange, and
the Ness of Brodgar do. The role that these sites played in relation to
the shifting tones and ideology from Paleolithic to Neolithic will also be
examined. The idea that a focus was put more on growth and
domestication rather than a nomadic lifestyle can be seen in all three
sites as well from even the smallest of signs with the fact that the
Stonehenge Sarcon stones are dug heavily into the ground signifying
the idea that the builders wanted this site to last for generations and
generations into the future. In contrast again to the Paleolithic where
the themes seen in societies were to control the uncontrollable, the
Neolithic societies already had the control now that domestication had
set in.

Before one can see key cultural themes brought out in each
archeological piece, one must first understand a background on each
respective work. Stonehenge has remained largely a mystery to
archaeologists and historians alike since its discovery. The placement
of materials in Stonehenge as well as the positioning prove a strong
cultural theme that ran throughout Neolithic culture. This theme was
indicative that religious, ritual function played a huge role throughout
the society as well as displaying shifting tones signifying permanence
rather than nomadism conveyed through the deepness of the holes
where the imported stones were laid. The site of Stonehenge,
according to archeologists, was created through a span of 1500 years.
The construction began nearly 5000 years ago, with an early culture
making what is known as today, Aubrey Holes (named after 17th
century antiquarian John Aubrey, who discovered them). According to
scholars from the History channel,
(http://www.history.com/topics/british-history/Stonehenge) several
hundred of years later, it is thought, Stonehenges builders hoisted an
estimated 80 non-indigenous blue stonesand placed them in either a
horseshoe or circular formation. These stones were most likely
imported from the Preseli Mountains in Wales. Even after this though,
there was thought to be a third phase in the building of the henge
which by far seemed to be the most labor-intensive.
http://www.ancientfortresses.org/stonehenge.htm According to author

Linda Alchin, the third construction period was around 2600-2510 BC.
Several larger stones were imported to the site at this timeeach
weighing to 25 tons and are known today as Sarsen sandstone slabs.
These are what the site is most known for when you think Stonehenge,
as the iconic trilithons were created here at the site at this time.
(http://www.history.com/topics/british-history/Stonehenge) These
stones were again, not native to where they ended up residing, but
rather, many archeologists predict were harvested from a quarry 25
miles north of Salisbury plain. Indicative both from the second phase
of construction with the blue stones and on the third with the Sarsen,
the type of material used were of great importance to the people of
this time.
The volcanic rock made of dolerite largely, also known as bluestones,
show a society that held great value in materials. The large number of
stones seen in the formation as well as the methodical positioning of
these rocks, indicate that this Neolithic society didnt simply stumble
upon these rocks and randomly put them onto the site. The why is
what would be in question---and no one can really answer the why
definitively, but based upon context, ritual function would prove to
make most sense to label the reason for the use of the bluestones
here. Professor Tim Darvill of Bournemouth University has a simple
theory regarding the intention of the bluestones on the site. He insists
that the location where the bluestones were most likely retrieved,

Preseli Mountain in Wales, were known even back then to have sacred
springs. http://blog.stonehenge-stonecircle.co.uk/category/bluestones/ Darvill then goes on to say that that
association is a very ancient one. These stones were brought to
Stonehenge because they were thought to have healing properties.
That is why all that effort went into its construction. It was a place
where people thought their illnesses might be cured and their lives
saved. To presume that the whole function of Stonehenge was to bring
people who were ill to heal them is a little too bold, but Darvill has the
correct idea, and evidence to support the notion that the purpose of
the bluestones was to hold some type of sacred value to the area. The
later addition of the sarsen stones (composed of sandstone and tend to
be very dense and hard), simply indicate that the builders had an
emphasis on permanence, which was the exact opposite of their
distant relatives in the Paleolithic era. The three eras of additions to
the Stonehenge monument certainly indicate the idea of permanence
and the later addition of the Sarsen stones with the deepness they
were put into the ground as well, solidify this theory.
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/13/130621stonehenge-summer-solstice-archaeology-science/Structures in the
Neolithic area also emphasized meaning on location. Stonehenge is a
perfect example of this as during the midsummer and midwinter
solstice, the sun and the monument are directly aligned. The site

seems to have been built very specifically on what is found to be the

solstitial axis. Again, there are other theories that indicate that the
purpose of the site was for calendrical use---again which seem to be
bolder to claim, but show enough evidence that the site was built to a
degree with this in mind.

Visually, Stonehenge proves to be extremely compelling. Almost

immediately, the viewers eye is drawn to the trilithons which
seemingly are a random mass from a direct look. One realizes though
once inside the ringthat it is indeed, well, a ring, and that the spacing
of the trilithons and other various stones have a very specific purpose
(indicative of the solstice mentioned above). The scale of this site is
monumental, and as mentioned before, clearly has ritualistic and
seasonal purposes. The use of color isnt as apparent but rather, the
specific use of materials is on this site(as mentioned before, the
bluestones were there for sacred purpose). Texture plays little role on
Stonehenge and most of the textures you feel on the rocks are
incidental and caused by time if anything. Lighting plays an extremely
important role on Stonehenge as mentioned before was built on a
solstitial axis. Little thought was given into subject or representation
most likely on the site, but provides insight within the two dominant
themes discussed: use of materials/positioning and importance of

permanence which are only reinforced in the design of the Ness of

Brodgar and New Grange.
http://www.orkneyjar.com/archaeology/nessofbrodgar/excavationbackground-2/ The Ness of Brodgar is located in Scotlands Orkney
Islands spanning an area of 2.5 hectares. In addition, this site
provides a possible link into the other surrounding sites: the Stones of
Stenness, The Ring of Brodgar, and Maes Howe. The Ness of Brodgar in
short, is a large compound of ruined Neolithic structures that had been
in use from 3200 BC to 2300 BC, sources say. Materials used isnt as
big of a theme in this specific find, but positioning and importance of
permanence are certainly still powerful ideas.
http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2014/08/neolithicorkney/smith-text The main item to be discussed is the nearby
chambered tomb, Maes Howe. According to text, its entry passage is
perfectly aligned to receive the rays of the setting sun on the eve of
winter solstice, illuminating its inner chamber on the shortest day of
the year. This not only reinforces the idea of the importance of
location in Neolithic monuments, but also in permanence. Maes Howe
may have links to the winter solstice, but also has shown to be on the
central axis of the main entrance of The Temple of Ness. The Ness
of Brodgar was by far the most ambitious project of this Neolithic
society and is nicknamed by some archeologists as the Neolithic
Acropolis. It is now thought to have been the main center of this

society, and perhaps used as a place for astronomical study. The Ness
of Brodgar today isnt much to behold, but the ruins of it indicate a lot
about what was there. Most of the buildings were made of sandstone
just like a lot of other Neolithic monuments. One in particular, that is
now in ruins was a standing stone located in the middle of the
settlement. It is said to be aligned with the spring and fall equinoxes
and might have served as a symbolic axis between earth and sky.
This is yet another astonishing example about how these societies put
great stock in the celestials and how that affected the way they crafted
monuments, settlements, and the like.

According to recent research done by the National Geographic,

everything ended at 2300 BC at this site, and it appears as if there was
an intentional destruction of the site, but the community members had
quite the decadent feast before that. At the wreckage of the site today,
several cattle bones have been found---estimated to over 400. What is
known is that the members of this community seemed to have a
celebratory farewell feast and followed by destroying the compound
and then leaving the site. The why once again, is not known but just
like Stonehenge, describes the attitude of Neolithic society. In both
Stonehenge and the Ness of Brodgar, a focus was put on
permanence---but the Ness of Brodgar is the more idealistic example of
that. It shows a community that probably traded with one another, set

up other sites unique in positioning with the solstice and stars, and one
that was fixed on growthdomesticating animals, and multiplying the
population.

http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2014/08/neolithicorkney/brodgar-graphic
From a visual perspective, the Ness of Brodgar definitely was
something to behold but now isnt much. Neolithic styles can still be
picked from it though. What the Ness of Brodgar mustve looked in its
prime had to be extremely ground breaking during its time.
Surrounding the settlement was an estimated 10 feet high wall and up
to 18 feet wide, something certainly rare for Neolithic settlements. The
buildings were all made of stone, yet there was something very rare
which mustve been quite the commodity back then: the roofs were
finely laid with trimmed rectangular slates. The one theme that is
drawn from this once again is the power of location and emphasis on
permanence, but apart from that, the Ness of Brodgar is a
settlement/compound that has definitely strayed away from what most
people thought of the Neolithic people. Certainly the standing stones
and the positioning of the Ness relative to Maes Howe indicate the
architects intent/style, but the walls are one item that indicate
perhaps with a defense idea in mind. The stronger point, since it was a

huge social hub most likely, was to give order and form to a society
that was trying desperately to be domesticated and in one place.

http://www.boynevalleytours.com/newgrange.htm New Grange

is yet another unique feat done by the Neolithic culture that occupied
Northern Europe. Created around 2300 BC, New Grange is in Boyne
Valley, County Meath, Ireland. The purpose of this site was most
obviously funerary but most likely had ritualistic purpose surrounding it
as well. Materials used are greywacke and quartz, mostly.
http://www.academia.edu/8611054/Regenerating_Substances_Qu
artz_as_an_animistic_agent A predominant material used in New
Grange is quartz. According to Ffion Reynolds, who has a Ph.D in
archaeology argues in the Time and Mind: The Archaeology,
Conscience and Culture Vol. 2 that the material quartz was selected for
a very meaningful purpose. In a basic sense, he explained that quartz
brings people in at a basic level just because of its luster and
luminescence. These rocks were most likely imported from 50
kilometers away from the sight at Wicklow Mountain, which like
Stonehenge, stresses the need for quartz on this site specifically.
Reynolds then argues that quartz, (referencing several other
surrounding early cultures from around the globe as well), provided
these cultures with animistic belief in the quartz material as well as it
providing shamanistic and ritualistic purpose. Referencing the Native

American tribe the Ojibwas and their views on animism and what
constitutes a live person, their view proved to be very different than
what popular Western culture believes. They believed that there are
rock persons, wind persons, and so forth. What identifies to the
Ojibwa as animated or alive, is based upon experience Reynolds points
out. It is very likely that the ancient Neolithic cultures who created New
Grange had a very similar belief and thought the quartz rocks to be
active in some respects. In context, based upon other inferences to
the beliefs of the culture through other monuments like Stonehenge, it
makes a lot of sense why they would put quartz as a building material
in a funerary tomb. Quartz even today, by some groups, is thought to
hold healing properties---so it is very possible that quartz was put into
New Grange because of these qualities as well as even a
communicative device with the dead buried there ritualistically,
reinforced by the rocks triboluminescent attributes. The use of
Greywacke probably had no symbolic or meaningful use, but was also
imported and reinforces the new idea of permanence in Neolithic
culture opposed to in the Paleolithic.
http://www.boynevalleytours.com/newgrange.htm Where New
Grange was built had an even greater meaning though. On every
winter solstice the New Grange passages get illuminated with sunlight.
This corresponds with a lot of other nearby Northern European
Neolithic constructions like Knowth and Dowth which have similar

alignments. According to sources, New Granges passage would be lit

with sunlight at the solstice instantly at sunrise when it was first built.
This indicates a lot of thought going in to the position of construction of
New Grange. This also reinforces a ritualistic function along with the
quartz symbolism.
http://archaeology.about.com/od/neolithic/fl/NeolithicDemographic-Transition.htm Through sites like Stonehenge, Ness of
Brodgar, and New Grange one can see through the new meaning put in
building materials, location, and the set up of these specific places
(especially apparent in the Ness of Brodgar) that permanence and
domestication was a theme that just absolutely dominated Neolithic
culture. According to archaeology expert Kris Hirst, increase in the
total fertility rate is estimated at a whopping two births per woman
over a period of two to three hundred years. Statistically, there is no
arguing in this period that because of the way the buildings were
created indicating permanence, that people had this in mind as well,
and the population increase showed that. We also see a culture that
placed great emphasis on celestial bodies and found meaning in these
things. Despite the preconceived notion by many that these cultures
were primitive, the early concepts they brought were critical in that
societies growth as a whole, and several of their constructions still
stand to this day as seen, which could be the ultimate point of their
intentions.