Pictionary of the Middle AgesAMERICAN COUNCIL OF LEARNED 50 The American Cowncil of Learned Societies, onzanized in 1919 for the purpose of advancing the study of the humanities and of the humanistic aspects of the social sciences, is 2 nonprofic fedecation comprising forty-three national schoiatly groups ‘The Covnell represents the harmanities in the United Stars in the International Union of Academies, provides fellowships and grants in-aid, supporrs cesearchrand-planning conferences and symposia, and sponsors special projects and scholarly publications MEMBER ORGANIZATIONS AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCHAYY, 1713, AMPRIGAN ACADEMY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES, (780 AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETY, 1812 “AMERICAN ORIENTAL SOCIETY, tho AMERICAN NUMISMATTC SOCIETY, 1458 AMERICAN PHILOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION, 1859 ARCHAFOLOGICAL. INSTITUTE OF AMERICA, 1899 SOCIETY OF RIGLICAL LITERATURE, 1880 MODERN LANGUAGI: ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA, INKS AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION, 1888 AMERICAN ECONOMIC ASSOCIATION, 1885, [AMERICAN FOLKLORE SOCIETY, 188 AMERICAN DIALECT SOCIETY, 1A89 AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL. ASSOCIATION, 1892 ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN LAW SCHOOLS, 1900 AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL ASSOCIATION, 1901 AMERICAN ANTHROPOL DUICAL ASSOCIATION, 1902 AMERICAN DOLIFIGAL SCIENCE ASSOCIATION, 1903 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA, 1904 ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN GEOGRAPHERS, 1904 HISPANIC SOCIETY OF AMERICA, (90H AMERICAN SOCIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION, 1995 AMERICAN SOCIETY OF INTERNATIONAL LAW, 1306 ‘ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN IIS ORIANS, 1997 AMERICAN ACADEMY OF RELIGION, 1909 COLLEGE ART ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA, (912 USTORY OF SCIENCE SOCIETY, 1924 LINGUISTIC SOCIETY OF AMERICA, 19 MEDIAEVAL, ACADEMY OF AMERICA, 1925 AMERICAN MUSICOLOGICAL SOCIETY, 1934 SOCIETY QF ARCHITECTURAL HISTORIANS, 1540 ROONOMIC HISTORY ASSOCIATION, 1980 ASSOCIATION FOR ASIAN STUDIES, 19M AMERICAN SOCIFFY FOR APSTHETICS, 1942 AMEILICAN ASSOCIATION FOR Tai¥. ANVANC MENT OF SLAVIG STUDIES, 1988 METAPHYSICAL SOGIFTY OF AMERICA, ¥959 AMERICAN STUDIES ASSOCIATION, 1950 RENAISSANG SOCIETY OF AMURICA, 1854 SOCIETY FOR BTHNOMUSICOI OGY, 1955 AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR LEGAL. HISTORY, 1956 AMPRICAN SOCIETY POX THFATRE RISEARCH, 1956 SOCIETY FOR THE LUSTORY OF TROHNOLOGY, 1958 AMERICAN COMPARATIVE LITERATURY ASSOSASTION, 1960 AMERICAN SOCIETY FOW FIGHTERNTH-CENTURY STRDIES, 1969 ASSOCIATION FOR JEWISH STUDIES, 1969,Carpet page Geom Hinlilarne Grogs, Hibore Saxe illaminseed manip ex TO mY YswAsSON Hisar nea, cu ]OW MVD Fol, 210Dictionary of the Hliddle Ages JOSEPH R. STRAYER, EDITOR IN CHIEF Volume 7 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE— MABINOGI CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS + NEW YORKCopyright 2 1986 American Council of Learned Socieves Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Dara Lop Main entey ander tcl: Dictionary of the Midalle Ages Includes bibliographies an! index L. Middle Ages Diztionacies. 1. Steayers Joseph Reese, 1904— DI4.D5 1982 90907 sa.s904 ISBN 0-684-16760:3 (v. 1) ISBN 0-684-17022-1 (v2) ISBN 0-684-17023-X (v, 3) ISBN 0:684-17024-8 (9. 4) ISBN 0 6841816164 tv. 3) ISBN 0-684-18168-1(y, 6 ISBN O-684-18169-X (. 7) Published simultaneously in Canada boy Galler Maeniian Canada, Ine. ‘Copyright under the Berne eonveatina Al rights eeserved. No patt ofthis book may be reproduced in any form without the Peemission of Chaeles Secihrer’s Sons 13S7ONIDISITI9 QE IRI 14 12108642 PRINT IN THE UNITED STATIS OF AMERICA, ‘The Dictionary of the Middle Ages has been produced with tuuppart from the National Endowment for the Hs ‘The paper in this book meets the gnillines for permanence and durability of he Comm Production Guidelines for Book Longe Council on Dibrary Resources. ‘Maps prepared by Sylvia Lehrman.Editorial Board ‘THEODORE M. ANDERSSON, Stanford University NINA G. GARSOTAN, Columbia University HERBERT I. KESSLER, ‘the Jobns Hopkins University JOHN LEYERLE, University of Toronto AVRAM 1. UDOVITCH, Princeton UniversityAdvisory Committee GUSTAVE ALER, University of Oregon JEANETTE M. A. BEER, Purdue University ‘THOMAS N. BISSON, University of California, Berkeley JEAN BONY, University of California, Berkeley JAMES F. BURKE, University of Toronto ANGUS F. CAMERON, University of Toronto MARK COHEN, Princeton University E, TALBOT DONALDSON, Indiana University ANN DOOLEY, University of Toronto D. J. GEANAKOPLOS, Yale University KEVIN J. HARTY, Temple University ANDREW HUGHES, University of Toronto W.T. H. JACKSON, Columbia University ROBERT F, LERNER, Northivestern University R, M, LUMIANSKY, American Council of Learned Societies THOMAS F. MATHEWS, New York University BRIAN S. MERRILEES, University of Toronto HELMUT NICKEL, Metropolitan Museum of Art KENNETH D, OSTRAND, University of New Orleans ROGER E, REYNOLDS, University of Toronto TIMOTHY R. ROBERTS, Jeferson City (Mo.) High Sebool FRANZ ROSENTHAL, Yale University KENNETH M. SETTON, Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton ECKEHARD SIMON, Harvard University PRISCILLA P, SOUCEK, New Yori University E, A. SYNAN, University of Toronto BRIAN TIERNEY, Cornell University KARL DAVID UITTI, Princeton University GRAIG B. VITTETOE, Palo Alto (Calif.) City Schools LYNN WHITE, Jr, University of California, Los AngelesLditorial Staff JOHN P. FITZPATRICK, MANAGING EDITOR JONATHAN G. ARETAKIS, Assistant Editor NORMA FRANKEL, Associate Editor LAURA D. GROSS, Editorial Assistant SANDRA D, KNIGHT, Administrative Assistant ANJU MAKHIJANI, Production Manager BETH ANN MeCANE, Production Assistant W. KIRK REYNOLDS, Associate Editor JEFFREY L. BENEKE, Assiscant Baitor ILENE COHEN, Associate Editor WINIERED M, DAVIS, Assistant Editor EDWARD FERRARO, Associate Editor EMILY GARLIN, Proofreader GEOTPREY B. GNEUHS, Assistane Bulitor ROBERT MALASZ, Assistant Editor ROBERT K, HAYCRAFT, Associate Editor JOEL HONIG, Associate Editor CHARLES PATTERSON, Assistant Editor JACK RUMMEL, Proofreader IRINA RYBACEK, Associate Faltor SAM TANENHAUS, Proofreader MIMI THOMPSON, Photo Editor TRRENGE WALZ, Assistant Ealtor WILLIAM K, WEST, Associate Editor ELIZABETH 1. WILSON, Associate Fditor G. MICHAEL McGINLEY, DIRECTOR, REFERENCE BOOKS DIVISIONContributors to Wolume 7 KLAUS AICHELE Brooklyn College, City Universicy ‘of New York Tupi or Anricansro MANSOUR J. AJAMI Princeton University Jantes Maan, And "AHMAD Ale GUSTAVE ALE. University of Oregon Wan IIT oe Muscovy ROBERT AMIET Facultés Catholiques, Lyon Lyons Rune JEERREY C. ANDERSON George Washington University Janes ini: Monk THEODORE M, ANDERSSON Stanford University isn vow Hun Samp, Dass YGSvEININGA SAC MICHAEL ANGOLD. University of Fdinbuergh Jour IY Vistar Laskanins MARY-JO ARN English Institute, Groningen Jrascog Meus; Kincis Qua, oH | ANID, ATAMIAN j Goinmbia University Lauinons Lio 1/TT or Azmi, eo V/VI oF Aasents; Lusicnans | nena nacrieact tir opin GERSHON C, BACON Harlan University, Ramat-Gan Jes Russ ANASTASIUS C. BANDY Lys JOHN W. BARKER University of Wisconsin Jean Boucicaur CARL F, BARNES, JR [ean (Jenan) p’ANDEr JEAN DF Beauce; Lan (JPiaN) DE CHEL Fst [ran ps Cuan, Kaax os Cuvevauiras ROBERT BARRINGER St, Michael's College, University of Toronto Luo 1, Pore CAROLINE M. BARRON Royul Holloway College, Unversity of London Lonpon OKO 0. Bars Kioss FRANZ H. BAUML University of California, Le Angeles Kupeuns ROBERT BEDROSIAN saws oF Gann Lirancr IV ‘Onweuean CAROLINE J. BEESON Ki Annzatinnns HAIM BEINART Hebrew University of ferusalen Jews In CanusTiAN Sean HANS BEKKER-NIELSEN ‘Onlense Universitet Jon Oraaunansion, $15 JONS Sain Heity LAURPNTIUS SaGn ISAAC BENARU Hebrew University of Jerusalem JunpvorSranasi| ROBERT P. BERGMAN ‘The Walters Art Gallery Lroor Ost IRENE A. BIERMAN University of California, Los Angeles Ivony Canvins, Tstawcy KUn a5 Kiss DALI L. BISHOP KARNAMAG=! Anos BARNGAN FOSTER W. BLAISDELL Indiana University vine Sno THOMAS W. BLOMQUIST. Northerw ilivois University Lomnanos DERE BOHIGAS: Jonor nS. Jon “ , BOSWORTH University of Manchester Kukos LASKARINA BOURAS Licsnne Deviers|SEVFREY BOYD University of Kansas Keawre, Mancasy LEO LELAND BOYD Lincotr, Rent oF CHARLES M. BRAND Bry Mawr Coltege Tons IT Komnvas, Jou Kiwnamos; Kounenor; Lar Ewnint oF Consranninore CYNTHIA J. BROWN, University of California, Santa Darbars Jaws, Dugsior Brey ROBERT BROWNING University of Landon Jom VILE Xin ives, PavRIARes Jusraan fy Lrriacy, Byzantine LESLIE ARUBAKER Wheaton College, Norton, Mussachusetis Kasreniay KAYHONIEON, Ket, Book oF LAC FRHINE; LACEY Taniseaane Gosertss Lisanartncay Locus LANCE W. BRUNNER University of Kentucky Ti Cran VINCENT BURANELLI Lyons DAVID BURR Viuginia Polytechnic bustioute and State University Forcast or Fone ROBERT C. CALKINS Carnell University Jaciunstane be Hesbins Lawns Brewis AVERIL CAMERON King’s College, University of London Jounor Bo HENRY CHADWICK ‘Maydalene College, Cambridge Joni Cieysorron, FREDRIC L, CHEYETTE Amherst Cellege Ivars be Josties ire Pur bt CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 7 STANLEY CHODOKOW University of California, La Jolla Law, Canon: Arren Granny CAROL J. CLOVER University of California, Berkeley Lax a Sac LOKASe NA MARK R. COHEN Princeton University Jeswisit Commas, Seu Goverssarnr: ian, Wot Tews Eevee LAWRENCE |. CONRAD “The Wellcome institute for the History of Medicine Sau Aloy RUA, Ale JOFIN J. CONTRENI Purdue University Jom Seortus Ekiucenas Larus or Freienes FLIO COSTA York University, Ontario Lavin, BRUNET EDWARD J. COWAN University of Guelph, Ontario Keanna) Mac Aton HE, |, COWDREY SE Lahn Hail, Oxford Kino’s Ev Jost Luis coy University of Connecticut Loreen Avaua GLYNNIS M. GROPP, Marsey University Jr Paw SLOBODAN CURCIC Princeton University Kona MICHAEL T. DAVIS ‘Mount Holyoke College ras tyOnnais, Jean Dt Ravn Kons, Kona; Lananoms Lancints, pans Laws Larupanions Last Suen Cineacik, Hest; Locus Sanus; Lot Jean HELL! DEGNBOL “Jonsvxinsa Sac University of Chicas Lasse; Lal Lav GEORGE T. DENNIS Caholic University of Ameria Latin Stars in) Ghite WALTER B, DENNY University of Massachuses, Amberst Kinin | PETER F, DEMBOWSKI | LUCY DER MANUBLIAN, Konan JAMES DICKIE Ji (CHARLES DONAHUE, JR. Harvard University aw, Civr—Conetsiurs, Reviva ann Sian F.TALBOT DONALDSON Indiana Universiey Lancnano, Wits: PRED M. DONNER University of Chicago Karan a aL-Watlo KATHERINE FISCHER DREW Ricw University Law, Grawans Fan Conia iexManus DIANE L. DROSTH University of Toronto, Conere for Mediewal Studios Conran, LAWRENCE M. EARP Princeton University Lrowinus STRPHEN RELL University of toma Lenwosy MENACHEM ELON. Supreme Conrt of Israck aw, Jews MARCIA J. EPSTFIN University of Calgary Javent Rito Ca Lay STEVEN BPSTIN Duke University ray, Byzawring AnnasCONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 7 JOLIN H. PRICKSON St Viadionir’s Seninary Joun Prates STEVEN C. FANNING University of Minols at Chicago Grete Command Leaguts Lommase, Kincnomor SEYMOUR FELDMAN Rangers College Lrvinen Guustione 5. ©, FERRUOLO. Stanford University Jacques pe Viney JOHN V. A. FINE JR. University of Michigan Jone Aen Il Kavojans Knums Kuuing Lxzan Hien juno PETER G, FOOTE Universny College, London Jase, Dati Law, Se PATRICK K. FORD. Center for te Study of Comparative Flore aon Myrholoiey, University of California, Los Angeles Manno ROBERTA PRANK University of ‘Toromts, Centre for Medieval Studies Kanwing; Kowmis Sacas Kron: irre: Lausavise MARGIT FRENK, FI Coleg de Mexico Kuvanra PDWARD FRUEH Coluunbia Univer siey Jnniannisovr Si, Vineet RICHARD N. FRYE Harvard Universiry Kann or Zoanasree VICTORIA GABBITAS Museum of Leathorcraft, Northampton [Lean AND Lea TuriWORKENC: SYEPHEN GARDNER Columbia Universicy Foy, WiLL, Haran Lock, ‘Avams Lot, SYEMIEN NINA G, GARSOIAN Columbia University Jonson Opus, Sr Kamsananans Kany (Kannoy KeAataK") ADELMEID M, GRALT indiana University Jauory Clone; Lune Mena Lorenzev, Ammnocios uoneszeeny, Piercy Lone Mowacoy Léatenza pt Niccous, Hoiazes Viswezanoy Lucca ob Vos: DENO J. GEANAKOPLOS Yale University raLIAN ReNalssane, Byzawriny INRuRN ON CHRISTIAN J. GELLINEK University of Florida Kosar toni, Kane ati Koon Resrte GH. GERRITS Acadia Universi Jemoan oF QueDisnune JAMES 1. GU.LESPTE Griswold Institute Jonor Gaunt HANS PETER GLOCKNER Joba Wolfgang Goethe Universiuat [acouos (oF Pokra Ravenna otras Awnaxay; JOHANNES Monaceus PETER B. GOLDEN Rutgers University Kanaan OLEG GRABAR Harned University Seuss ea JAMES A, GRAHAM-CAMPBELL, University College, London Jnaiven Srvie GORDON &, GREENE Wilfred Laurier University Ma Hiv Ber Mow Comnanciattarr JAMES GRIER University of Warerfoo, Ontario Lome Osuaus xi JOHN L. GRIGSBY Washingon University Janie THotse MARY GRIZZARD University of New Mexico JouNor 8. Mascrigt ne Aunts Jone INGLIS; Juan aNd SIMCN ‘Corsi, JUAN DF BURGOS, JUAN Dt Frases ARTHUR GROOS ‘Cornell University [Easanase sy Lane AVIAHAM GROSSMAN Hebrew University of Jerusalem Karonyaus Fasasr LAWRENCE GUSH “Jutaw nes Murs BJARNI GUBNASON. Kirin nea Sxca JOSEPH GUTMANN, ows Any GREGORY GUZMAN Talley University Tomo Puasa Caxnint ABRALIAM S. HALKIN “Josevnr ney faa mes Jaci ap “ARNIN; JUDFO*ANABIC LITERRTURE NATHALIE HANLET JloHlanns Canararuis,Jouannss ‘or Sr, Anning, LANDIS SAGAX; Lanruperor Brtirz EDWARD R. HAYMES. Uniersty of Houston Romie Laurin JOHIN BELL. HENNEMAN Princeton University Library Iacgurnig, Law, Picts Is Sots hats XT oF PRANET JOHN HENNIG Tarun, Crane MICHAEL FIERREN York University, Ousario ugeaaniun Ei ‘Warburg Institute, University of London Lev IM, ErrnoROWER H. HEWSEN Glassboro State College Kxnntas Kass Kuen TORR Kura P.LHEYWORTH Univarsity of Toronto assem Gnour CONSTANCE B. HIEATT University of Western Ontario Kat amacts Sac ROWER HHLLENRRAND University of Edinbveghs Kian JN, HILLGARTH Pontifical Insti of Medliceval Studies, Tarosto Eur, Rawow G. WARREN HOLLISTER University of California, Santa berbara Kyicitisann Kutch Sexvice JON HOWE, Texas Tech University Lnsanpor Mice DONALD GWYON HOWELLS Uninersity of Glasgow Taw, Was ANNE HUDSON Lady Margret Hall, Oxford Honianos JAY HUKF Jonntor ArmucHEM; JOHN oF Ganwany MAHMOOD IBRAHIM University of California, Los Angeles JAN, °AnD AL-QADIR AL ALFRED L.IVRY Brandels University JJupad Hats RICHARD A. JACKSON University of Howston Kincsity, RITIATS OF Comanarion’ WILLIAM B. JACKSON University of Virginte Jowannrs Haocxun CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 7 PETER JEFFERY University of Delaware Litany GFORGE JOCHNOWITZ College of Staten Island, City Universry of New York Junro-Prowenca JENNIFER E, JONES Lazu, RAISING Om Locos WILLIAM CHESTER JORDAN Princeton University Jonviss, raw P¥; Louts IX oF ranes, WALTER EMI. KAEGI JR. Universiy of Chicago JJOUAN THE Avosra rs Jusrinuan It RICHARD W. KAEUPER University of Rochester Jai Dinavonys Jusmers ort Peas DANIEL H. KAISER, Grinnell College Taw, Russian (Muscovrre) IOLI KALAVREZOU-MAXEINEX University of California, Los Angeles Justa Row MARIANNE F. KALINKE University of Mlineis at Urbana- Champaign KeAni Sac OUGLAS KELLY University of Wisconsin Jonntor Ganiann DALE KINNEY. ry Mawr College coro b PEO Goins, Lantnane ‘or Mopena; [aN DAVID N. KLAUSNER University of aronto, Centre for Medieval Studies LuymrLy a Gruniyno ALAN F, KNIGHT Pennsylvania State University ‘ry, JEU De LA Peun.sn, Le; Jeu ne Roun et Mawion, 11 xii er Ls | ‘THOMAS KUEHN Clemson Universivry are, Seatoor so VALERIE M, LAGORIO University of loves Juntan or Nonwich ANGELIKILAIOU, Harvard University Jone V Par aor [ony VI Kanaxouzesos; Jou VILL Pazaronecnss KANTAKOUZENOG Liutrranias Creagons IRA M. LASIDUS, University of California, Berkeley Ksatoun Ie JACOB LASSNER Wayne State University Kunis AL-BACHDADH, At ARTHUR LEVINE, ‘Jaconus or BOLOGNA Jus KENNETH LEVY Princeton University Kontaxion! ARCHIBALD R, LEWIS University of Massachusetts, Aunberst Lamaunoc DAVID G. LINDBERG University of Wisconsin Lenses. an EYEGLASSES AMNON LINDER Lave, on JOHN LINDOW Uniusrsty of California, Berkeley wun Loxt CHARLES T. LITTUR Metropolitan Museum of Art Iwony Canvine DEREK W. LOMAX University of Birmingharn ones, FitoCONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 7 MICHAEL P. LONG: Calbia University Taga, FRANC? LAUDA LARS LONNROTH nist Sac BRYCE LYON Browen University {oxi oF BRAKELONDY Jonny Kingor ENGLAND; jesticinys Lanriane ov Brcs Laneron, Seasnien Lint W. MADELUNG he Oriental institute, Oxford Jap GEORGE P, MAJESKA University of Maryland Kawennaya Banas Kier KiHMo; Kuswos: Koxostnk: Konesovka KRIKOR H. MAKSOUDIAN Toes Pzianskess KANHOLIKos; Kui Hawatoy, Kontten Law, ‘Ansan Lass, CANON: ‘AnMeNian: ERWOND: LOR IVAN G. MARCUS {Jewish Theological Seminary Jest Conant SEL Govirnivr, Fuwors; Junast nen Shar tel Asin; Joho a TL MARKEY University of Michigan Kersgieikan MICHAEL E. MARMURA, University of Toromia Kivi, ate STEVEN P, MARRONE Tufts University Kiwaxony, Ronee JOBN HILLARY MARTIN, 0.0, Junor Paws LAURO MARTINES University ef California, Les Angler Faty, Fournven tano Firmuens Cewrbts Iraty, Riskor Tow JOAQUIN MARTINEZ-PIZARRO Oberlin College Kirn $aGn Heescsy Kaun Lavann; Layer Crstonter RALPH WHITNEY MATHISEN Uninersty of South Carolina Jonna MICHAEL MeCORMICK Dumbarton Oaks Research Concor Kostas Kot sis LAWRENCE J. MeCRANK ‘Auburn University at Momigamery DAVID R. MeLINTOCK University of Lowden Laapinestin BRIAN MERRILIS, University of Toronto Jeu 'Anans Jor or Hrsenens JJonran Fanrosuts La pss Drsink, ug Liveite ne aris De BuorvAMte (VERE DF RFI DF FN PRA BARRY MESCH University of Florida Fosrae mw Casts JOHN MEYENDORFF Bordham Universiry Jom oF Damascus, $3 Josie I, Parmanents Lave, Canon Brzanvive; Lirviey, Byzawro Cuauness ROMUALD J. MISIUNAS Yale University Linwianin MICHEL MOLLAT, Jnstirut de Frauee, Academie des Inscriptians et Belles Lettres Jacques Comin ANNE M. MORGENSTERN ‘Ola State University Jean Micies JOLIN H, MUNRO, University of Toronto Linen HENRY A, MYERS Tate, Gienaean: Post-Canouncians LAWRENCE NEES. University of Delaware Lovina Air xiii LEON NEMOY Dropsie University Keanarnes STEPHEN G. NICIOIS,JR. University of Pennsylownia Earn Con, iF HELMUT NICKEL Metropolitan Museum of Art Lance, THOMAS 5. NOONAN University of Minnesota Kievan Kus DONNCHADE 6 CORRAIN University College, Cork Taw, masts Losin BARBARA OEHISCHLAEGER- GARVEY University of Mois at Urbana Champaign Kons NICOLAS OIKONOMIDES Universin® de Montreal Kavrnanog Law, hy2anernt Locate, ROBERT G, OUSTERHOUT University of lois at Urbarae Champaign Keanivie DIAM, ConstANTINORLES iy HERMANN PALSSON University of Rdinburgh Lawpnanennt HERBERT H. PAPER “Hebrew Union College, fowish Institue of Religion Taps-Pasian DEREK PEARSALL Contre for Medieval Studies, University of York, England Lyncary, Joun: PRANKUN }. PEGUES ‘Obie State University JusriessoF Connon Peas; Jusnersor ris King's Keven Law, ENULSH Common: 10 1272 CLAUDE |. PRIFFR, OSB. ‘St. Bede Abbey iro 1, PowCONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 7 DAVID A. E, PELTERET New College, Vsronte Kevnicran, Sr, KENNETH PENNINGTON Syracuse University lonianees THUTOWI US Taunearius {spans Law Coors 1000-1500; Lave, Poe 1205 JAMES F, POAG. Washingrom Universit Tostan vows WI Von Stone Konan OMELJAN PRITSAK Uliniun Research Institwte, Harvard University Kurazans ROSEDI RASHED yuipe ele Recherche Associde, Histoire des Sciences ot dela Philosophie Arabes, Centre Histoire des Sciences et des Docrrines, Paris Kanal, a> THOMAS RENNA Spina Valley State College Tuto, 3 Jowas oF OnnFans, Kinesian, THeomson5 ba 1X, Powe NICHOLAS RESCHER University of Petsburgh Loca, Iiane ROGER E. REYNOLDS Pontifical bntiite of Mediaeval Studies, Toronto Kivniatty Lamy, Canons To Grovrians Livan, Gear ann issrig BLIvKey, STATIONS! Liyuney, Teearisisow AG. RIGG: University of Poronto, Contre for Medieval Studies Lenn Lanounery Lire iges Lars) Maree FRANGOIS RIGOLOT Princeton University Jan Lista oF Br THEODORE JOLIN RIVERS WMA: Ea ¥ GIQSANIC Ginis FLAINE GOLDEN ROBISON ‘Jos oF CavesrEano, $1 PAUL ROREM Line LINDA ©. ROSE ‘AN DE Brune JOHN Kusiagos, Sry fome IV Tur asi, Patines Jove oF NI stun Stuns Lamon Sa Emienanty Le V ri AISWINIAN, Fran tos Lio Tie ‘Marneataciees Liat ane, Luxas Nevranas MIRIAM ROSEN, Fordbare University Kuangat ¢. ROURCHE Kixaatenos JAY ROVER Larue, Jest TEOVILO F. RUIZ, Broolyy College, City University ‘of New York Jvuawus or Toueno; Law, Srawsie TAMES 8. RUSSELL Gohunbia University Roig Leven ot Vans. J-JOSEPH RYAN Si. Jobn's Semzary, Brighton, Massachusetts Wow CHanrnes, 8 JOSEPIL SADAN ‘Vel-Aviv University Kussr PAI. SAENGER ‘Northwestern University lbrary Lirenacyy Westen Funny KAMAL S, SALIBI ‘American University of Beirut Lenanon V, A. SANDQUIST. University of Toromo Jay Jose, Irivenany PAUL SCHACH University of Nebraska Kyataisiscn Satin JACOB Joos NICOLAS SCHIDLOVSKY Smithsonian Instinaion Kanon HARD SCHIMMEL PFENNIG Univorstat Augsburg June JANICE L. SCHULTZ, antes College JOHN oF SatsnuRy ALBEIT SAY Colorada College Jacqurs oe Lacs Jonannes ne Gur in DAVID H. SELLAR University of Falinburgle Law, Sco REAN SHAHID Georgeronon University axisnns SPRGPI A. SHUISKIL Princeton University Kraan Is GIULIO SILANO Pontifical bntitnte of Mediaeval Studies, Taronto JxcoRONE DA TOOT LARRY SILVER Norehwestern University KOFRREC KF Jovian; KONRAD VON Sorsmy Kiatin, ADAM: LirEor Man, Masten oF ri Locust, Simian BARRE SINGLETON Conrtnl Insttnre, University of London Svar Lifes Lassner, Burcrumoserwe DENNIS SLAVIN Princeton University Jo an/Focusun ROBERT J. SNOW University of Texas aur, ACcIAMAT es) JAMIS SNYDER Bryn Mawr College Jous van Grass:PAUL SOLON Macalester College Jon or Ang, St HAYM SOLOVEITCHIK Yeshiva Universiry, heruard Revel Graduate Sebiond Jacon miss Mit PRISCILLA P. SOUCEK ‘New Yark University Junavng Kanikita; Kane Keanarianay Ket, Laat Wan SVAT SOUCEK Janossany; Kian Kinonce , GABRIELLE M. SPIEGEL University af Maryland Lous: V1 OF FRaNct RUTH STEINER Catholic University of America Kvn NORMAN A. STILLMAN, State University of New York at Binghameosr Jews Must 1 SPaINs JPW [Nowr Aliicas Juanes Juco ‘Ananic LaNCOnT KENNETH R. STOW Uniuersity of Haifa Jnws anv iie Catone: Cre Jews inv Eunore: Ab ren 900; Jews Invrne Pavat S¥aves SANDRA STOW University of Heifa Joupro-Fntvenss Jupio-Teauan JOSEPH R. STRAYER Princeton University Janis Viren, jonnaw or ‘Oswamatnss; Lannie? or hnnstrn, Law, Suantcue Lo Noxrt SANDRA CANDEE SUSMAN acoN DeIAA Quer DONALD W. SUTHERLAND. University of towa Law, ENcusit Common: Arta 1272, Lanvwcey any Lamers CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 7 RN, SWANSON University of Birmingham Tne, Para EDWARD A, SYNAN Pontifical Insitute of Mediaeval Shties, Teron Jourenie Deacon ALICE-MARY M, PALBO! Kratos, Gracies Katrovniutos, MICHAEL JORGE S. TATE, Brigham Young University Leman isan; Likwaunaaut ROMER 'VAYLOR Victoria College, Toronto Lvs Amons: PAUL R, THIBAULT. Franklin cad Marsbail College Jonny XXI1, Pore J. WESLEY ‘THOMAS, University of Kentucky Konan vor Wowzaue RW. THOMSON Harvard University Karts C7 x0vRE M.A. TOLMACHEVA, Kcrumpasinny, tn WARREN T, TREADGOLD Hilisdale College Lao Viva Wir, Enero WILLIAM URBAN Monmoulh College Luseen GEORGES VAJDA Centre Naticmale de la Recherche Scientifique JOSEPH PN Apaiase at-BASin Josten any Sang xv ANNE HAGOPIAN VAN BUREN “Tufts University Ivan, DIX; JEAN Le TAVEAIIE RS “Teas Miivery Larus, Libvne vans Levi, Raouts Lito, lover AMY VANDERSALL University of Colorado Livres JEANETTE A. WAKIN Columbia University Tay, Ist amc ELLEN T, WEHNER University of Toronto Iver or Sevner2 Mrscims, Le ALBORID'T, WELCH ‘Michigavi State University Konan Lrrunery, Is awe WILLIAM K. WEST Lo Cone ESTELLE WHELAN Kaan MARINA 2), WHITMAN esi Lava; Laster wane GREGORY WHITTINGTON Institute of Fine Arts, New York University Taran; Lancer Wipow; Lona Banos BRUCIA WITTHOFT Fraaninnghann Sta University TLromaKnO m Sit Govan KLAUS WOLLENWERER, ‘Memorial University of Nowfowmdiand Korzenmt:, Das KENNERLY M. WOODY Jou Guanaien, Se JAMES L. YARRISON Princeton University Lapingnya, At RONALD EDWARD ZUPKO Marquette Univessity Jouxwat; Last; Lesiues LiveDictionary of the Hliddle AgesDictionary of the Widdle Ages ITALIAN RENAISSANCE— MABINOGI ITALIAN. RENAISSANCE, BYZANTINE IN- FLUENCE ON. The Byzantine influence on she Italian Renaissance eamor adequately be understood unkess ir ig realized rhae ducing the same period By: ‘antiuny itself seas experiencing the “Palaiologan” renaissance of letters che Byzantine emigre scholars brought co Italy nor only Greek texts bur Palaiolo- gan philosophical, philological, and literary inter- pretarions as well as methods of reaching and stndy. The sysceniatic teaching of Greek in fealy began in Florence in 1396 with Manuel Chrysoloras, whose pupils included many famous humanists (Leonardo Bruni, Pier Paolo Vergerio, Guarino da Verona, and dorhers), His Greco-Latin grammar composed in the Palaiologan manner, and his method of eranslation {seressing contextual interpretation, aor lireral trans: lation) and interest in certain Plaronic writings 3s well as Plutareh, had an fenporcane impact in aly During she Council of Ferrara-Florence (begine ring in 1438), which brought many Jearned Grecks to Italy ro discuss religious union with Rome, Greeks fespecially Georgios Gemistos Plethon}intro- duced tor better, interpreted for~Italian human: ists previously unknown or unavailable Geeek texts, especially the complece works of Plato. Bur Geinistos Pletion's sophisricated exegesis of Platonisis was not craly understood until John Argyropoulos came inv 1456 0 reach in Florence, where he remained vunril 1471, Argycopoulos, formerly professor in Constantinople, acquired an acute knowledge of Latin and was therefore an idea) cansmitcer of Greek learning. Hited ra teach Aristotelian works, his chief eoneriburion lay in is systematic interpre ation of Greek philosophy (especially Mato), He thus helped ro reorient Florentine Humanist from firs earlier rhetorical (“eivie") emphasis 10 @ mern physical one, ‘The Florentine Placonic Academy, informally es- tablished! by Cosimo de® Medici (1462) and inspired petbaps by Plethon, included Greeks and especially Latins such as its head, Marsilio Ficino (who, though not 2 student of Argyropoulos, was prabably influ- enced by hin, also Pico della Micandola (1463 1494) and Angelo Poliziano (or Politian, 1454-1494), who had studied with Argyropoutos. In mid-quattrocenro Rome the Byzaneine cardinal and scholar Bessarion directed an “academy” to pro- duce more accurate Humanist (nor Scholastic) erans- lations of Greek works in philosophy and science and of the Greck church fathers. The chief teansla- tors were George of Trebizond (who frst introdaced to Iraly the secondscentury Greck rhetorician Her mogenes) and Teodoro Giva (Theodoros Gazes), leading Ariscorelian Venice assumes primacy in Greek studies from 1494 to abour 1525, Ermolao Barbaro, rae leading Venetian humanisr, who studied in Rome with Gav, promoted in Paclua displacement of the dominant Avetroist tradition of Ariseotle in favor of the more authentic Greco-Byzanrine tradition, Barbaro's ef forts, along with Bessation’s earlier ones, ted, later in 1492, ro the appointment of the Greck Nicholas Leonigos Thomacos to reach Aristorle at Pada “it the original (Greek) cext.” Meantime, in. Venice, Aldus: Manutius printed first editions of most of che imporcant Greek classical auchors. His chief collah= orators were the Greek Markos Musouros, editor of Plaru, and Demetrios Doukas, editor of the Rhetores gracei From Cheysotoras' appearance in Florence until 1535, rhe Italian humanists’ mastery of Greek learn ing advanced from ignorance of the language (except in some works of Aristotle) 0 recovery and enastery of virtoally the entice surviving corpus of Greek lire exature and philosophy in the oviginal, a process in which the Byzantine exiles played the fundamental role as eeansiniters of texts, ceachers, printers, and exegetes {among other things, of Greck draina, ora-ITALY, BYZANTINE AREAS OF tory, history, and philosophy, inclnding the anci commentators on Aristotle) SRKLIOGRAPHY Deno J. Geanakoplos, “A Recvalation of Influence of Byzantine Seholars un the Development of the Studia hue Imuanitatis, Meraphysies, Paristies, and Scienee in the tral iho Rensissanee (1861~c. 1521)” in Proceedings of the PMR Conference, 3 (1978), “Theodore Gaza, a Byzantine Scholar of the Palacologsn "Renaissasnee” in che Italian Renaissance,” in Medievalia et Hurvanistica, 12 (1984), and "The Career of the Litel-known Renaissance Greck Scholar Nicholas Leonicus Tomacus and che Ascendancy fof Greco-Byzantine Aristotelianism at Padiaa (1497) in Festschrift for J. Karayanoponlos (1985), Also his Greek Scholars in Venice (1962), repe 8 Dycantivon and the Ren tissance (1976), ane Interaction of the “Sibling” Byzantine ‘and Western Cultures in the Middle Ages and Italion Rene aissance (1976), Pau) Kirsteller, “Renaissance Though avd Byzantine Learning,” in his Renaissance Thought and Its Sources. Deno J. Grawakevren [See also Aristotle jn the Middle Ages; Ressarion; Classical Literacy ‘errara-Florencc, Council of; Gemistos Plethon, Georgios; George of Trebizond; Manuel Cheysi- loras; Pato in the Middle Ages; Translations and Trans- lators, Byzantine.] ITALY, BYZANTINE AREAS OF. Byzantine seas of Iraly in the south (the Mezzogiorno) roughly cor respond with the modern regions of Abruzzi, Mor lise, Campania, Apulia, Basilicata, Calabria, and Si- cilia, and cover roughly 38,200 square miles (99,000 square kilometers). Hills ancl mountains: dominate the landscape; thus, while Iraly’s long, coastline and central location in the Mediterranean basin attcacred numerous invaders, they offen found its rugged ter- rain difficult co conquer and hold, In the early fifth century southern Italy first ex: perienced the barbarian invasions; Alarie and his Visigoths continued their plundering march south after the sack of Rome in 410, and Vandals from North Africa raided tie coastal areas. By the end of the century Theodoric had set up an Ostrogorhic kingdom that included! all of Iealy; but in the south, except in Samnium, Ostrogothie settlement was slight. There the fifth cencary had been a period of seneral decline and economic stagnation. Theodor ie’s rule brought peace and a modest economic recovery ITALY, BYZANTINE AREAS OF Justinian attempted ro restore Roman authority in the western parts of the empire lost curing the pre- vious century. bn 535 his general, Belisasins, arrived in che south aftera soecessful campaign in North A rica, and in this region the defeat of the Ostrogoths was rapid. Under Torila, however, the Ostrogoths rallied anil ravaged much of southern Iraly, only t0 he defeated by Belisarius’ successor, Narses, The south was finally pacified by 555, and with the Prag- matic Sanction of 5$4 Justinian reorganized Italy and firmly incorporated it into what may now be called the Byzantine state. In the south there had been an econoinic collapse and serious loss of pop- ulation as a resule of the Gothic Wars, The plague of 542 coneribued ro the decline. ‘The Lombard inva- sion of lealy, beginving in 568, completed the eyele of catastrophe. ‘The Lombards were in the south by $70, and the conquest proceeded from the two principal Lombard strongholds ar Spoleto and Benevento, Justin I] (S65~ 578) sent a relief expedition that was defeated in Campaniay and Constantinople, pressed on many fronts, was in no position to offer further assistance to its Italian subjects. The Lombacd conquest of the south was slow and methodical; by the mid seventh cenrary Lombard dakes had organized vietually in- dependent duchies at Spoleto and Renevento, and the Byzantines were confined to the extreme south at Taranto, Brindisi, southern Calabria, and another pocker of strength in the coastal cities around Naples. Since the Byzantines still controlled Sicily and ce- tained naval supremacy in the area, their footholds in che south were easly supplied and reinforced. Em poror Constans Il, attempting t0 restore Byzantine rule in the west, landed at Taranto in 663 with a large army and pushed the Lombaeds back to Bene- vento, which he was unable to take. After the first Visit by an emperor ro Rome in almost three eentur ries, Constans established a capital at Syracuse and posed a serious challenge fo botb the Lombards and the Arabs in North Africa. His assassination in 668 marked che beginning of: long period of defeats for the Byzantines in the west. Under Romuald the Lombards took advantage of Byzantine disorder in the south, and by 680 the Greeks had lost Brindisi, ‘Taranto, and most of Apulia, and held only the area around Oteanto in Apulia and southern Calabria around Reggio. The western constal cities of Gaeta, ‘Amalfi, and Naples were drifting away (com diecet Byzantine cule. During this period the Arab raids on the south increased in intensity as wellTYZANTINE AREAS OF ITALY 2 rman 0 outs ‘yuscaetr vst Sito pucty oF SPOLITO annua "a oust ey, spucny oF amar ‘THEME ov LONCOBARDIAITALY, BYZANTINE AREAS OF With some minor losses and gains, the Ryzancine position in che south remained stable until the fal of Ravenna to Pepin I in 754 and the subsequent Fran ish conquest of northern Italy. Constantinople faced immediate challenges in the Balkans and Asia Minor and internal divisions resulting from the iconoclastic controversy (726-843) and hence had ne resources for the defense of southern Iraly. Byzantine areas in Iealy seemed cestined ro fall to the Lombards or Arabs. The Lombard duke Archis took the title of prince in 774 and ruled most of the south. The duke fof Spoleto had become a vassal of the Frankish king, Arab raiding parties became @ permanent fixture, aunt in Sieily the fall of Palermo (831) gave the Arabs the upper hand in their steady conquest ofthe island, Raiding on the mainland intensified; tbe Arabs took Bari and Taranto and were artacking at the gates af Rome in 846, What remained of Byzantine Ikaly was Calabria and an increasingly smaller share of eastern Sicily, “The duchy o Calabria, while in theory a dependency 'of rhe “heme” (Byzantine province) of Sicily, was left vo defend itself. The transter of church authority from Rome ro Constantinople during the iconoclase rie controversy helped to make Calabria iv particular am important center of Greek religions practices, culture, and language. Refagees from Sicily (includ= ing many Greck monks opposing iconoclasin) and from other areas nade Calabria rhe most Greck re- gion of the west. In other distriets of southern Italy thar had been under Greek rule, the language re- mained a Latin vernaetilar and Greek practices were regarded as foreign. Some western cities, principally Naples also rerained a strong Greek heritage, but in hose areas on the mainland recently lose, such as Cosenea and ‘Taranto, Latin gradually dominated, The Roman chucch had lost considerable influence and property in Sicily and Calabria, but in Naples and Amalfi chere was a vigorous local struggle be- tween Roman and Greek ecelesiastic hierarchies and liturgies. By the mid pinch cenrury rhe Byzantine position thad deveriorated in the south, With the Arabs theeat- ening Rome, the papacy arrempted to convince the Carolingian emperors to intervene in southern Italy. ‘The Byzantines beeame allies of the Carolingian em- pevor Louis IT (ca. 855-876) in his southern cam poaign, but the reconquest of Bari regained Const tinople nothing, and ie was clear char the Franks had no intention of turning oves to the Grevks any con quests they mighe make in the south, The Lombards took advantage of the disagreements between the ITALY, BYZANTINE AREAS OF two distane empites to enhance their own local inf ‘ence, Under the Macedonian emperors Basi! 1 (867— 886) and Leo VI the Wise (886-912), che Byzantine position in Italy became more secure. Bari becaine Byzantine again in 876, anal the Lombard prinee of Benevento put himself under Byzanrine surhority. Around 885 the able general Nikephoros Pholeas took command of the Greek forces in the south; he pushed the Arahs out of Calabria and reclaimed much territory from Salerno and Benevento. Under Leo VI the government of rhe south was reorganized. Two themes were established: Longor bardia on the east coast, ruled by a strategos (mil rary governor) at Baris and Calabria, ander a strate- os usually at Reggio. ‘The Byzantines were more willing ro rule dicectly, having become fess trusting of their Lombard subjects. Lco also pursued a policy of colonization in Apulia and Calabeia, and he fos tered a reorganization of the church under Greek bishops. The Byzantines and theie newly found Lome hard subjoets defeated the Arabs at Garigliano in 915 under the strategos Nicola Piecinyli and kept the mainland safe from the Arabs for a while, Naples and Gaeta returned to formal Byzantine protection. ‘The Byzantine revival in the sourh in the centh century faced several serious challenges. Atab raiders several times forced the theme of Calabria to pay tribute, The Hungarian raids in Iraly reached Carn= ppania in 922, ancl in the 940's chreatened Longobar alia as far south as Bai, The princes of Capua, who now controlled Benevento, were at first rebellions and succeeded in asserting their independence. The new Ottonian dynasty in Germany also challenged Byzantine cule in the sourh. When Oreo | the Grear (962-973) was at Renevento, the Lombard princes transferred their allegiance vo hien, and the Germans invaded Apulia and Calabria in 968 bat with Hirde result, A tiniely Byzantine marriage alliance with Or- tos heir in 972 helped bring peace to the south, and ‘Onto II obligingly crushed the Arabs in Calabria in 982, ‘This difficult political situation provided the hackground for a flowering of Greck culture in the souh, principally centered in the Rasilian monaster- ies of Calabria, The work of St. Nilus of Rossano ca, 910-1005), hermit and monastic reformer, re sulted in the great repurarion of the Mecurion mon astery and others he personally founded. Nilus helped to keep alive che eremitical tradition as well, and his own career witnessed many foreed migr tions caused by Arab raids, Nilus was widely ve ‘ated ducing his long fife and was well known for hisITALY, 14TH-15TH CRNTURIFS: travels. His life demonstrates that Greek euleure had set down strong roots in Calabria, Under Basil I (976-1025) che Byzantine position in the souel was strengthened and consolidated. The emperor reor ganized the government under. « single katepano (chief of Italy at Bari and supplied sufficient funds and rgoops. The successful general Basil Boiannes ended Acab raids, pacified the Lombard, and adinin~ iscered the initial defeats of the Normans. By about 1000 the Byzantine position in southern Italy was ax strony as it had been ar any time since the arcival of the Lombanis, IIKLIOGRAPHY Jules Gay, Liltalie méridionile et Fempire byzantin (1908) erans, int lean a6 1a meridionale e Fimpero iganting {1930 André Guillow, "“Likalio. byranrina dll invasione longobarla alla eulies ci Ravenna," in Gi seppe Galasso, ed, Sari d'Italia, (1980 George Ostror osky, History of the Uyzuntine State, Joan M. Hhasey, Frans, 2rd ed, (1969 Giseppe Pocherting, { angobardi nell Hala meretinnate (570-1080) (1930); Charles Wick ham, Barly Medieval Italy: Central Power and Local Sir ciory 400-1000 (9981 Sreven Brsren [See also Byzantine Empice: History: Lombards, Kingdom ‘of; Ostrogotts. ITALY, FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH. CENTURIES, ‘The habit of sceing late medieval Italy asa study in political fragmentation, or of stressing the rise of Inege regional states such as Milan, depends tacitly upon the conceptual model of a centralized state. However, since no such stare ex- isced in Maly, there is something arbitrary abou secing Italian potitical affairs in the fourteenth ce rury as moving roward the centralization of author ity. Yet we catinor do without the model, for ire ables us co make sense of a history that we weld nox otherwise know how co grasp. To take the opposite approach—to see the peninsula (com the viewpol of one of the small, independent communes or urban lordships, such as’ Siena or Rerrarn—wonld give a picture of only one or two of its consticotent parts, nor of the largee~shough by mo means organic— whole, And although raking a roure hecween the model and the fragmented reality seems ro make loge ical sense, no historical narrative can sensibly ac- it, Accordingly, we must draw ont the ITALY, 14UH-1STH CENTURIES designated model, while also bearing its arbitrary as- peers in mind, tealy in 1300 was made up of more than forty dif= ferenr scates, perhaps even as many as 300, depending upon how “state” is defined. ‘the old kingdom of Italy—roughly the upper eworfifths of rhe peninsila, excluding Venice and the Papal States—was under the nominal rule of the Holy Roman Empire and still had an abstract juridical reality. But having been brutally beaten in its epochal elash with the papacy and Guelph ciries, rhe imperial power in Italy had been reduced toa shifty, often venal, presence. Soon, too, with the vransfer of the papaey to Avignon (1309), che Italian lands ander papal rule verged on political disintegration, as rowns and petty lords in the Romagna and Umbria did what they pleased, putting local autonoinies foremost or willfully seiz: ing neighboring tercitory. In the north, along a line moving from east to ‘west, the largest stares de factor were the patriacchate of Aquileia; the republic of Venice; the urban lord- ships of Padua, Verona, Mancaa, and Milan; the few dal scigniories of Piedmont, where the duchy of Savoy eventually predomi mnd the cepublic of Genoa, Farther south, in Tuscany, lay che republican communes of Lucea, Pisa, Florence, and Siena. To the cast of these, in the Papal States, were the Rte lordship of Ferrara, the commune of Bologna, and a searcering of rowns (exeh with a surrounding, ter tory} to be ruled later on jn the foureecarh century by petty despors such as the Malatesta (Rimini), Manfredi (Faenza), Ordelafl (Forli), da Potenta (i ential, Moniefelteo (Urbino), and Alidosi (Imola) Farther south were the commune of Perugin and the Patciinony of St. Peter, including Rome. Beyond thom stretched the Freach Angevin realm of Naples, supposedly held under papal torship. Sicily ane Sardinia had already been torn away from the Ane _gevins by nacive revoke (the War of the Sicilian Ves pers, 1282-1303) and Saedinia passed ro the royal house of Aragon in 1324. Within this broad spectrin of states, government varied enormously in its scope, efficiency, civility, 50° cial makeup, laws, and ideological presuppositions. The extremes lay in the differences between north and sonth, commune and kingdony in the contrasts beeween feudalism and bustling commercial city, Aespotism and citizen consensus, fluid and more ‘astelike nobilities. The prea urban communes of the north stood ar one excreme; at the other were che vast feudal holdings of the great herons of Angevin Naples and the Aragonese kingdom in Sicily (ofl~ SHMMAINGD WINGALILE ANY HINAILWAOT AHL NI ATRLITALY, 14TH-15TH CENTURIES cially Trinacria). But there were also insuperable dif- ferences within Upper Italy, again in government by ‘comune (associations of citizens), as in Genoa, and ‘government by feudal fiat, as in Piedemont, large parts of Lombardy, the Frit, che Romagna, and the Emilian—Tuscan Apennines Utaly was becoming a complex patchwork of re- gional or focal antonomies, which made allegiances, ifficule and frontiers unstable. There were civil wars tnd changing jurisdictious in the troubled realms of Naples and Sicily, popes determined to peevent the rise of a major power in Italy, the riot of urban po- litical faerions in the north, and the clash of repub- lican communes with the spread of urban despotism (signorie). In this setting, once their desices or fears had been aroused, the larger political entities thrust ‘ove beyond eheic fcontiees to conqner whatever they could. Thus Milan, the papacy, the Angevin and Aragonese kingdoms, Florence, Savoy, and Venice were invalved in "a war ofall against all” Buc even as these states expanded, acquiring more military muscle, they retained a high degree of intrastate vari= ation, particularly the kingdom of Naples, the Papal States, and even the seigniory of Milan, all of which tolerated local legal custom, local cours, different ways of assigning and distributing local exeraordi= nary taxes, and, in the north, occasional local assem blies of privileged citizens In the carly fourteenth century there were three political storm centers, each of which helped to shape Italian destinies for generations to come. First populous and industrious Milan, situated in the mid- ‘le of the rich river plain of Lombardy, eame fully under che rule of the Visconti, a feudal dynasty that swiftly spearheaded aggressive Milanese expansion. ithe Visconti lords of Milan were ro survive in such a fertile and palitically fragmented region, rhey must ‘extend and consolidate their gains again and again. ‘Second, when Pope Clement V (1305-1314) teans- ferced the papacy to Avignon, he diminished the temporal power of the papacy in Italy, abandoned the Papal States to deepening turmoil and petty dles- pots, and sowed che fears that would vindicate the ivisive policies of the popes, who labored to keep all other Iralian states relatively weak. Accordingly, the papal ceturn to Rome (1377) intensified the anx- ieties of neighboring states, especially Florence. In the filteenth century a line of Renaissance popes stubbornly followed a policy of nepotism, not only to find lordships for their families bur also to protect ‘nd strengchen their pontificates. To be pope was to be locked into a struggle for power in the peninsula. ITALY, 14TH-15TH CENTURIES The eye of the third storm centered on Naples and Sicily. ‘The establishment of a new dynasty by Charles of Anjou (1265-1278) had led to. eebellion and civil war in Sicily, with the result hae Sicily andl its anti-Angevin nobility ended up under the rule of the house of Aragon, The fourteenth-century storm centers had a major impact on only one of the ewo great seaports, Geno, which became a prime target of Milanese expansion. Venice, preoccupied wieh its maritime empire and eastern emporia, was not a true contender on the 0 mainkand wntil after 1400. Matteo 1 Visconti, lord of Milan (1310-1322), was succeeded by 4 line of able direct descendants. Theie ruling position in the city and its territories was accorded repeated legitimation bY vore or accla- mation in the large communal couneil of 900 and, when possible, by their confirmation as imperiat vi ars, Azzone Visconti (1328-1339) gathered Cremona, Piacenza, Crema, Lodi, Como, Vercelli, and Brescia into the Milanese fold, mainly by force of arms and by checking another ambitious signor, Mastino Il della Seala of Verona. Under Laiechino Visconti (1339-1349), Asti, Parma, Tortona, Alessandria, and ‘other towns were drawn into the Milanese srate. Lucchino had the assistance of his brilliant brother, Giovanni, archbishop of Milan, who, as lord of Milan (1349-1354), seized Bologna from the papacy, acquired Genoa, struck deep into Tuscany, and, on his death, left a greatly enlarged policical patrimony to his three nephews: Mattco, Galeazzo, and Bec- nab, In 1385 the most important of these, Bernabd, was cunningly eliminated by his nephew (and son- in-law) Giangaleazz0, who became the first duke af Milan by buying the title from Emperor Wenceslaus in 1395, When Giangalearzo died in 1402, his lands reached from Padua, across the Lombacd plain, down to Assisi and Perugia, deep in papal restitory Florence alone had held out, though it stood on the brink of military collapse. Despite its distance from Rome, the Avignon pa pacy did not lose interest in Halian polities or the Papal States, a prime source of income. But nearly every pope from John XXII (1316-1334) to Gregory X1 (1370-1378) had to wage political and milicary ‘campaigns against the Visconti and theie chronic in- cuisions into papal territory. Emperors and imperial claimants were also troublesome for the papacy. Henry VIl, Louis of Bavaria, Frederick of Austtia, and Charles IV flouted papal remporal claims and ‘were usually able, on deseending into Italy, to rally sinall armies of Ghibelline exiles or to incite ChibeFITALY, L4TH-15TH CENTURIFS Tine leagues against the diplomacy and troops of papal legates. Consequently, in periods when papal recognition was denied to imperial claimants, popes themselves—stich as Clement V and John XXII— temporarily claimed the imperial authority and ap pointed imperial vicars. For some years after 1314, Robert of Anjou (d, 1343), nominal king of Sicily (caugh in fact of Naples, wenr by the title of “vicar ‘of all Iealy.” AAbways uineasy about Angevin inachi= nations in centtal and northern Tealy, popes never provided Robert with unstinting support indeed, at times they entered into bieter conflice with bim. The suvecess of papal poliey in Italy also depended in part ‘upon the character of the eardinal legates. The most Tormidable of these, in his resolution t0 reconstiture the Papal States, was the Spaniard Gil Albornox (1353-1367), 2 worthy rival ro the astute archbishop and lord of Milan, Giovanni Visconti King Robert of Anjou failed on seven expeditions to wrest Sicily from Predetick IIT of Aragon (1295- 1337), His anti-imperial policies were more success Jul, notably its Upper aly, where he made alliances with Guelph centers such is Florence and used his forces to oppose both imperial claimants and the ever-busy Visconti of Milan. To hold the loyalty of his baronage he was forced co fendalize more of his lands, thus weakening the fiscal foundations of the crown, But the deepest wounds to the cohesion of the kingdom were inflicted later, in the ceign of his sgtanddaughter Joanna t, qucen of Naples (1343 1382), A rivalry wo the death between Joanna and her Hungarian cousins (Robert's facher, Charles I of Anjou, had married a Hungarian princess) resulted in assassinations, civil wars, and two invasions of the Kingdon (1347, 1350) by Louis 1, king of Hungary. Charles II of Durazzo, descended fram yer another branch of the family, had Joanna executed and was hinvself murdered in Hungary four years leer (1386), Teas owing to their preoccupation with Neapolitan ‘and Hungarian affairs thar these princes had been tunable, in any realistic sense, ro east acquisitive eyes oon cental Italy. I the last quarter of the fourteenth century, the Lialian peninsula was dominated by three uF four states, Having returned to Rome in 1377, the papacy was at once rent by che Great Schism (1378-1417), hecause of which popes Urban VI and Boniface IX {had ro employ urgent diplovracy to mainain the ee= clesiastical obedience of the Italian states, On the high seas the keen and invererate hostilities between Genoa and Venice climaxed in the Chioggia War (1378-1381), che ourcume of which made Genoa eas ITALY, 14TH-151H CENTURIES jer prey for the Visconti, the Catalans, and the crown of France. Venice, in turn, experienced seri= fous economic dificulties, being. already much ha- -nssed by the Orcoman Turks in the Levant, the vital ground of Venetian trade, Meanwhile, along the southern frontiers of the ambitious Viseonti state, Florence, in 2 time of political emergency, trans= formed its republican viewpoine into an ideologi call for the “freedom of Italy” and the continuing independence of the existing city-states. Iraly’s remarkable economic and demogenphic growth peaked in the decades around 1300, Not for Centuries to come was the peninsula again to expe rience so much political novelty, zest, and mover iment, particularly as attested in the life ofits urban communes. A forceful shaping vitality was evident in all spheres, including art and literature, The Ralian hanking houses of the Renaissance—Przzi, Medici, Chigi, Steozzi—lacked the verve, numbers, ingenu= ity, and daring of their Sienese and Florentine coun- texparts of the early fourteenth century. The same is true of a comparison of differences between Vene- tian overseas merchants in 1300 and in 1500, Also, about 1320 Tuscany's woolen textile industry prot duced ronghly double the amount of cloth thar ie produced after about 1350. ‘Alter 1350 the leading textile eenters—Plorence, Lucca, Siena, Perugia—were gravely troubled by «n= employment, « tebellious proletariat, and deepening poverty. But rhe years 1315-1987 had alteady ush~ ered in episodes of appatting famine, owing to erop failures and—ir has been alleged—a crisis of over population. ‘Tax-farming records at Genoa reveal disastrous decline in Genoese maritime commerce, possibly by 75 percent or more in the course of the century. And following the Black Death (1347~1349) much productive land all over Iraly was r0 lie allow for rwo oF three generations. ‘Meation of the Black Death raises the question of population. Available fignces profile catastrophic ‘changes and reveal that Italy suffered the same de- cimated populations and shrunken productivities as the rest of fourteenth-century Enrope. With the ex- ception of luxury silks, overall economic oupur in fiftecnth-century Italy was decidedly lower than it had been ar the end of the ehisteenth century. iy 1300, according ro learned estimates, the pop lation of the peninsula numbered about 11 million. Following bouts of famine after 1318 and after the epidemic spread of bubonic plague, this number had shrunk to 8 million by 1350 and was still the same half'a century later, largely beemse of recurring outITALY, 14TH-15TH CENTURIES. boresks of mass infection. Florence in 1100 had a poptlation of around 95,000 peoples in the 1420's che total seood ae ahour 40,000. The population of Genoa fell From 60,000-90,000 inhabitants in 1290 to about 36,000 in 1400, tnntumerable villages and rural con munes were wiped out. To take only one example, Pavia sutfercd epidemics in 1361, 1373, 1388, and 1399. Most other cities and rural clusters were sub ject co a similar patreen of recurrence, ‘The best historical thinking posits a coneatena- tion of the forces that contribured ro economic, emioxeaphic, and soeial decline, bur the exact con nections are elusive because the assumed guiding rodel is ehae of a “system thar ean sustain only so much productivity and humanity. Some historians have argued rhat rhe limited capacities of any partic~ tlar social system (and not & simple Malthusianism) account for economic and demographic fluctuations when certain limits are reached, crises and brea downs ensue until major readjustments have taken place. Some of che terrible stains of the fourteenth cen= ‘ory ean be ateribured «0 the impact of large, tava: ing companies of professional soldiers, foreign and native, chat sometimes nambered more than 5,000. ‘They were captained by infamons commanders {condottieri) such as Werner von Urslingen, Jean de Monteeal, Conrad Wirtinger von Landau, and Sir John Hawkwood who hired themselves and rheir Companies our on short-term contracts to republican communes and “ryrants” (signori). But when con- sraets were nor renewed and stipends were cur off they roamed savagely over the countryside, killing, pillaging, holding people for ransom, and generally dlisrupring agriculrure or the entire Bow of local trade and travel. ‘As a result of the fourteenth-century economic and demogeaphic decline, Italian society suffered some loss of initiative and became more static. Henceforth, bur more norably after 1400, there was less upward social movement; more people remained fixed in the srations ro which they were born, or fell to a lower rang on the sacial udder. In the coun side, down through the sixteenth century, more and more land was gathered into fewer hands, co the overwhelming advantage of princes, noblemen, turban oligarchies, and the rich metropoliran bourgeoisie. Shareeroppers (mmezzadri) fell into chronic debt, many becoming as tightly bound re the soil as any tenth-cenrury serf. Like eueal traly, recorded widening gaps berwee rich and poor, 0- bles and commoners, or politieal citizens: and disen= ITALY, 147 H=15TH CENTURIES, franchised mnleitade, ‘The early Italian Renaissance ‘was an age not of deep vitality or expansion bur of social cramping, visible chiefly in the political, eco ‘nomic, and demographic spheres. Ichas heen argued chat the new, large scale of pri= vate building in fifteenth-eeneury Florence, and per- hhaps in other cities, made for much prosperity in the construction and decorative arts industries. Many ‘were thus able to improve their economic lor, despire dlifficul ciecunnseances. Bur ir remains to be seen how far the renewed vigor of the building srades, in a labor-intensive society. acrually went to redistribute the wealth that rended, in most late medicval cities, ro end up in relatively few purses. A narrative of the principal events of fifenth- ceneury Italy must rouch upon the six largest states: Venice, Milan, Savoy, Florence, he Papal States, ancl the Kingdom of Naples. A major share of the pe- riinsula’s economic and social resources wene into the organization and mainrenance of these states and their policies. “The death of Giangaleazzo Viseonti (14002) issued in.a brutal struggle for power at the Milanese court, subject lands and cities revolted; and che duchy was tent by civil war. The grear menace to all of centeal and northern Italy had suddenly vanished. For she firse rime, he Venetian republic pushed deep inco che Iralian mainland, seizing Padua first, then Verona and Vicenza, and reaching next ro rake Bethune and Felrre (1403-1412). Venice would prey henceforth fon the eastern boundaries of the Mianese duchy, driven by the claim chat it had vital Frontiers to se= cure there, but also moved ro eorapensate for its Josses to the Ottomans in the eastern Mediterranean. In the northwest the Milanese debacle petmieted ‘Amacleo VIII of Savoy to extend his domains bath ro the east and to the north, until he hekt mose of Pied= ‘mont. These gains were accorded greater legitimacy when Amadeo received imperial recognition and the title of duke in L416, an event thae also helped con vert the duchy of Savoy into s more ordered sea Unlike Venice and Savoy, the republic of ence was unable ro take advantage of the short-lived Milanese collapse. Despire acquiring Pisa (1406) and sume lesser rowns, the Florengines failed to complete their dreamed-of takeover of Tuscany, Lucea and Siena, two ciny republies, remained an obstacle. Meanwhile, (0 the cast and south rhe whole oi papal tecrirory was endangered by che brilliant young king of Naples, Ladislans (d. 1414), who fought againse the power of his great feudal harons, conquered Rome and Umbria (1413-1414), and was poised toITALY, 14H-151H CENTURIES strike at Tuscany and the Papal States when death soruck him. ‘The Grea Schism, centering on the deama of rival papal pretenders, was a blot on rhe pontifical dignity and retarded the consolidation of papal governunent. Not until Martin V's pontificate (1417=1431) did the papacy begin ro cecover its temporal lasses, Soon, however, Rome had £0 eoafront yer another strong, neighbor t0 the south: Alfonso V, king of Aragon, Sicily, and Sardinia, eurned the ineptitude of Angevin policies to his advancage and seized Naples in 1442. he Peace of Lodi and the Italian League (1454~ 1455) terminated the wars thac had been criggered by che death of Filippo Maria, the last Visconti duke of Milan (1447). In these wacs Venice, Alfonso V, and the grear soldier Francesco Sforza fought for the spoils of the Milanese duchy while lorence, Savoy, anil che papacy cook sides or seized bits of rerritory. The armed struggle was won by Sforza, whose se gniorial claims to Milan were bolstered by his bril- iant political and military skills and by his macviage to Bianca Maria, Filippa Maria Viseonti’s only child. Aside from conficming Sforz’s seiaire of Milan, che Italian League in effect recognized and endorsed the preeminence of the six leading states of the peninsula. But this entente cordiale was fleeting. The supposed balance of power was far from perfect, roo many affairs of the firs: iinportance were sell in flux. Afcer Francesco Sforza’s death (1466) the oll am- bitions and fears reappeared and were stirred up into wars, most strikingly in che bullying war waged by Venice against Ferrara (1482-1484). The ambitions were chiefly those of an expansionisr Venice, a re- vitalized papacy, and the Neapoliran-Aragonese - Florence and the Sforza rulers of Milan were moved more by fear: rhe former by nervousness over Venetian and papal designs, rhe latter by the knowl: edge that, as potitical upstarts, they required alli- nees against Venice [hese political fears and ambitions made up the background to the French invasion of the peninsula (1494), which ushered in the Italian Wars, Charles VIII of France, pressing the Angevin claim to Nar ples, led an army of 30,000 men and 40 pieces of ar- tillery into Italy; Milan was thereby endangered, being also subject co a French dynastic claim. Venice and the great neporist, Pope Alexander VI, quickly moved 0 profit from the invasion by grabbing cer? ritory_ or concluding advantageous agreements, while Florence and Savoy could do litle more than yield to coercion. For the next sixty-five years the ITALY, L4TH-1STH CENTURIFS overturning and reconstituting of Italian states was to be the business of armies of the crowns of France, Spain, and the Holy Roman Empire. In) 1500 Italy was a land of principalities, ol sgatchiical cepublies, petty rural or urban despotisms, and feudal jurisdictions. Its frailties were less the re- sult of policical-crritorial divisions than of crushing fiscal policies, resentful or passive subject popula: tions, and unresponsive eulers and ruling elices. Ven= ice could not count upon the allegiance of noblemen and rich burghers in its mainland dominions. The ese state was centralized at rhe top, in its tiers 1 officials, but was much fragmented in its subject communities and its munerous feudal en- claves. Savoy, the Papal States, and the Kingdom of Naples beerayed a similar pattern of deceneraliea~ tion. The papacy, moreover, given over to wholesale nepotism, was ready ro cade its prineiples for grants of benefits to papal offspring and relatives, And Flor- ence, riven by faerion at home, was confronted abroad by rebellious subjects: Pisa, Pistoia, and Vok terra, In short, the colossal burden of Italy's ali ared populations and the widening cleavage between rulers and ruled exacerbated the peninsula's troubles in the face of foreign invasion, Ir would be wrong, however, tO suppose that a ‘weakened Italy gave rise toa cinid culture, Quite the ‘opposite. There was ne parallel elsewhere in Europe for the sum of Tralian literary, setistie, and intellec- tual achievements in rhe fourtcenth and fifteenth centuries Iralian literaeure proper begins in the fate chir= teenth century, with an idealizing poetry of love and the verse of the “comic realists.” Fresh, delicate, measured, and high-minded, the work of the love poets is hetter known because of Dante and Cava canti, Bur che realists—such as Rustico di. Filippo and Cecco Angiolieri- also merit study. ‘The spar- ling vigor of their language and perception catches the dynamism of Iralian burgher society, whereas the love poets speak for the more intellectual, aristo- cratic, and religious proclivities of the society. Pe- rrarch, the greatest of the love lyricist, is the bridge to the Plaronizing love poets of the early sixteenth century. But there persisted always a strong line of comic-realist verse. These two poctries offer the so- cial historian essential evidence for tracking changes in mood, spirit, and consciousness. Boccaccio is the leading name in prose fiction. ‘The hundred stories of his Decameron—taken (rom legend, oral tradition, old stories, and contemporary anecdore—feature a colorful vernacular, as well asITALY, 14TH-15TH CENTURIES keenly drawn carthy characters and tveatment of the theres of lust, avarice, vanity, folly, tenacity, and chicanery, Joculat stories (facezie) after Boccaccio were coarser and far less artful. The latinity of the fiftcenth-century humanists delayed the development ‘of Italian vernacular prose. Italy's supreme artistic triumph occurred in che northem cities, in the stone, timber, and masonry of the urban churches and palazzi. Hundreds of rhose churches and more of the palaazi still stand as mon- tumyents co the energy and aestheric eye of cheirbuile- crs, Virtually all the art of the period was intended for these edifices, Much of the ornamentation (and instruction by imagery) cook the form of religions painting, « pursuit thac raised numerous craftsmen frow obscurity. Erom Giotto and Duccio in the early 1300s, ro Masaccio, Piero della Francesea, and Giovanni Bellini in the fifteenth century, Upper Italy produced a procession of artists who seemed to tev olutionize perception. They filed their frescoes and altarpieces with an ever more mundane humanity, ‘one of their grearest accomplishments being their iF Iusionistic turning of the picture space into a win: dow chat looked onto the everyday world. The profound secularization of tralian eulewre— the cultural “processing” of experience along more worklly lines—rook place in are and in political ideas no less than in upper-class life and letters. For the student who seeks to bypass the conventional boundaries and categories of the historieal diseip= line, the are of the eaely Renaissance may he seen— its aesthetic appeal aside—as the eecord of « chang- ing sensibility and an altering consciousness. Much fifsecach-century painting was keyed to the political and social needs, as well as ro the lifestyle, of che princely courts and urban oligarchies. Boch direetly and indicectly such painting celebrated rhe groups and individuals who commissioned it In the intellectual sphere, the most fertile under taking in the Italian peninsula ae rhe end of the Mid- lle Ages was Humanism, Defining it as the sustained study of classical literature and history, combined with a marked emphasis on chetori, experts rake the origins of Humanism back co the literary activity of notaries and lawyers at Padua, Bologna, Florence, and other cities in the period around 1300. Petrarch is often considered the fist full-fledged Humanist, owing 10 his love of antiquity and his mastery of classical rhetori, But if the seareh be for a broadly based move ment, then we must Look ¢ the Fist decades of rhe fifteenth century, t0 groups of literati and incellee cur ITALY, 14TH-15TH CENTURIES uals at Floreace, Padua, Venice, Bologna, Rome, and Milan. ‘The pertinent names are those of Leor ‘nardo Bruni, Pier Paolo Vergerio, Francesco Bar- baro, Guarino Guarini, Vitrorino de Feltre, and Lo- reso Valla. They and their contemporaries turned Humanism into a coutse of edneation for the upper classes. ‘They highlighted, for children as for adults, the study of geammar (Latin and Greek), rhetoric, history, poetey, and ethics. Their ideal was to fashion 1 complete personality, a whole man learned in lan- ‘guages, literature, philosophy, and history, although primary emphasis was given to rhetoric, the art of eloquence, This commitment to eloyuence reveals thar che product of humanistic education was tended t be an individual in close contact with ‘other men, an advocate of public causes Despite che exuberance of its high culture, tcenth-century Healy did nor witness energetic forces ‘of social innovation or social mobility. The appacent contradiction here is resolvahie by noting that rhe Upper classes achieved their highest measure of po- lisieal security ar home only in that century. Only then, to, when it was elear chat rhe dominant polie~ ial classes bad tuened ingo ruling castes, were the clive groups able to arrain a decisive self-assurance; and only then could their artists and intellectual spokesien transform this new awareness and self confidence into corresponding cultural achiever ments. The resule was a militant Humanism, @ craze for the building ard rebuilding of proud family pale aces, a new architecture, and zn art whose goals lay in the qualities of light, optimism, worldly affir- imation, and a mimetic control over the visual BIBLIOGRAPHY Hone Baron, The Crisis of the Barly lala Reais. sancee, 2 vols (1985, rev. I-vol, ed. 19668) Sergio Bertelli, Hh poture oligarchice nella starenetta madiguale (1978 Gene A. Wrucker, Horentine Politics and Sociery, 1343-1378 {1962}, and The Civie World of Early Renaissance Florence 11977}, Remolo Caggese, Roberto dAngid w i suoi tempi, 2 vols. (1922-1930), Giovanni Cherubini, Signori, coma ini, borghest (1974; Giorgio Chivolimi, ed. Lat cris degth ‘ardinanienti comunai@ le origin’ dello stara del Rinas tmento(1979% Benederso Croce, Storia del regno di Naj (1925), Set ed. (19585 G. Falen, La santa romana rep lie, 200 ed, (1954); Fugeni. Gavin, lala Heunanisn, Peter Mung, crans. {1965}; Frederick Maret, A History of Italian Renaissance Art, 2nd ed. (1979 Denys Hy, The Malian Renaissance in Ite Historical Hackyrowid (1960. and ‘fhe Church in ltaly inthe Fifrcenth Century 1977). Jacques Hers, Gees aut xv sigele (1961),ITALY, MUSLIMS IN Philip Jamies Jones, The Malaresta of Rimini and the Papal State (1974), and Hconomia ¢ socieed well” Hala mex ddirwale (1980) Poul O. Kristlle, Remaiscance Thoughy (1955, repr. 1961), and Resaissance Vhawarit and Me Sources, Michael Mooney, ed. (£979); Frederic C. Lane, Venice: A Mavitine Republic (1973) Jahn Larner, ‘The Lords of Romagna (1965), and laly in the Age of Dune tad Petrarch (1980) File G. Léonard, Lee Angin de Naples (194% Gina Lasezaeo, Any Economic History of aly from the Fall uf the Roma Empire 40 the Begining of the Sixteenth Century, Pili Jones, a0, (1961; L901 Marrines, Lanner ane Statecraft in Renaissance Morenee (1968), and Power aud Imagination: City-States in Remais since lealy (1979 Guillaume Molise, Les papes dAve can, th ed, (1949), ceans. as The Popes at Avignon by Jner Love (1963). Peter Partner, The londs of St. Petar (1972 Last Pascur, ‘The Histary of the Popes. Frederick 1. Ancrobus fined Ralph F. Keer, eds IHX) (7691: 1912 Brian S. Pollan, A History of Harty Romaiseance: aly (973 R. Romano aad C. Vivant ey Stari Italia, -U, and sopplemeets, specially Anivali, 1 (1972-1978) Nicolai Rubinstein, "he Government of Florence Under the Medici (1434-1491) (1966), alien, ed Florentine Stuies. Posies and Som ciety in Renaissance Florence (1968), V. Ruttenburg, Po ola € movimenti popolari mllleala del 300 e ‘400, G. Borghi, eeans (971 Jereold E. Seigel, Rhetoric and Phi losephy in Renaissance Rumanise (1968) L. Simeoni, Le Signorie, 2 vals. (1980 E, Tateo, I centei cultural dall'nyranesiona (197; Allert Tenenti, Florence a Tpo que des Médicis (1968 Nino Valeri, Lala wellerd ei principar, dal 1343 al 1516 (1949), and idem, ed, Storia ‘tala, And ssl, 5 vols. (3865-1967); John Humpleeys Whitfield, A Shore History of Italian Literature (1960) Launo Mannnis |See alsa Albormor, Cardinal Gil; Angevins. Aragon, Crown af; Banking, European: Nacenceio; Bruni, Leos nardo: Cavaleanti, Guido: Cecco Angialiceis Clement Vy Pops; Commie; Condonieri; Dante Alighieris Buceio di Buoninsegnas Florence; Genoa; Giorto di Bandone; Guclphs aud Ghibellines; ely, Rise of Towns in John 20K, Popes Masa mmaso Cassais Milan; Naples Papal States; Petrarel; Piss; Schism, Great; Stores Sicilian Vespers; Sicily, Kingdom of; Siena; Tuscany; Veniex; Viseos ITALY, MUSLIMS IN, See Sicily, Islamic. TVALY, NORMANS IN. See Sicily, Kingdom of, 2 ITALY, RISE OF TOWNS IN; ITALY, RISE OF TOWNS IN. The Lombard ine vasion of fealy in 568 was a Germanic migration chat claimed unexpected vietims. One of these was liter- acy. Within three generarions—by the time of King Rothari’s Edier of 643+ -Upper Italy had been gurned {nto ain ilfrerare expanse, in pact at least because so many Romans of the educared sort had fled fand thus ich of the detail of the invasion went unrecorded) Concentrated in she cities, the leading Roman fam= ilies of the northern plain had escaped to Byzantine Ravenna and co Rome, accompanied by ser slaves. [inperial administration collapsed 2nd the Germanic conquerors: perhaps some 2,000 in all~pushed aside whae remained of che oid culing class. Ait the grea’ lancled estates and a large number of rhe lesser ones passed into Lombard hands, che biggest raker of boory being che king. In fear of their lives, many bishops, including che bishop of Milan, had deserred theie dioweses; but axhers apparently ce mained to face the invaders. Alehough way and disease had alzeady diminished the popularion of lace Roman cities, the Lombard in- vasion hascened the deeline. By 750 nearly 100 epis- copal towns had ceased co be diocesan centers, a trend not reversed by che conversion of the Lom beds to Christianiry. ‘The invaders were warriors and tillees of the soil, nor administrators, and they Ahad no need of urban centers. They partirioned thei Italian conquests into thiery-six duchies and imposed 2 yearly tax tribute amouncing ro one-thicd of the toral agriculraral product, Roman fiscal institutions broke down, seriously harmning che cities, which had been centers of consumprion and administration, nor agglomerations founded on economic production and commercial exchange. ‘Weiring of the seventh century, historians refer to “che ruralization and barbacization” of the cenceal and north Italian cities, Pavia did nor become a fixed capital because Lombard kings were often irineranc. In many cities he people rore up paved screets to sar- isfy individual building needs; they converced town squares and marketplaces ro pasture land; and they turned more and more ro agricultnre, while the scope of che arts and erafts narrowed, by and large, to what could be produced in households. In Byzan= tine Tealy, che cities also suffered Lombard atcacks and deservction, bur @ few continued to prosper, not ably Ravenna (until congueted by the Lombaeds in 751), Rome, and Naples. The “barbarization” of the surrounding areas reduced the flow of rade ane! ic. Berween che late sixth and ainith ceneuriess moreover, che prinees of Naples, Amalfi, and Gacta‘OWNS IN ITALY, RISE O1 broke gradually away from subjection 19 Constant nople, Byzantine cule became 9 phancom presence and che three cities became the eapitals, in effect, of independent states. The like was also rrae of Salerno and Capua, which broke away from the Lombard duchy of Benevento, ‘The explosive expansion of Islam had resulted, by the beginning of the cighrh century, in Muslim con- trol of North Africa and niuch of che Mediterra- rnean, But historians have now seriously contested Henti Pirenne’s thesis, according ro which the Arah conquests. severed commercial relations between East and West and all bur expunged European cities outside Spain, Maurice Lombard and others have ar- ‘gued that the Aeab vierories released hoards of gold. that stimulated commercial trafac with the Christian West. In any case, Italy remained a reposivary of towns; markets there survived, even when trade lapsed mainly into barter. Historians deteee strong signs of economic revivat in the eighth century, but it may be well to see this period as transirianal, so as to preserve a comparison ‘with che ninth century, for which the evidence of movement and revival is conclusive. New urban sites, setled by refugees who had fled from the Lom= bards between the lace sixch and the eighth centuries, now entered the historieal scene: Venice, Camac- chio, Ferrara, Viterbo, Troia, Fabriano, Corneto, Alessandria, ancl Aquila. After 750, with the Lom bard conquest of Comacchio and Ravenna, Venice in parricular benefited from quickening, trade ek tions with che East. In the ninth eentary. if nor ear lice, the navigable tributaries of che Po River—the Lambro, the Ticino, and the Adda—took ona major importance in the revival of trade relations among ancient cowns such as Pavia, Piacenza, Cremona, and ‘Mancaa, and in linking these, via che Alpine passes, to northern Europe, In southern Italy, where the raids and conquests of the Saracens climaxed in the ninth century, the commercial lead was taken by Gaeta, Amalfi, Sa- lerno, and Naples, whose merchants and sailors were in vital contact with North Africa, Egype, and Cor stantinople, despice the milizane pressure from I Like Venice, Pavia, and Piacenza in the north, they received Eastern goods in eransit or for regional consumprion—chiefly pepper, nutmeg, cinnamon, cloves, ginger, and silk. In return, they exported lumber sind iron, in addition co furs, metal goods, linen, hemap, sails, and slaves from Europe's Slavic frontiers. The causes of the urban renaissance of the tenth 13 ITALY, RISE OF TOWNS IN and cleventh centuries were related to the economic and demographic “takeoff.” A stowly improving ag- rienleural rechnology, escalating rural productivity, possibly healthier populations (perhaps owing, t0 ‘more protein in the diet), 2 swelling flow of gold and silver, the booming of longrdistanice trade, and the pacifiarion of the Magyars stimulated the rise and development of towns, particularly from the later tenth century on. Favored by Constantinople in commercial affairs, Venice and its shipping already excelled; bur Pavia, Genoa, Pisa, Milan, Lucca, Flor ‘ence, and Siena were also lively urhan chusters, Their suburbs expanded, it seems, uninterrupredly, Milan had scarred building « new, wider circle of city walls as early as 850} Pavia, ahoue 915, began ro extend its ‘walls; and so did litrle Cremona just over a century later (ca. 1030). ‘Commerce and changes in population deserve pri inary emphasis in accounting for the growth of Ital- ian cowns. Local marketing and long-distance erade made them what they were in che renth century: so- cial magnets thae atteacted more and more trade re- lations and caral immigrants. In the eleventh and twelfth centuries certain towns, set in populous countrysides, became major diocesan and adminis: trative centers—eapitals, really—as they began exercise the power of petty states. The basis of thei development inte political eapitals, however, lay in their vast new wealth and new trade relations, as well as in their fertile rural populations, which were ready and able to satisfy the expanding urhan need for the consumption, labor, and transactions of immigrants, Consequenely, £0 che emphasis on erade and de- mogeaphy in the growth of cities must be added nonurban but essential element, the productivity of the countryside, The Italian urban phenomenon ‘would have been impossible withour the continuous influx of people and foodstuffs from the agrarian hinterland. Even. Venice—although it was nor to have a noteworthy territorial share in the Italian niainland until the fifteenth century—relied heavily ‘on immrigeant sailors for its fleets and imported the bulk of its cereal grains (roi the rich lands of Apu ling Campania, and elsewhere. ‘Broad comparisons between che cities of southern and northern Italy in the eleventh and twelfth cen= tures touch ar once on rwo oF three major distine- tions. lo Upper Italy the quest for local urban auron- omy became irresistible, and a large part of the nobility moved into the urban centers to reside ancl t0 pursue political ambitions, while retaining largeITALY, RISE OF TOWNS IN ‘estates in che countryside. In the sourh, on the con- trary, in the sueceeding Nostnan, Swabian, and An= gevin kingdoms, cities remained under the role of princes. Here the nobility did not seek to tive in turban sertingsolten they disdained cities; and the middle class of urban craftsmen and merchants re- mained small, weak, or withour any forceful poli ‘eal consciousness. This is not to soy that the dei toward urban autonomy was absent in the south, for there were notable communal ovements at Gaeta, Troia, Benevento, Bari, Salerno, aad Amalfi, where associarions of men sought to claim focal municipal rights, Bur their successes were inno way compara~ ble with the political victories of the northern corn- runes. Local defense needs aside, sourhern cities did not dispose of their own armies and did nor issue their own coinage. Furthermore, supreme authority over their city gates, walls, fortresses, ports, andl markets failed vo pass into local hands; these ce- inained regalian rights of che southern crown, Al hough often intolerant of royal authority, Norman and later feudacories were mare intolerant still of the ambitions of fledgling urban communes and in times ‘of turmoil over the royal power were swift to block any urban attetnpts co seize Incal rights of the crown. Jn view of the claims of royal power and the might ‘of the baronage, communes in the south were 2 lowed tr exist solely because localities and town ships were more effectively ruled when royal gover ment conducted its husiness chere on the hasis of formal dealings with local organizations and groupings. In central anxd northern Iealy most of the major turban sites—-ahout forty in all—had Roman or ever pre-Roman foundations, and eities that sprang up later, such as Venice and Fertara, were unusual. Of che significant urban concentrations, some ren te rwelve were t0 become tre cominercial centers: Genoa, and Piss among seaports; Milan, Pavia, Hlotence, Lucea, Siena, Bologna, and Perussia ainong inland and siver cities. Bur even. lesser places—suich as Piacenza, Parma, and. Axti—pro- duced merchants and moneylenders who criss: crossed western Furope and engaged in complex business transactions, The cities of Upper Iealy were, however, more than mere focuses of local trafbc and international arade. Down to the late chirteenth century they were also bellicose societies caught up in the process of rnilitant expansion, Bieter and drawn-out intetcicy wars became the order of the day, and urban ruling 14 ITALY, RISE OF TOWNS IN ‘aroups boldly chrew down challenges to the impe- rial-royal authority The Holy Roman emperors claimed the iron crown of the Ualic kingdom: roughly north-central lealy, excluding Venice, They were challenged by the great urban communes, ranging from Milan and Genoa in the north down co Florence, Lucen, and Pisa in Tuscany. Along with numerous lesser com munes, these had come into being beeween about 1080 and 1130. They appeared at frsr as sworn as- sociations of imporcanr local residenns: noblemen, substantial tandawoets, descendants of royal and episcopal officials, and a smattering of rich traders Bound together by an oath, the associates (the com mune) aimed=—as ar Piacenza, Milan, Genoa, Bo- logna, oF Florence—-to conteol the polivical life of the city, and chis meant taking over the sum of peb- lic authority by negotiation, violence, oF trickery. Almost immediately, therefore, the commune en- tered into conflict wich one or more other claimants: the bishop, the cesident or neighboring twarauis or viscount (agents of the crown), or the crown itself/— Henry IV, Frederick f, Henry VI, Frederick I From very early on, to0, the commune sought ro impose ies will on the people and trade in the sne- rounding countryside or on che bordering sea. Lacger cities conquered smaller ones; smaller ones seized lesser rowns, villages, ancl rural communes, The result was an age of regional wars, sting. from the eleventh to the fourteenth century and even be- yond. Venice, for example, claimed the “lordship of the Adriatic,” and hence the right of eoncrol over all trafhe that moved up the Adriatic to fan one into the Italian mainland. Genoa and Pisa made similar claims an che western coast, and so were continually at wae until 1284, when a earastrophic naval defeat ‘of Pisa at Meloria terminated the grand designs of that city-state. Another carly viesim of Genoa was the flourishing little port of Savona, lying just west of Genoa on the Italian Riviera ‘The wars among Italian inland cities were no less ruthless, Planted in the heart of the northern plain, Jn a egian of populous cities, the great commune of Milan was able, mainly by force of arms and diplo= macy, to seize power over scores of cities and tows ships, including even the capital of the kingdom, Pavia, and (0 incorporate then» all into a large re- gional stat, later ro be the duchy of Milan. Farther south, Florence battered its counetyside until, by the end of the fourteenth century, it had taken Prato, Arezzo, Yiatoin, an S. Gimignano. It also engaged inITALY, RISE OF TOWNS IN plots and wars that aimed ultimately at the seizure of the still'independent city-states of Pisa, Lucca, and Siena. ‘Anxious about their Italian domains, the Hohen- staufen emperors fought to maintain their authority in Italy and to defeat the Lombard cities in league against them, bur they were foiled by divisive Ger- man princes and especially by the popes, whose re~ markable temporal claims climaxed in the thirteenth century. Nor were the great conimunes reluctant 0 sand up to the imperial armies, Under che terms of the Peace of Constance (1183), Frederick 1 was forced in offect to recognize the avtonomy of the leading nocth Iralian cities; for though the peace un- derlined the emperor's lordship and high claims, it also confirined che right of local elections, local councils, communal control over surrounding, lands, and rights of taxation, justice, and defense. The sov- exeign claims of the empire were quickly forgsteen or spurned, and soon all major cities not included in the peace proceeded to exercise the same autonomies and privileges. Ry 1150 urban Iealians had turned themselves into the masters of maritime traffic between Enst and ‘West. Earlier still, perhaps by 1100, Pisa, Lucea, and certain Lombard cities were probably exporting wool cloth to the Levant. In the course of the ewelfth century, Italian imerchants—including some from tiny northern cowns—penetrared into most of the principal mackeiplaces of western Europe. Keeping with chis ongoing flow of industry, Venetian and Genoese merchants pushed, in the thirteenth cen- tury, (0 the eastern shores of the Black Sea, to As- rrakhan and Azethaijan, and then ro China, where in the early fourteenth century they established a cok ‘ony at Zaycun (Zayton, Ts'tian-ehou), on the Sti of Formosa. In che West, meanwhile, the Genoese sailed through the Pillaes of Hercules, reached the Canaries, and then soughe a dircet link with India in the doomed voyage of the Vivaldi brothers, who at- teimpred che circumnavigation of Africa in 1291, Some fourteen years earlier, if nor before, Genoese metchane galleys had started making a yearly run north to England and Flanders, first calling at Cadiz and Seville It was an achievement that surpassed the like of anything seen in che ancient world. “The demograpbie exuberance of the lealian ci kept pace with their expanding political, military, au mercantile frontiers. Since there are no reliable population figures for the eleventh and twelfth cen= tries, owing to an exiguous record, later figures and 15 ITALY, RISE OF TOWNS IN conjecture must be relied upon for what came be- fore. Ifthe small pore of Ancona on rhe Adriatic had 10,000 to 12,000 residents about 1200, as has been calculared, then ic may be taken for granted that Venice, Milan, and Genoa had four to five times that umber, Florence, it is estimated, had about 50,000 people; Bologita and Siena somewhar fewer; Pisa, Pavia, Lucca, Padua, Verona, and Perugia had even fewer, but still more tban Ancona, The major cities at the ond of the thirteenth cencury were (all Agures are approximate): Milan (120,000~150,000), Venice (120,000), Florence (95,000), Gerson (60,000-90,000), Bologna (60,000), Siena (52,000), Pisa (38,000), Padua (38,000), Verona (38,000), Pavia (28,000), and Lucca (23,000), Farther south were Palermo (50,000), Rone about 35,000), Naples (30,000), and Messina (25,000). Some twenty other cities, mose of them in the upper part of the peninsula, had populations ranging (com 10,000 ro 20,000 or even more. No other part of Europe boasted so many populous cit- ies. The persistent and dramatic inercases in popu lation had occurred between about 1080 and 1280, the period of urhan ltaly’s greatest commercial and political exploits. Demographic and social vitalities coincided. Despite rhe population figures for Palermo and Naples, the southern ciries had nor kepe pace with their nocthern counterpacts as may be inferved from the absence in the above list of the once busy sear ports of Gaeta, Amalfi, and Salerno. Explanations emphasize the retardant influences of the southern ‘crown and nobility, the sacrifice of commercial to landed and grazing incerests, and the differing values, mentalities, and ethnicieies. It has also been pessia~ sively argued, by P. J. Jones and others, that the trade and domineering attitudes of che north began ro “colonize” the eeonomy of the south in the eleventh century. Northern merchants, bankers, and middle- men seized the initiative and then, with ehe support of the local feudal baronage, made the southern ‘economy dependent upon the goods, markets, and financial know-how of the north, Amalfi seems £0 hhave been almost the only southern city briefly to ex hibie some of the colonizing and expansionist fea- tuces of the great commercial communes of rhe north. This thesis regarding an “imperialise” north squares with what is known about the ways in whieh Genoa, Milan, Venice, Florence, Pisa, and the other major urban centers conquered their neighboring seas or countrysides. No quarter was given. LesserITALY, RISE OF TOWNS IN cities, townships, and rural communities were sub- iecred by the great communes; henceforth che latter rook the major decisions with eegaed eo taxes, ws, military mattess, and che administracion of justice in che subject (often subjugated) fends. As “sovereign” cities they might entersain complaining petitions from their subjects, bur the relarionship was solely ‘one of ruler co euied; and such cities came in due course, chrough cheir courts and jurists, to claim the power of the prince in Roman law. Thus the prin- cipal communes tarned rhemselves, in the fourreench century, into city-states. The internal social and political consrieutions of the leading cities comprise a vast field of stady. Even in the eleventh century yhe larger urban- clusters were far from having simple social sreuctures. heie cleries and laymen ineluded royal and episcopal of- ficials, canons and penniless priests, feudal magnates, vassals, knights, free landholders, merchants, mon- eyers, tradesmen of both free and servile status, and local husbandmen and serfs. As city and population grew, local governing institurions became more complex. In the earliest period of the commune (1080-1130), most of is prominent and wealthy men duite likely affected noble sank, although he fore- hears of many of even the proudest had risen ia eank only in recent times, beneliciaries of the dynamic character of tenth-cencury feudalisin. After abour 1140 an increasing number of “new men” gained meinbership in the comnnune; bur the years from 1190 t0 1225 ciceumseribe the period of revolorion~ ary change, in che explosive rise of the popolo, « “popular” political movement. Asnong. the great commanes only Venice escaped the encounter with the popolo, for even Genoa was ro experience pop tloe agitations afeer 1250. ‘Well before 1200, on its way ro becoming a perry stare, che commune had developed a complex pano- ply of offices, councils, functions, and procedutes. Chief among these were (I) the parlamentum, oF general assembly of the whole commune; Q) the con- sulate, the chief executive body of the commune, ‘often numbering from cight ro twelve consuls; (3) 2 legisasive council, which was ro scrip the parlanien- tum of most of its funetions; (4) a formal body of advisers co the consuls; and {5} one or more com- ‘munal courrs that grew directly out of rhe eonsulate These and other official groups were chosen exelu- sively'from among the members of the commuie by election, by co-optation, or by lot, depending upon the city ITALY, RISE OF TOWNS IN About 1200, in the very yeuts of the popoto's emergence, the commune introduced a new official, the podesta (porestas), who was usually from ane coher commune, He replaced the consis as the ex- ectrive head of rhe commune, hut he was soerounded hy @ college of advisers and served for only six months ora year. Being an outside figure, the po- desta was expected 10 exert _more concencrated power and co stand above factions and rivat Family blocs. The importance of this is immediacely evident: in the laver twelfth century Genoa, Milan, Florence, Pisa, Bologna, Perugia, and most orher major con munes had experienced violent and prolonged civil strife among the nobility. The popolo, meanwhile, had made a cenypestuous appearance on the scene, with demands thar compli- cared end incensified all public controversy wiehin the cities. Most suecinetly defined, the popolo was the organized body of the middle class Aineluding. its more affluent memhers), organized politically and nilicarily with a view eo gaining a voice and a shave of places in che political councils of rhe commune. Acrayed against che consular nobility (those who had monopolized the old communal consulate), the po- polo was made up primacily of the sorr of men who had long been denied a place in the commune, The commercial revolution had elevated large anambers of men in weilth, hape, and ambition, ¢s° pecially in the bigger cities. Such men, looking. for protective support and seeking to influence tax and trade policies, founded a diversity of guilds in che lare ewelfth century. Bur guilds were unable co seand up to the commune of noblemen, whereupon mer chants guildsmen, and orher cormmoners handed co- gether to form armed neighborhood socieries. The collectivity of chese, called the popolo, began to challenge the commune ahour 1200. By 1270 the o- polo had triumphed in many cities, managing in some—Milan, Bologna, Florence, and Sicna—ro capture all the principal magistracies. The height of power of the popolo (1250-1280), however, was also its turning poine. fry momentum was spent, as was ehar of che leading guilds; and, like the guilds, the popolo began ro euen more exclusive and oligarchical, Now in command of the city and commune, the richer and more eminent groups ‘within the popoto backed away from reform policies or looked for compromises with the embactled no~ bility and “magnares” (rich men who put on che airs ‘of noblemen andi threw their weight around in the streets and markecplaces). A crossroads had beenITALY, RISE OF TOWNS IN reached: from this time on, the central and north Iralian cities inelined more and more toward des- potie rule or striccer forms of oligarchy. The vitality of the northern Malian ciries had seemed endless during che cwelfth and. thirceench centuries as they moved outward, conquered every- thing on their horizons, “colonized” che southern economy, and dispatched merchants to Africa, Lon= dion, Rossia, and even China. At the same sime, far from keeping the peace at home, they gave rise to aspiring and aggeessive social groups thar entered into passionate conflicts. War, in the thieteenth century, became a costly commonplace, the more s0 as it was put increasingly into the hands of By 1250 even the most pusillanimous of the larger communes had seized che sum of fiscal rights that hhad once belonged ro the crown; such as an old hearth tax, the salt cx, tolls and excises, income from market rights, and profit from the administra~ tion of justice, But wae, territorial ambitions and fears, and a hired soldiery put a relentless stain on communal expenses, with the result, after 1250, chat cities were driven and elevensh-ceneury ate- Tiers in Constantinople. Large ensembles of ivory panels decorated church furnishings, such as episcopal cathedras, as artested by carly church inventories and the existence of the famous sixth-century chair (cathedra) of Maxinian in Raveana—probably assembled in Constantine pple—which contains. rich iconographic program of ‘Old and New Testament rhemes. Likewise, pulpits and chancel doors adorned with ivory panels are documented, but none survives in the Latin West. Only in Coptic Egypt (Wadi Natrun) and in Byzan= tium (Mt. Athos) are there doors wirh inlaid ivorics still n place. The golden pulpit (1002-1014) given by Henry Il to Aachen is adorned with reused Coptic ivory panels and demonstrates the value given to the material itself, During the Gothic period new categories of ob- jects in ivory were introduced. Portable diprychs and tripryehs, and especially tabernacles with a centeal statuerte of the Virgin and Child enshrined withi an. architectural setting and protected by folding shutters, became essential pictorial accessories of private devotion. Ivories for secular purposes, deco- rated with subjects from mythology, history, oF lie erature, form a large body of material, Producrion of ivory objects reached its peak in the fourteenth cenIVORY CARVING cary; the meditn never became popular during the Renaissance. MEDIEVAL IVORY CARVERS Litele is known about specific ivory carvers during the Middle Ages. Only a few, whose works survive, are known by name. Among them is Tyorilo, cortled at St. Gall between 895 and 912, who made for Gospelhook covers several ivory panels that di play a close dependence on the mamuseript illuini nations of the court school of Charles II che Bald. Several mic-tenth-cenury ivory caskets (Madrid, Instituto de Valencia de Den Juan, and New York, Hispanic Society of America) are inscribed with the name of Khalaf, whose workshop at Madinat al= Zahra- near Cordoba produced a major group of Is lamic ivories. One of the mose revealing early medi- eval pices is the eeliguary arca shrine mounted with ivories (1053-1067) ar San Millin de la Cogolla, Spain (dismantled and seattered in the early nine- teenrh century), a sueviving fragment of which is signed by a Master Engelar and his son Redolfo, In addition 60 depicting the transportation of large el- ephant tusks for the proiect, this plaque shows the master carving a panel held by his soo. Another professional artist, Master Hugo (illuminator, bronze easter, and probably ivocy carver), was pox sibly cesponsible for the elaborate ivory cross some: times attributed co Bury St. Edmunds. About the same cine Savalo, working at St. Amand, signed a knife handle (Lilley Musée de Beaux-Arts), but no cther works by him are known. Sculptors better known for work in other mate- rials wee often responsible for works in ivory. The most familine example is the magnificent large stat~ uuetce of the Virgin and Child by Giowat which was made for the eathedeal of Pi Many ivories of the International Gothic period (ca, 1360-1430) have been attributed to the noted Embrinchi fumily, which originated in Genoa and worked in Florence and Venice. Several large reta- bles survives the rwo most elaborate are those made for the Cerrosa of Pavia by Baldassare degli Embri- achi and another, now in the Louyee, commissioned ‘oy Jean, duke of Berry, for the Abbey of Poisiey. Chruns oF IVORY PRODLEHON: PARLY CHRISTIAN AND FARLY BYZANTINE Rome and Constantinople naturally became prin~ cipal centers in the production of early medieval iver ries, nd the importance of the areliers in hese cities is almosr incontestable, Around 400 che cevival of 24 IVORY CARVING Iustnion us Defender ofthe Faith. Dipeys ea Fon Cons nope, dr qiaeer of 6th ceintucy, PAN NMP LV Hellenistic excellence and taste generased by wealthy Ronan families encouraged the production of ivories of superb quality. Pagan works, such as the dliptych eaves of the Symmachi and Nicomachi (London, Victoria and Albert Museum, and Pars, Musée de Cluny), aud Christian works, such as the panel depieting the Ascension and the Marys at the Tomb (Munich, Bayerisches Nationalniuscum), ac- test co the exceptional skill of the carvers. Many of these Roman caevings were treasured chroughone the Middle Ages, becoming in pare responsible for the revival of the late antique tradition ie the court school of Charlemagne, Almost simultaneously Rome, Constantinople became an impoetant center for ivory. A diptych leaf with an archangel (sixth century; London, British Museum), with ies refined aristocratic style initiated a tradicion in ivaries for the Exstern capital. In the sixth century, under Jus" rinian, the court workshop peoduced items of spet® quality. ‘The throne of Maximian in Ravenna and the diprych leaf with Justinian as defender of che faith (Paris, Louvee) ate generally thought t0 have Iyeen produced at Constantinople in ehe second quar= ter of the sixth century. Provincial centers also loweIVORY CARVING ished, and many ivories have been attributed co Ravenna, Milan, and ‘Trier. In the eastern Mediter= tanean, ivories, especially pyxes, have been assigned to Palestine or Syria, but primarily on grounds of iconography. [CENTERS OF IYORY PRODUCTION: CAROLINGIAN With the almost complete loss of sculprare in stone, stucco, and bronze, the ivories commissioned during the reign of Charlemagne offer a valuable key to che beauty and quality ofthe art produced for the court. Like the manuscrpé iluminations, the ivories John ihe Kraogeli. Haque from const schoo! of Charlemagne carly 9ee connie. RIOT YORK, METRCRNRIVAN MARIN TH rowenta ie, 1977 1977-428) 25 IVORY CARVING depended primatily on models from the eatly Chris- tian period for cheir iconography and style. The cov- cers of the Lorsch Gospels (London, Victoria and Al- bert Maseum, and Vatican Library} clearly depended ‘on such late antique inode as the frone panels of the throne of Maximian in Ravenna, The arrangement, iconography, and! style of the buok cover at Oxford (Bodleian Library, MS Douse 176) depend, in part, directly on two panels with scenes of the infancy and initacles of Christ produced in Rome about 400-410 (crlin, Staatliche Museen, and Paris, Louvre). Par- allels with manuscripe illumination and the fact thar several of the ivories formed rhe covers for these manuscripts indicate that the ivaties must have been produced at the same scriptorium, probably at Aachen. ‘the noble clegance of the figure style and the dynamisin of composition characteristic of the courr ivories are evident in the panel of the Virgin and the apostles from a larger representation of the Ascension (Darmstadt, Hessisches Landesiuseun). In contrast to this plastic seyle of carving are the ivories of the “Liuthard group,” named afrer the scribe of the Psalter of Charles the Bald who worked between 842 and 869. ‘The covers of the Psalter (Paris, Bibliothégne Nationale, lat, (152) illustrate psalms and display a striking correspondence to the spitived drawings of the Urcecht Psalter (Ucrecht, University Library), the masterpiece of the Rheims seriptorinm. Orher ivories may be assigned to the zonrt school of Charles the Bald, the location of ‘which is uncerrain in spite of the close affliarion of these ivories with the manuscripts produced at Rheims. The Drogo Sacramentary covers (ca. 850), which depict Gospel and liturgical scenes in ivory ‘cut d jour, are associated with che first schoo! of Metz, under Acchhishop Drogo. A second “Meta” ivory group, produced in che third quarter of che ninth century, however, cannot be specifically linked ‘with that city. The most important member of this group is the so-called throne of St. Peter (Vatican), constructed of wond and inlaid with @ jour ivory strips carved with inhabited rinceaux. This chair, which is hidden fom view within the ornate chair by Bernini, has a portrait of Chacles II the Bald on the front, and eighreen parels, originally inlaid with sold, depicting the labors of Hercules. The throne may have been made for Charles's coronation in Metz as king of Lotharingia (869), and was ceetainly taken to Rome for his imperial coronation in 875. Although Carolingian ivory production diminished after 875, the style of this group, with volumetric fi uresand sharply defined acanthus borders, conti edIVORY CARVING sand even formed, in part, the basis for the first ivo~ les of the Oreonian period. CENTERS OF IVORY PRODUCTION: MIDDLE BYZANTINE During the tenth and eleventh cencusies, ivory carving flourished in Byzantium, where several ate- liess, probably in Constantinople, can be distin ‘guished, The ivories ofthe “painterly group" are un- couhtedly based on painted models, a8 demonstrated hy the close correspondence between the tenth-cen- rury illusteated Joshua Roll (Vatican, Biblioteca Apostolica) and several ivory panels hased upon it with scenes of Joshua receiving ambassadors of Gibon, Joshua condemning to death the king of Je- ruisalem, anc! Joshua's army taking, Ai (New York, Metropolitan’ Museum of Art) Much of the chronology of the Middle Byzantine com with Ving wind Child, Constantinople, ani 4k, conury He SMUSHON TE eAVEARYNT ORV, DCH 26 IVORY CARVING ivories is based on evidence now in Western collee- sions. A Byzantine ivory depicting the Dornzicion of the Virgin is see into che cover of the Gospels of Oxto I(r, 983-1002; Munich, Stantsbibliothek) and was certainly 4 conremporary gift to the West, possibly as part of the mariage dowry of the Byzantine prin- cess Theophano whe married Oxto II in 972, rhus providing a terminus ad quem. Other ivories are linked to emperors; the "Romanos group” is named after a plague in Patis (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ca- binet des Médailles) that probably depicts Christ crowning Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes and his wife Fudokia (1068-1071), The beginning of his type of coronation imagery is found in one of the few securely dated ivories, a representation of Con stanrine VII Porphyrogeniros (Moscow, Stare Mu- scum of Fine Art), dated about 945. More character~ istic of the court style is the plague in Cortona of the reliquary of the True Cross made for Emperor Nit kephoros 11 Phokas (963-969). Generally the coure style consirs of figures carved in high relief, with angular and erisp draperies, and a formal elegance pervading the composition. Im- gery was often drawn from the elassic edition, only in style bur also in content, achieving ies highest artistic level in the Verot! casket (London, Vietor and Albere Museum) which depicts mythological subjects. CENTERS OF IVORY PRODUCTION: ISLAMIC In the medieval Islamic world, the major cencers of ivory carving were Syria, Fxyps, Spain, southesa Iealy, and Sicily. Cylindtical or rectangular caskets were the objeets imost commonly produced; the ivory was carved in relief, incised, stained, or painted and gilled. Most Islamic techniques and styles, such as incrustation, evolved from shose practiced in Coptic Egypt. The most remarkable ivories—made under royal patronage—were carved in the Arab caliphate of Cordoba and Madinat al-Zahira, The finest eas- kets; hose in London (Victoria and Albert Museuin) and Madrid (Museo Arqueolégico Nacional) dating From around 960, display panels of deeply cue veg table arabesque and florid Kufic inscriptions. ‘CENTERS OF IVORY FRODUCTION: OTTONIAN AND ROMANESQUE During the reigns of the Otronéan and Salian en perors, ivory carving became one of the primary Inedia ‘of artistic expression. The earliest sevice of carvings was commissioned by Otto I probably for an ambo ora chancel door and depicted New Tes-IVORY CARVING yi. Hispano-Maoresqoe from Cirdaha, ea. 970. ew YORK, MrtnonOITAH MOSEL OF an HH CORTE COULTON, 1970 (4970.3245) tamene sceness ir was originally destined for the ea- thedral of St. Mauritius, Magdeburg, hefore 962- 973. The door or ambo was destroyed in a fice in the eleventh century and the carvings, preserved on ens kets, were eventually dispersed. They are now in Eur opean museums (London, Patis, Berlin, Munich, and Darmstadt) and in the Metropolitan Museum of Are, New York, which owns the dedication panel. Iconographically the series depends upon a Byzan- tine narrative cycle, while the monumental quality ‘of the style is strongly tied to the Carolingian tradi rion. The group may be the work of an itinerant a lier, yer itis connected to other ivories and stucco work produced in Milan for the successors of Orto 1, for example, the sirula ordered by Archbishop Gorfredus (975/975-980) for the entry of Orvo 1 (Milan, cathedral rreasury}. ‘A trumber of ivories were made north of the Alps, but there is little ageeement about their origin. A magnificent, softly plastic ivory Virgin and Child (Minz, Mittelrheinisehes Landesmuseum) is tradi= tionally avecibuted to Trier and the Master of the Re= sistrum Gregorii (Gregory Master, active oa. 980- 990), Cologne and Ligge both were acristie centers to IVORY CARVING which ivories may be assigned! on either iconor graphic or stylistic grounds. Those of eleventh-cen- tury Lidge are characterized by a vivacious “small- figure” style closely eelated to miniature painting ‘The ivory book cover of the Gospels of bishop Nor ger (Lidge, Musce Curcius) is the most imporvant picce of the group. In Cologne a number of walres ivory carvings “parte picees and eleven square panels with New Testament subjects, each composed of numerous pieces of mounted ivory—are in the “pricked” style, so designated for the method of tasing small nicks to indicate drapery folds (London, Vicroria and Albert Muscum; New York, Metropol- itan Museum of Art; Cologne, Schntitgen Museum). These remarkable deeply carved works of around 1150 indicate that Cologne was one of the most pro- ductive ivory centers during the Romanesque period, In eleventh-century northern Spain, an atelier working for Ferdinand 1 of Castile (1033-1065) and Dofia Sancha made a magnificent and intricately decorated ivory altar cross complete with a corpus (Madrid, Museo Arqueolégico Nacional). Wiehin the same Spanish artistic milieu of about 1100 should be placed the whalebone Adoration of the Magi (London, Vietoria and Albert Museum), which has occasionally been linked te che English Romanesque art from the area of the English Channel. Oo Fern Magdeburg Carhedral ro Christ in Majesty, Ox canals poe, eo, 962-973, Na YORX MTAGRDLSTAN MINHA Ar, GEO OMG AINE THEE, TMT (A, 100.157)IVORY CARVING Virgin and Cid Seater with polyeheomy and ging French, Ifans 1279 ns, MUSHEDA HOG (CENTERS OF IVORY PRODUCTION: GOTHIC The diversity of Romanesque ivories contrasts with the stylistic hemogencity of thirteenth- and fourreenth-century ivories, which nevertheless intro- duced new iconographic forms. Increased avaiabit ity of material and new demands for ivory carvings from the merchant classes encouraged increased pro- 28 IVORY CARVING duction, and both secular and celigious ivories sar- vive in abundance from this period. By abour 1250 Paris had become the preeminent center, with guilds authorized to carve such objects as mirrors, combs, and tablets, The earliest staruettes display strong similaritics in style and composirion to monumental sculprure, During his ceign Louis IX (1226-1270) seems 1 have offered to the Ste. Chapelle an exqui- site staquerte of the Virgin and Child recorded in the earliest inventory datable before 1265 and not later than 1279 (Paris, Louvre). The srawetre beautifully ‘exemplifies this new monumental and aristocratic style, grand in conception bur precious in exceution. Diprychs, triprychs, and tabernacles in ivory ap- peared as objects for privare devotion, in effect he- ‘coming the Latin equivalent of Byzantine icons. Pat ticularly frequent ace diptychs and triprychs with scenes from the life of Christ and! of the Virgin, such as the early-fourteench-century triptych of St. Sul piice duu Tam (Paris, Musée de Cluny). The Parisian origin af many of thexe works is accepted on stylistie and iconographic evidence; however, ateliers in east= erm France, along the Rhine (especially Cologne), in England, and in Italy adapted the Parisian style, bet- ter known in most discussions of this period as the Unternarional Gorhie style. SIBLIOGRAYHY Kobert P. Berginan, The Salermy toores: Ars Sacra from Medieval Amalfi (198% Davielle Gabort-Chopin, Tocires du mayen dgr (1978 Adolph Gokdschridh, Die Fenbeinshuipturen aus. der Zeit dar kerolingschen wd sichsschen Keiser und der romances Zeit, Vill, Xif Jabehundert, 4 vols. (1914-1926) Adolph Goldschsvie ned Kuce Weitamann, bie byzansnischen Elfobeinsadpeuren dies XX Jairbunderts, 2 vols (1990-1534 Raymond Koechlin, Les ivoires gorbiques (rang. 8 vos. and por folio (1924 Erse Kune, Die istemisehen Elenbeinselp- tren, VlL~XUi, Jabrhunulert (1971) joseph Naanson, Gothic luories of the 18 and 14° Centuries (1981) al Early Christian twores (1983), Wollgang F. Volbach, El- Lenbeinarbeiten der Sptantte rnd ees [riven Mitelal ters, Sel ed, (1976 Kure Weitunann, Catalogue of the Byzantine and Early bedlurval Astiguities in the Pune Barton Oakes Calletiny, Wi, Ivories and Steautes (1972) Paul Williamson, An Introduction 10 Medicsal Ivory Cacving (1982) ‘Cuantes 7 Liem [See also Byzantine Minor Ans; Diptyel Gothic Art Sculpture: Gothic, Iotersational Style Giovanni Pisano; Hugo of Bury St. Edmunds; Oliphant, Pre-Reanesque At; Situla Torito.)IVORY CARVING, ISLAMIC IVORY CARVING, ISLAMIC. In the Islamic Mid= de Ages ivory served as both @ medinm of artistic expression and an element of decoration for larger objects, usually fashioned of wood. The source of the ivory supply and the nature of ivory itself influenced the location of the workshops and the kinds of ob- jects fashioned. Tradicions within Islamic society af fected the subject matter expressed in the decoration and the purpose and use of the objects In the Middle Ages ivory reached the Islami lands via the overland trade routes from Afr From the overland rermini the ivory passed to the northern Mediterranean and che Arabian peninsula by sea. This routing probably explains the locations of ivory workshops: Faypr, Tunisia, Spain, Siciy, southern Traly, Syria, and Aden. “The nature of ivory, an animal cusk, restrived che range of its use for artistic expression, and cusk size and shape limited the proportions of a given piece. ‘The carving of whole tusks (oliphanes) is curently thonghr eo he the work of Muslin eraftsmen work= ing in Norman Sicitian and southern Ktalian work= shops. The oliphanes themselves display parterns common in the Fatimid deearative repertoire: ani- imal and human forms in 2 network of interlocked circles. Many caskets, vessels, and gaming pieces were fashioned from ¢ full-diameter section of the ask, Still more ofthe ivory Work, however, was peor duced by carving, painting, and incising hin sheets or plagues that were fastened to a framework, ust= ally wood. In addition, small earved ot painted plaques were sed as pieces of larger, elahorate works, either in inerustation or in inearsia. In the Marit period mosque furniture, ineluding min- boars, chairs, and platforms (dikkas}, were decorated in this manner. Always an import into Islamic lands, and thus a costly inedium, ivory was used for luxury items Within Islamic society, luxury of display was more often reserved for princely or private use than for re- ligious purposes. ‘Thus the types of items fashioned in ivory and the subject marter expressed on them reflecr the taste of the wealchy, which had common referents over a broad geographic area: most of the carvings weee on lidsled conrainers intended to hold precious items. Caskets fashioned in the Islamic lands found their way into church treasuies as well as inco the residences of the Muslim elite. The decorative repertoice of the ivory pieces also reflected princely taste and changed over the eourse of the Middle Ages. While plant patterns with ani- JACOB BEN MEIR Gatket, Gindoby (naw in Pomplonal, 1004 eto eOATUDR mal forms were a constant motif, he Fatimid Egyp- rian, and especially the Spanish, ivories depicted urban and courtly pastimes: dancers, snnsieians, fal= cconers, and hunters. Some motifs represented signs of the zodiac and others seemed to serve as aporro~ paic devices. Decorative writing in Arabie became @ prominent motif on the carved surface, especially in the Spanish ivories commissioned by Muslim royal pateons. The writing, which formed a prominent part of the design, not only expressed blessings to the ‘owner but also gave inforination on patronage, workshop, and dating, BIBLIOGRAPHY John Beckwith, Caskees front Cardaba (1960), Perey Blyche Cort, Siculo-Arabic Ivones (1939); Eneyelupaedia of Islam, new ed, 11960), 0. "Adi"; Ernst Khel, Die islamschen Eifenbeinskulpuren, VilL~XUt, Jabrhundert a7. Ino A Breas {See also Fatimid Art; Islamic Art) IWAN. See WANE MXARGRZELI. See Zak’ JACOB BEN MEIR, invariably known as Rabbenst Tam (d. 1174}, possibly the most revolutionary Tal- 29JACOB BEN MEIR mudlist of the medieval period. Almost singlehand- tedly he revived talmudic dialeecies, which had been dormant for well over half = millennium, and his set in motion the unparalleled growth in Jowish law thar took place over the next two centuries. His ‘work underlies the great set of glosses ¢o the Talmud known as the tosafor (additions). ‘Theie immediace impact was enormous—they were printed from che very ourset alongside che text of rhe Talmud—and they have served to this day as the core of talmudie Indeed, is would be no exaggeration ro say, paraphrasing Whitehead, chat much of che subse: quent history of Jewish legal thought has been a se- ties Of glosses to the tosafot. Jntellecrually Rabhenu ‘Tam’s achievement is inextricahly bound up with char of his pupil and nephew, Rabbi Isaac ben Samud of Dampierre (ca 1198). Rabbenu Tam himself wrote litte, and what has survived (notably the Sefer ha-Yashar) is both textually corrupt and obscure; thus he was fortunate to have been followed by Rabbi Isaac, who system= tically subjected alinost the entire Talmud to dialee- tical analysis in his school. Rabbi Tsnae’s teachings, which ineorporated both his own and his uncle's analyses, were sec down by his pupils as tosafot aid, spreading swiftly over Encope in either their original ‘or edited forms, shaped the concours of all analytical {as opposed to codificarory) study of the Talmud {A scormy, leonine personality, Rabbeni Tam was ‘often embroiled in conecoversies, the exact cause and course of which are not always decipherable from the fragmentary evidence, Though he was not with= ‘out occasional critics, his intellectual preeminence ‘was unchallenged. Students flocked 0 his school from as fae away a8 Kiev, and his faime was such that mentioned by the Spanish chronieler fbn Daud, ‘writing in Toledo around 1160/1161, to whom the entire northern French school, inchiding Rashi, was unknown. Given Rabbemu Tam's prestige and force of char acter, an active role in communal affairs would only hhave been natural. Sparseness of material again pre- cludes any clear pierure; bur his repeated atcempts to preserve the integrity of Jewish self-governance, as {lected in his ordinances against appeal in licigay to gentile authorities or use of gentile inflnence in communal a(fais, is well documented, 3 is his fa- ‘mous ordinance requiring return of the dowry in the event that the wife died (childless) within the first year of marriage. To judge by these decrees, Raber ‘Tam's weit ran through the counties of Champagne, the royal lands, Greater Anjou and Poitou, and rhe JACOBUS duchies of Burgundy, Normandy, and Brittony. Given ehis impressive authority in fragmented north= ‘ern France, it seems probable that Rabbenu Tam also coordinated the Jewish response to the Blois affair of 1171, when some thirty-one Jewish men and women were burned for the alleged marder of a Christian youth, Little is known of his personal life. A grandson of Rashi and younger brother of Rabbi Sainuel ber Meir, another famous Talmudist, Rabbeno Tam spent his early life i his father's cown of Ramerupt After narcowly eseaping with his life during the See- cond Crusade, he moved to Troyes, Rashi’s home town Although similacties between Rabbenn Tam and Abelard come quickly to mind, no links have been discovered so far beeween the parallel transitions from exegesis 10 dinlecrie chat were occurring in northern French Jewish thought and in the works of Christian contemporacies BIBLIOGRAPHY Iseael Moses TarShma and Nissin Netzer, “Tam, Jacob ben Meir,” in Encyclopaedia judaica, XV (1972), offers « bibliography of smales iu Hebeew. There is nothing in English Haye Sovovern [See also Jews in Europe; Talmud.) JACOBITE CHURCH. See Monophysitism. JACOB'S STAFF, See Cross-staff. JACOBUS (de Porta Ravennate) (ca. 1120/1130=11 October 1178), glossator of Roman law. The doe menrary evidence about his activities covers roughly MSL to 1169, and his death date appears in the ne- erology of S. Salvatore in Bologna. The atrribuce “de Porea Ravennate” suggests that he may have een a native of that quarter of Rologna. His father was II debrandus Alberti de Ugo de Boni his wife's name was Julies; and he had a daughter named Zugiana, Among glossators of Roman law, Jacobus belongs to the generation after Irnerius, He wns one of the quattuor doctores— the others heing Hugo, Bulga- ris, and Martinus—and was probably the youngestJACOBUS of them, These four gained eminence through their pacticipation in the assembly ac Roneagtia (1158), where they laid down the imperial privileges of the German emperor (regalia). Jacobus also acted as a judge for the Bolognese podesta Guido de Sasso on 10 May ISL and as an advocate for the abbey of Pomposa i a lawsuit against S. Maria de Reno in 1169. With Hugo, Bulgatus, and Mactius he is sev- ceral times named among the legal experts surround: ing che podesra—for instance, in 1154; in every case the guartuor dactores aceupy a prominent rank ‘Alone among his colleagues Jacobus usually stessec hhis statu as teacher and scholar, Jacobus has left glosses on all parts of the Corpus juris civils. “The leading manuscript in a. group transinitting, his glosses v0 the Codex Justinianus is MS Lat. fol. 275 in West Berlin, Seaatsbiblinehek Preassischer Kulnachesia, One of the first treatises of penal law, the ‘Tractarus eriminuns, which was ed- ied in 1530 as # work by Placentinus, has for seylis- ric reasons been ascribed to Jacobus (by Hermann Kantorowier). Jacobus’ glosses are identified by his sighum “Ja.” or “J.” PIBLIOGRAPHY “The Tracratus criminyn was fist attributed 0 Phicen= inns in the 1$30 edition. Ie was tepcinted it 1535 as Pla ‘centinas, De variotate actionunn libri VI. The 1535 eicion bbeen reproduced in facsimile with an inteo. by Angelo Convers9 in Mario Viora, ed, Corpus glassaroriom juris ils, (1979), Swoon de maiorunt rasttutione, starting, with the words “Subyenitus minoribus,” js in Gustav Pes eatore, ed Miscollon (18R9, repr. 1967%; ne distinction is in Uimil Seckel, Distinctiones glossatorum (1911, rep 1956), 352.353. Referances ro other texty wre in Helmut Coing, eli, Handbuch der Quelle und Literatur der new. ren curopilischen Privatrechisgeschichte, |, Mitelalter (1100-1500) (1973), For references to manuserpts, see Gero Dolezalels, Verzsichnie der Handschrften sian 6 ‘mischen Recht bis 1600, 4 vals. (1972) Studias. Sill yseful are Maneo Sarti, De elaris archi. fynmasii howoniensis professuribus a saccula Xi usque ad saccitum XIV, 2 vols. (1769-1772, repr. 1962) Il, and Friedrich Karl von Savigny, Gesehichie des réimiseten Rechts im Mittelalrer, 1V (1880, repr. 1961), Most recene information is in Johannes Fried, Die Fntsechung des J ristenstancdes ime 12. Jabrbwudert (1974), See also Heer Kanrocowiex, “Ml Tractatus criminum,” in his Rechtshis. Lorische Sebrifien, Hele Coing sad Gechard Immel, ed. (1970) Haws Prrex Gudcener [See also Bologna, University of; Bulgarus; Corpus Turis Civili, Glossaturs: Hugo; Law, Sctiools of; Martinus JACOBUS OF BOLOGNA JACOBUS DE VORAGINE. See Golden Legend. JACORUS OF BOLOGNA (ft mid fourteenth cen- ory, Italian composer also called Jacopo da Bo- logaa or Jacobus de Bononia, Apart from the period from about 1340 co 1360, there is virtually no extant biographical documentation, The main sources for the two decades in question ace she texts ser by Jax ‘cobus himself, ‘Thar he was employed ae the Visconti court in Milan until the death of Luchino in 1349 is suggested by the acrostic references to Luchino in the madrigal Lo lume vostro and in the moter Lux prurpurata, The madrigal O in Italia refers co the biceh of Luchino’s rwin sons in 1346. After 1349 Jar cobus moved fo the court of Mastino I della Scala (d. 1351) ond of his brocher and successor, Alberto (d. 1352), in Verona. The setting of Petcacch’s Non af suo amante is the only known use of thar poet's works by a contemporary composer, and. likely stems from the Veronese years, when Petrarch main tained contacts with the Scala family. The madeigal Net hel giaraing cefers to the Adige River in the vi- cinity of the ruling family’s caste, and was probably writen during this period as well, From Verona, Jar cobus apparently returned to che service of the Vis- conti in Milan. The madsigals Soro Fimperio, Fe- nice fu’, and Aquil'altera relate to personages and events ar the Visconti court up to 1360, and consti= ute the last evidence of his musical activiries. nail his departuce from Verona, Jacobus partic~ pated in a musical competition with his best-known contemporaries, Magister Piero and Giovanni da Cascia, This involved the setting of similar or iden~ tical cexts, and the use of disguised allusions to cer> tain individuals, such ay “Aaa,” through the fiter- ary device of wordplay known as senhal. In addition to his short theoretical treatise, L’arte del biscanto misurato (The ace of measured poly: phony), thieey-four of Jacobus’ works have been pee- served intact, along with the single surviving voice of the morer Laudibus dignis. His music was widely disseminated aud is known from wine manaseripts, the most important of these being the codices Squar- scialop {Horence, Biblioreca Medicea-Lavrenziana, Palatino 87, Panciatichiano (Florence, Biblioeeca Narionale Centrale, Panciatichiano 26), and Reina (Paris, Bibliochégue Nationale, nouv. acq, fre, 671) Thirty-one madrigals make up the bulk of rhe ‘music. Typically a mradrigal by Jacobus consisty of eight lines of text divided into two stanzas of threeJACOBUS OF LIEGE lines each anc! a concluding ritornello incorporating the final couplet. The most common rhyme scheme is abh, edd, ee, The two stanzas are set (0 iden tical mnusic, while the ricornello is given its own set~ ting, cesulting in the musical form aa b. Some de- aetuces from this design occur through the use of three stanzas oF two conchiding complets, oF in the application af the poetic structure of the cisperto to the mosieal form of the madrigal. Jacobus’ works also include the caccia Per sparveraré, 0 lauda with incomplete text, and a motet. Two of the madrigals, Giung'el bel tempo and Oselletio saliaco, ate some times referred to as “caccia-madrigals” becase they combine the textual form of the madrigal with the canonic technique normally asvociared with the exec Pethaps the most important composer of the early trecento, Jacobus occupies a critical position in a line ‘of development leading through Landini to the com- posers of early-fftcenth-eentury Iealy. BIBLIOGRAPHY W. ‘Thomas Marroceo, The Music of Jacapo da Bo- Fogna (1954), coneains texts and nvvsieal norarion for all thimy-fonr compositions, plus the eansiation of Jacobs’ theoretical rreatise; an imporeant review of this publication is Jolnn Ward in Journal of the American Musicological Society, 8 (1955), See also Nine Pista, ed, The Music of Fourteenth-contary aly, LV, Jacobus de Bomonia, Vincen- tins de Avimino (1963), and “Jyeuprs de Bononia,” in Die Musik: in Geschichte und Gegenwart, Vi (1987), Poly. phonic Musie of the Fourteenth Century, V1, W. Thomas Marroeen, ed, Halian Secular Music by Mogister Piero, Giovanni da Firence, Jacopo da Rologna (1967) Amina (ovine {See also Caccin; Lauda; Madrigal.) JACOBUS OF LARGE. Sce Jacques de Lidge, JACOMART MASTER. See Bagé, Jaime. JAGOPO D’AVANZI. See Avanzo, Jacopo. JACOPO DA VORAGINE. See Golden Legend. JACOPO DELLA QUERCIA JACOPO DELLA QUERGIA (cas 1374-1438) was horn in Quercia Grosso near Siena, son of a gold- smith and woodearver, Piero di Angelo. He com peted in the contesr for the fist bronze door of the Bapristery in Florence in 1401. In Lucea he carved a relicf of Sr. Agnellus in che sacristy of the cathedral (1392), the tomb of Haria del Carretto in the eache- Aral (1406), and tomb slabs of the Trenca Family anc the rents ara in $. Frediano (begun after 1416) in Fervara, a marble Madonna and Chili exeented for the cathedral January ro September 1406) in Siena, possibly a marble Madonna and Child above the Pie- colomini Alrar in the cachedral (1397-1398), the Fonte Gaia (1414-1419), the baptismal font in S. Giovanni (1417-1419), anc decoration of the Casini Chapel in the cathedral (after 1436); in Bologna, the central doorway of S. Peeconio (1424-1438, both des eos feo ietia (oman goles). Carving by Jaeyp della Quercla the Fonte Cais, Siena, 1414-1419, atinnia/ae AUSCIC, 32JACOPO DI CIONE sign and execution) and the Vari-Bentivogtlio mor uumentin 8. Giacomo Maggiore (after 1433) in S. G onignano, a wooden Annunciatory Angel and Viegi Anstanciate for the Collegiats (1421) now in the Mux nicipal Museum. Jacopo had a major influence a gen eration later on the young Michelangelo. BIBLIOGRAPHY Giulin Brunetti, “Jacopo della Quercia and she Porta dll Mandorla,” in Art Quarterly, 18 (1952 G. Del Bravo, “Jacopo della Quercia at Siem,” in Burlingeon Magazine, 117 (1975 Anne C, Husson, Jacopo delta Quereta’s Ponte Gaia (1968), Ortavie. Morisani, ‘Tt fa seultava di Jacopo della Quere (1962); N. Rowell, “or cope dll Quercia a Ferrara. 1403-1408," in Puleteina, seese di storia patria, 71 {1964} Charles Seymou, Je Ja- copy della Quereia (1973), wich fall bibliography. and (with Hanns Swarzenskil, "A Madanna of Humility and Quercia's Early Seyle,” in Gazerte des Beaux-Arts, 88 (1946), Sapna Canor® Susan JACOPO DI GIONE (ff. 1365-1398), Florentine painter, He was an assistant of his older brothers An= rea Orcagna ancl Nardo ali Cione, and he probably collaborated with Niccold di Pictro Gerini and/or Niccold di Tommaso. Jacopo's work shows a grad= val shift away (rom pliable, relaxed forms in the 1360's to a rigid, stridently colored later style, His frequent collaborations make it dificult ro isolate his hhand, but chief among his accepted works are the Coronation of the Virgin, dated 1373, now in the Accademia, Florence, and the Coronation of the Vir- in, in the Nacional Gallery, London, BIBLIOGRAPIIY Richard Offner and Klara Steinwep, A Critical and Hise torical Corpus of Forentine Painting, ee. IV, vil 1, Ja

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