CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction to transportation engineering

Traffic and transportation related engineers deals with the selections for design and construction.

It begins by defining the problem, gathering and analysing data, and evaluating various alternative

solutions. Also involved in the process are forecast of future traffic, estimates of the impact of the

facility on land use, the environment and the community, and determination of the benefits and

cost that will result if the project is build. (Garber, N.J and Hoel, L.A, 2015).

Construction of a new development should consider its effect on the road network around

the construction. Effect on the road network seen by the size of the building will be planned.

Assessment is done by looking at whether the development affects the access roads around the

building (site impact), affecting access roads and intersections in one direction around (traffic

impact), or to affect the road network in the city that need consideration to chance the city

development plan (master plan) (Yayat, Kombaitan, Pradono, Purboyo, 2015). However, traffic

impact assessment is not necessary for every development. Those development that are unlikely

to generate significant traffic generally does not need an impact assessment. A comprehensive

traffic impact assessment should be completed whenever a development is expected to generate

100 or more inbound or outbound trips during the peak hours.

Developments having land use intensity greater than the threshold values in Table 2.1

below will required to prepare traffic impact assessment depending on its location.

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 Land use type Threshold value

Residential 100 Dwelling units

Retail/Shopping 1,000m2 Gross Floor Area

Office/business park 2,500m2 Gross Floor Area

Industrial 5,000m2 Gross Floor Area

Educational 2,500m2 Gross Floor Area

Stadium/Sports facilities 1,500 seats

Medical 2,500m2 Gross Floor Area

Leisure [hotels, cinemas, conference centres] 1,000m2 Gross Floor Area

Table 2.1: Land use and threshold value

In some cases, a proposed development may generate fewer trips than the threshold

indicated in Table 1 above but a safety or capacity issue in the area of proposed development may

require a TIA for the following reasons:

 High accident intersection or section of a roadway

 Proximity of proposed site to intersections

 Sensitivity of adjacent neighbourhoods

 Existing or projected level of service of road adjacent to proposed development, which is

unacceptable

 High traffic volumes on adjacent roadway that may affect movement into and out of the
site.

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2.2 Requirements for a Traffic Impact Assessment

 Consultant qualification

This Traffic Impact Assessment report shall be prepared by a registered Civil engineer

under the BEM (Board of Engineers) Malaysia. This means that the report must be signed

by the same registered professional engineer with his/her registration number.

 Study area

Contains all site access points and major intersections adjacent to the site. However, the

respected party has the right to establish any additional area to be included in the study

area.

 Site plan

The TIA should include a layout plan of the development that shows the existing lanes and

their configuration. Plans with the above parameters can produced an appropriate scale to

allow proper review by the respected parties such as Jabatan Kerja Raya (JKR) and

municipal council.

 Time period to be analysed

Specific time of the day to evaluate the traffic impact is when the most traffic from the

development is expected. Generally, TIA study consists of morning peak (AM) and

evening peak (PM) hours. Time period that needed in TIA report are:

I. Morning (AM) peak, between 7.00 to 10.00 AM

II. Evening (PM) peak, between 4.00 to 7.00 PM

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  Traffic counts

Common practice for conducting traffic count are:

I. Traffic count should be conducted only during weekdays not containing a holiday,

normally between Tuesday and Thursday for best result.

II. Conducted in normal weather condition; rainy weather or storms does not count as the

result will be compromised.

III. Traffic count with an interval of 15 minutes during anticipated peak hours.

2.3 Trip generation models

Trip generation is the process of determining the number of trips that will begin or end in each

traffic analysis zone within the study area. Since the trips are determined without regard to

destination, they are referred to as trip ends. Each trip has two ends, and these are described in

terms of trip purpose, or whether the trips are either produced by a traffic zone or attracted to a

traffic zone (Garber, N.J and Hoel, L.A, 2015).

An alternative technique for modelling trip generation is the use of cross-

classification, developed by the Federal Highway Administration to determine the number of trips

that begin or end at the home (Garber, N.J and Hoel, L.A, 2015). In this technique, the population

is broken down into set of classes, which know to be correlated with trip-making behaviour. For

instance, households might break down according to the number of persons in the household and

the number of vehicles available. For each combination of classes, a trip rate is calculated. This

results in a table similar to table 2.2. the resulting cross-classification table can be used as a

desegregate model for predicting trip generation from zones with different distributions of

household characteristics. For instance, suppose the trip rates given in table 2.2 apply to travel

zone whose population breakdown is given in table 2.3.

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 Persons per Vehicles available per household

household 0 1 2 or more

1 1.02 1.90 2.10

2 2.12 3.25 3.70

3 2.15 3.75 3.90

4 or more 3.96 5.00 6.54

Table 2.2 Cross-classification giving trip rates in trips per household per day

Source: Introduction to Transportation Engineering

Persons per Vehicles available per household

household 0 1 2 or more

1 0.05 0.21 0.02

2 0.03 0.16 0.13

3 0.02 0.10 0.13

4 or more 0.01 0.08 0.06

Table 2.3 fraction of population of hypothetical zone in various household size and vehicle-
availability categories

Source: Introduction to Transportation Engineering

2.4 Trip distribution models

Trip distribution is a process by which the trips generated in one zone are allocated to other zones
in the study area. These trips may be within the study area (internal-internal) or between the study
area and areas outside the study area (internal-external).

Several basic methods are used for trip distribution. Among these are the gravity model,
growth factor models, and intervening opportunities. The gravity model is preferred because it
uses the attributes of the transportation system and land-use characteristics and has been calibrated
extensively for many urban areas (Garber, N.J and Hoel, L.A, 2015).

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The gravity model states that the number of trips between two zones is directly proportional to the
number of trip attractions generated by the zone of destination and inversely proportional to a
function of travel time between the two zones (Garber, N.J and Hoel, L.A, 2015). Mathematically,
the gravity model is expressed as

𝐴𝑗 𝐹𝑖𝑗 𝐾𝑖𝑗
𝑇𝑖𝑗 = 𝑃𝑖 [ ]
∑𝑗 𝐴𝑗 𝐹𝑖𝑗 𝐾𝑖𝑗

Where
𝑇𝑖𝑗 = number of trips that are produced in zone i and attracted to zone j
𝑃𝑖 = total number of trips produced in zone i
𝐴𝑗 = number of trips attracted to zone j
𝐹𝑖𝑗 = a value which is an inverse function of travel time
𝐾𝑖𝑗 = socioeconomic adjustment factor for interchange ij

The values of 𝑃𝑖 and 𝐴𝑗 have been determined in the trip generation process. The sum of 𝑃𝑖 for all
zones must equal the sum of 𝐴𝑗 for all zones. 𝐾𝑖𝑗 values are used when the estimated trip
interchange must be adjusted to ensure that it agrees with the observed trip interchange (Garber,
N.J and Hoel, L.A, 2015).

2.5 Mode of choice

Mode choice is that aspect of the demand analysis process that determines the number of trips
between zones that are made by automobile and by transit. The selection of one mode or another
is a complex process that depends on factors such as the traveler’s income, the availability of
transit service or auto ownership, and the relative advantages of each mode in terms of travel time,
cost, comfort, convenience, and safety. Mode choice models attempt to replicate the relevant
characteristics of the traveller, the transportation system, and the trip itself, such as that a realistic
estimate of the number of trips by each mode for each zonal pair is obtained (Garber, N.J and Hoel,
L.A, 2015).

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2.6 Arahan Teknik Jalan

2.6.1 Rural and Urban areas

Urban areas are defined as areas having a population of at least 1,000 where buildings and houses
are gathered and business activity is prevalent. It covers all areas within the gazetted Municipality
limits and also includes areas expected to become urbanised within the design period. Rural areas
can be regarded as areas other than urban areas.
There is no fundamental difference in the principles of design for rural and urban roads.
Roads in urban areas, however, are characterised by busy pedestrian activities and frequent
stopping of vehicles owing to short intersection spacings and congested built up areas. Lower
design speeds are usually adopted for urban roads and different cross-sectional elements are
applied to consider the nature of traffic and adjoining land use. It is for these reasons that variations
in certain aspects of geometric design are incorporated for these two broad groups of roads (JKR,
1986).

2.6.2 Application of standards

The design standard is classified into seven groups (R6, R5, R4, R3, R2, R1 & R1a) for rural areas
and into seven groups (U6, U5, U4, U3, U2, U1, & U1a) for urban areas. These are in descending
order of hierarchy.
Roads which function to provide long distance travel, will require higher, design speeds
whilst road which serve local traffic, where the effect of speed is less significant can have a lower
design speed. Also, roads with heavier traffic will be provided with a higher standard (JKR, 1986).

Each design standard is generally applicable to the road types as follows:

1. Standard. R6/U6
Provides the highest geometric design standard for rural or urban areas. They
usually serve long trips with high speed of travelling, comfort and safety. It is
always designed with divided carriageway and with full access control. The Rural
and Urban Expressway falls under this standard (JKR, 1986).

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2. Standard. R5/U5
Provides also high geometric standard and usually serve long to intermediate trip
lengths with high to median travelling speeds. It is usually with partial access
control, The Highway, Primary Road and Arterial falls under this standard (JKR,
1986).

3. Standard. R4/U4
Provides medium geometric standard and serve intermediate trip lengths with
medium travelling speeds. It is also usually with partial access control. The Primary
Road, Secondary Road, Minor Arterial and Major collector falls under this standard
(JKR, 1986).

4. Standard. R3/U3
Provides low geometric standard and serves mainly local traffic. There is partial or
no access control. The Secondary Road, Collector or Major Local Streets falls
under this standard (JKR, 1986).

5. Standard. R2/U2
Provides the lowest geometric standard for two-way flow. It is applied only to local
traffic with low volumes of commercial traffic. The Minor Roads and Local Streets
fall under this standard (JKR, 1986).

6. Standard. R1/U1
Provides very low geometric standard and is applied to very low traffic where the
chances of two-way flow are low (JKR, 1986).

7. Standard R1a
Applied to local access to restricted areas such as access to microwave stations and
security areas (JKR, 1986).

8. Standard U1a
Applied to local access to low cost housing areas (JKR, 1986).

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2.6.3 Road Classification

Function of road
Each road has its function according to its role either in the National Network, Regional Network,
State Network or City/Town Network. The most basic function of a road is transportation. This
can be further divided into two sub-functions; namely mobility and accessibility. However, these
two sub-functions are in trade-off. To enhance one, the other must be limited. In rural areas, roads
are divided into five categories, namely, Expressway, Highway, Primary Road, Secondary Road
and Minor Road. While in urban areas, roads are divided into four categories, namely, Expressway,
Arterial, Collector and Local Street. They are in ascending order of accessibility and thus in
descending order of mobility (JKR, 1986).

Categories of road
Roads are divided into two groups by area, i.e. rural and urban. Roads in rural areas are further
classified into five categories by function namely Expressway, Highway, Primary Road,
Secondary, Road and Minor Road and into four categories in urban area, namely, Expressway,
Arterial, Collector and Local Street (JKR, 1986). Applications are as follows:

a) Expressway
An Expressway is a divided highway for through traffic with full control of
access and always with grade separations at all intersections. In rural areas,
they apply to the interstate highways for through traffic and make the basic
framework of National road transportation for fast travelling. They serve
long trips and provide higher speed of travelling and comfort. To maintain
this, they are fully access-controlled and are designed to the highest
standards. In urban areas, they form the basic framework of road
transportation system in urbanised area for through traffic. They also serve
relatively long trips and smooth traffic flow and with full access control and
complements the Rural Expressway (JKR, 1986).

b) Highways
They constitute the interstate national network and complements the
expressway networks. They usually link up directly or indirectly the Federal
Capitals, State capitals and points of entry/exit to the country. They serve
long to intermediate trip lengths. Speed service is not so important as in an
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 Expressway but relatively high to medium speed is necessary. Smooth
traffic is provided with partial access control (JKR, 1986).

c) Primary roads
They constitute the major roads forming the basic network of the road
transportation system within a state. They serve intermediate trip lengths
and medium travelling speeds. Smooth traffic is provided with partial
access control. They usually link up the State Capitals and District Capitals
or other Major Towns (JKR, 1986).

d) Secondary roads
They constitute the major roads forming the basic network of the road
transportation system within a District or Regional Development Areas.
They serve intermediate trip lengths with partial access control. They
usually link up the major towns within the District or Regional
Development Areas (JKR, 1986).

e) Minor roads
They apply to all roads other than those described above in the rural areas.
They form the basic road network within a Land Scheme or other inhabited
areas in a rural area. They also include roads with special functions such as
holiday resort roads, security roads or access roads to microwave stations.
They serve mainly local traffic with short trip lengths and are usually with
partial or no access control (JKR, 1986).

f) Arterials
An arterial is a continuous road with partial access control for through
traffic within urban areas. Basically, it conveys traffic from residential areas
to the vicinity of the central business district or from one part of a city to
another which does not intend to penetrate the city centre. Arterials do not
penetrate identifiable neighbourhoods. Smooth traffic flow is essential since
it carries large traffic volume (JKR, 1986).

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 g) Collectors
A collector road is a road with partial access control designed to serve on a
collector or distributor of traffic between the arterial and the local road
systems. Collectors are the major roads which penetrate and serve
identifiable neighbourhoods, commercial areas and industrial areas (JKR,
1986).

h) Local streets
The local street system is the basic road network within a neighbourhood
and serves primarily to offer direct access to abutting land. They are links
to the collector road and thus serve short trip lengths. Through traffic should
be discouraged (JKR, 1986).

2.6.4 Road administration

For the purposes of road administration, roads are classified as Federal, State, Local Authority
(City Hall, Municipal or Local Council) or Kampong (District Office) Roads depending upon their
jurisdiction (JKR, 1986).

 Federal roads
Roads that are gazetted under the Federal Road ordinance and are usually roads linking
the State Capitals, Airports, Railway Stations and Ports. Roads within the FELDA Land
Schemes and those in other Regional Land Schemes constructed with Federal Funds also
fall under this category. The maintenance of these roads are the responsibility of the Federal
Government and is done through the State JKR with funds from the Federal Government
(JKR, 1986).

 State roads
All the other roads within the State outside the jurisdiction of the Local Authority or
District Office, built to JKR standards. They are normally constructed with State Funds.
The maintenance of these roads is the responsibility of the State Government and is done
through the State JKR (JKR, 1986).

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 Local Authority roads
All those roads within the limits of the Local Authority and are normally maintained by
the responsible local authority (JKR, 1986).

 Kampung (District Office) roads

All those roads directly under the jurisdiction of the District Office. They are usually earth
roads with no right of way. The maintenance of these roads is the responsibility of the
District Office (JKR, 1986).

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