Asnienex BAsu FOUNDATION DESIGN MANUAL PRACTISING ENGINEERS and CIVIL ENGINEERING STUDENTS NARAYAN V. NAYAK BE. (Civ), M. Tech, PhD. (Univ. of Wisconsin, U.S.A.) CChief Executive, Gammon Nirman Limited and Senior Vice President, Gammon Tadia Limited Formerly, Executive Director, Asia Foundations and Constructions Ld Principal Enginer (Civil-Geotechnical) Tata Consulting Engineers, Bombay and also Professor, University of Panama Panaina, Central America Foust Fully Revised and Enlarged Edition @ DHANPAT RAI PUBLICATIONS (P) LTD. FIRST FLOOR, 67/4, MADRAS HOUSE, DARYAGANJ, NEW DELHI-110 002 Phone : $27 4073All rights reserved by the Author ‘This book or parts thereof may not be reproduced without the written permission ofthe Author and Publishers First Edition: 1979 Second Euition : 1982 Third Edition: 1985 Fourth Edition : 1996 Reprint: 1997 Reprint : 2001 Price : Rs. 170/- Published by: Ish Kapur, for Daanpat Ral Publications (P) Li, Duryagan), New Deli 110002 Typesetby — EPTECH, Mayur Vihar PhasI, Dehi1 10091 Primed at: To) ress, A35! Mayopar Industral Ara, Phase, New Deki PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION ‘The fourth edition of the book has been folly revised and enlarged, particularly the chapters on “SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATIONS’ and "PILE FOUNDATIONS” PoblishersM/s. Dhanpat Rai and Sons have also taken additional pains to improve the quality of publication. The author believes hat hisfourth ¢dition will be equally well received by civilgeotectnical enginces ‘The author takes this opportunity to invite constructive criticism on this fourth edition. This will go along ‘ay in making further improvement during the fith edition. BOMBAY, 1996 N.v. NAYAK PREFACE 10 THE THIRD EDITION ‘The response to the second edition ofthe book has also been encouraging and the third edition has o be ‘brought out in three years ‘The third edition of the book has been fally revised and enlarged. An Annexure on Geotechnical Instrumentation has been added. The author believes that tis tied edition vl be equally well received by sivil/geotechnica engineers ‘The author lakes this opportunity to invite constructive eriicism on this third edition, Ths wil goa long ‘ay in making further improvement during the fourth edition. BOMBAY, 1985 N.V. NAYAK PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION ‘The first edition ofthis book was completely sold out in just one year ater its publication. The second dition of the book could not be brought out immediately thereafter, For this delay the author conveys his sincere regrets, ‘The second edition ofthe book hasbeen fully revised and enlarged. An Annexe on Prestressed Achors as been added. It is believed that this second edition will be equally well received by civil/geotehnical engineers. ‘The author takes this opportunity to invite constructive citcism,ifany, on this second edition. This wil ‘0a long way in making further improvement during the third edition. BOMBAY, 1982 NV. NAYAKPREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION “This book has bedn written to serve primarily asa foundston design manualto practising geotechnical and civilengincers and asa text boo for postgraduate studens in geotechnical engineeing Ik ilalsoserveas ‘reference book on foundation engineering for undergraduate students in civil engineering. “The subjectmate ofthis manval as been divided into sx chapters and eleven Annexures. The mamtal covers wide rangeef topics interest for practising civil enginersas wouldbe evident from the contents. Some ofthe opie covered in Axxexures ae dificult find in books on foundation egincering but the knowledge of which i esseatial in overall eotechnical recommendations on foundation engineering, "The material in the manual hasbeen treated in Metric System of Units, the system widely used in India at presot, and SI System of Units (Le System Intemational de Units), theinternational system prescsbed by the ‘General Conference of Weighs and Measures of 1960, “The subject mtr inthe manual es been so presented as offi the following objectives: “The manval brings out the vasious approaches as usd in practice of foundation engineering Both the rationalised and empirical approaches found valuable have been inched inthis manual. Geotechnical ‘engineering, although great strides have been made init in recent year, i il a less precise science Structural engineering, IC emains, to an important extent, an art ased on experience and judgement. The ‘material inthis manual ispresented, therefore, asaseries of suggested ratherthan mandatory procedures which reflectsoundandsafe techniques, The limitations and applicability ofeachof ne approaches have been brough ‘ut This itisbetieved, would guard agains the danger of misjudgement and misapplication by enginecrs less experienced inthe field of soil mechanics and foundation enginecrng "There can be certain shortcomings in the foilment of the above cited objectives. Some of these shortcomings can result from thelinitediteraure, imeand space available; some othe mutations result from the fact that some par of the subjet-matter may be overstressed or unde-sresse for some ofthe readers as resentation ofthe subject-matter sclary affected by personal views, judgement andexperience ofthe author. "The author invites constructive criticism and suggestions as aids to Future improvements. “The author wishes to acknowledge that information fortis manoal is gathered from many publications. An atempt is made o acknowledge these publications at appropriate places in the test and under references, However, thereare bound tobe omissions, but such omissions are unintentional. Als, the author has used the material generously from hisproposed text book on Soi! Mechanicsand Foundation Enginceringandalso fom the Review Paper an Expansive Soils which are currently under preparation “The author expreses his sincere thanks to the management of M/S Tata Consulting Engincers for their encouragement in writing such a manual. In this connection the author would particularly express his indebtedness to Mr. MR. Ranga Rao and Mr. F-S.A, Pavama, Engineering Managers; Mr. S.N. Manohar, ‘Additonal Chief Civil Engineer: Mr. S.P. Joshi, Deputy Chief Civil Engineer of Tata Consulting Engineers fortheircontinvous encouragement. Their encouragementin wsingsoil mechanics based approachesin solving, seotechnical probiemsoffoundation engineering ndalso ther receptiveness oapplicationof new rationalised {ideas on jobs engincered by Tata Consulting Engineers helped greatly inthe author's efforts to bring this ‘manual ‘Theuthoris especialy indebted to Prof Dinesh Moke, Director Central Building Research insite ‘Vice President (Asia) International Society Soil of Mechanics and Foundation Engineecig for his pains- taking sortny ofthe manuscript and his Foreword Thanks ae also de to Publisets Mls. Dhanpat Rai and Sons for bringing this manual. Finally, dhe author thanks his wife Suman. This manoal has seen the light of the day only because of silent series curing his heavy involvement with writing ofthis manual BOMBAY, 1979 N.V. NAYAK FOREWORD ‘The past thirty years have witnessed explosion ofliteratue inthe eld of Geotechnical Engineering. A host ‘of new ideas, concepts and theories have been born as a result of intensive geotechnical activites the world ‘over. The hiatus between the scientific temper and the operating temper however contindes. This is because ‘the recent developments have failed to convince the practising foundation engineer who is often faced with the dtemma of selecting between the best solution according othe current state-of-the art andthe engineering solution feasible within the ambit of his know-how, time and resource, What is more, conflicting answers 10 2 given problem provided by application on diffrent theories create confusion mich the same as wen discrepancies are seen between in situ and laboratory test results or between theoretical prediction and actual performance. Design Aids and Manuals ply an important role in clearing the confusion created by new theories. They ‘expose the engineer tothe scieafic methodology of tackling a problem. Dr. Nayak's Foundation Design ‘Manual possesses the above characteristics in a good measure. It should therefore serve asa source book of facts, formulas and design methods otherwise scattered inthe maze of literature. It should also serve a & ‘eference book and guide tothe practising geotechnical engineers. Clarity of presentation and comprehensive coverage of the subject have combined 19 preduce this Manual which should fulfil the needs ofthe stadent ‘community as wel ‘The text of the Manval covers subsurface exploration; shallow and deep foundations; foundations subjected to dynamic loading; earth pressure; and stability of slopes which when coupled with attendent informatio famished inannexutestothe Mana produceatotal picrueshortof‘engineeringjudgement’,Andtatshould never have a substitute, for without it geotechnical engineering willbe lifeless and the geotechnical engineer ‘will lose his individuality or even identi, : Dinesh Mohan ROORKEE Director 15 March, 1979 Central Building Research nstsue and ‘Vice President [Asia], ISSMFECONTENTS Chapier Tite Pages 1. Subsurface Investigation 1st 2. Shallow Foundations and Allowable Bearing Pressure 85-138 3. Pie Foundations 139-216 4. Foundations Subjected to Dynamic Loadings 217-240 5. Lateral Earth Pressure and Earth Retaining Strctures 241-262 6, Stability of Slopes Anexares ‘AcL Siressin Soils fom Flastic Theories ‘A2 Soil Compactio AB In-Place Treatment of Foundation Sols ‘Act Modulus of Submergod Reaction ‘A-5 Liquefaction of Foundation Soils Under Earthquakes A-6 Degree of Various Consistency Limits of Soils ‘AJ Expansive Soils ‘A-8 Etecis of Chemicals in Subsol and Groundwater on Concrete Substructures ‘AD Corresion of Sel Piles 366-367 ‘A-10 Bored Castin-Sita Piles—Convéntional Bored Piles Versus Piles Cast by Continuous Mud Circulation Technique 368-373 ALI Prestressed Anchors 374-391 A-12 Geotechnical Instrumentation 392-409 Ac13 SI Units in Engineering 410-411 References 41242 ‘Symbols : 428-132 Subject Index 455-439Title DETAILED CONTENTS. 1, SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION - 113 1d 115 116 a7 118 119 1.20 1 12 123 125, 126 Introduction ‘Methods of Subsurface Investigation Geophysical Exploration—Seismic Refraction Method 13.1 Introduction 132 Refraction Method 1.33. Limitations of Seismic Refraction Method Depth of Investigation 14. ‘Thumb Roles Spacing and Number of Feld Tests Undisturbed Samples In Situ Measurements of Soil Properties “Measurement of Soil Properties in the Laboratory ‘Standard Penetration Test, SPT Corrections to Measured Values of SPT N of SPT and Consistency of Soils LULL Nof SPT Versus Relative Density of Cohesionless Soils —Skempton's Approach Dynamic Cone Penetration Test L121 Advantages of Dynamic Cone Peneration Test over Boring and SPT 1.12.2 Limitations of Dynamic Cone Penetration Test Static Cone Penetration Test 113.1 Advantages of Static Cone Penetration Tet over Boring and SPT 1.13.2 Limitations of Static Cone Penetration Test id Vane Shear Test ld Permeability Test Pressuremeter Test ‘Vertical Plate Bearing Test Rock Coring Groundwater Investigation Preservation, Shipment and Storage of Samples Phase Relationships and Related Formulae Engineering Classiftation of Soils 1.22.1 Textural Classification 1.22.2. ‘The AASHO Soil Classification System 1.22.3 Extention of ASHO Classification to Indian Black Cotton Soils 1.224 Indian Standard Classification 122.5 Soil Classification and Soil Characterisies Importance of Careful Observations during Field Investigation Presentation of Data Report ‘Selection of Design Parameters 1.26.1. Selection of Testing Method Pages 184 SSSSRRSSRAGARSEYGSASAERRAESSRERBREETS eeeen 2. SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS AND ALLOWABLE BEARING PRESSURE, 21 Introduction 2.1.1 Shallow Foundstion 212 Allowable Bearing Pressure 2.2 Modes of Failure 2.3 Ultimate Bearing Capacity 23.1 Uliate Bearing Capacity of Concentcally Loaded Foundations 253.2 “Influence of Groundwater Table 23.3 Eocentrically Loaded Footings 23.3.1 Conventional Method 23.32 Meyethol's Approach 23.4 Footings with Inclined Loads 23.3 Footings on or Adjacent to Slopes 23.5.1 Footings Adjacent toa Slope 23.52 Footings on a Slope 23.6 Footingss on Stratified Sols 23.6.1 Sower's Approach 23.6.2 Reddy and Srinivasan's Approach 23.63 Brown and Meyerhot's Approach 23.64 Vesi's Approach 23.6.5 Teheng’s Approach 233.66 Mandel and Salencon’s Approach 24 Total Versus Net Ultimate Bearing Capa 2.5 —Ractors of Safety and Allowable Bearing Pressure 26 Determination of Bearing Cupacity Based on N Values of STP or other Penetration Test Data : 26.1 Granular Soils 262 Cohesive Soils 263. General 2.7 Uttimate Bearing Capacity from Plate Load Tests 27.1 Determination of (a) 27.2 Extrapolation to Predict (4, geagfO no Surcharge 27.2.1 Cobesionless Soils (ie. fr Sails with = 0) 2°72. Purely Cohesive Soils (or where = 0 Condition i Vaid) 2723 0-4 Soils Determination of Bearing Capacity from Pressuremeter Tests Bearing Capacity from Building Codes ‘Bearing Pressure on Rock 2.10.1 Method based on Presumptive Bearing Values 2.102. Method based on Core Strength 2.103 Method based on Presuremeter Tests 2.104 Method based on other Soil Mechanics Approaches 2.11. Settiement Considerations 212 Contact Pressure 2413 Vertical Pressure below the Plane of Contact with the Foundation 2.14. Settlement Components 102 103 10724s 216 247 28 219 contents Immediate Settlement Consolation Settlement 2.16.1” Field Method fr Estimating Preconslidaion Pressure 2.162. Graphical Methods for Estimating Prconsolidation Pressure 2.163 Method to Obtain Field Vergin Compression Curve 2.164 Normally Consolidated, Overconslidatd and Subconsolidated Soils 2164.1 Consolidation Setlement of Normally Consolidated Sub-sols 2.1642 Consolidation Setlement of Overcousolidated Subsoils 2.1643 Consolidation Setlemen of Subconsoidated Soils 2.16.5 Skempton Bjerfum Correction for Three-Dimensional Effects ‘Time Rate of Consolidation Settlement 2171 Case of One-Dimensional Drainage 2.17.11 Instantaneous Loading 2.1712 Gradual Rae of Loading 2.172 Case of Three-Dimensional Drainage Secondary Compression Allowable Bearing Pressure for Permissible Total Settlement 2.19.1 Approaches Based on N Values of Standard Penetration Test 2.19.1.1 ‘The Terzaghi-Peck-Approach for Footings on Sands 2.19.1.2 Meyerhof's Approach for Footings on Sands 2.19.1.3 “The Peck-Hansen-Thornburn-Approach for Footings on Sands 2.19.14 D'Appolona et-al-Appreac for Footings on Sands 2.19.15 Parry's Approach for Footings on Sands 2.19.2 Approaches Based on Dynamic and Static Cone Penetration Tests 2.193 Bifects of Cohesive Admistures on Setlement of Footings Founded on Sands 2194 Hough's Approach 2.19.5 Approach Based on Vertical Plate Bearing Test 2193.1. ‘The Terzaghi-Peck-Method 2.19.5.1.1 Cohesionless Soils 2.19.5.12 Cohesive Soils 2195.2. The Taylor Method 2193.3 The Housel Method 2.19.6 Approach Based on Presuremeter Tests 2.19.7 Davis-Povlos Method 2198 Stress Path Method 2.199 Other Approaches Methods for and Their Accuracy in Predicting Setlement of Structures Founded (on Sands and Clays. Settlement Prediction of Structures Founded on Mixed Soils Foundations on Fils Foundations on Soft Deposits Foundations on Expansive Soils Subsoil Improvement Loads for Settlement Calculations Designing Footings for Equal Settlement Effect of Chemical Nature of Sub-soil and Groundwater on Fouad 109 13 13 U3 us 116 NG 6 16 us 0 0 120 rey) m2 m2 126 126 126 126 3, PILE FOUNDATIONS 3. Introduction 3.11 Pile Classification Based on their Functions 3.1.1.1 Compression Piles 3.1.12 Tension Piles 3.1.13 Batter Piles 3.1.2” Pile Ciasification Based on Their Composition 3.1.2.1 Timber Piles 3.1.22 Concrete Piles 3.1.23 Stel Piles 3.1.24 Composite Piles 3.13 Pile Classification Based on Method of Tstallation 3.13.1 Driven Piles 3.1.3.2 Bored Piles 3.2 Capacity of an Individuat 32.1 Inuroduction 32.2 Structural Capacityofa Pile 323 Capacity ofa Pile Based on Soil Support 3.3 Selection of Design Parameters 3.3.1 Introduccion 33.2 Selection of Testing Method 33.3 Types of Stengih Parameters 3.3.3.1 Drained or undrained 33.32 Effects of Insalation 33.33 The Generalised Subsoil Profile le Capacity based on Dynamic Formulae 34.1 Formulae 3ALLL Engineering News Formula 34.12 Riley Formats 3.4.13 Modified Engineering News Formula 3.4.1.4 Pacific Coast Uniform Building Code Formula 3.4.1.3 Gates Formula 3.4.16 Danish or S) Formula 3.4.1.7 Janbu Forma 3.4.2 “Validity of Dynamie Formulae 3.43 Limitations of the Method 35 Capacity of individual Piles Based on Static Methods 35.1 Introduction 35.2. Effecis of Installation of Piles 3.5.21 For Clayey Subsoils 3.5.2.2 For Sandy Subsois 35. Piles in Cobesionless Soil 3.5.1 Pile Capacity from Standard Penetration Test 3.53.2 Pile Capacity from Static Cone Penetration Test 3.5.33 Pile Copacity based on Theory of Plasticity 3a 143 43 M3 43 M3 Ma 44 us a M6 M6 7 7 w us 49 149 130 130 131 151 151 132 15336 39 3.10 3a ‘Some Other Formulae for Estimating Pile Capacity Biles in Cohesive Soils Pile Capacity based on Theory of Plasticity CCosle-Rease Method Piles in Soils Intermediate between Sand and Clay General Approach Specified Formulae Pils in Layered Deposits General Piles on Rocks and Socketing Socketed in Rocks Capacities of Certain Special Types of Piles 358.1 Under Reamed Bored Cast in Sita Piles 35.82 Micro Piles 35.83 Element Piles 35.9 Uplif Resistance of Pile 35:10 Factor of Safety and Allowable Capacity of Pile 3.5.10.1 For Downward Loading 3.5.10. For Uplift Condition APile Load Test 36.1 Introduction 362. Uhimate Load Capacity from Initial Load Test 3.6.3 Allowable Load Based on Permissible Settlement 364 Cyclic Load Test 3.653 Method of Load Application ‘Ale Group: An Introduction Capacity of Pile Group 38.1 Pile Group ia Clays 3B.L1. Free Standing Group 3.81.2 Piled Foundations 382 Pile Groups in Sands 382.1 Free Standing Group 3822 Pied Foundations 383 Bearing Piles 384 fect of Eccentric Loading on Group Capacity 385 Load Distribution in a Group 386 Uplit Resistance ofa Pile Group Settlement of Pile Group 3.9.1 Introduction 3.9.2. Suresses on Surrounding and Underiying Subsoil Strata 3.9.3 Settlement of Pile Group in Sands 3.9.4 Settlement of Pile Group in Clays 3.9.5 Settlement of Group in Weak Rocks Spacing of Piles in a Group Driving and Redriving of Piles [Negative Skin Friction BID. Development of Negative Skin Friction 184 184 j | conresrs 3.4122. Estimate of Down Drag Force 3.123 Methods 1 Eliminate or Reduce Down Drag Force 3.124 Load Tests on Piles Designed for Negative Skin Friction 3.13 "Vertical Piles Subjected to Lateral Forces 3.13.1 General 3.132 Methods of Solution 3.13.2. Horizontal Load 3.13.22 Moments and Deflecions 3.13.3. Cooficent of Horizontal Subgrade Reaction 3.13.4 Methods to Increase Lateral Resistance of Piles 313.5. Lateral Load Test 3.13.6 Socketing of Piles to Resist Moments 3.14 Influence of Pite Driving on Adjacent Structures 3.181 Settlement 3.82 Heave ‘4. FOUNDATIONS SUBJECTED TO DYNAMIC LOADINGS 4a 42 Blements of Vibration 42.1 Harmonie Motion 42.2 Undamped Free Vibrations of Single Degree of Freedom System 423, Damped Free Vibrations 424 Damped Forced Vibrations 42.4.1, Exciting Force with Constant Amplitude 42.42 Rotating Mass Type Excitation 42.5" Systems with Two of More Degree of Freedom Desiga Criteria for Dynamically Loaded Foundations Desig Procedure: Lumped Parameter Approach 44.1 Introduction 442 Equivalent Mass 443. Elfective Damping 444 Effective Spring Constant 44.1. Mettod based on Elastic Ha Space Theory 44.4.2 Method based on Test Results 4443 Method based on an Empirical Formela 44.3 Exciting or Dynamic Force 45 Effect of Embedment and Soil Stratification on the Values of Lumped Parameters 46 Suggested Alternatives when Design Criteria are Unsatisfied 47 Use of Pies in Foundations Subjected to Dynamic Loadings, 47.1 End Bearing Piles 47.2 Friction Piles 5. LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE AND EARTH RETAINING STRUCTURES. $4 Introduction 52 Coefficient of Earth Pressure at Rest, Ky and its Value 207 208 209 210 210 210 210 au 211 24 24 ais 216 216 216 217-240 27 217 217 218 218 29 20 2m 2m 2m 226 226 27 27 229 29 233, 24 234 235 236 237 238 238 241-262 2a 2a53 TheRan 33.1 Mgin Assumption 53.2 Case 1: Homogeneous Backfill with Level Surface and Uniform Surcharge 33.3 Case 2 Svatiied Backfill 33.4 Case 3 Paty or Fully Submrged Backfill 53.3 Case 4: Sloping Backfill 53.6 Case 5: Sloping Wall: An Approsimate Analysis Se Retaining Walls with Wall Friction: Coulomb Analysis SS _ Effect of Seepage on Lateral Earth Pressure 56 _ Deformations Necessary for Plastic Conditions 5.7 Retaining Wall: Some Design Considerations S71 Latorat Thrust S711. Yielding Rigid Walls 5.7.12 Restrained Rigid Walls 57.2. Design Criteria $8 Strutted Walls 58.1 Ear Pressure 582 _ Forceon Sirus 59 Basal Stability of Cuts 5.9.1. Soft Firm Clays 59.2 Cohesionless Soils 510. Sheet Filed Walls 5.10.1 Cantilever Sheet Piled Walls 5.102 Anchored Sheet Piled Walls or Anchored Bulkheads 5.10.21 Anchored Bulkheads with Free Eath Support 5.10.2.2 Anchored Bulkheads with Fixed Barth Support S11 Anchorages ;. STABILITY OF SLOPES 6.1 Introduction 62 Infinite and Finite Slopes 63 Infinite Stopes in Cohesiontess Slopes GA Infinite Stopes in Clays 6S Slopes of Finite Heights 646 — Cireular Failure Surface: Method of Slices 66.1 An Accurate Method 662 Fellinius Method 6.63 Simplified Bishop Method re Surface 6.11 Friction Cirle Method 6.7.2 Hoek’s Method 68 Wedge Method of Stabil 69 Some Special Cases 6.9.1 Embankment on Soft Compressible Subsoil 69.2 Stability of Natura Slopes 6.9.2.1 Natura Slopes in Intat Clays 67 ine Theory for Lateral Earth Pressure under Active and Passive Cases coxtenrs 22 22 22 244 24 244 2a 246 262 24 ANNEXURE A 69.2.2 Natural Slopes in Fissured Clays 6.9.3 Stability of Earth Dams 69.4 Earthquake Considerations in Stability Analysis 6.410 Analysis by otal and effective Streses G11 Slope Stabilization 6.12 Safety actors ‘STRESSES IN SOILS FROM ELASTIC THEORIES. ALI Towroduetion A-12. Goastatc Sitesses ‘ALL3 Stresses Induoed by Applied Loads ‘AcL3.1. A Point Load at che Surface ‘A132. Uniformly Loaded Circular Area ‘13.3 Uniformly Loaded Rectangular Area ‘A-13.6 Uniform Line Load of Infinite Length ‘A-L:3.5, Uniform Stip Load of infinite Length A-13.6 Slope Load of infinite Length Ac13.7 Triangular Load of Infinite Length ‘ACL38 Terrace Lood of lainite Length A139. Semictafinite Uniforen Load ‘Ao1:3.10 Irregular Lead ‘A-1:3.11 Nonhomogeneous Soils: Layered Sytem AcL4 An Empricial Approach | ANNEXURE A-2: SOIL COMPACTION ‘A2.1 Compaction Equipment ‘A-2.L1 Comparison of Performance of Sheepsfoot and Rubber Tyred Rollers in Cohesive Soils A.2.2. Maximum Dry Density and Compactive ifort A-2.3, Consisteney Limits versus Maximum Dry Density and Optimum Moisture Content ‘A-24 Comparison with Dry of Optimum with Wet of Optimum Compaction Moisture ‘A-25 Relative Density and Compaction ia Colsionless Soils ‘A266 Influence of Soll Type on Compaction ‘27 Compaction for Embankment A2I.1. Slopes of Compacted Embankments 42.7.2 Embankment Selement A273. Embankment Piping A274 Embankient Craci Compaction Requireinents and Contr A281 Compaction Requirements ‘A-28.2.1 Analysis of Control Test Data ANNEXURE 4.3: IN-PLACE TREATMENT OF FOUNDATION SOILS. 43.1 Introduction ‘A3.2. Vibrofloattion in Cohesionless SoilsA33_Stone Column Technique AS31 Introduction ‘A332 Method 433.3 Design of Stone Column Foundation System ‘A334 Design of Stone Column—An Illustrative Example ‘A3.3.5 Peripheral Concentration A336 Critical Length A337 Lood Tests A338 Seliement Predictions A339 Skirting Effect A.3.4 Compaction Piles ABS Blasting 320 ‘A536 Vibroflotation, Compaction Piles, Blasting; Comparison ‘37 Precompression A311 Drains A372. Drain Types A373 Sand Blanket ABTA Surcharge Loading ‘A375 Cosfficiont of Consolidation 43.1.6. Smear ot Disturbance Effect A377 Degree of Consolid A:3.78 Construction Control Requirements A.3.79_ Emergency Corrective Measures AAS Dynamic Consolidation ‘A:3.8.1 Fundamentals of Dynamic Consolidation ‘A382 _ Design Concept A3&3 Field Control A39 Jet Grouting Technique ANNEXURE A-4: MODULUS SUBGRADE REACTION AAL Indtroduction As42. Estimate off; from Plate Bearing Test A-4.3. Methods of Extrapolation for Size, Shape and Depth of Foundation, A431 Extrapolation for Size A432 Extrapolation for Shape A433 Extrapolation for Depth ‘Ata, Estimatg of &; from Laboratory Test ‘A-4.5 Enpiricdl Values of &, ANNEXURE A-S: LIQUEFACTION OF FOUNDATION SOILS. UNDER EARTHQUAKES AS.1 Introduction ‘A-S2. Factors Known to Influence Liquefaction AS2I Soil Type A522 Relative Density of Void Ratio 304 308 308 35 35 36 316 3i8 3i 319 sat 321 325 325 325 325 327 335-342 335 335 333 335 ANNEXURE 4- contents 452.3 Initial Confining Pressure ‘A524 Intensity and Duration of Ground Shaking A‘S3. Simplified Procedure to Evaluate Liquefaction Potential 3.3.1. Data Needed A532 Method of Analysis ASA. Case Histories ANNEXURE A-6: DEGREE OF VARIOUS CONSISTENCY LIMITS OF SOILS AS.1 Liquid Limit ‘4-622 Plasticity Index 4-63 Shrinkage Limit ANNEXURE A.7: EXPANSIVE SOILS ACTA Introdvetion ‘AC72. Mechanism of Volume Changes in Soil ‘A-73 Definitions of Swelling Potential and Swelling Pressure ‘ACTA Factors Influencing Swelling Behaviour A741 Typeand Amount of Clay ‘A742. Initial Placement Conditions ALT43 Suess History A144 Nature of Pore Fluid A745. Temperamce A746 Effect of Permitted Volume Change on Measured Swelling Pressure A-T4.1 Shape, Size and Thickness of Sample ATAS Time Effects AAS A Degree of Expansiveness ACTS Factors Influencing Shrinkage in Soils ‘A-T6 Soil Stabilization A-16.1 Stabilization with Lime A-T.62_ Stabilization with Cement A-16.3. Stabilization with Combinations of Lime and Cement A164 Stabilization with Other Chemicals 4A:7.6.5. Other Methods of Stabilization A-7.7 Stabilization with CNS Soil Longer EFFECTS OF CHEMICALS IN SUB-SOIL AND GROUNDWATER ON CONCRETE SUBSTRCUTURES. AS. Introduction ‘A82_ Factors Influencing Suphate Attack on Concrete ‘A-83. Recommendations on Protection Against Sulphate Attack ‘A-84- Sulphate Resisting and Other Cements A85_ Sampling and Analysis of Soils and Groundwater ‘A-86 Sea Action on Concrete A-8.7 Action of Organic Acids on Concrete 335 335 336 336 337 39 us 43 33 3 344355, 3a 345 35 us 346 349 39 349 Mo Mo 350 350 331 331 331 352 353 333 353 353A88 Action of Chemicals and Industrial Wastes on Concrete {589 Quality pf Water for Use in Concrete, Paper Industry and Drinking Purpose : CORROSION OF STEEL PILES = -&9.1 Introduction | ‘A-9.2 Piles in Subsoll below Groundwater Level ‘4-9.3 Piles in Subsol above Groundvater Level ‘4.914 Piles in Sea Water and Affluent ANNEXURE AS ANNEXURE As0: BORED CAST-IN-SITU PILES: CONVENTIONAL BORED PILES VERSUS CAST BY CONTINUOUS MUD CIRCULATION TECHNIQUE, A-10.1- Introduction ‘A-102 Construction Procedure ‘A-103. Merit and Demerits of Two Methods i ‘A-103.1 Boring ‘Ac1032 Concresing A103 Skin Friction AAO34 Sulphate Resistance ANNEXURE A-11: PRESTRESSED ANCHORS A-L1 Introduction ‘ACIL2 Design of Anchors A-11.2.1 Bond besesn Cement Grout Rock ‘A-11.22 Safeey against Failure within the Rock/Soil Mass + AA1L.23 Bond betwoon Cement Grout and Steel Tendon or Steel Wire ‘A-112.4, Allowable Stresses in TendowRod/Wire and other Details, AAlL3 Anchor Construction ‘AC1L3.AL Drilling 4-132 Flushing ACIL33. Water Testing and Water Proofing ‘A-I134 Storage, Handing, Fabrication and Horning of Anchor Tendons ‘A-L13.5 Grouls and Grouting A-lL4 Corrosion and Corrosion Protection AALS. Anchor Stessing and Testing ANNEXURE A-12: GEOTECHNICAL INSTRUMENTATION A-12.1. Introduction ‘A-122 Definition of Terms Relating to Instrumentation Characteristics AA122.1 Accuracy ‘A-122.2 Precision or Repeatability A223 Sensitivity ( contents 364 364 366-367 366 366 366, 366 368 387 A-LLA.L Typical Corrosion Protection Generally Adopted for Free Length of Anchors 390 ‘ACLL42 Typical Corrosion Protection Generally Adopted for Fixed Length of Anchors 390 ‘A-LLA3 Sprical Corrosion Protection Sometimes Adopted for Fixed Length of Anchors 390 391 392-409 392 a2 393 303 393 Ana24 A225 A126 41227 perry) A229 Errors Reliability Linearity Hysteresis Noise Conformance A2210 Aic Entry Value peren ‘A.123 Commonly Measured Properties 1 Response Time or Hydrostatic Time Lag ‘4-124 Measurement of Pore Pressure ANAL Aid A242, perry a2, aia, A124, Tntroduction Instrument Types 1 Open Standpipe Piezometers ‘2 Twin Tube Hydraulic Piezometers 3 Pneumatic Piezometers 4 Vibrating Wire Strain Gauge Piezometers 5. Semi Conductor Strain Gauge Piezometer A125. Measurement of Deformation A231 A1232 A132. 41232, 1252. 41252, A122, 1252. 1252. A252, A233 Ans4 1233 ANNEXURE A Introduction ‘Measurement of Vertical Deformation 1 Platform Type of Settlement Gange 2 Borrers Anchor ‘3 Combined Platform Typo and Borros Anchor Settlement Gauge 4 Magnetic Settlement Gauge ‘5 USBR Cross Arm Gauge 6 Hydraulic Seulement Gauge 7. Mechanical Heave Gauge ‘8 Water Level Gauge for Differential Vertical Movement Measurement of Horizontal Movernents Measurement of Load and Strain Planning of Instrumentation Programme \: STUNITS IN ENGINEERING. AA13.1. Introduction onan 410(CHAPTER 1 SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION 1.1 INTRODUCTION “The primary objective, in civil engineering, of a _subsoll investigation isto determine stratigraphy and pertinent physical properties of soils uerlying the Site so that a safe and an economical foundation may be designed. Soil stratigraphy ismost commonly determined by ‘aking borings. test pits etc. and collecting soil samples, disturbed and undisturbed, and carrying out necessary tests on these samples. Though borin is ost widely used method of subsoil-investgaton, therearemanyother methods of ubsoil investigation, and mare common of these methods are discussed briefly in Section 1.2 “The characteristic of soils are generally variable ‘and may change sharply within Timited distances, Degree ofthoronghnessand completenessrequretot ‘an investigation is linked with ob requirements and availabilty oftime and funds, In Sections 1 4and 1.5 certain guidelines on extent of investigation desired are given, ‘Persinentphsical properties generally needed fom aan investigation are strength, compressibility and permeability. ORenthe chemical ature of subsoil and ‘round water may be desired to evaluate hazard of corrosion on the foundation structure. Table 1.1.1 lists the various soil propertos that may be used in ‘analyses and designs involving applications of principles of soil engineering Physical properties of soils way be evaluated from in-situ test and. also from laboratory tests fon undisturbed, disturbed and/or remoulded soi samples. In Section 1,7, certain methods for in-situ measurements of soil properties are very briefly described whereas Section 1.8 deals with measure rmentsof sol properties thelaboratory Requirements forobtaining, undisturbed sampesofsoilare givenin Section 1.6, itis imperative thatthe data obtained from field andlaboratoryinvestigationispresentedinasystematic ‘manner, Table 124.1 provides a very convenient {ermat in furnishing data collected from a borehole ‘ander tal pit. Such a presentation not only helps in finding out discrepancies, if any, between different results obtained but is also very useful in esigning appropriate values a ifferent sol parametersnesded inthe design. Toachievethecbiectivestatedatthevery Beginning of this section, soil investigation may have to be ‘carried on in sages. On inital broad determination ‘of stratigraphy and plysical properties, particular ‘zone may be investigated in greater detail Furthermore, itis desirable that information predicted from soil investigation carried prior to construction ‘work is compared with information revealed say by ‘excavation ete. during construction work. If there is significant variation botween reality and prediction, then further investigation maybenecessarytorecheck the design considerations. It may also be necessary to catty out certain post-construction observations (0 ensure that assumptions made in design are satisfied, Observations for pote water pressure, Seillement ete afler an embankment is constructed ane includedin thisoalegory Such postconstrvction bservationsmay notbeesplicitintheobjective stated earlier but should form part of the general soil investigation.FOUNDATION DESIGN MANUAL oe TTABLELLA. Soll Properts or Analysts nd Design TABLE 114 (Cond) Propeny Unalor Unis? How Umwaly Diver Applicaton Propeny Unclor Uae! How Uap Direct Application Recommended ‘Obsned Recommended ‘Oeained “Simbel ‘Symbol ‘Yams Weight Characters! Drainage Chartres 7 Moire Content D Fromtst ‘Csi and in vlune weight Consent pemestiliy FLT rom pemabiliyor Dring, eepage and raatoetips. comolsion tt. comaldtion ray Density , FS Fromest Casein ond posure play hee tek Prom Daaage snd dew asi an comet Consolation Characters Pa * > etd om sans wed epson? haa . 7 age : oD ‘vem weight ane wuee are Donen “ 13P*— FromevsTeuve Computation of sattlement under aaships rea volime oo. conpesiilty toni. Specie Gai GD Frome ‘done competion. « eecee! Coeticeneyotvotone my PL mm S : Pskty Characters ine gui tae a asian tnd property _coopessity conto. compesinindex C= «dD. romeslogt'cuve Computation fselement under Psi init yD From : cng. Puiciyiner =e ree : : Resmpsionindex yD . : : Shincgelint = yD Frnt Csfcaon ad compuation Sal ovenpansionintes CD . Conpamtion of heave ca ees of ewe : ‘verurden prsre —— A, oe : D Sec ot «EP Tinwcometidaion Compstat of tne of * eenlaon one ‘etlement — =sCsdiszdaésCN sy ein iinet CB Remsengit ign eae it coapresion Tinecoasion compres. sialon of dogs of > eave : conan. Peconsldaion pease Jy FL? Fromevelogcave Colton nays aac ee ontalinon sage fit comity eo ae Suvi Characters oo : Angle cCinermal fiction. -D_, Fromatreagheet, Aci of stabliy an fond heist a D ana —‘Wenieaton thy ime nd Cabedoninircept€ FL? Molvemelopefor’ ° cajing ape tneon iy tain ‘eloomal sess Steg competion of sweling otal Anglo tinrnlteion gf, @ © Fromteaghtess falas of stailiy ad fad tod swelng pressure. rom Mekremsope exyngcapscy Gradation Charnes Cason nerept FL? eefiecivesormal bed on sen BftectveDiameer Dip =~ ‘Fromgiaaincave Clasifcaion,pemestiliy, andor see tier ig. Uncontnedcompesion g, FL From . . Rercengninsie ‘Dy Ls Fomgninsecare : sength Be ok : : . Nesiuabearstengh +. FL? naovanesharess _* - Pot 7 : : Noweomtom Set, M,N, i! Bromus np atoms ofength Pe. iE 2 : : conto deanic td compesty mE 7 . . + se penton et charter Uniomitycoticint USD Usa }cineresmsce omic Gy FL? From : - 2 | cession nd iter deg. 7 ee ~at_} Bearing capacity factors - 2 Fram ¢ value Beating capacity Conticentoteaname ce Cem ys eson CD”. Fromgainsizecene | Clsifeatonand propery i contain. (q,) wanted Sesvy ; sinatng eto atten of (q,)remoulded stevtreon strength‘ TABLE 11.1. (Contd) onal or Units ‘How Usually FOUNDATION BESIGN MANUAL ~ Dineer Application Propery Recommend Obrained = ee Modulus ofelasicity = E FL? Bromlests ‘Compatation of settlement for “dynamics nals Lateral eat presse —«-KpKy ~—-D_—“Promappeopinte Computation of latral ext coefficients x ‘uations esses, (Characteristis of ‘Compacted Sols ‘Mama umit weight Yaue PL?) Fromtest Compassion conte, computation of ses, ooes stabi analysis Optimum moisture content wy =D Fromtest Compaction cnt, to estimate Relative density > D—Fronutet empirical strength parameters relations| Calera bening aio CBR_——D_—_Fromtest Pavement design Ui Ffirencrwei = AT ‘Thus subsoil investigation in general may consist ofthe following four stages. (@ Initial studies and explorations to determine soil statfication and characteristics required for design, (B Amplification, if necessary, of specific por- tions of the initial investigation to obtain more com= plete Information, as desirable during the design phase, (0 Verification of anticipatedfoundationconditons during construction so that changes may be made, if essary to ensure proper performance and control for assurance of compliance with design. (d Observation of structure an soil performance following construction. Them (@) and (2) are to be considered essential ems (5) and (cd) may be limited or even climinated, depending on the nature ofthe project. 1.2. METHODS OF SUBSURFACE, INVESTIGATION ‘Table 2.1 summarizesthevarioussubsollexploration ‘methods presently availabe. ote; Tote 2, Forel vlomemeght selene Sein 121, 1.3. GEOPHYSICAL EXPLORATION: SEISMIC REFRACTION METHOD 134. Introduction Different methods of geophysical explorations 2s ‘noted in Table 12.1, are seismic, electrical esstivity, magnetic, gravitational and sonic methods. Their applicebilty has also been briefly stated in Table 124, ‘Ofthe various geophysical methods, seismic and ‘resistivity methods are more widely used. Seismic methods of subsurface investigation are ‘based on the principle that velocity of propagation of wave or energy impulse introduced in tothe ground ‘depends onthe properties of material through which impulse pases. Velocities vary greatly indifferent ‘materials ranging from loose sedimentary deposit 10 solidrock, This enables prediction orstrala type from the determination of velocity of propagation, “Two types of seis waves viz shear or $ waves ‘and longitudinal or compression or P waves are transmitted through subsoil and rock. The velocities ofthese waves are related to properties of transmitting ‘medium by the following equations: SURSURFACE INVESTIGATION s ‘TABLE 121, Subsoil Exploration Methods Metiod ‘Descriptions “Applesbily W) Acta or itesive invetgain inaccessible rea Photogrpliy ‘il photography i not essential fe sil ‘exploration, For in accessible and unfaiie res sir photography may be adopted es 20 ‘id in planing for detailed explortion work 12) Geophysical They ae grouped as (3) seismic (1 electcal Methods (€) magnetic () gravitational and (seni la) Scisnic Shockoe waves are crested by method detonating sll charges rb striking rod ¢ plate near the surface. The radiating ‘wanes are picked up and tine of teavel fom source recorded by detectors known as ‘eophones or seismometes. In see ‘etd, ether retraced or reflected ‘waves are detected (@ Refretion inthis method ime of arial of waves ‘Used to detemine depth rock or depths of rmetiod! refracted at interfaces between diferent signtcaly differing si strata Can be used sta re recoded, only whea velocity of ave in lower layers is ‘Sgnficanly greater than the upper ones, ‘Te mctod is usally Finite to depths up. 030 mina single stratum, i) Retestion Here seismemtersreord the uavel time of "This method is usualy adopted to determine tmathod simnie waves reflected fom interface