Important Formula PDF

1
IMPORTANT FORMULAS/
TERMS for JEE MAIN
PHYSICS
The SI system : It is the international a1t1 + a 2 t 2

system of units. In this system there are Average acceleration, aav =
UNITS AND t1 + t 2
seven fundamental and two supplementary MOTION IN A
MEASURE- quantities and their corresponding units.
MENTS STRAIGHT The area under the velocity-time curve
These are: LINE is equal to the displacement and slope gives
acceleration.
If a body falls freely, the distance
Quantity Unit Symbol covered by it in each subsequent second starting from first
1. Length metre m second will be in the ratio 1 : 3 : 5 : 7 etc.
2. Mass kilogram kg If a body is thrown vertically up with an initial velocity u, it
3. Time second s takes u/g second to reach maximum height and u/g second
to return, if air resistance is negligible.
4. Electric current ampere A
If air resistance acting on a body is considered, the time
5. Temperature kelvin K
taken by the body to reach maximum height is less than the
6. Luminous intensity candela cd
time to fall back the same height.
7. Amount of substance mole mol
a
Supplementary For a particle having zero initial velocity if s µ t , where
1. Plane angle radian rad a > 2 , then particle’s acceleration increases with time.
2. Solid angle steradian sr a
For a particle having zero initial velocity if s µ t , where
Dimensions : These are the powers to which the fundamental
a < 0 , then particle’s acceleration decreases with time.
units are raised to get the unit of a derived quantity.
Kinematic equations :
Uses of dimensions
v = u + at (t) ; v2 = u2 + 2at (s)
(i) To check the correctness of a physical relation.
(ii) To derive relationship between different physical quantities. 1 a
(iii) To convert one system of unit into another. S = ut + at (t)2; Sn = u + (2 n - 1)
2 2
n 1u 1 = n 2u 2 r
applicable only when | a t | = a t is constant.
a b c
n1[M1a Lb1T1c ] = n2 [M 2 L 2T2 ] at = magnitude of tangential acceleration, S = distance
Significant figures : In any measurement, the reliable digits If acceleration is variable use calculus approach.
plus the first uncertain digit are known as significant figures. r r r
Relative velocity : v BA = vB - vA
Error : It is the difference between the measured value and
true value of a physical quantity.
Absolute error : The magnitude of the difference between the If T is the time of flight, h maximum
true value and the measured value is called absolute error. height, R horizontal range of a projectile, a
MOTION IN A its angle of projection, th en the
Da1 = a - a1 , Da2 = a - a2 , Dan = a - an relations among these quantities.
PLANE
Mean absolute error
gT 2
| Da1 | + | Da2 | +.....+ | Dan | 1
n h= . ...... (1);
Da =
n
= å
n i =1
| Dai | 8
gT2 = 2R tan a ....... (2);
Relative error : It is the ratio of the mean absolute error R tan a = 4h ....... (3)
to its true value
2u sin q u 2 sin 2 q
Da Da T= ;h =
or relative error = and percentage error = ´ 100 g 2g
a a
Percentage error : It is the relative error in percent.
u 2 sin 2q
R=
æ Da ö g
Percentage error = ç ´ 100%
è amean ÷ø For a given initial velocity, to get the same horizontal range,
there are two angles of projection a and 90° – a.
Buy books : http://www.dishapublication.com/entrance-exams-books/engineering-exams.html
2
The equation to the parabola traced by a body projected Work done W = FS cosq
horizontally from the top of a tower of height y, with a velocity Relation between kinetic energy E and
WORK,
u is y = gx2/2u2, where x is the horizontal distance covered momentum, P = 2mE
ENERGY AND
by it from the foot of the tower. POWER If a body moves with constant power,
its velocity (v) is related to distance
gx 2 travelled (x) by the formula v µ x3/2.
Equation of trajectory is y = x tan q - , which is
2u 2 cos 2 q Work due to kinetic force of friction between two contact
parabola. surfaces is always negative. It depends on relative
Equation of trajectory of an oblique projectile in terms of displacement between contact surfaces. WFK = -FK (Srel ) .
æ xö S W = S DK , S W Þ total work due to all kinds of forces,
range (R) is y = x tan q ç1 - ÷
è Rø
S DK Þ total change in kinetic energy..
Maximum height is equal to n times the range when the
projectile is launched at an angle q = tan–1(4n). SWconservative = -S DU ; SWconservative Þ Total work due
In a uniform circular motion, velocity and acceleration are to all kinds of conservative forces.
constants only in magnitude. Their directions change. S D Þ Total change in all kinds of potential energy..
In a uniform circular motion, the kinetic energy of the body
r r r velocity of separation
is a constant. W = 0, a ¹ 0, P ¹ constant, L=constant Coefficient of restitution e =
velocity of approach
v2 The total momentum of a system of particles is a constant in
Centripetal acceleration, a r = w 2 r = = wv (Always
r the absence of external forces.
applicable)
4p 2 The centre of mass of a system of

a r = 4p 2 n 2 r = r (Applicable in uniform circular motion) SYSTEM OF
T 2
PARTICLES AND particles is defined as the point whose
å mi ri
n = frequency of rotation, T = time period of rotation. ROTATIONAL
r r r MOTION position vector is R = The centre
ar = w ´ v M
of gravity of an extended body is that point
Newton’s second law : where the total gravitational torque on the body is zero.
r r r r The angular momentum of a system of n particles about the
=
F ma, =
F dp / dt
LAWS OF n
origin is L = å ri ´ pi ; L = mvr = Iw
r r
MOTION 2
Impulse : Dp = FDt, p2 - p1 = ò F dt i =1
1 The torque or moment of force on a system of n particles
r r
Newton’s third law : F12 = - F21
about the origin is t = å ri ´ Fi
Frictional force fs £ (fs ) max = ms R ; fk = m k R i
Circular motion with variable speed. For complete circles, The moment of inertia of a rigid body about an axis is defined
the string must be taut in the highest position, u ³ 5ga . 2
by the formula I = å mi ri 2
Circular motion ceases at the instant when the string
1
becomes slack, i.e., when T = 0, range of values of u for The kinetic energy of rotation is K = Iw 2
2
which the string does go slack is 2ga < u < 5ga .
The theorem of parallel axes : I'z = Iz + Ma2
Conical pendulum : w = g / h where h is height of a point Theorem of perpendicular axes : Iz = Ix + Iy
of suspension from the centre of circular motion. For rolling motion without slipping vcm = Rw, where vcm is
The acceleration of a lift the velocity of translation (i.e. of the centre of mass), R is
the radius and m is the mass of the body. The kinetic energy
actual weight - apparent weight
a= of such a rolling body is the sum of kinetic energies of
mass
If ‘a’ is positive lift is moving down, and if it is negative the 1 2 1
translation and rotation : K = mvcm + Iw 2
lift is moving up. 2 2

3
A rigid body is in mechanical equilibrium if Whenever force responsible for orbital motion obeys inverse
(a) It is translational equilibrium i.e., the total external force square law, then only square of time period is directly
on it is zero : S Fi = 0. proportional to cube of average distance between planet
(b) It is rotational equilibrium i.e., the total external torque and sun. This is Kepler’s 3rd law of planetary motion.
on it is zero : S ti = Sri × Fi = 0. T12 a13
If a body is released from rest on rough inclined plane, then 2
T µa ; 3 =
T22 a 32
n
for pure rolling m r ³ tan q (Ic = nmr2)
n +1 Hooke’s law : stress µ strain
æ n ö Young’s modulus of elasticity
Rolling with sliding 0 < ms < çè ÷ tan q ; MECHANICAL
n + 1ø PROPERTIES F Dl
Y=
g sin q
OF SOLIDS Al
< a < g sin q
n +1 1
Compressibility =
Gm1m2 Bulk modulus
Gravitational force F =
r2 Y = 3k (1 – 2s)
Y = 2n (1 + s)
GRAVITATION Nm 2 If S is the stress and Y is Young’s modulus, the energy
G = 6.67 × 10 –11
kg 2 density of the wire E is equal to S2/2Y.
The acceleration due to gravity. If a is the longitudinal strain and E is the energy density of
(a) at a height h above the Earth’s surface a stretched wire, Y Young’s modulus of wire, then E is equal
GM E GM E æ 2h ö 1
g(h) = = 1- to Ya 2
2 ç ÷ for h << RE 2
(R E + h)2 RE è R Eø
æ 2h ö GM E Pascal’s law : A change in pressure

g(h) = g(0) ç 1 - where g(0) =
è R E ÷ø R 2E
applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted
MECHANICAL undiminished to every point of the fluid and
(b) at depth d below the Earth’s surface is PROPERTIES the walls of the containing vessel.
GM E æ d ö æ d ö OF FLUIDS Bernoulli’s principle
g(d) = 2 ç
1- ÷ = g (0) ç1 -
RE è RE ø è R E ÷ø P + rv2/2 + rgh = constant
Surface tension is a force per unit
(c) with latitude l g1 = g – Rw2 cos2l
length (or surface energy per unit area) acting in the plane
GM of interface.
Gravitational potential Vg = –
r Stokes’ law states that the viscous drag force F on a sphere
GM of radius a moving with velocity v through a fluid of viscosity h
Intensity of gravitational field I = F = – 6phav.
r2
The gravitational potential energy 2 r 2 (r – σ)g
Terminal velocity VT =
9 h
Gm1m 2
V=- + constant The surface tension of a liquid is zero at boiling point. The
r
The escape speed from the surface of the Earth is surface tension is zero at critical temperature.
If a drop of water of radius R is broken into n identical drops,
2GM E the work done in the process is 4pR2S(n1/3 – 1).
ve = = 2gR E and has a value of 11.2 km s–1.
RE Two capillary tubes each of radius r are joined in parallel.
The rate of flow is Q. If they are replaced by single capillary
GM E tube of radius R for the same rate of flow, then
Orbital velocity, vorbi = = gR E
RE R = 21/4 r.
A geostationary (geosynchronous communication) satellite
F
moves in a circular orbit in the equatorial plane at a Coefficient of viscosity n = -
approximate distance of 4.22 × 104 km from the Earth’s centre. æ dv ö
Aç ÷
è dx ø
GM s æ 1 + eö GMs æ 1- e ö
v max = çè ÷ ; v min = çè ÷
a 1- eø a 1+ eø Velocity of efflux V = 2 gh

4
The coefficient of linear expansion Kinetic theory of an ideal gas gives
(al), superficial (b) and volume expansion 1
THERMAL (av) are defined by the relations : the relation P = nmv 2 , Combined with
PROPERTIES KINETIC 3
Dl DA DV THEORY the ideal gas equation it yields a kinetic
OF MATTER = a l DT ; = bDT ; = a V DT
l A V interpretation of temperature.
av = 3al ; b = 2a l 1 3
nmv 2 = k B T ,
In conduction, heat is transferred 2 2
between neighbouring parts of a body through molecular
collisions, without any flow of matter. The rate of flow of 3k BT
v rms = (v 2 )1/ 2 =
TC - TD m
heat H = KA , where K is the thermal conductivity of The law of equipartition of energy is stated thus: the energy
L
the material of the bar. for each degree of freedom in thermal equilibrium is 1/2 (kBT)
Convection involves flow of matter within a fluid due to 3
unequal temperatures of its parts. The translational kinetic energy E = k B NT . This leads
2
Radiation is the transmission of heat as electromagnetic
waves. 2
Stefan’s law of radiation : E = sT4, where the constant s is to a relation PV = E.
3
known as Stefan’s constant = 5.67 × 10–8 wm–2 k–4. Root mean square (rms) velocity of the gas
Wein’s displacement law : lmT = constant, where constant
is known as Wein’s constant = 2.898 × 10 –3 mk. 3RT 3P
C= =
dQ M r
Newton’s law of cooling: = - k (T2 - T1 ) ; where T1 is
dt
the temperature of the surrounding medium and T2 is the Most probable speed Vmp = 2RT 2KT
=
temperature of the body. M m
Heat required to change the temperature of the substance, KT
Q = mcDq Mean free path l =
c = specific heat of the substance 2 pd 2 P
Heat absorbed or released during state change Q = mL
L = latent heat of the substance The particle velocity and acceleration
Mayer’s formula cp – cv = R during SHM as functions of time are given
by,
First law of thermodynamics: DQ = DU
OSCILLATIONS v (t) = – wA sin (w + f ) (velocity),
+ DW, where DQ is the heat supplied to the a (t) = – w2A cos (wt + f) = – w2x (t)
THERMODY- system, DW is the work done by the system (acceleration)
NAMICS and DU is the change in internal energy of
the system. Velocity amplitude vm
=w A and acceleration amplitude
In an isothermal expansion of an ideal
am =w2A.
gas from volume V1 to V2 at temperature T
the heat absorbed (Q) equals the work done (W) by the gas, A particle of mass m oscillating under the influence of a
Hooke’s law restoring force given by F = – k x exhibits simple
æV ö
each given by Q = W = nRT ln ç 2 ÷
è V1 ø k
harmonic motion with w = (angular frequency),
In an adiabatic process of an ideal gas PVg = TVg–1 m
Tg Cp m
= = constant, where g = C . T = 2p (period)
P g -1 v k
Work done by an ideal gas in an adiabatic change of state Such a system is also called a linear oscillator.
nR (T1 - T2 ) A body of mass M is suspended from a spring whose force
from (P1, V1, T1) to (P2, V2, T2) is W = constant is K and mass is m. The time period of this system
g -1
The efficiency of a Carnot engine is given by (M + m / 3)
will be 2p
T k
h = 1- 2
T1
æ l cosq ö
Second law of thermodynamics: No engine operating Time period for conical pendulum T = 2p ç where
between two temperatures can have efficiency greater than è g ÷ø
that of the Carnot engine. q angle between string & vertical.
dQ 1 2 2
Entropy or disorder S = Energy of the particle E = mω A
T 2
5
The displacement in a sinusoidal wave Dipole electric field on the axis at a distance r from the centre:
y (x, t) = a sin (kx – wt + f) where f is the r r r
2pr 2p
phase constant or phase angle. E= @ for r >> a
The speed of a transverse wave on a 4pe 0 (r 2 - a 2 ) 2 4pe 0 r 3
WAVES
r
stretched string v = T / m . Dipole moment p = q2a
Sound waves are longitudinal r
In a uniform electric field E , a dipole experiences a torque
mechanical waves that can travel through r r r r
solids, liquids, or gases. The speed v of sound wave in a t given by t = p ´ E but experiences no net force.
r
fluid having bulk modulus B and density µ is v = B / r . The flux Df of electric field E through a small area element
r r r
The speed of longitudinal waves in a metallic bar is DS is given by Df = E.DS
v= Y/r Gauss’s law: The flux of electric field through any closed
surface S is 1/e0 times the total charge enclosed i.e., Q
For gases, since B = g P, the speed of sound is v = gP / r Thin infinitely long straight wire of uniform linear charge
The interference of two identical waves moving in opposite r l
directions produces standing waves. For a string with fixed density l : E = nˆ
2pe 0 r
ends, standing wave y (x, t) = [2a sin kx ] cos wt
The separation between two consecutive nodes or antinodes Infinite thin plane sheet of uniform surface charge density s
is l/2. r s
A stretched string of length L fixed at both the ends vibrates E= nˆ
2e 0
1 v Thin spherical shell of uniform surface charge density s :
with frequencies f = .
2 2L r s r
The oscillation mode with lowest frequency is called the E= rˆ (r ³ R) ; E = 0 (r < R)
fundamental mode or the first harmonic. The second 4pe 0 r 2
harmonic is the oscillation mode with n = 2 and so on.
A pipe of length L with one end closed and other end open r 1 Q
Electric Potential : V(r) = .
(such as air columns) vibrates with frequencies given by 4pe 0 r
æ 1ö v For a charge configuration q1, q2, ..., qn with position vectors
f = çn + ÷ , n = 0, 1, 2, 3, .... r1, r 2, ... rn, the potential at a point P is given by the
è 2 ø 2L
The lowest frequency given by v/4L is the fundamental mode 1 æ q1 q 2 q ö
superposition principle V = + + ..... + n ÷ ,
or the first harmonic. 4pe 0 çè r1P r2P rnP ø
Beats arise when two waves having slightly different An equipotential surface is a surface over which potential
frequencies, f1 and f2 and comparable amplitudes, are has a constant value.
superposed. The beat frequency fbeat = f1 – f2 r r
The Doppler effect is a change in the observed frequency of Potential energy of two charges q1, q2 at r1, r2 is given by
a wave when the source S and the observer O moves relative 1 q1q 2
U= , where r12 is distance between q1 and q2.
æ v ± v0 ö 4pe 0 r12
to the medium. f = f0
çè v ± v ÷ø Capacitance C = Q/V, where Q = charge and V = potential
s
difference
dl n For a parallel plate capacitor (with vacuum between the
Doppler effect formula in light : = , where dl is change
l c plates),
in wavelength of a spectral line of original wave length l A
and n, the speed of the source and c is the speed of light. C = e0 , where A is the area of each plate and d the
d
r separation between them.
Coulomb’s Law : F21 = force on q2 The energy U stored in a capacitor of capacitance C, with
charge Q and voltage V is
ELECTRO- k (q1q 2 ) 1
due to q1 = r̂21 where k =
STATICS 2
r21 4pe 0 1 1 1 Q2
U = QV = CV 2 =
= 9 × 109 Nm2 C–2 2 2 2 C
Electric field due to a point charge q For capacitors in the series combination,
has a magnitude | q |/4pe0r2 1 1 1 1
Field of an electric dipole in its equatorial plane = + + + .........
Ceq C1 C2 C3
r r
-p 1 -p In the parallel combination, Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 + ...
E= @ , for r >> a
4pe 0 (a 2 + r 2 )3/2 4pe 0 r 3 where C1, C2, C3... are individual capacitances.

6
Current density j gives the amount of The magnitude of the field B inside a long solenoid carrying
charge flowing per second per unit area a current I is : B = µ0nI, where n is the number of turns per
r
CURRENT normal to the flow, J = nqvd m 0 NI
unit length. For a toroid one obtains, B = .
ELECTRICITY l 2 pr
Resistance R = r r r
A
r = resistivity of the material
Ampere’s Circuital Law: Ñò B.d l = m 0 I , where I refers to the
C
r r
Equation E = rJ another statement of current passing through S.
Ohm’s law, i.e., a conducting material obeys Ohm’s law when m 0 I1I2
Force between two long parallel wires F = Nm -1 .
the resistivity of the material does not depend on the 2pa
magnitude and direction of applied electric field. The force is attractive if currents are in the same direction
r= resistivity of the material. and repulsive currents are in the opposite direction.
r r r r
(a) Total resistance R of n resistors connected in series For current carrying coil M = NIA ; torque = rt = M ´ B
R = R1 + R2 +..... + Rn r
(b) Total resistance R of n resistors connected in parallel r B0
The magnetic intensity, H = .
1 1 1 1 m0
= + + ...... + r
R R1 R 2 Rn . The magnetisation M of the material is its dipole moment
Kirchhoff’s Rules – (a) Junction rule: At any junction of per unit volume. The magnetic field B in the material is,
circuit elements, the sum of currents entering the junction r r r
B = m 0 (H + M)
must equal the sum of currents leaving it. r r r r
(b) Loop rule: The algebraic sum of changes in potential For a linear material M = cH . So that B = mH and c is
around any closed loop must be zero. called the magnetic susceptibility of the material.
The Wheatstone bridge is an arrangement of four resistances m = m 0m r ; m r = 1 + c .
R1 , R2, R3, R4 . The null-point condition is given by
R1 R 3 The magnetic flux
= r r
R2 R4 ELECTRO- fB = B.A = BA cos q , where q is the angle
The potentiometer is a device to compare potential MAGNETIC r r
INDUCTION between B & A .
differences. The device can be used to measure potential Faraday’s laws of induction :
difference; internal resistance of a cell and compare emf’s
df B
æl ö e = -N
of two sources. Internal resistance r = R ç 1 - 1÷ dt
è l2 ø Lenz’s law states that the polarity of the induced emf is such
that it tends to produce a current which opposes the change
RC circuit : During charging : q = CE (1 – e–t/RC)
in magnetic flux that produces it.
During discharging : q = q0e–t/RC
The induced emf (motional emf) across ends of a rod e = Blv
The total force on a charge q moving dI

The self-induced emf is given by, e = - L
with velocity v i.e., Lorentz force. dt
r r r r L is the self-inductance of the coil.
MAGNETISM F = q (v ´ B + E) .
A straight conductor of length l and m0 N2 A
L=
carrying a steady current I experiences a l
r r r r r A changing current in a coil (coil 2) can induce an emf in a
force F in a uniform external magnetic field B , F = Il ´ B ,
nearby coil (coil 1).
the direction of l is given by the direction of the current.
r dI2
r m 0 d l ´ rr e1 = - M12 , M12 = mutual inductance of coil 1 w.r.t coil 2.
Biot-Savart law dB = I 3 . dt
4p r
m 0 N1 N2 A
The magnitude of the magnetic field due to a circular coil of M=
l
radius R carrying a current I at an axial distance x from the
LR circuit : For growth current, i = i 0 [1 - e - Rt /L ]
m 0 IR 2
centre is B = .
2 (x 2 + R 2 )3/2 For decay of current, i = i 0 e - Rt /L

7
For refraction through a spherical interface (from medium 1
For an alternating current i = im sin wt to 2 of refractive index n 1 and n2, respectively)
passing through a resistor R, the average
ALTERNATING power loss P (averaged over a cycle) due to n 2 n1 n 2 - n1
- = .
CURRENT joule heating is (1/2)i2mR. v v R
Root mean square (rms) current 1 1 1
Thin lens formula - =
im v u f
I= = 0.707 i m .
2
1 (n 2 - n1 ) æ 1 1 ö
The average power loss over a complete cycle Lens maker’s formula : f = ç -
n1 è R1 R 2 ÷ø
P = V I cosf. The term cos f is called the power factor.
An ac voltage v = vm sinwt applied to a pure inductor L, The power of a lens P = 1/f. The SI unit for power of a lens is
drives a current in the inductor i = im sin (wt – p/2), where dioptre (D): 1 D = 1 m–1.
im = vm/XL. XL = wL is called inductive reactance. If several thin lenses of focal length f1, f2, f3,.. are in contact,
An ac voltage v = vm sinwt applied to a capacitor drives a 1 1 1 1
current in the capacitor: i = im sin (wt + p/2). Here, the effective focal f = f + f + f + .....
1 2 3
vm 1 The total power of a combination of several lenses

im = , XC = is called capacitive reactance. P = P1 + P2 + P3 +.......
XC wC
Chromatic aberration is the colouring of image produced by
An interesting characteristic of a series RLC circuit is the lenses. This can be avoided by combining a convex and a
phenomenon of resonance. The circuit exhibits resonance, concave lens of focal lengths f1 and f2 and dispersive powers
i.e., the amplitude of the current is maximum at the resonant w1, w2 respectively satisfying the equation
1
frequency, w 0 = (X L = X C ) . w1 w 2
LC + = 0 or in terms of powers w P + w P = 0 .
f1 f 2 1 1 2 2
Impedance z = R 2 + (x L – x C ) 2
Wave front : It is the locus of all the
N E I particles vibrating in the same phase.
Transformation ratio, K = S = S = P
N P E P IS The resultant intensity of two waves
WAVE OPTICS of intensity I0/4 of phase difference f at
w0L 1 any points
The quality factor Q defined by Q = = is an
R w 0 CR
éf ù
indicator of the sharpness of the resonance, the higher value I = I0 cos2 ê ú , where I is the maximum
of Q indicating sharper peak in the current. ë 2û 0
density.
Reflection is governed by the equation l
Ð i = Ð r' and refraction by the Snell’s law, Condition for dark band : d = (2n - 1) , for bright band :
2
sini/sinr = n, where the incident ray, reflected
ray, refracted ray and normal lie in the same d = ml
RAY OPTICS
plane. Dl
Fringe width b =
1 1 1 d
Mirror equation: + =
v u f A thin film of thickness t and refractive index µ appears dark
by reflection when viewed at an angle of refraction r if
n 2 sin [(A + Dm ) / 2)]
Prism Formula n 21 = = , where Dm 2µt cos r = nl (n = 1, 2, 3, etc.)
n1 sin (A / 2)
A single slit of width a gives a diffraction pattern with a
is the angle of minimum deviation.
central maximum. The intensity falls to zero at angles of
Dispersion is the splitting of light into its constituent colours.
l 2l
The deviation is maximum for violet and minimum for red. ± ,± , etc.
a a
d v - dr
Dispersive power w = , where dv, dr are deviation
d Amplitude of resultant wave R = a 2 + b 2 + 2 ab cos f
of violet and red and d the deviation of mean ray (usually
yellow). Intensity of wave I = I1 + I2 + 2 I1I2 cosf

8
hc Zener diode is one such special purpose diode. In reverse
Energy of a photon E = hn = bias, after a certain voltage, the current suddenly increases
l
(breakdown voltage) in a Zener diode. This property has
MODERN h been used to obtain voltage regulation.
PHYSICS Momentum of a photon P =
l The important transistor parameters for CE-configuration are:
Einstein’s photoelectric equation æ DV ö
Input resistance, ri = ç BE ÷
è DI B ø V
1 CE
mv 2max = V0 e = hn - f 0 = h ( n - n0 )
2 æ DV ö
Mass defect, Output resistance, r0 = ç CE ÷
è DIC ø I
DM = (Z mp + (A – Z )mn) – M ; D Eb = DM c2. B
1 amu = 931 MeV
æ DIC ö
Current amplification factor, b =
Z 2 çè DI ÷ø
En = - ´ 13.6eV (For hydrogen like atom) B V
CE
n2
The voltage gain of a transistor amplifier in common emitter
configuration is:
n 2h 2
Radius of the orbit of electron r =
4π 2 mkze2 æv ö R
A v = ç 0 ÷ = b C , where R and R are respectively the
Bragg’s law : 2d sin q = nl. è vi ø RB C B
Radius of the nucleus R = R o A1/3 resistances in collector and base sides of the circuit.
The important digital circuits performing special logic
Law of radioactive decay : N = N0e–lt.
operations are called logic gates. These are: OR, AND, NOT,
dN NAND, and NOR gates. NAND gate is the combination of
Activity = = -lN (unit is Becquerel)
N NOT and AND gate. NOR gate is the combination of NOT
and OR gate.
0.693
Half life period, T1/2 =
l Transmitter, transmission channel and
receiver are three basic units of a
12400 COMMUNI-
X-rays : l min = Å communication system.
V CATION Two important forms of communication
SYSTEMS system are: Analog and Digital. The information
Characteristics X-rays : l Ka < l La
to be transmitted is generally in continuous
Moseley law : n = a (Z – b)2
waveform for the former while for the latter it
Pure semiconductors are called ‘intrinsic semiconductors’. has only discrete or quantised levels.
The presence of charge carriers (electrons and holes) number Low frequencies cannot be transmitted to long distances.
of electrons (n e ) is equal to the number of holes (n h). Therefore, they are superimposed on a high frequency carrier
The number of charge carriers can be changed by ‘doping’ signal by a process known as modulation.
of a suitable impurity in pure semiconductors known as In the process of modulation, new frequencies called sidebands
extrinsic semiconductors (n-type and p-type). are generated on either side.
If an antenna radiates electromagnetic waves from a height
In n-type semiconductors, n e >> n h while in p-type
semiconductors nh >> ne. hT, then the range dT is given by 2Rh T where R is the
n-type semiconducting Si or Ge is obtained by doping with radius of the earth.
pentavalent atoms (donors) like As, Sb, P, etc., while p-type
Effective range, d = 2Rh T + 2Rh R
Si or Ge can be obtained by doping with trivalent atom
hT = height of transmitting antenna; h R = height of receiving
(acceptors) like B, Al, In etc.
antenna
p-n junction is the ‘key’ to all semiconductor devices. When Critical frequency Vc = 9(Nmax)1/2
such a junction is made, a ‘depletion layer’ is formed consisting where Nmax = no. density of electrons/m3
of immobile ion-cores devoid of their electrons or holes. This
2
is responsible for a junction potential barrier. æV ö
In forward bias (n-side is connected to negative terminal of Skip distance, Dskip = 2h ç max ÷ - 1
è Vc ø
the battery and p-side is connected to the positive), the barrier
is decreased while the barrier increases in reverse bias. h= height of reflecting layer of atmosphere.
Diodes can be used for rectifying an ac voltage (restricting 1
the ac voltage to one direction). Power radiated by an antenna µ 2
l

9
CHEMISTRY
Energy of electron in species with one (a) % ionic character =

electron.
ATOMIC -2 p 2 me 4 Z 2 Actual dipole moment
En = CHEMICAL ´ 100
STRUCTURE n 2h 2 BONDING Calculated dipole moment
For energy in SI system, (b) Pauling equation % ionic
-2 p 2 me4 Z2 character
En = 2 2
n h (4 pe 0 ) 2 é - (XA - X B ) ù
1
-1312Z2 = 100 êë1 - exp 4 úû
En = kJ mol-1
n2 Fajan’s Factors : Following factors are helpful in bringing
where e0 is permitivity constant and its value is 8.8542 × covalent character in Ionic compounds
10–12 coulomb2 newton–1 metre–2 (a) Small cation (b) Big anion
n 2h 2 æ n2 ö (c) High charge on cation/anion
r= = 0.529 çç ÷÷ Å (d) Cation having pseudo inert gas configuration (ns2p6d10)
4 p 2 mZe 2 è Z ø e.g. Cu+, Ag+, Zn+2, Cd+2
Total energy of electron in the nth shell M.O. theory :
e 2 æ kZe 2 ö kZe 2 (a) Bond order = ½(Nb–Na)
= K.E. + P.E. = kZ + ç- ÷ =-
(b) Higher the bond order, higher is the bond dissociation
2rn è rn ø 2rn
energy, greater is the stability, shorter is the bond length.
1 é1 1 ù (c) Species Bond order Magnetic properties
u= = RZ2 ê 2 - 2 ú , [R = 1.0968 × 107 m–1]
l ëê n1 n 2 úû H2 1 Diamagnetic
H2 + 0.5 Paramagnetic
No. of spectral lines produced when an electron drops from
Li2 1 Diamagnetic
n(n - 1)
nth level to ground level = Relative bond strength : sp3d2 >dsp2 >sp3 >sp2 >sp >p-p
2
(Co-axial) > s - p > s - s > p - p (Co-lateral)
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle (Dx) (Dp) ³ h/4p
Nodes (n – 1) = total nodes, l = angular nodes, VSEPR theory
(n – l – 1) = Radial nodes (a) (LP-LP) repulsion > (LP-BP) > (BP-BP)
(b) NH3 ® Bond Angle 106° 45’ because (LP-BP) repulsion
Orbital angular momentum : l (l + 1) h = l(l + 1)h > (BP-BP) H2O ® 104° 27’because (LP-LP) repulsion > (LP-
2p LB) > (BP-BP)
Radial probability density curves:
Bond angle :
n=1 (a) NH3 > PH3 > AsH3 (b) H2O > H2S > H2Se
n=2
R .4pr .dr
R .4pr .dr
(c) NH3 > NF3

2
1s 2s (d) Cl2O > OF2

Δn
2
K p = K c (RT) g where Dng' nP – n R

2
®r ®r Free Energy change (DG)

CHEMICAL
(a) If DG = 0 then reversible reaction
n =2 EQUILIBRIUM
n=3 would be in equilibrium, Kc = 0
R .4pr .dr
R .4pr .dr
3s (b) If DG = (+) ve then equilibrium will

2p
2
be displace in backward direction;

2
Kc < 1
®r ®r
(c) If DG = (–) ve then equilibrium will displace in forward
direction; Kc > 1
n=3 (a) Kc unit ® (moles/lit)Dn,
R .4pr .dr
R .4pr .dr
n=3
(b) Kp unit ® (atm)Dn
2
3p 3d
2
®r ®r

10
Reaction Quotient and Equilibrium Constant
Ki
Consider the following reversible reaction a= Ki V = or V C ¯ a
C
A+BC+D
Common ion effect : By addition of X mole/L of a common
[C][D] ion, to a weak acid (or weak base) a becomes equal to
\ Qc = [A][B]
Ka æ K b ö
or [where a = degree of dissociation]
Case I : If Q c < Kc then : [Reactants] > [Products] X çè X ÷ø
then the system is not at equilibrium (A) If solubility product > ionic product then the solution is
Case II : If Q c = Kc then : The system is at equilibrium and unsaturated and more of the substance can be dissolved in it.
the concentration of the species C, D, B,A are at equilibrium. (B) If ionic product > solubility product the solution is super
Case III : If Q c > Kc then : [Products] > [Reactants] saturated (principle of precipitation).
The system is not at equilibrium. Salt of weak acid and strong base :
A relationship between the equilibrium constant KC, reaction Kh Kw
quotient and Gibbs energy. pH = 0.5 (pKw + pKa + log c); h = ; Kh = K
c a
DG = DG° + RT ln Q (h = degree of hydrolysis)
At equilibrium DG = 0 and Q = K then Salt of weak base and strong acid :
DG° = –RT ln Kc Kw
\ DG° = –RT ln Kp pH = 0.5 (pKw – pKb – log c); h = Kb ´ c
Le chatelier’s principal Salt of weak acid and weak base :
(i) Increase of reactant conc. (Shift forward)
Kw
(ii) Decrease of reactant conc. (Shift backward) pH = 0.5 (pKw + pKa – pKb ); h =
Ka ´ Kb
(iii) Increase of pressure (from more moles to less moles)
(iv) Decrease of pressure (from less moles to more moles)
(v) For exothermic reaction decrease in temp. (Shift Differ ences between order and
forward) molecularity of reaction:
CHEMICAL
(vi) For endothermic increase in temp. (Shift backward)
(a) Lewis Acid (e– pair acceptor) ® KINETICS
CO2, BF3, AlCl3, ZnCl2, normal
cation
ACIDS AND (b) Lewis Base (e– pair donor) NH3,
BASES ROH, ROR, H2O, RNH2, normal Order of reaction Molecularity
anion 1. It is experimentally It is a theoretical concept.
Dissociation of weak Acid & Weak determined quantity
Base ® 2. It can have integral, Always integral values only,
(a) Weak Acid ® Ka = Cx2/(1 – x) or fractional or negative never zero or negative
Ka = Cx2 ; x << 1 values
(b) Weak Base ® Kb = Cx2/(1 – x) or Kb = Cx2 ; x << 1 3. It cannot be obtained It can be obtained.
Buffer solution {Henderson equation} : from balanced or
(a) Acidic ® pH = pKa + log {Salt/Acid}. stoichiometric equation.
For Maximum buffer action pH = pKa 4. It tells about the slowest It does not tell anything
Range of Buffer pH = pKa ± 1 step in the mechanism about mechanism
(b) Alkaline ® pOH = pKb + log {Salt/Base} for max. buffer 5. It is sum of the powers It is the number of reacting
action pH = 14 – pKb of the concentration species undergoing
Range pH = 14 – pKb ± 1 terms in the rate law simultaneous collision in the
Moles / lit of Acid or Base Mixed equation. reaction.
(c) Buffer Capacity =
change in pH
Unit of Rate constant :
Necessary condition for showing neutral colour of Indicator k = mol1–n litn–1 sec–1
pH = pKln or[HIn] = [In–] or [InOH] = [In+] Order of reaction It can be fraction, zero or any whole number.
Molecularity of reaction is always a whole number. It is never
Relation between ionisation constant more than three. It cannot be zero.
(Ki) & degree of ionisation(a):- First Order reaction :
IONIC a2 a2 C 2.303 a 0.693
Ki = = (Ostwald’ss
EQUILIBRIUM (1 - a)V (1 - a) k= log10 & t1/12 =
t (a - x) k
dilution law) [A]t = [A]0e–kt
It is applicable to weak electrolytes Second Order Reaction :
for which a <<1 then When concentration of A and B taking same.

11
1 æ x ö First Law : DE = Q + W
k2 = ç ÷ Expression for pressure volume work
t è a(a - x) ø W = –PDV
When concentration of A and B are taking different - THERMO- Maximum work in a reversible
2.303 b(a - x) DYNAMICS expansion :
k2 = t(a - b) log a(b - x)
V2
Zero Order Reaction : W = –2.303n RT log = –2.303 nRT
T
V1
a
x = kt & t1/2 = P1
2k log P
The rate of reaction is independent of the concentration of 2
the reacting substance. Wrev ³ Wirr
Time of nth fraction of first order process, qv = cvDT = DU, qp = cpDT = DH
æ 1 ö Enthapy changes during phase transformation
2×303
t 1/n = log ç 1÷ (i) Enthalpy of Fusion
k çè 1 - ÷ø
n (ii) Heat of Vapourisation
Arrhenius equation : (iii) Heat of Sublimation
-E a Enthalpy : DH = DE + PDV = DE + DngRT
k = Ae–Ea/RT & slope = & Temperature Coefficient
2.303R Kirchoff’s equation :
æ k2 ö E a æ T2 - T1 ö DET2 = DET1 + DCV (T2 – T1) [constant V]
log ç k ÷ = ç ÷
è 1 ø 2.303 è T1T2 ø DH T2 = DH T1 + DCP (T2 – T1) [constant P]
It has been found that for a chemical reaction with rise in
Entropy(s) : Measure of disorder or randomness
temperature by 10 °C, the rate constant gets nearly doubled.
DS = SSp–SSR
Oxidant itself is reduced (gives O2) q rev V2 P1
Or Oxidant ¾¾ ® e– (s) Acceptor DS = = 2.303 nR log V = 2.303 n R log P
T 1 2
Reductant itself is oxidised (gives H2)
OXIDATION - Free energy change : DG = DH – TDS
Or reductant ¾¾ ® e– (s) Donor –DG = W(maximum) – PDV
REDUCTION
(i) Strongness of acid µ O.N
DH DS DG Reaction characteristics
(ii) Strongness of base µ 1/ O.N
(a) Electro Chemical Series:- Li, K, Ba, – + Always negative Reaction is spontaneous at
Sr, Ca, Na, Mg, Al, Mn, Zn, Cr, Fe, Cd, Co, all temperature.
Ni, Sn, Pb, H2, Cu, Ag, Pt, Au. + – Always positive Reaction is nonspontaneous
(b) As we move from top to bottom in this series at all temperature
(1) Standard Reduction Potential – – Negative at low Spontaneous at low temp. &
(2) Standard Oxidation Potential ¯ temperature but non spontaneous at high
(3) Reducing Capacity ¯ positive at high temperature
(4) IP temperature
(5) Reactivity ¯ + + Positive at low Non spontaneous at low
Equivalent weight of element temp. but temp. & spontaneous at high
negative at high temp.
Atomic wt of the element temperature
=
Valency of element
VOLUMETRIC
ANALYSIS The law of Dulong and Petit
Atomic wt.×specific heat » 6.4 m = Z.I.t
Normality (N) l eq
number of equivalents ELECTRO- Degree of dissociation : a = l 0 =
= CHEMISTRY eq
volume of the solution in litres Equivalent conductance at given concentration
number of moles equivalent conductance at infinite dilution
Molarity (M) =
volume of the solution in litres Specific conductance
Common acid-base indicators 1 1 l 1000
L sp = = = ; Lm = ´ Lsp .
Indicator Acid colour Alkaline colour pH range of S RA / l RA C
change
Methyl orange Red Yellow 3.2–4.4
Kohlrausch’s law : L 0m = xl 0A + yl 0B
Methyl red Red Yellow 4.2–6.2 Nernst Equation
Litmus Red Blue 4.5–8.3 0.0591 [Products]
Phenolphthalein Colourless red 8.3–10 E = Eº – log10
n [Reactants]

12
Ideal gas equation : PV = nRT
é nEº ù
& EºCell = Eºright + Eºleft & Keq. = antilog ê ú (i) R = 0.0821 liter atm. deg–1 mole–1
ë 0.0591 û (ii) R = 2 cals. deg.–1 mole–
DG = – nFEcell & DGº = –nFEº cell GASEOUS (iii) R = 8.314 JK–1 mole–1
STATE Velocities related to gaseous state
æ ¶DG ö
& Wmax= +nFEº & DG = DH + T ç ÷
è ¶T ø P 3PV 3RT
RMS velocity C = = =
Calculation of pH of an electrolyte by using a calomel M M
E cell - 0.2415 3P
electrode : pH =
0.0591 d
Thermodynamic efficiency of fuel cells :
8RT 2RT
-DG -nFEocell Average speed = & Most probable speed =
h= = M M
DH DH Average speed = 0.9213 × RMS speed
For H2–O2 fuel cells it is 95%. RMS speed = 1.085 × Average speed
MPS = .816 × RMS; RMS = 1.224 MPS
Raoult’s law MPS : A.V. speed : RMS = 1 : 1.128 : 1.224
P = pA + pB = p°AXA + p°BXB
Characteristics of an ideal solution: 1
Rate of diffusion µ
SOLUTION AND (i) DsolV = 0 density of gas
COLLIGATIVE (ii) DsolH = 0
van der Waal’s equation
PROPERTIES Relative lowering of vapour pressure
PAo – PA æ n 2a ö
= ç P + ÷ (V - nb) = nRT for n moles
PAo è V2 ø
PAo – PA nB PV
= XB = Z (compressibility factor) = ; Z = 1 for ideal gas
PAo n A + nB nRT
Colligative µ Number of particles Available space filled up by hard
properties µ Number of ions (in case of electrolytes) spheres (packing fraction):
µ Number of moles of solute p
Depression of freezing point, DTf = Kfm SOLID AND Simple cubic = = 0.52
Elevation in boiling point with relative lowering of vapour 6
LIQUID STATE
pressure p 3
1000K b æ po - p ö bcc = = 0.68
DTb = 8
ç ÷
M1 çè po ÷ø (M1 = mol. wt. of solvent)
p 2
Osmotic pressure (P) with depression in freezing point DTf fcc = = 0.74
6
dRT
P = DTf ´ p 2 p 3
1000K f hcp = = 0.74 diamond = = 0.34
Relation between Osmotic pressure and other colligative 6 6
properties: Radius ratio and co-ordination number (CN)
Limiting radius ratio CN Geometry
æ p oA - p A ö dRT
(i) p = çç o
÷´
÷ Relative lowering of vapour pressure [0.155– 0.225] 3 [plane triangle]
è pA ø M B [0.255–0.414] 4 [tetrahedral]
dRT [0.414–0.732] 6 [octahedral]
(ii) p = DTb ´ Elevation in boiling point [0.732–1] 8 [bcc]
1000K b
Atomic radius r and the edge of the unit cell:
dRT Pure elements :
(iii) p = DTf ´ Depression in freezing point
1000K f a 3a 2a
Normal molar mass Observed colligative property Simple cubic = r = ; bcc r = ; fcc =
i= = 2 4 4
Observed molar mass Normal colligative property
Relationship between radius of void (r) and the radius of the
Observed osmotic pressure sphere (R) : r (tetrahedral) = 0.225 R ; r (octahedral) = 0.414 R
i =
Normal osmotic pressure Paramagnetic : Presence of unpaired electrons [attracted by
n magnetic field]
Degree of association a = (1 – i)
n -1 Ferromagnetic : Permanent magnetism [ ]
i -1 Antiferromagnetic : net magnetic moment is zero [ ¯ ¯]
& degree of dissociation (a) = Ferrimagnetic : net magnetic moment is three [ ¯ ¯ ]
n -1
13
Emulsion : Colloidal soln. of two Lyophobic colloid : No affinity for solvent, special methods
immiscible liquids [O/W emulsion, are used to prepare sol. [e.g. As2S3, Fe(OH)3 sol]
SURFACE W/O emulsion] Preparation of colloidal solution :
CHEMISTRY & Emulsifier : Long chain (i) Dispersion methods (ii) Condensation method.
COLLOIDAL hydrocarbons are added to Properties of colloidal solution :
STATE stabilize emulsion. (i) Tyndall effect (ii) Brownian movement (iii) Coagulation
Lyophilic colloid : Starchygum, gelatin (iv) Filtrability.
have greater affinity for solvent.
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
General electronic configuration Stability of +3 oxidation state : B >
(of outer orbits) Al > Ga > In > Tl
s-block ns1–2 Stability of +1 oxidation state : Ga
PERIODIC p-block ns 2 np 1–6 BORON < In < Tl
TABLE FAMILY Basic nature of the oxides and
d-block (n–1)d1–10 ns1–2 hydroxides :
f-block (n–2) f1–14 s 2 p 6 d 10 (n– B < Al < Ga < In < Tl
1)s2 p6d0 or 1 ns2 Relative strength of Lewis acid :
Property Pr (L To R) Gr (T to B) BF3 < BCl3 < BBr3 < BI3
(a) atomic radius ¯ Ionisation energy : B > Al < Ga > In < Tl
(b) ionisation potential ¯ Electronegativity : Electronegativity first decreases from B to
(c) electron affinity ¯ Al and then increases marginally.
(d) electro negativity ¯ Reactivity : C < Si < Ge < Sn < Pb
(e) metallic character or ¯ Metallic character : C < Si < Ge <
electropositive character Sn < Pb
(f) alkaline character ¯ Acidic character of the oxides :
CARBON
of hydroxides CO2 > SiO2 > GeO2 > SnO2 > PbO2
(g) acidic character ¯ FAMILY
Weaker acidic (amphoteric)
(i) reducing property ¯ Reducing nature of hydrides
(j) oxidising property ¯ CH4 < SiH4 < GeH4 < SnH4 < PbH4
(k) non metallic character ¯ Thermal stability of tetrahalides
1 1 CCl4 > SiCl4 > GeCl4 > SnCl4 > PbCl4
IP µ µ Reducing character Oxidising character of M+4 species
Metallic character
GeCl4 < SnCl4 < PbCl4
1 Ease of hydrolysis of tetrahalides
EA µ µ nuclear charge. SiCl4 < GeCl4 < SnCl4 < PbCl4
size
Second electron affinity is always negative. Acidic strength of trioxides : N2O3
Electron affinity of chlorine is greater than fluorine (small > P2O3 > As2O3
atomic size). Acidic strength of pentoxides
The first element of a group has similar properties with the N2O5 > P2O5 > As2O5 > Sb2O5 >
second element of the next group. This is called diagonal NITROGEN Bi2O5
relationship. The diagonal relationship disappears after IV FAMILY Acidic stren gth of oxides of
group. nitrogen
Atomic radii : Li < Na < K < Rb < Cs N2O < NO < N2O3 < N2O4 < N2O5
Electronegativity : Li > Na > K > Basic nature, bond angle, thermal
Rb > Cs stability and dipole
First ionization potential : Li > Na moment of hydrides
s-BLOCK > K > Rb > Cs NH3 > PH3 > AsH3 > SbH3 > BiH3
Melting point Li > Na > K > Rb > Stability of trihalides of nitrogen : NF3 > NCl3 > NBr 3
ELEMENTS Lewis base strength : NF3 < NCl3> NBr3 < NI3
Cs
Colour of the flame Li - Red, Na - Ease of hydrolysis of trichlorides
Golden, K - Violet, Rb - Red, Cs - NCl3 > PCl3 > AsCl3 > SbCl3 > BiCl3
Blue, Ca - Brick red, Sr - Blood red, Lewis acid strength of trihalides of P, As and Sb
Ba-Apple green PCl3 > AsCl3 > SbCl3
Rb and Cs show photoelectric effect. Lewis acid strength among phosphorus trihalides
Stability of hydrides : LiH > NaH > KH > RbH > CsH PF3 > PCl3 > PBr3 > PI3
Basic nature of hydroxides : LiOH < NaOH < KOH < RbOH < Nitrogen displays a great tendency to form pp – pp multiple
CsOH bonds with itself as well as with carbon and oxygen.
Hydration energy : Li > Na > K > Rb > Cs The basic strength of the hydrides
Reducing character : Li > Cs > Rb > K > Na NH3 > PH3 > AsH3 > SbH3

14
The thermal stability of the hydrides decreases as the atomic Coordination number is the number of
size increases. the nearest atoms or groups in the
Melting and boiling point of hydrides coordination sphere.
H2O > H2Te > H2Se > H2S COORDINATION Ligand is a Lewis base donor of
Volatility of hydrides electrons that bonds to a central metal
COMPOUNDS
H2O < H2Te < H2Se < H2S atom in a coordination compound.
OXYGEN Reducing nature of hydrides Paramagnetic substance is one that is
FAMILY H2S < H2Se < H2Te attracted to the magnetic field, this results
Covalent character of hydrides on account of unpaired electrons present
H2O < H2S < H2Se < H2Te in the atom/molecule/ion.
The acidic character of oxides Effective atomic number EAN
(elements in the same oxidation state) = (Z – Oxidation number) + (2 × Coordination number)
SO2 > SeO2 > TeO2 > PoO2 ; SO3 > SeO3 > TeO3 Factors affecting stability of complex
Acidic character of oxide of a particular element (e.g. S) (i) Greater the charge on the central metal ion, greater is the
SO < SO2 < SO3 ; SO2 > TeO2 > SeO2 > PoO2 stability.
Bond energy of halogens : Cl2 > (ii) Greater the ability of the ligand to donate electron pair
Br2 > F2 > I2 (basic strength) greater is the stability.
(iii) Formation of chelate rings increases the stability.
Solubility of halogen in water : F2 Isomerism in coordination compounds :
HALOGEN > Cl2 > Br2 > I2
FAMILY Oxidising power : F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > (i) Structural Isomers (ii) Ionization Isomers
I2 (iii) Hydration Isomers (iv) Linkage Isomers
Enthalpy of hydration of X– ion : (v) Coordination Isomerism (vi) Ligand isomerism
F– > Cl– > Br– > I– (vii) Polymerisation Isomerism (viii) Valence Isomerism
Reactivity of halogens : F > Cl > Br > I (ix) Coordination position isomerism
Ionic character of M - X bond in halides (x) Stereo isomerism
M – F > M – Cl > M – Br > M – I (a) Geometrical
Reducing character of X– ion : I– > Br– > Cl– > F– (I) Square planar complexes of the type
Acidic strength of halogen acids : HI > HBr > HCl > HF
Conjugate base strength of halogen acids MA2X2 ; MABX2 ; MABXY
I– < Br– < Cl– < F– (II) Octahedral of the type : MA4XY, MA4X2 MA3X3
Reducing property of hydrogen halides MA2X2Y2. M(AA)2X2 and M(ABCDEF).
HF < HCl < HBr < HI (b) Optical isomerism
Oxidising power of oxides of chlorine
Cl2O > ClO2 > Cl2O6 > Cl2O7 The order of decreasing
Acidic character of oxyacids of chlorine electronegativity of hybrid orbitals is sp
HClO < HClO2 < HClO3 < HClO4 > sp2 > sp3.
Oxidising power of oxyacids of chlorine Conformational isomers are those
HClO > HClO2 > HClO3 > HClO4 isomers which arise due to rotation
The element with exceptional GOC around a single bond.
configuration are A meso compound is optically
Cr24[Ar] 3d54s1, Cu29[Ar] 3d104s1 inactive, even though it has asymmetric
Mo 42 [Kr] 4d 5 5s 1 , Pd 46 [Kr] centres (due to internal compensation of
4d10 5s0 rotation of plane polarised light)
TRANSITION Ag 47 [Kr] 4d 10 5s 1 , Pt 78 [Xe] An equimolar mixture of enantiomers
ELEMENTS 4f145d106s0 is called racemic mixture, which is optically inactive.
(d- and f-BLOCK Ferromagnetic substances are Reaction intermediates and reagents :
ELEMENTS those in which there are large Homolytic fission ® Free radicals
number of electrons with unpaired Heterolytic fission ® ions (Carbonium, ion carbonium, etc.)
spins and whose magnetic Nucleophiles – electron rich
moments are aligned in the same Two types : 1. Anions 2. Neutral molecules
direction. with lone pair of electrons (Lewis bases)
Inner Transition Elements Electrophiles : electron deficient.
Two types : 1. Cations 2. Neutral molecules with vacant
(i) Electronic Configuration - The general electronic orbitals (Lewis acids).
configuration of these elements is Inductive effect is due to s electron displacement along a
0 -1
[ Xe ] 4f 0 -14 5d 6s 2 chain and is permanent effect.
+I (inductive effect) increases basicity, – I effect increases
(iii) Magnetic properties - Magnetic properties have spin and acidity of compounds.
orbit contributions (Contrast “spin only”of transition Resonance is a phenomenon in which two or more structures
metals). Hence magnetic momentums are given by the can be written for the same compound but none of them
formula. actually exists.
m = 4 S (S + 1) + L(L + 1)
where L = Orbital quantum number, S = Spin quantum number
15
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Pyrolytic cracking is a process in The order of reactivity is
which alkane decomposes to a mixture (a) RI > RBr > RCl > RF
of smaller hydrocarbons, when it is HALOGEN (b) Allyl halide > Alkyl halide > Vinyl
ALKANES heated strongly, in the absence of halide
oxygen. COMPOUNDS
(c) Alkyl halide > Aryl halide
Ethane can exist in an infinite number SN1 reaction : Mainly 3° alkyl halides
of conformations. They are undergo this reaction and form racemic
HH H H H mixture. SN1 is favoured by polar solvent
H H and low concentration of nucleophile.
SN2 reaction : Mainly 1° alkyl halides undergo this
H
H substitution. Walden inversion takes place. SN2 reaction is
HH H H
H
H
H H H preferred by non-polar solvents and high concentration of
Eclipsed q = 60° Staggered q < 60° > 0 Skew nucleophile.
Conformations of Cyclohexane : It exists in two nonplanar, Reaction with metals:
strainless forms, the boat and the chair form (i) Dry ether
R – X + Mg ¾¾¾¾ ® R – Mg – X
Alkyl Grignard reagent
halides
(ii) Wurtz reaction:
Dry ether
Chair form Half Chair
R – X + 2 Na + X – R ¾¾ ¾ ¾® R - R + 2Na + X –
Alkane
Most Stable
Alkenes are converted to alcohol in
different ways as follows
Reagent Types of addition
ALCOHOLS dil H2SO4
Twist Boat Boat form – Markovnikov
(Least Stable) B2H6 and H2O2, OH– –
In dehydration and Anti-Markovnikov
dehydrohalogenation the preferential Oxymercuration demercuration –
order for removal of hydrogen is 3° > 2° > Markovnikov
1° (Saytzeff’s rule).
ALKENES Oxidation of
The lower the DHh (heat of
hydrogenation) the more stable the 1° alcohol ¾¾® aldehyde ¾¾ ® carboxylic acid
alkene is. (with same no. (with same no. of
Alkenes undergo anti-Markonikov of C atom) C atom)
addition only with HBr in the presence 2° alcohol ¾¾® ketone ¾¾ ® carboxylic acid
of peroxides. (with same no. (with less no. of
Alkynes add water molecule in
of C atom) C atom)
presence of mercuric sulphate and dil.
H2SO4 and form carbonyl compounds. 3° alcohol ¾¾® ketone ¾¾ ® carboxylic acid
Terminal alkynes have acidic H-atoms, (with less no. (with less no. of
ALKYNES of C atom) C atom)
so they form metal alkynides with Na,
ammonical cuprous chloride solution and CHCl /OH Q
3
Phenol ¾¾¾¾¾¾
® Phenolic
ammoniacal silver nitrate solution.
Alkynes are acidic because of H-atoms aldehyde
which are attached to sp ‘C’ atom which (a) has more PHENOLS
electronegativity (b) has more ‘s’ character than sp2 and (Reimer-Tieman reaction)
sp3 ‘C’ atoms. CO
2 ® Phenolic carboxylic
Phenol ¾¾¾
All o and p-directing groups are ring D
activating groups acid (Kolbe reaction)
(except – X) Acidity of phenols
They are : – OH, – NH2, – X, – R, – (a) Increase by electron withdrawing substituents like
ARENES OR, etc. +
– NO2, – CN, – CHO, – COOH, –X, - N R 3
All m-directing groups are ring
deactivating groups. (b) decrease by electron releasing substituents like
They are : – CHO, – COOH, – NO2, – – R, – OH, – NH2, – NR2, – OR
+
CN, – NR 3 , etc.
16
Al O Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy
2ROH ¾¾¾¾
2 3® R - O - R + H O
2 aldehydes or ketones.
250ºC
RONa + X - R ' ¾¾
® ROR '+ NaX Monosaccharides are simple sugars,
CARBOHYDRATES,
containing three to nine carbon atoms.
ETHERS (Williamson's synthesis) AMINO ACIDS AND Characteristic reactions :
dil. H SO POLYMERS Homologous series
ROR + H 2 O ¾¾¾¾¾
2 4 ® 2ROH
Type of reactions
D
(a) Alkanes
Substitution
(Mostly free radical
Formation of alcohols using RMgX (b) Alkenes and alkynes Electrophillic addition
(a) Formaldehyde + RMgX (c) Arenes Electrophillic substitution
CARBONYL (d) Alkyl halides Nucleophillic substitution
Hydrolysis
¾¾¾¾¾ ® 1° alcohol (e) Aldehyde and ketones Nucleophillic addition
COMPOUNDS Tests to differentiate :
Hydrolysis 1°, 2° and 3° alcohols (1) Lucas test
(b) Aldehyde + RMgX ¾¾¾¾¾ ®
2° alcohol (2) Victormeyer’s test
1°, 2° and 3° amines Hinsberg test
(other than HCHO) 1°, 2° and 3° nitro compounds Test with HNO2 and KOH
Hydrolysis Aryl halides and alkyl halides Test with AgNO3
(c) Ketone + RMgX ¾¾¾¾¾ ® solution
3° alcohol Aldehydes and ketones Tollen’s test/Fehling’s
Cannizzaro reaction (Disproportionation) test
Aromatic aldehydes and Fehling’s test
Hot conc. Aliphatic aldehydes
Aldehyde ¾¾¾¾® Alcohol + Salt of acid
alkali Dil H2SO4 [or Conc. H2SO4 + H2O]
(no a H-atom) Use ® Hydrating agent (+HOH)
Aldol condensation : Alc. KOH or NaNH2(Use ® -HX)
alc.KOH
Carbonyl compound + dil. alkali ––® b-hydroxy carbonyl IMPORTANT CH3CH2Cl ¾¾¾¾ ® CH2=CH2
(with a H-atom) compound REAGENT Lucas reagent ZnCl2 + Conc. HCl
Benzoin condensation Use ® for distinction between 1º, 2º
& 3º alc.
ethanolic Tilden Reagent NOCl (Nitrosyl
Benzaldehyde ¾¾¾¾ ® Benzoin
NaCN chloride)
The relative reactivities of different acid derivatives towards C2H5NH2 ¾¾¾ NOCl
® C2H5Cl
nucleophilic acyl substitution reactions follow the order: Alkaline KMnO4(Strong oxidant)
O O O O O Toluene ® Benzoic acid
|| || || || || Bayer’s Regent : 1% alkaline KMnO4(Weak oxidant)
R – C – Cl > R – C – O – C – R ' > R – C – OR ' > R – C – NH 2 Use: ® For test of > C = C < or –C = C –
Acid chloride Anhydride Ester Amide BR
CH2=CH2+H2O+[O] ¾¾® CH2OH–CH2OH
Acidic K2Cr2O7 (Strong oxidant) : RCH2OH ¾¾® [O] RCHO
The rate of esterfication decreases
when alcohol, acid or both have SnCl2/HCl or Sn/HCl use ® for red of nitrobenzene in acidic
n
branched substituents. medium.
SnCl / HCl
CARBOXYLIC Or tho effect : All ortho C6H5NO2 ¾¾¾¾¾
2 ® C6H5NH2
substituted benzoic acids (irrespective 6H
ACIDS of type of substituent) are stronger than Lindlar’s Catalyst = Pd/CaCO3
benzoic acid. + in small quantity (CH3COO)2Pb
"
Order of basicity : (R = – CH3 or 2 – butye + H2 ¾¾ ® Cis-2-butene
– C2H5) (main product)
2° > 1° > 3° > NH3 Ziegler –Natta Catalyst (C2H5)3Al + TiCl4
Use ®In Addition polymerisation
NITROGEN Hofmann degradation IDENTIFICATION TESTS :
Br2 /KOH (a) Unsaturated compound (Bayer’s reagent)
COMPOUNDS Amides ¾¾¾¾® 1° amine Decolourising the reagent
The basicity of amines is (b) Alcohols (Ceric ammonium nitrate solution)
(a) decreased by electron withdrawing Red colouration
groups (c) Phenols (Neutral FeCl3 solution)
Violet/deep blue colouration
(b) increased by electron releasing groups (d) Aldehydes and ketones (2, 4-D.N.P.)
Reduction of nitrobenzene in different media gives different Orange precipitate
products (e) Acids (NaHCO3 solution)
Medium Product Brisk effervescence (CO2 is evolved)
Acidic Aniline (f) 1° amine (CHCl3 + KOH)
Basic Azoxy, Azo and finally hydrazobenzene Foul smell (isocyanide)
(g) 2° amine (NaNO2 + HCl)
Neutral Phenyl hydroxylamine Yellow oily liquid (Nitrosoamine)
17
MATHEMATICS
A relation R from a set A to a set B is sina + sin (a + b) + sin (a +2b) +........ to n terms
a subset of the cartesian product A × B
é æ n - 1 ö ù é æ nb ö ù
RELATIONS obtained by describing a relationship sin êa + ç b sin
AND between the first element x and the second ë è 2 ÷ø úû êë çè 2 ÷ø úû
= ; b¹2np
FUNCTIONS element y of the ordered pairs in A × B. sin (b / 2)
Function : A function f from a set A to cosa + cos (a + b) + cos (a +2b) +........ to n terms
a set B is a specific type of relation for
é æ n -1 ö ù é æ nb ö ù
which every element x of set A has one cos êa + ç b sin
and only one image y in set B. We write ë è 2 ÷ø úû êë çè ÷ø ú
2 û
= ; b ¹ 2np
f : A ® B, where f (x) = y. æbö
sin ç ÷
A function f : X ® Y is one-one (or injective) if è2ø
f (x1) = f (x2) Þ x1 = x2 " x1, x2 Î X.
æB-Cö æb-cö æAö
A function f : X ® Y is onto (or surjective) if given any tan ç = cot ç ÷
è 2 ÷ø çè b + c ÷ø è2ø
y Î Y, $ x Î X such that f (x) = y.
Many-One Function : æ Aö (s - b)(s - c)
sin çè ÷ø =
A function f : A ® B is called many- one, if two or more 2 bc
different elements of A have the same f- image in B.
æAö (s - b)(s - c)
Into function : tan çè ÷ø =
A function f : A ® B is into if there exist at least one element 2 s (s - a)
in B which is not the f - image of any element in A. a b c
Many One -Onto function : R= = =
2sin A 2sin B 2sin C
A function f : A ® R is said to be many one- onto if f is onto
abc
but not one-one. R=
Many One -Into function : 4D
A function is said to be many one-into if it is neither one-one æAö æBö æCö
r = 4R sin çè ÷ø . sin çè ÷ø . sin çè ÷ø
nor onto. 2 2 2
A function f : X ® Y is invertible if and only if f is one-one a = c cos B + b cos C
and onto.
Maximum value of a sin q + b cos q = a 2 + b2 and minimum
General Solution of the equation
sinq = 0: value of a sin q + b cos q = - a 2 + b 2
TRIGONOMET- when sinq = 0
RIC FUNCTIONS q = np : n Î I i.e. n = 0, ± 1, ±2........... Properties of inverse trigonometric
AND General solution of the equation function
EQUATIONS INVERSE • tan–1 x + tan–1 y =
cosq = 0 :
TRIGONOMETRIC
when cosq = 0 ì
q = (2n + 1)p/2, n Î I. i.e. n = 0, ±1, +2....... FUNCTIONS -1 æ x + y ö
ï tan ç ÷ , if x,y < 1
General solution of the equation tanq = 0: ï è 1 - xy ø
ï if x > 0, y > 0
General solution of tanq = 0 is q = np; n Î I ï -1 æ x + y ö
í p + tan ç ÷ ,
General solution of the equation ï è 1 - xy ø and xy > 1
(a) sinq = sina : q = np + (–1)na ; n Î I ï æ ö if x < 0, y < 0
ï -p + tan -1 ç x + y ÷ ,
(b) sinq = k, where –1 < k < 1. ïî è 1 - xy ø and xy > 1
q = np + (–1)na, where n Î I and a = sin –1k
(c) cosq = cosa : q = 2np ± a, n Î I • tan–1 x – tan–1y =
(d) cosq = k, where –1 < k < 1. ì -1 æ x - y ö
ï tan ç , if xy > -1
q = 2np ± a, where n Î I and a = cos–1 k ï è 1 + xy ø÷
(e) tanq = tana : q = np + a ; n Î I ï -1 æ x - y ö
í p + tan ç , if x > 0, y < 0 and xy < -1
(f) tanq = k, q = np + a, where n Î I and a = tan–1k ï è 1 + xy ÷ø
(g) sin2q = sin2a : q = np ± a; n Î I ï -1 æ x - y ö
ï-p + tan èç 1 + xy ø÷ , if x < 0, y > 0 and xy < -1
(h) cos2q = cos2a : q = np ± a ; n Î I î
(i) tan2q = tan2a : q = np ± a ; n Î I

18
• sin–1 x + sin–1 y = Exponential Form: If z = x + iy is a
ì
complex number then its exponential form
if - 1 £ x , y £ 1 and x 2 + y 2 £ 1
ï sin - 1{x 1 - y 2 + y 1 - x 2 },
ï or if xy < 0 and x 2 + y 2 > 1
is z = reiq where r is modulus and q is
ï
COMPLEX amplitude of complex number.
í if 0 < x, y £ 1
-1 2
ï p - sin {x 1 - y + y 1 - x },
2 NUMBERS
ï
and x 2 + y 2 > 1 (i) | z1 | + | z 2 | ³ | z1 + z 2 | ; here
ï -1 2
î - p - sin {x 1 - y + y 1 - x },
2
if - 1 £ x , y < 0 and x 2 + y2 > 1 equality holds when arg(z1/z2) = 0 i.e. z1 and
• cos–1 x + cos–1 y = z2 are parallel.
ìï cos -1{xy - 1 - x 2 1 - y 2 }
(ii) || z1 | - | z 2 || £ | z1 - z 2 | ; here equality holds when
, if - 1 £ x, y £ 1 and x + y ³ 0
í -1 2 2 arg(z1/z2) = 0 i.e. z1 and z2 are parallel.
ïî2p - cos {xy - 1 - x 1 - y }, if - 1 £ x, y £ 1and x + y £ 0
(iii) | z1 + z2 |2 + | z1 – z2 |2 = 2( | z1 |2 + | z2 | 2 )
ì 1 1 arg(z1z 2 ) = q1 + q2 = arg(z1 ) + arg(z 2 )
-1 2
ï sin (2x 1 - x ) , if - £x£
ïï 2 2 æz ö
-1 2 1 arg ç 1 ÷ = q1 - q 2 = arg(z1 ) - arg(z 2 )
2 sin x = í p - sin (2x 1 - x ) , if
–1 £ x £1 è z2 ø
ï 2
ï -p - sin -1 (2x 1 - x 2 ) , if - 1 £ x £ - 1 For any integer k, i4k = 1, i4k + 1 = i, i4k + 2 = – 1, i4k + 3 = – i
ïî 2 | z - z1 | + | z - z 2 | = l , represents an ellipse if
| z1 – z2 | < l, having the points z1 and z2 as its foci. And if
ì -1 æ 2x ö | z1 - z 2 | = l , then z lies on a line segment connecting z1
ï tan çè ÷ , if - 1 < x < 1
1 - x2 ø and z2.
ï Properties of Cube Roots of Unity
ï æ 2x ö
2 tan–1 x = í p + tan -1 ç , if x > 1
ï è 1 - x 2 ÷ø (i) 1 + w + w 2 = 0 (ii) w3 = 1
ï -1 æ 2x ö (iii) 1 + w n + w 2n = 3 (if n is multiple of 3)
ï -p + tan ç , if x < -1
î è 1 - x 2 ÷ø
(iv) 1 + w n + w 2n = 0 (if n is not a multiple of 3).
Roots of a Quadratic Equation : The The number of permutations of n

QUADRATIC
roots of the quadratic equation are given by different things, taken r at a time, where
PERMUTA-
repetition is allowed, is nr.
EQUATIONS - b ± b 2 - 4ac TIONS AND
AND x= Selection of Objects with Repetition :
2a COMBINA- The total number of selections of r
INEQUALITIES
Nature of roots : In Quadratic equation TIONS things from n different things when each
ax2 + bx + c = 0. The term b2 – 4ac is called thing may be repeated any number of times
discriminant of the equation. It is denoted is n+r+1Cr
by D or D. Selection from distinct objects :
(A) Suppose a, b, c Î R and a ¹ 0 The number of ways (or combinations) of n different things
(i) If D > 0 Þ Roots are Real and unequal selecting at least one of them is
(ii) If D = 0 Þ Roots are Real and equal and each equal to nC + nC + nC + .....+ nC = 2n – 1. This can also be stated as
1 2 3 n
– b/2a the total number of combination of n different things.
(iii) If D < 0 Þ Roots are imaginary and unequal or Selection from identical objects :
complex conjugate. The number of ways to select some or all out
(B) Suppose a, b, c Î Q and a ¹ 0 of (p + q + r) things where p are alike of first kind, q are alike
(i) If D > 0 and D is perfect square Þ Roots are unequal and of second kind and r are alike of third kind is
Rational (p + 1) (q + 1) (r + 1) – 1
(ii) If D > 0 and D is not perfect square Þ Roots are irrational Selection when both identical and distinct objects are
and unequal. present:
Condition for Common Root(s) If out of (p + q + r + t) things, p are alike one kind, q are alike
Let ax2 + bx + c = 0 and dx2 + ex + f = 0 have a common root of second kind, r are alike of third kind and t are different,
a (say). then the total number of combinations is
a b c (p + 1)(q + 1)(r + 1) 2t – 1
Condition for both the roots to be common is = = Circular permutations:
d e f
If p + iq (p and q being real) is a root of the quadratic equation, (a) Arrangements round a circular table :
The number of circular permutations of n different things
where i = - 1 , then p –iq is also a root of the quadratic n
Pn
equation. taken all at a time is = (n – 1) !, if clockwise and
n
Every equation of n th degree (n ³ 1) has exactly n roots and
anticlockwise orders are taken as different.
if the equation has more than n roots, it is an identity.
19
(b) Arrangements of beads or flowers (all different) around (vi) Sum of n AM's inserted between a and b is equal to n
a circular necklace or garland: n
The number of circular permutations of ‘n’ different things times the single AM between a and b i.e. å Ar = nA
1 r =1
taken all at a time is (n – 1)!, if clockwise and anticlockwise
2 a+b
orders are taken to be some. where A =
2
Sum of numbers :
The geometric mean (G.M.) of any two positive numbers a
(a) For given n different digits a1, a2, a3 ......an the sum of the
digits in the unit place of all numbers formed (if numbers are and b is given by ab i.e., the sequence a, G, b is G.P..
not repeated) is (a1 + a2 + a3 + .....+ an) (n – 1) ! n GM's between two given numbers: If in between two
(b) Sum of the total numbers which can be formed with given numbers 'a' and 'b', we have to insert n GM G1,G2,.......... Gn
n different digits a1, a2, .........an is then a1, G1,G2,........Gn , b will be in G.P.
(a1 + a2 + a3 + .........+ an) (n – 1)! . (111 ........n times) The series consist of (n +2) terms and the last term is b and
first term is a.
Greatest binomial coefficients : In a 1
binomial expansion binomial coefficients of æ b ö n +1
Þ arn + 2 –1 =b Þr= ç ÷
the middle terms are called as greatest è aø
BINOMIAL
THEOREM binomial coefficients. G1 = ar, G2 = ar2 ........Gn = arn or Gn = b/r
n Use of inequalities in progression :
(a) If n is even : When r = i.e. nCn/2 takes (a) Arithmetic Mean ³ Geometric Mean
2
maximum value. (b) Geometric Mean ³ Harmonic Mean :
A³G³H
n -1 n +1
(b) If n is odd : r = or
2 2
An acute angle (say q) between lines
n n
C n -1 = C n +1 L1 and L2 with slopes m1 and m2 is given by
i.e. and take maximum value.
2 2 STRAIGHT m2 - m2
Important Expansions : LINES tan q = , 1 + m1m 2 ¹ 0
1 + m1m 2
If | x | < 1 and n Î Q but n Ï N, then
Three points A, B and C are collinear,
n(n - 1) 2 if and only if slope of AB = slope of BC.
(a) (1+ x)n = 1 + nx + x
2! The equation of the line having normal distance from origin
n(n - 1).....(n - r + 1) r is p and angle between normal and the positive x-axis is w, is
+ ......+ x + ....... given by x cos w + y sin w = p.
r!
Co-ordinate of some particular points :
n(n - 1) 2 n(n - 1)(n - 2) 3 Let A(x1,y1), B(x2,y2) and C(x3,y3) are vertices of any
(b) (1 – x)n = 1 – nx + x– x
2! 3! triangle ABC, then
Incentre : Co-ordinates of incentre
n(n - 1).....(n - r + 1)
+ ......+ (–x)r + .......
r! æ ax1 + bx 2 + cx 3 ay1 + by 2 + cy3 ö
çè ,
a+b+c a + b + c ÷ø
Properties related to A.P. : where a, b, c are the sides of triangle ABC
(i)
Common difference of AP is given by Area of a triangle : Let (x1, y1), (x2, y2) and (x3, y3)
d = S2 – 2S1 where S2 is sum of first respectively be the coordinates of the vertices A, B, C of a
SEQUENCE two terms and S1 is sum of first term. triangle ABC. Then the area of triangle ABC, is
AND SERIES (ii) If for an AP sum of p terms is q, sum of
q terms is p, then sum of (p + q) term is 1
[x (y – y )+ x2 (y3 – y1) + x3 (y1 – y2)]
(p + q). 2 1 2 3
(iii) In an A.P. the sum of terms Or
equidistant from the beginning and end is constant and
equal to sum of first and last terms. x1 y1 1
(iv) If terms a1, a2, ..., an, an+1, ..., a2n+1 are in A.P., then sum of 1 x y2 1
= 2
these terms will be equal to (2n + 1)an+1. 2 x y3 1
3
(v) If for an A.P. sum of p terms is equal to sum of q terms
then sum of (p + q) terms is zero

20
Condition of Tangency : Circle Slope Form : The equation of normal to
x2 + y2 =a2 will touch the line.
x 2 y2
CONIC
THREE the hyperbola 2 - 2 = 1 in terms of slope
y = mx + c if c = ± a 1 + m 2 DIMENSIONAL a b
SECTIONS Pair of Tangents : From a given point 'm' is
GEOMETRY
P( x1,y1) two tangents PQ and PR can be
m(a 2 + b 2 )
drawn to the circle S = x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + y = mx ±
c = 0. Their combined equation is SS1 = T2. a 2 - b2 m 2
Condition of Orthogonality : If the angle of intersection of Conditions of Parallelism and Perpendicularity of Two
the two circle is a right angle (q = 90°) then such circle are Lines:
called Orthogonal circle and conditions for their orthogonality Case-I : When dc's of two lines AB and CD, say l1 , m1, n1
is 2g1g2 + 2f1f2 =c1 +c2 and l2 , m2, n2 are known.
Tangent to the parabola : AB | | CD Û l1 = l2 , m1 = m2, n1 = n2
Condition of Tangency : If the line y = mx + c touches a AB ^ CD Û l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 = 0
parabola y2 = 4ax then c = a/m Case-II : When dr's of two lines AB and CD, say a1, b1 c1 and
Tangent to the Ellipse: a2, b2, c2 are known
Condition of tangency and point of contact : a1 b1 c1
The condition for the line y = mx + c to be a tangent to the AB | | CD Û a = b = c
2 2 2
x2 y2 AB ^ CD Û a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 = 0
ellipse + = 1 is that c2 = a2m2 + b2 and the coordinates
a 2
b 2
If l1, m1, n1 and l2, m2, n2 are the direction cosines of two
lines; and q is the acute angle between the two lines; then
æ a 2m b2 ö
of the points of contact are ç ± ,m ÷ cos q = | l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 |.
è a 2 m 2 + b2 a 2 m 2 + b2 ø Equation of a line through a point (x1, y1, z1) and having
Normal to the ellipse x - x1 y - y1 z - z1
(i) Point Form : The equation of the normal to the ellipse direction cosines l, m, n is = =
l m n
x2 y2 a 2 x b2 y r r r r r r
+ - = a2 – b2
= 1 at the point (x1, y1) is Shortest distance between r = a1 + lb1 and r = a 2 + mb2
a 2 b2 x1 y1
r r r r
(ii) Parametric Form : The equation of the normal to the (b1 ´ b 2 ).(a 2 - a1 )
is r r
x2 y2 | b1 ´ b 2 |
ellipse +
= 1 at the point (a cosq, b sinq) is
a 2 b2 Let the two lines be
ax secq – by cosecq = a2 – b2
x - a1 y - b1 z - g 1
Tangent to the hyperbola : = = ..........(1)
Condition for tangency and points of contact : The condition l1 m1 n1
for the line y = mx + c to be a tangent to the hyperbola
x - a2 y - b2 z - g 2
x2 y2 and = =
- = 1 is that c2 = a2m2 – b2 and the coordinates of the l2 m2 n 2 ..........(2)
a2 b2
These lines will coplanar if
æ a2m b2 ö
a 2 - a1 b2 - b1 g 2 - g1
points of contact are ç ± 2 2 ,± ÷
è a m - b2 a 2 m 2 - b2 ø l1 m1 n1
=0
Chord of contact : l2 m2 n2
The equation of chord of contact of tangent drawn from a
The plane containing the two lines is
x2 y2
point P (x1, y1) to the hyperbola - = 1 is T = 0
a2 b2 x - a1 y - b1 z - g1
xx1 yy1 l1 m1 n1
=0
where T º - –1 l2 m2 n2
a2 b2
Equation of normal in different forms : The equation of a plane through a point whose position
r
vector is ar and perpendicular to the vector N is
Point Form : The equation of the normal to the hyperbola
x2 y2 a 2 x b2 y r r r
- = 1 at the point (x1, y1) is + = a2 + b2 (r - a).N = 0
a2 b2 x1 y1

21
Vector equation of a plane that passes through the Differentiation of infinite series:
rr rr
intersection of planes r.n1 = d1 and r.n 2 = d 2 is
r r r (i) If y = f (x) + f (x) + f (x) + ........¥
r.(n1 + ln 2 ) = d1 + ld 2 , where l is any nonzero constant.
r r r r r r Þ y = f (x) + y Þ y2 = f (x) + y
Two planes r = a1 + lb1 and r = a 2 + mb2 are coplanar if
r r r r
(a 2 - a1 ) + (b1 ´ b2 ) = 0 dy dy dy f '(x)
2y = f ' (x) + \ =
LIMIT dx dx dx 2y - 1
Existence Of Limit : f (x)....¥

(ii) If y = f (x)f (x) then y = f (x)y.
DIFFERENTIAL lim f (x) exists Þ lim- f (x) = lim+ f (x) = l \ log y = y log [f(x)]
x®a x ®a x ®a
CALCULUS
Where l is called the limit of the function 1 dy y '.f '(x) æ dy ö
= + log f (x). ç ÷
(i) If f(x) £ g(x) for every x in the deleted y dx f (x) è dx ø
nbd of a, then lim f(x) £ lim g(x) dy y 2 f '(x)
x ®a x ®a
\ =
(ii) If f(x) £ g(x) £ h (x) for every x in the deleted nbd of a dx f (x)[1 - y log f (x)]
and xlim
®a
f(x) = l = xlim
®a
h (x) then xlim
®a
g(x) = l 1
(iii) If y = f (x) + ........ then
f (x) + 1
+
1
(iii) lim fog (x) = f æ lim g (x) ö = f (m) where lim g (x) = m f (x) f (x)
x ®a è x®a ø x ®a
dy y f '(x)
1 =
(iv) If xlim
®a
f(x) = + ¥ or – ¥ , then xlim
=0 ®a
dx 2y - f (x)
f (x)
CONTINUITYAND DIFFERENTIABILITY OFFUNCTIONS Interpretation of the Derivative : If
y = f (x) then, m= f ¢ (a) is the slope of the
A function f(x) is said to be continuous at a point x = a if DIFFERENTIA- tangent line to y = f (x) at x = a
lim f (x) = lim f (x) = f(a)
TION AND Increasing/Decreasing :
x ®a + -
x ®a APPLICATION (i) If f ¢ (x) > 0 for all x in an interval I then
Discontinuous Functions : f (x) is increasing on the interval I.
(a) Removable Discontinuity: (ii) If f ¢ (x) < 0 for all x in an
A function f is said to have removable discontinuity at x = a interval I then f (x) is decreasing on the interval I.
(iii) If f ¢ (x) = 0 for all x in an interval I then f (x) is constant on
if lim- f (x) = lim+ f (x) but their common value is not the interval I.
x ®a x ®a
equal to f (a). Test of Local Maxima and Minima –
First Derivative Test – Let f be a differentiable function defined
(b) Discontinuity of the first kind: A function f is said to
on an open interval I and c Î I be any point. f has a local maxima
have a discontinuity of the first kind at x = a if lim- f(x) and or a local minima at x = c, f ¢ (c) = 0.
x ®a
dy
lim f (x) both exist but are not equal. Put = 0 and solve this equation for x. Let c1, c2........cn
x ®a + dx
(c) Discontinuity of second kind: A function f is said to be the roots of this.
have a discontinuity of the second kind at x = a if neither
If dy changes sign from +ve to –ve as x increases
lim f (x) nor lim f (x) exists. dx
x ®a - +
x ®a
through c1 then the function attains a local max at x = c1
Similarly, if xlim
®a +
f (x) does not exist, then f is said to have dy
If changes its sign from –ve to +ve as x increases
discontinuity of the second kind from the right at x = a. dx
For a function f : through c1 then the function attains a local minimum at x = c1
Differentiability Þ Continuity; dy
If does not changes sign as increases through c1
Continuity Þ
/ derivability dx
Not derivibaility Þ
/ discontinuous ; then x = c1 is neither a point of local maxm nor a point of local
But discontinuity Þ Non derivability minm. In this case x is a point of inflexion.

22
Rate of change of variable : g(x)
d
The value of
dy
at x = x0 i.e.
æ dy ö
represents the rate Leibnitz rule : dx ò F(t) dt = g ¢ (x)F(g(x)) - f ¢(x)F(f (x))
dx çè dx ÷ø f (x)
x=x 0
of change of y with respect to x at x = x0 If a series can be put in the form
dy dy / dt dx 1 r = n -1 æ r ö 1 r =n æ r ö
If x = f(t) and y = y (t), then = , provided that ¹0 å ç ÷ f åf ç ÷
n r =0 è n ø or n r =1 è n ø , then its limit as n ® ¥
dx dx / dt dt
Thus, the rate of change of y with respect to x can be
1
calculated by using the rate of change of y and that of x each
with respect to t. is ò f (x) dx
0
dx dy Area between curves :
Length of Sub–tangent = y ; Sub–normal = y ;
dy dx b
y = f (x) Þ A = ò [upper function] - [lower function] dx
ìï æ dx ö 2 üï a
y í1 + ç ÷ ý
Length of tangent = è dy ø ï
îï
d
þ
and x = f (y) Þ A = ò [right function] - [left function] dy
c
ïì æ dy ö ïü
2
Length of normal = y í 1 + çè ÷ø ý If the curves intersect then the area of each portion must be
îï dx ï
þ found individually.
Equations of tangent and normal : The equation of the Symmetrical area : If the curve is symmetrical about a
tangent at P (x1, y1) to the curve y = f(x) is coordinate axis (or a line or origin), then we find the area of
æ dy ö one symmetrical portion and multiply it by the number of
y – y1 = ç ÷ (x – x1)
è dx ø P symmetrical portion to get the required area.
The equation of the normal at Probability of an event: For a finite
P (x1, y1) to the curve y = f (x) is sample space with equally likely outcomes
Probability of an event is
1
y – y1 = - (x – x1) PROBABILITY
æ ö
dy n(A)
çè ÷ø P(A) = , where n (A) = number of
dx P n(S)
elements in the set A, n (S) = number of
Two standard forms of integral : elements in the set S.
òe Theorem of total probability : Let {E1, E2, ...,En} be a partition

x
[f (x) + f ' (x) dx = ex f (x) + c
INTEGRAL of a sample space and suppose that each of E1, E2, ..., En has
CALCULUS Þ ò e x [f (x) + f '(x)] dx = ò e x f (x)dx + nonzero probability. Let A be any event associated with S,
then P(A) = P(E1) P (A | E1) + P (E2) P (A | E2) + ... + P (En)
òe
x
f ' (x) dx P(A | En)
Bayes' theorem: If E1, E2, ..., En are events which constitute
= ex f (x) – ò e x f '(x) dx + ò e x f' (x) a partition of sample space S, i.e. E1, E2, ..., En are pairwise
(on integrating by parts) = ex f (x) + c disjoint and E1 È E2 È... È En = S and A be any event with
Table shows the partial fractions corresponding to different nonzero probability, then
type of rational functions :
S. Form of rational Form of partial P(E i ) P (A | E i )
P (E i | A) = n
No. function fraction
å P(E j ) P(A | E j )
px + q A B j=1
1. +
(x - a) (x - b) (x - a) (x - b)
Let X be a random variable whose possible values x 1, x2, x3,
2
px + qx + r A B C ..., xn occur with probabilities p1, p2, p3, ... pn respectively.
2. + +
2 (x - a) (x - a) 2 (x - b)
(x - a) (x - b) n
The mean of X, denoted by µ, is the number å x i pi
px 2 + qx + r A Bx + C i =1
3. 2
+ 2
(x - a) (x + bx + c) (x - a) x + bx + C The mean of a random variable X is also called the
expectation of X, denoted by E (X).
23
Trials of a random experiment are called Bernoulli trials, if Using Crammer's rule of determinant
they satisfy the following conditions : we get
(a) There should be a finite number of trials. (b) The trials x y z 1 D1 D2
DETERMI- = = =
should be independent. (c) Each trial has exactly two
NANTS D1 D 2 D 3 D i. e. x = D , y = D ,
outcomes : success or failure. (d) The probability of success
remains the same in each trial. D3
z=
For Binomial distribution B (n, p), D
Case-I : If D ¹ 0
P (X = x) = nCx qn–x px, x = 0, 1,..., n (q = 1 – p)
D1 D2 D3
Properties of adjoint matrix : If A, B Then x = , y= ,z=
are square matrices of order n and In is D D D
corresponding unit matrix, then \ The system is consistent and has unique solutions.
(i) A (adj. A) = | A | In = (adj A) A Case-II if D = 0 and
MATRICES
(ii) | adj A | = | A |n–1 (Thus A (adj A) is (i) If at least one of D1, D2, D3 is not zero then the system
of equations a inconsistent i.e. has no solution.
always a scalar matrix)
(ii) If d1 = d2 = d3 = 0 or D1, D2, D3 are all zero then the
(iii) adj (adj A) = | A |n–2 A system of equations has infinitely many solutions.
2
(iv) | adj (adj A) | = | A |(n -1) r r r
(v) adj (AT) = (adj A)T Given vectors x1 a + y1 b + z1 c ,
r r r r r r
(vi) adj (AB) = (adj B) (adj A) VECTOR x 2 a + y2 b + z 2 c , x 3 a + y3 b + z3 c , where
(vii) adj (Am) = (adj A)m, m Î N ALGEBRA r r r
(viii) adj (kA) = kn–1 (adj. A), k Î R a, b, c are non-coplanar vectors, will be
(ix) adj (In) = In x1 y1 z1
Properties of Inverse Matrix : Let A and B are two invertible
x2 y2 z2
matrices of the same order, then coplanar if and only if =0
x3 y3 z3
(i) (AT)–1 = (A–1)T
(ii) (AB)–1 = B–1A–1 Scalar triple product :
(iii) (Ak)–1 = (A–1)k, k Î N r r
(a) If a = a1î + a 2 ˆj + a 3kˆ , b = b1î + b 2 ˆj + b3 kˆ and
(iv) adj (A–1) = (adj A)–1
r
(v) (A–1)–1 = A c = c1î + c 2 ˆj + c3 kˆ then
1 a1 a 2 a3
(vi) | A–1 | = = | A |–1 r r r r rr
|A| (a ´ b).c = [a b c] = b1 b 2 b3
(vii) If A = diag (a1,a2.....,an), then c1 c2 c3
A–1 = diag (a1–1, a2–1, .........an–1) (b) [a b c] = volume of the parallelopiped whose
(viii) A is symmetric matrix Þ A–1 is symmetric matrix. r r r
coterminous edges are formed by a, b, c
é f (x) g(x)ù r r r rrr
Differentiation of a matrix : If A = ê ú then (c) a, b, c are coplanar if and only if [a b c] = 0
ë h(x) l(x) û r r r r
(d) Four points A, B, C, D with position vectors a, b, c, d
dA é f '(x) g '(x)ù respectively are coplanar if and only if
= uuur uuur uuur
dx êë h '(x) l '(x) úû
is a differentiation of Matrix A.
[AB AC AD] = 0 i.e. if and only if
Properties of Transpose r r r r r r
[b - a c - a d - a] = 0
(i) (AT)T = A (ii) (A ± B)T = AT ± BT
T T
(iii)(AB) = B A T (iv) (kA)T = k(A)T (e) Volume of a tetrahedron with three coterminous edges
T
(v) I = I (vi) tr (A) = tr (A)T r r r 1 r r r
a , b, c = [ a b c]
(vii) (A1A2A3.....An–1 An) = AnT An–1T.....A3TA2TA1T
T
6
Rank of a Matrix : A number r is said to be the rank of a (f) Volume of prism on a triangular base with three
m × n matrix A if r r r 1 r r r
(a) Every square sub matrix of order (r + 1) or more is singular coterminous edges a , b, c = [ a b c]
2
and (b) There exists at least one square submatrix of order r
Lagrange's identity :
which is non-singular. r r urr
Thus, the rank of matrix is the order of the highest order r r r r a.c a.d rr rr rr rr
non-singular sub matrix. (a ´ b).( c ´ d) = r r r r = (a.c)(b.d) - (a.d)(b.c)
b.c b.d

24
r r r Integrating both sides we obtain
Reciprocal system of vectors : If a, b, c be any three non
coplanar vectors so that
rrr r r r ò dy = ò f (x) dx + c or y = ò f (x) dx + c
[a b c] ¹ 0 then the three vectors a ' b 'c ' defined by the
r r dy
r r r r r (b) Differential equation of the form = f (x) g(y)
bć r cá r a´b dx
equations a ' = r r r , b ' = r r r , c ' = r r r are called
[a b c] [a b c] [a b c]
ò ò
dy dy
r r r dx
= f (x) g(y) Þ
g (y)
= f (x) dx + c
the reciprocal system of vectors to the given vectors a, b, c .
Relation between A.M., G.M. and H.M.
A.M. ³ G.M. ³ H.M. dy
(c) Differential equation of the form of = f (ax + by + c) :
Equality sign holds only when all the dx
observations in the series are same. To solve this type of differential equations, we put
STATISTICS Relationship between mean, mode and
median : dy 1 æ dv ö
ax + by + c = v and dx = b çè dx - a ÷ø
(i) In symmetrical distribution
Mean = Mode = Median
dv
(ii) In skew (moderately symmetrical) distribution \ = dx
Mode = 3 median – 2 mean a + b f (v)
Mean deviation for ungrouped data
ò a + b f (v) = ò dx
dv
So solution is by integrating
M.D.(x) =
å | xi - x | , M.D.(M) =
å | xi - M |
n n (d) Differential Equation of homogeneous type :
Mean deviation for grouped data An equation in x and y is said to be homogeneous if it
M.D.(x) =
å fi | x i - x | , M.D.(M) =
å fi | xi - M | , dy f (x, y)
can be put in the form dx = g (x, y) where f (x ,y) and g
N N
(x ,y) are both homogeneous functions of the same
where N = å fi degree in x & y .
So to solve the homogeneous differential equation
Variance and standard deviation for ungrouped data
dy f (x, y) dy dV
= =v+x
1 1 dx g (x, y) , substitute y = vx and so dx
s 2 = å (xi - x)2 , s = å (xi - x)2 dx
n n
dv dx dv
Thus v+x = f (v) Þ =
Variance and standard deviation of a discrete frequency dx x f (v) - v
distribution
ò ò
dx dv
1 1 Therefore solution is = +c
s = å fi (x i - x) 2 , s =
2
å fi (xi - x)2 x f (v) - v
n N
Linear differential equations :
Variance and standard deviation of a continuous frequency dy
distribution + Py = Q ....... (1)
dx
1 1 Where P and Q are either constants or functions of x.
s2 =
n
å fi (xi - x)2 , s = N
å fi x i2 - (å fi xi )2 Multiplying both sides of (1) by e ò P dx , we get
s æ dy ö
eò ò P dx
P dx
Coefficient of variation (C.V.) = ´ 100, x ¹ 0 ç + Py ÷ = Q e
x è dx ø
For series with equal means, the series with lesser standard
On integrating both sides with respect to x we get
deviation is more consistent or less scattered.
Methods of solving a first order first y eò = ò Q eò
P dx P dx
+c
degree differential equation :
(a) Differential equation of the form which is the required solution, where c is the constant and
DIFFERENTIAL dy = f (x) eò
P dx
is called the integration factor..
EQUATIONS dx
y eò = ò Q eò
P dx P dx
dy +c
= f (x) Þ dy = f (x) dx
dx

Important Formula PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Important Formula PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

1

The SI system : It is the international a1t1 + a 2 t 2

4p 2 The centre of mass of a system of

Buy books : http://www.dishapublication.com/entrance-exams-books/engineering-exams.html

æ 2h ö GM E Pascal’s law : A change in pressure

Buy books : http://www.dishapublication.com/entrance-exams-books/engineering-exams.html

Buy books : http://www.dishapublication.com/entrance-exams-books/engineering-exams.html

The total force on a charge q moving dI

Buy books : http://www.dishapublication.com/entrance-exams-books/engineering-exams.html

vm 1 The total power of a combination of several lenses

Buy books : http://www.dishapublication.com/entrance-exams-books/engineering-exams.html

Buy books : http://www.dishapublication.com/entrance-exams-books/engineering-exams.html

Energy of electron in species with one (a) % ionic character =

(c) NH3 > NF3

1s 2s (d) Cl2O > OF2

K p = K c (RT) g where Dng' nP – n R

®r ®r Free Energy change (DG)

3s (b) If DG = (+) ve then equilibrium will

be displace in backward direction;

Buy books : http://www.dishapublication.com/entrance-exams-books/engineering-exams.html

Buy books : http://www.dishapublication.com/entrance-exams-books/engineering-exams.html

Buy books : http://www.dishapublication.com/entrance-exams-books/engineering-exams.html

Buy books : http://www.dishapublication.com/entrance-exams-books/engineering-exams.html

Buy books : http://www.dishapublication.com/entrance-exams-books/engineering-exams.html

Roots of a Quadratic Equation : The The number of permutations of n

Buy books : http://www.dishapublication.com/entrance-exams-books/engineering-exams.html

Buy books : http://www.dishapublication.com/entrance-exams-books/engineering-exams.html

Existence Of Limit : f (x)....¥

Buy books : http://www.dishapublication.com/entrance-exams-books/engineering-exams.html

òe Theorem of total probability : Let {E1, E2, ...,En} be a partition

Buy books : http://www.dishapublication.com/entrance-exams-books/engineering-exams.html

Buy books : http://www.dishapublication.com/entrance-exams-books/engineering-exams.html

You might also like