1.

Credit Risk:
Credit risk refers to the risk that a borrower will default on any type of debt by failing
to make payments which it is obligated to do.

Factors Considering Default Risk

a) Default Probability:
What is the likelihood that the counterparty will default on its obligation either over the life
of the obligation or over some specified horizon, such as a year. Calculated for a one-year
horizon, this may be called the expected default frequency.
b) Credit exposure:
In the event of a default, how large will the outstanding obligation be when the default
occurs?
c) Recovery rate:
In the event of a default, what fraction of the exposure may be recovered through
bankruptcy proceedings or some other form of settlement?

Types of Credit Risk

a) Credit Default Risk:
The risk of loss arising from a debtor being unlikely to pay its loan obligations in
full or the debtor is more than 90 days past due on any material credit obligation;
default risk may impact all credit-sensitive transactions, including loans, securities
and derivatives.

b) Concentration Risk:
The risk associated with any single exposure or group of exposures with the
potential to produce large enough losses to threaten a bank's core operations. It
may arise in the form of single name concentration or industry concentration.

c) Country Risk :
The risk of loss arising from a sovereign state freezing foreign currency payments
(transfer/conversion risk) or when it defaults on its obligations (sovereign risk).
Mitigating Credit Risk
Lenders mitigate credit risk using several methods:

a) Risk-based pricing:

Lenders generally charge a higher interest rate to borrowers who are more likely to
default, a practice called risk-based pricing. Lenders consider factors relating to the loan
such as loan purpose, credit rating, and loan-to-value ratio and estimates the effect on
yield (credit spread).

b) Covenants:

Lenders may write stipulations on the borrower, called covenants, into loan agreements:

a. Periodically report its financial condition

b. Refrain from paying dividends, repurchasing shares, borrowing further, or
other specific, voluntary actions that negatively affect the company's financial
position.
c. Repay the loan in full, at the lender's request, in certain events such as
changes in the borrower's debt-to-equity ratio or interest coverage ratio.

c) Credit insurance and credit derivatives:

Lenders and bond holders may hedge their credit risk by purchasing credit
insurance or credit derivatives. These contracts transfer the risk from the lender to the
seller (insurer) in exchange for payment. The most common credit derivative is the credit
default swap.

d) Tightening:

Lenders can reduce credit risk by reducing the amount of credit extended, either in total
or to certain borrowers. For example, a distributor selling its products to a
troubled retailer may attempt to lessen credit risk by reducing payment terms from net
30 to net 15.

e) Diversification:

Lenders to a small number of borrowers (or kinds of borrower) face a high degree
of unsystematic credit risk, called concentration risk. Lenders reduce this risk
by diversifying the borrower pool.
f) Deposit insurance:

Many governments establish deposit insurance to guarantee bank deposits of insolvent

banks. Such protection discourages consumers from withdrawing money when a bank is
becoming insolvent, to avoid a bank run, and encourages consumers to hold their savings
in the banking system instead of in cash.

2. Liquidity Risk
In finance, liquidity risk is the risk that a given security or asset cannot be traded
quickly enough in the market to prevent a loss (or make the required profit).

Types of Liquidity

Market liquidity:
An asset cannot be sold due to lack of liquidity in the market – essentially a sub-set of market
risk. This can be accounted for by:

 Widening bid/offer spread

 Making explicit liquidity reserves
 Lengthening holding period for VaR calculations

Funding liquidity:
Risk that liabilities:

 Cannot be met when they fall due

 Can only be met at an uneconomic price
 Can be name-specific or systemic

3. Sovereign Risk
The risk that a foreign central bank will alter its foreign-exchange regulations thereby
significantly reducing or completely nulling the value of foreign-exchange contracts.
This is one of the many risks that an investor faces when holding forex contracts. Additionally
an investor is exposed to interest-rate risk, price risk and liquidity risk amongst others.

4. Portfolio Risk
Portfolio risk is the possibility that an investment portfolio may not achieve its objectives.
 5. Foreign Exchange Risk(FOREX Risk)
Foreign exchange risk (also known as exchange rate risk or currency risk) is a financial
risk posed by an exposure to unanticipated changes in the exchange rate between
two currencies.

6. Systemic Risk
The risk inherent to the entire market or entire market segment. Interest rates,
recession and wars all represent sources of systematic risk because they affect the
entire market and cannot be avoided through diversification. Whereas this type of
risk affects a broad range of securities, unsystematic risk affects a very specific group
of securities or an individual security. Systematic risk can be mitigated only by being
hedged. Even a portfolio of well-diversified assets cannot escape all risk.

7. Unsystematic Risk
Company or industry specific risk that is inherent in each investment. The amount of
unsystematic risk can be reduced through appropriate diversification.

8. ETF ( Exchange Traded Funds)

An exchange-traded fund (ETF) is an investment fund traded on stock exchanges,
much like stocks. An ETF holds assets such as stocks, commodities, or bonds, and
trades close to its net asset value over the course of the trading day. Most ETFs track
an index, such as a stock index or bond index. ETFs may be attractive as investments
because of their low costs, tax efficiency, and stock-like features. ETFs are the most
popular type of exchange-traded product

9. Mutual Fund
An investment vehicle that is made up of a pool of funds collected from many
investors for the purpose of investing in securities such as stocks, bonds, money
market instruments and similar assets. Mutual funds are operated by money
managers, who invest the fund's capital and attempt to produce capital gains and
income for the fund's investors. A mutual fund's portfolio is structured and
maintained to match the investment objectives stated in its prospectus.
Advantages of Mutual Fund

 Increased diversification
 Daily liquidity
 Professional investment management
 Ability to participate in investments that may be available only to larger investors
 Service and convenience
 Government oversight
 Ease of comparison
Disadvantages of Mutual Funds

 Fees
 Less control over timing of recognition of gains
 Less predictable income
 No opportunity to customize

10.Open End Funds

A type of mutual fund that does not have restrictions on the amount of shares the fund will
issue. If demand is high enough, the fund will continue to issue shares no matter how many
investors there are. Open-end funds also buy back shares when investors wish to sell.
The majority of mutual funds are open-end. By continuously selling and buying back fund
shares, these funds provide investors with a very useful and convenient investing vehicle.

11.Closed End Funds

A closed-end fund is a publicly traded investment company that raises a fixed amount of
capital through an initial public offering (IPO). The fund is then structured, listed and traded
like a stock on a stock exchange also known as a “closed-end investment or closed-end
mutual fund

12.Hedge Fund
Hedge funds are private, actively managed investment funds. They invest in a diverse range
of markets, investment instruments, and strategies and are subject to the regulatory
restrictions of their country. U.S. regulations limit hedge fund participation to certain classes
of accredited investors.
Strategies

Directional: Directional investment strategies utilize market movements, trends, or

inconsistencies when picking stocks across a variety of markets.
E vent-driven
Event-driven: Strategies concern situations in which the underlying investment opportunity
and risk are associated with an event.
Relative value: Relative value arbitrage strategies take advantage of relative discrepancies in
price between securities.