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Important Formula PDF
Important Formula PDF
IMPORTANT FORMULAS/
TERMS for JEE MAIN
PHYSICS
å mi ri
n = frequency of rotation, T = time period of rotation. ROTATIONAL
r r r MOTION position vector is R = The centre
ar = w ´ v M
of gravity of an extended body is that point
Newton’s second law : where the total gravitational torque on the body is zero.
r r r r The angular momentum of a system of n particles about the
=
F ma, =
F dp / dt
LAWS OF n
origin is L = å ri ´ pi ; L = mvr = Iw
r r
MOTION 2
Impulse : Dp = FDt, p2 - p1 = ò F dt i =1
1 The torque or moment of force on a system of n particles
r r
Newton’s third law : F12 = - F21
about the origin is t = å ri ´ Fi
Frictional force fs £ (fs ) max = ms R ; fk = m k R i
Circular motion with variable speed. For complete circles, The moment of inertia of a rigid body about an axis is defined
the string must be taut in the highest position, u ³ 5ga . 2
by the formula I = å mi ri 2
Circular motion ceases at the instant when the string
1
becomes slack, i.e., when T = 0, range of values of u for The kinetic energy of rotation is K = Iw 2
2
which the string does go slack is 2ga < u < 5ga .
The theorem of parallel axes : I'z = Iz + Ma2
Conical pendulum : w = g / h where h is height of a point Theorem of perpendicular axes : Iz = Ix + Iy
of suspension from the centre of circular motion. For rolling motion without slipping vcm = Rw, where vcm is
The acceleration of a lift the velocity of translation (i.e. of the centre of mass), R is
the radius and m is the mass of the body. The kinetic energy
actual weight - apparent weight
a= of such a rolling body is the sum of kinetic energies of
mass
If ‘a’ is positive lift is moving down, and if it is negative the 1 2 1
translation and rotation : K = mvcm + Iw 2
lift is moving up. 2 2
Tg Cp m
= = constant, where g = C . T = 2p (period)
P g -1 v k
Work done by an ideal gas in an adiabatic change of state Such a system is also called a linear oscillator.
nR (T1 - T2 ) A body of mass M is suspended from a spring whose force
from (P1, V1, T1) to (P2, V2, T2) is W = constant is K and mass is m. The time period of this system
g -1
The efficiency of a Carnot engine is given by (M + m / 3)
will be 2p
T k
h = 1- 2
T1
æ l cosq ö
Second law of thermodynamics: No engine operating Time period for conical pendulum T = 2p ç where
between two temperatures can have efficiency greater than è g ÷ø
that of the Carnot engine. q angle between string & vertical.
dQ 1 2 2
Entropy or disorder S = Energy of the particle E = mω A
T 2
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The displacement in a sinusoidal wave Dipole electric field on the axis at a distance r from the centre:
y (x, t) = a sin (kx – wt + f) where f is the r r r
2pr 2p
phase constant or phase angle. E= @ for r >> a
The speed of a transverse wave on a 4pe 0 (r 2 - a 2 ) 2 4pe 0 r 3
WAVES
r
stretched string v = T / m . Dipole moment p = q2a
Sound waves are longitudinal r
In a uniform electric field E , a dipole experiences a torque
mechanical waves that can travel through r r r r
solids, liquids, or gases. The speed v of sound wave in a t given by t = p ´ E but experiences no net force.
r
fluid having bulk modulus B and density µ is v = B / r . The flux Df of electric field E through a small area element
r r r
The speed of longitudinal waves in a metallic bar is DS is given by Df = E.DS
v= Y/r Gauss’s law: The flux of electric field through any closed
surface S is 1/e0 times the total charge enclosed i.e., Q
For gases, since B = g P, the speed of sound is v = gP / r Thin infinitely long straight wire of uniform linear charge
The interference of two identical waves moving in opposite r l
directions produces standing waves. For a string with fixed density l : E = nˆ
2pe 0 r
ends, standing wave y (x, t) = [2a sin kx ] cos wt
The separation between two consecutive nodes or antinodes Infinite thin plane sheet of uniform surface charge density s
is l/2. r s
A stretched string of length L fixed at both the ends vibrates E= nˆ
2e 0
1 v Thin spherical shell of uniform surface charge density s :
with frequencies f = .
2 2L r s r
The oscillation mode with lowest frequency is called the E= rˆ (r ³ R) ; E = 0 (r < R)
fundamental mode or the first harmonic. The second 4pe 0 r 2
harmonic is the oscillation mode with n = 2 and so on.
A pipe of length L with one end closed and other end open r 1 Q
Electric Potential : V(r) = .
(such as air columns) vibrates with frequencies given by 4pe 0 r
æ 1ö v For a charge configuration q1, q2, ..., qn with position vectors
f = çn + ÷ , n = 0, 1, 2, 3, .... r1, r 2, ... rn, the potential at a point P is given by the
è 2 ø 2L
The lowest frequency given by v/4L is the fundamental mode 1 æ q1 q 2 q ö
superposition principle V = + + ..... + n ÷ ,
or the first harmonic. 4pe 0 çè r1P r2P rnP ø
Beats arise when two waves having slightly different An equipotential surface is a surface over which potential
frequencies, f1 and f2 and comparable amplitudes, are has a constant value.
superposed. The beat frequency fbeat = f1 – f2 r r
The Doppler effect is a change in the observed frequency of Potential energy of two charges q1, q2 at r1, r2 is given by
a wave when the source S and the observer O moves relative 1 q1q 2
U= , where r12 is distance between q1 and q2.
æ v ± v0 ö 4pe 0 r12
to the medium. f = f0
çè v ± v ÷ø Capacitance C = Q/V, where Q = charge and V = potential
s
difference
dl n For a parallel plate capacitor (with vacuum between the
Doppler effect formula in light : = , where dl is change
l c plates),
in wavelength of a spectral line of original wave length l A
and n, the speed of the source and c is the speed of light. C = e0 , where A is the area of each plate and d the
d
r separation between them.
Coulomb’s Law : F21 = force on q2 The energy U stored in a capacitor of capacitance C, with
charge Q and voltage V is
ELECTRO- k (q1q 2 ) 1
due to q1 = r̂21 where k =
STATICS 2
r21 4pe 0 1 1 1 Q2
U = QV = CV 2 =
= 9 × 109 Nm2 C–2 2 2 2 C
Electric field due to a point charge q For capacitors in the series combination,
has a magnitude | q |/4pe0r2 1 1 1 1
Field of an electric dipole in its equatorial plane = + + + .........
Ceq C1 C2 C3
r r
-p 1 -p In the parallel combination, Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 + ...
E= @ , for r >> a
4pe 0 (a 2 + r 2 )3/2 4pe 0 r 3 where C1, C2, C3... are individual capacitances.
Impedance z = R 2 + (x L – x C ) 2
Wave front : It is the locus of all the
N E I particles vibrating in the same phase.
Transformation ratio, K = S = S = P
N P E P IS The resultant intensity of two waves
WAVE OPTICS of intensity I0/4 of phase difference f at
w0L 1 any points
The quality factor Q defined by Q = = is an
R w 0 CR
éf ù
indicator of the sharpness of the resonance, the higher value I = I0 cos2 ê ú , where I is the maximum
of Q indicating sharper peak in the current. ë 2û 0
density.
Reflection is governed by the equation l
Ð i = Ð r' and refraction by the Snell’s law, Condition for dark band : d = (2n - 1) , for bright band :
2
sini/sinr = n, where the incident ray, reflected
ray, refracted ray and normal lie in the same d = ml
RAY OPTICS
plane. Dl
Fringe width b =
1 1 1 d
Mirror equation: + =
v u f A thin film of thickness t and refractive index µ appears dark
by reflection when viewed at an angle of refraction r if
n 2 sin [(A + Dm ) / 2)]
Prism Formula n 21 = = , where Dm 2µt cos r = nl (n = 1, 2, 3, etc.)
n1 sin (A / 2)
A single slit of width a gives a diffraction pattern with a
is the angle of minimum deviation.
central maximum. The intensity falls to zero at angles of
Dispersion is the splitting of light into its constituent colours.
l 2l
The deviation is maximum for violet and minimum for red. ± ,± , etc.
a a
d v - dr
Dispersive power w = , where dv, dr are deviation
d Amplitude of resultant wave R = a 2 + b 2 + 2 ab cos f
of violet and red and d the deviation of mean ray (usually
yellow). Intensity of wave I = I1 + I2 + 2 I1I2 cosf
Radius of the nucleus R = R o A1/3 resistances in collector and base sides of the circuit.
The important digital circuits performing special logic
Law of radioactive decay : N = N0e–lt.
operations are called logic gates. These are: OR, AND, NOT,
dN NAND, and NOR gates. NAND gate is the combination of
Activity = = -lN (unit is Becquerel)
N NOT and AND gate. NOR gate is the combination of NOT
and OR gate.
0.693
Half life period, T1/2 =
l Transmitter, transmission channel and
receiver are three basic units of a
12400 COMMUNI-
X-rays : l min = Å communication system.
V CATION Two important forms of communication
SYSTEMS system are: Analog and Digital. The information
Characteristics X-rays : l Ka < l La
to be transmitted is generally in continuous
Moseley law : n = a (Z – b)2
waveform for the former while for the latter it
Pure semiconductors are called ‘intrinsic semiconductors’. has only discrete or quantised levels.
The presence of charge carriers (electrons and holes) number Low frequencies cannot be transmitted to long distances.
of electrons (n e ) is equal to the number of holes (n h). Therefore, they are superimposed on a high frequency carrier
The number of charge carriers can be changed by ‘doping’ signal by a process known as modulation.
of a suitable impurity in pure semiconductors known as In the process of modulation, new frequencies called sidebands
extrinsic semiconductors (n-type and p-type). are generated on either side.
If an antenna radiates electromagnetic waves from a height
In n-type semiconductors, n e >> n h while in p-type
semiconductors nh >> ne. hT, then the range dT is given by 2Rh T where R is the
n-type semiconducting Si or Ge is obtained by doping with radius of the earth.
pentavalent atoms (donors) like As, Sb, P, etc., while p-type
Effective range, d = 2Rh T + 2Rh R
Si or Ge can be obtained by doping with trivalent atom
hT = height of transmitting antenna; h R = height of receiving
(acceptors) like B, Al, In etc.
antenna
p-n junction is the ‘key’ to all semiconductor devices. When Critical frequency Vc = 9(Nmax)1/2
such a junction is made, a ‘depletion layer’ is formed consisting where Nmax = no. density of electrons/m3
of immobile ion-cores devoid of their electrons or holes. This
2
is responsible for a junction potential barrier. æV ö
In forward bias (n-side is connected to negative terminal of Skip distance, Dskip = 2h ç max ÷ - 1
è Vc ø
the battery and p-side is connected to the positive), the barrier
is decreased while the barrier increases in reverse bias. h= height of reflecting layer of atmosphere.
Diodes can be used for rectifying an ac voltage (restricting 1
the ac voltage to one direction). Power radiated by an antenna µ 2
l
R .4pr .dr
R .4pr .dr
Kc < 1
®r ®r
(c) If DG = (–) ve then equilibrium will displace in forward
direction; Kc > 1
n=3 (a) Kc unit ® (moles/lit)Dn,
R .4pr .dr
R .4pr .dr
n=3
(b) Kp unit ® (atm)Dn
2
3p 3d
2
®r ®r
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
General electronic configuration Stability of +3 oxidation state : B >
(of outer orbits) Al > Ga > In > Tl
s-block ns1–2 Stability of +1 oxidation state : Ga
PERIODIC p-block ns 2 np 1–6 BORON < In < Tl
TABLE FAMILY Basic nature of the oxides and
d-block (n–1)d1–10 ns1–2 hydroxides :
f-block (n–2) f1–14 s 2 p 6 d 10 (n– B < Al < Ga < In < Tl
1)s2 p6d0 or 1 ns2 Relative strength of Lewis acid :
Property Pr (L To R) Gr (T to B) BF3 < BCl3 < BBr3 < BI3
(a) atomic radius ¯ Ionisation energy : B > Al < Ga > In < Tl
(b) ionisation potential ¯ Electronegativity : Electronegativity first decreases from B to
(c) electron affinity ¯ Al and then increases marginally.
(d) electro negativity ¯ Reactivity : C < Si < Ge < Sn < Pb
(e) metallic character or ¯ Metallic character : C < Si < Ge <
electropositive character Sn < Pb
(f) alkaline character ¯ Acidic character of the oxides :
CARBON
of hydroxides CO2 > SiO2 > GeO2 > SnO2 > PbO2
(g) acidic character ¯ FAMILY
Weaker acidic (amphoteric)
(i) reducing property ¯ Reducing nature of hydrides
(j) oxidising property ¯ CH4 < SiH4 < GeH4 < SnH4 < PbH4
(k) non metallic character ¯ Thermal stability of tetrahalides
1 1 CCl4 > SiCl4 > GeCl4 > SnCl4 > PbCl4
IP µ µ Reducing character Oxidising character of M+4 species
Metallic character
GeCl4 < SnCl4 < PbCl4
1 Ease of hydrolysis of tetrahalides
EA µ µ nuclear charge. SiCl4 < GeCl4 < SnCl4 < PbCl4
size
Second electron affinity is always negative. Acidic strength of trioxides : N2O3
Electron affinity of chlorine is greater than fluorine (small > P2O3 > As2O3
atomic size). Acidic strength of pentoxides
The first element of a group has similar properties with the N2O5 > P2O5 > As2O5 > Sb2O5 >
second element of the next group. This is called diagonal NITROGEN Bi2O5
relationship. The diagonal relationship disappears after IV FAMILY Acidic stren gth of oxides of
group. nitrogen
Atomic radii : Li < Na < K < Rb < Cs N2O < NO < N2O3 < N2O4 < N2O5
Electronegativity : Li > Na > K > Basic nature, bond angle, thermal
Rb > Cs stability and dipole
First ionization potential : Li > Na moment of hydrides
s-BLOCK > K > Rb > Cs NH3 > PH3 > AsH3 > SbH3 > BiH3
Melting point Li > Na > K > Rb > Stability of trihalides of nitrogen : NF3 > NCl3 > NBr 3
ELEMENTS Lewis base strength : NF3 < NCl3> NBr3 < NI3
Cs
Colour of the flame Li - Red, Na - Ease of hydrolysis of trichlorides
Golden, K - Violet, Rb - Red, Cs - NCl3 > PCl3 > AsCl3 > SbCl3 > BiCl3
Blue, Ca - Brick red, Sr - Blood red, Lewis acid strength of trihalides of P, As and Sb
Ba-Apple green PCl3 > AsCl3 > SbCl3
Rb and Cs show photoelectric effect. Lewis acid strength among phosphorus trihalides
Stability of hydrides : LiH > NaH > KH > RbH > CsH PF3 > PCl3 > PBr3 > PI3
Basic nature of hydroxides : LiOH < NaOH < KOH < RbOH < Nitrogen displays a great tendency to form pp – pp multiple
CsOH bonds with itself as well as with carbon and oxygen.
Hydration energy : Li > Na > K > Rb > Cs The basic strength of the hydrides
Reducing character : Li > Cs > Rb > K > Na NH3 > PH3 > AsH3 > SbH3
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Pyrolytic cracking is a process in The order of reactivity is
which alkane decomposes to a mixture (a) RI > RBr > RCl > RF
of smaller hydrocarbons, when it is HALOGEN (b) Allyl halide > Alkyl halide > Vinyl
ALKANES heated strongly, in the absence of halide
oxygen. COMPOUNDS
(c) Alkyl halide > Aryl halide
Ethane can exist in an infinite number SN1 reaction : Mainly 3° alkyl halides
of conformations. They are undergo this reaction and form racemic
HH H H H mixture. SN1 is favoured by polar solvent
H H and low concentration of nucleophile.
SN2 reaction : Mainly 1° alkyl halides undergo this
H
H substitution. Walden inversion takes place. SN2 reaction is
HH H H
H
H
H H H preferred by non-polar solvents and high concentration of
Eclipsed q = 60° Staggered q < 60° > 0 Skew nucleophile.
Conformations of Cyclohexane : It exists in two nonplanar, Reaction with metals:
strainless forms, the boat and the chair form (i) Dry ether
R – X + Mg ¾¾¾¾ ® R – Mg – X
Alkyl Grignard reagent
halides
(ii) Wurtz reaction:
Dry ether
Chair form Half Chair
R – X + 2 Na + X – R ¾¾ ¾ ¾® R - R + 2Na + X –
Alkane
Most Stable
Alkenes are converted to alcohol in
different ways as follows
Reagent Types of addition
ALCOHOLS dil H2SO4
Twist Boat Boat form – Markovnikov
(Least Stable) B2H6 and H2O2, OH– –
In dehydration and Anti-Markovnikov
dehydrohalogenation the preferential Oxymercuration demercuration –
order for removal of hydrogen is 3° > 2° > Markovnikov
1° (Saytzeff’s rule).
ALKENES Oxidation of
The lower the DHh (heat of
hydrogenation) the more stable the 1° alcohol ¾¾® aldehyde ¾¾ ® carboxylic acid
alkene is. (with same no. (with same no. of
Alkenes undergo anti-Markonikov of C atom) C atom)
addition only with HBr in the presence 2° alcohol ¾¾® ketone ¾¾ ® carboxylic acid
of peroxides. (with same no. (with less no. of
Alkynes add water molecule in
of C atom) C atom)
presence of mercuric sulphate and dil.
H2SO4 and form carbonyl compounds. 3° alcohol ¾¾® ketone ¾¾ ® carboxylic acid
Terminal alkynes have acidic H-atoms, (with less no. (with less no. of
ALKYNES of C atom) C atom)
so they form metal alkynides with Na,
ammonical cuprous chloride solution and CHCl /OH Q
3
Phenol ¾¾¾¾¾¾
® Phenolic
ammoniacal silver nitrate solution.
Alkynes are acidic because of H-atoms aldehyde
which are attached to sp ‘C’ atom which (a) has more PHENOLS
electronegativity (b) has more ‘s’ character than sp2 and (Reimer-Tieman reaction)
sp3 ‘C’ atoms. CO
2 ® Phenolic carboxylic
Phenol ¾¾¾
All o and p-directing groups are ring D
activating groups acid (Kolbe reaction)
(except – X) Acidity of phenols
They are : – OH, – NH2, – X, – R, – (a) Increase by electron withdrawing substituents like
ARENES OR, etc. +
– NO2, – CN, – CHO, – COOH, –X, - N R 3
All m-directing groups are ring
deactivating groups. (b) decrease by electron releasing substituents like
They are : – CHO, – COOH, – NO2, – – R, – OH, – NH2, – NR2, – OR
+
CN, – NR 3 , etc.
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Al O Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy
2ROH ¾¾¾¾
2 3® R - O - R + H O
2 aldehydes or ketones.
250ºC
RONa + X - R ' ¾¾
® ROR '+ NaX Monosaccharides are simple sugars,
CARBOHYDRATES,
containing three to nine carbon atoms.
ETHERS (Williamson's synthesis) AMINO ACIDS AND Characteristic reactions :
dil. H SO POLYMERS Homologous series
ROR + H 2 O ¾¾¾¾¾
2 4 ® 2ROH
Type of reactions
D
(a) Alkanes
Substitution
(Mostly free radical
Formation of alcohols using RMgX (b) Alkenes and alkynes Electrophillic addition
(a) Formaldehyde + RMgX (c) Arenes Electrophillic substitution
CARBONYL (d) Alkyl halides Nucleophillic substitution
Hydrolysis
¾¾¾¾¾ ® 1° alcohol (e) Aldehyde and ketones Nucleophillic addition
COMPOUNDS Tests to differentiate :
Hydrolysis 1°, 2° and 3° alcohols (1) Lucas test
(b) Aldehyde + RMgX ¾¾¾¾¾ ®
2° alcohol (2) Victormeyer’s test
1°, 2° and 3° amines Hinsberg test
(other than HCHO) 1°, 2° and 3° nitro compounds Test with HNO2 and KOH
Hydrolysis Aryl halides and alkyl halides Test with AgNO3
(c) Ketone + RMgX ¾¾¾¾¾ ® solution
3° alcohol Aldehydes and ketones Tollen’s test/Fehling’s
Cannizzaro reaction (Disproportionation) test
Aromatic aldehydes and Fehling’s test
Hot conc. Aliphatic aldehydes
Aldehyde ¾¾¾¾® Alcohol + Salt of acid
alkali Dil H2SO4 [or Conc. H2SO4 + H2O]
(no a H-atom) Use ® Hydrating agent (+HOH)
Aldol condensation : Alc. KOH or NaNH2(Use ® -HX)
alc.KOH
Carbonyl compound + dil. alkali ––® b-hydroxy carbonyl IMPORTANT CH3CH2Cl ¾¾¾¾ ® CH2=CH2
(with a H-atom) compound REAGENT Lucas reagent ZnCl2 + Conc. HCl
Benzoin condensation Use ® for distinction between 1º, 2º
& 3º alc.
ethanolic Tilden Reagent NOCl (Nitrosyl
Benzaldehyde ¾¾¾¾ ® Benzoin
NaCN chloride)
The relative reactivities of different acid derivatives towards C2H5NH2 ¾¾¾ NOCl
® C2H5Cl
nucleophilic acyl substitution reactions follow the order: Alkaline KMnO4(Strong oxidant)
O O O O O Toluene ® Benzoic acid
|| || || || || Bayer’s Regent : 1% alkaline KMnO4(Weak oxidant)
R – C – Cl > R – C – O – C – R ' > R – C – OR ' > R – C – NH 2 Use: ® For test of > C = C < or –C = C –
Acid chloride Anhydride Ester Amide BR
CH2=CH2+H2O+[O] ¾¾® CH2OH–CH2OH
Acidic K2Cr2O7 (Strong oxidant) : RCH2OH ¾¾® [O] RCHO
The rate of esterfication decreases
when alcohol, acid or both have SnCl2/HCl or Sn/HCl use ® for red of nitrobenzene in acidic
n
branched substituents. medium.
SnCl / HCl
CARBOXYLIC Or tho effect : All ortho C6H5NO2 ¾¾¾¾¾
2 ® C6H5NH2
substituted benzoic acids (irrespective 6H
ACIDS of type of substituent) are stronger than Lindlar’s Catalyst = Pd/CaCO3
benzoic acid. + in small quantity (CH3COO)2Pb
"
Order of basicity : (R = – CH3 or 2 – butye + H2 ¾¾ ® Cis-2-butene
– C2H5) (main product)
2° > 1° > 3° > NH3 Ziegler –Natta Catalyst (C2H5)3Al + TiCl4
Use ®In Addition polymerisation
NITROGEN Hofmann degradation IDENTIFICATION TESTS :
Br2 /KOH (a) Unsaturated compound (Bayer’s reagent)
COMPOUNDS Amides ¾¾¾¾® 1° amine Decolourising the reagent
The basicity of amines is (b) Alcohols (Ceric ammonium nitrate solution)
(a) decreased by electron withdrawing Red colouration
groups (c) Phenols (Neutral FeCl3 solution)
Violet/deep blue colouration
(b) increased by electron releasing groups (d) Aldehydes and ketones (2, 4-D.N.P.)
Reduction of nitrobenzene in different media gives different Orange precipitate
products (e) Acids (NaHCO3 solution)
Medium Product Brisk effervescence (CO2 is evolved)
Acidic Aniline (f) 1° amine (CHCl3 + KOH)
Basic Azoxy, Azo and finally hydrazobenzene Foul smell (isocyanide)
(g) 2° amine (NaNO2 + HCl)
Neutral Phenyl hydroxylamine Yellow oily liquid (Nitrosoamine)
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MATHEMATICS
A relation R from a set A to a set B is sina + sin (a + b) + sin (a +2b) +........ to n terms
a subset of the cartesian product A × B
é æ n - 1 ö ù é æ nb ö ù
RELATIONS obtained by describing a relationship sin êa + ç b sin
AND between the first element x and the second ë è 2 ÷ø úû êë çè 2 ÷ø úû
= ; b¹2np
FUNCTIONS element y of the ordered pairs in A × B. sin (b / 2)
Function : A function f from a set A to cosa + cos (a + b) + cos (a +2b) +........ to n terms
a set B is a specific type of relation for
é æ n -1 ö ù é æ nb ö ù
which every element x of set A has one cos êa + ç b sin
and only one image y in set B. We write ë è 2 ÷ø úû êë çè ÷ø ú
2 û
= ; b ¹ 2np
f : A ® B, where f (x) = y. æbö
sin ç ÷
A function f : X ® Y is one-one (or injective) if è2ø
f (x1) = f (x2) Þ x1 = x2 " x1, x2 Î X.
æB-Cö æb-cö æAö
A function f : X ® Y is onto (or surjective) if given any tan ç = cot ç ÷
è 2 ÷ø çè b + c ÷ø è2ø
y Î Y, $ x Î X such that f (x) = y.
Many-One Function : æ Aö (s - b)(s - c)
sin çè ÷ø =
A function f : A ® B is called many- one, if two or more 2 bc
different elements of A have the same f- image in B.
æAö (s - b)(s - c)
Into function : tan çè ÷ø =
A function f : A ® B is into if there exist at least one element 2 s (s - a)
in B which is not the f - image of any element in A. a b c
Many One -Onto function : R= = =
2sin A 2sin B 2sin C
A function f : A ® R is said to be many one- onto if f is onto
abc
but not one-one. R=
Many One -Into function : 4D
A function is said to be many one-into if it is neither one-one æAö æBö æCö
r = 4R sin çè ÷ø . sin çè ÷ø . sin çè ÷ø
nor onto. 2 2 2
A function f : X ® Y is invertible if and only if f is one-one a = c cos B + b cos C
and onto.
Maximum value of a sin q + b cos q = a 2 + b2 and minimum
General Solution of the equation
sinq = 0: value of a sin q + b cos q = - a 2 + b 2
TRIGONOMET- when sinq = 0
RIC FUNCTIONS q = np : n Î I i.e. n = 0, ± 1, ±2........... Properties of inverse trigonometric
AND General solution of the equation function
EQUATIONS INVERSE • tan–1 x + tan–1 y =
cosq = 0 :
TRIGONOMETRIC
when cosq = 0 ì
q = (2n + 1)p/2, n Î I. i.e. n = 0, ±1, +2....... FUNCTIONS -1 æ x + y ö
ï tan ç ÷ , if x,y < 1
General solution of the equation tanq = 0: ï è 1 - xy ø
ï if x > 0, y > 0
General solution of tanq = 0 is q = np; n Î I ï -1 æ x + y ö
í p + tan ç ÷ ,
General solution of the equation ï è 1 - xy ø and xy > 1
(a) sinq = sina : q = np + (–1)na ; n Î I ï æ ö if x < 0, y < 0
ï -p + tan -1 ç x + y ÷ ,
(b) sinq = k, where –1 < k < 1. ïî è 1 - xy ø and xy > 1
q = np + (–1)na, where n Î I and a = sin –1k
(c) cosq = cosa : q = 2np ± a, n Î I • tan–1 x – tan–1y =
(d) cosq = k, where –1 < k < 1. ì -1 æ x - y ö
ï tan ç , if xy > -1
q = 2np ± a, where n Î I and a = cos–1 k ï è 1 + xy ø÷
(e) tanq = tana : q = np + a ; n Î I ï -1 æ x - y ö
í p + tan ç , if x > 0, y < 0 and xy < -1
(f) tanq = k, q = np + a, where n Î I and a = tan–1k ï è 1 + xy ÷ø
(g) sin2q = sin2a : q = np ± a; n Î I ï -1 æ x - y ö
ï-p + tan èç 1 + xy ø÷ , if x < 0, y > 0 and xy < -1
(h) cos2q = cos2a : q = np ± a ; n Î I î
(i) tan2q = tan2a : q = np ± a ; n Î I
and xlim
®a
f(x) = l = xlim
®a
h (x) then xlim
®a
g(x) = l 1
(iii) If y = f (x) + ........ then
f (x) + 1
+
1
(iii) lim fog (x) = f æ lim g (x) ö = f (m) where lim g (x) = m f (x) f (x)
x ®a è x®a ø x ®a
dy y f '(x)
1 =
(iv) If xlim
®a
f(x) = + ¥ or – ¥ , then xlim
=0 ®a
dx 2y - f (x)
f (x)
CONTINUITYAND DIFFERENTIABILITY OFFUNCTIONS Interpretation of the Derivative : If
y = f (x) then, m= f ¢ (a) is the slope of the
A function f(x) is said to be continuous at a point x = a if DIFFERENTIA- tangent line to y = f (x) at x = a
lim f (x) = lim f (x) = f(a)
TION AND Increasing/Decreasing :
x ®a + -
x ®a APPLICATION (i) If f ¢ (x) > 0 for all x in an interval I then
Discontinuous Functions : f (x) is increasing on the interval I.
(a) Removable Discontinuity: (ii) If f ¢ (x) < 0 for all x in an
A function f is said to have removable discontinuity at x = a interval I then f (x) is decreasing on the interval I.
(iii) If f ¢ (x) = 0 for all x in an interval I then f (x) is constant on
if lim- f (x) = lim+ f (x) but their common value is not the interval I.
x ®a x ®a
equal to f (a). Test of Local Maxima and Minima –
First Derivative Test – Let f be a differentiable function defined
(b) Discontinuity of the first kind: A function f is said to
on an open interval I and c Î I be any point. f has a local maxima
have a discontinuity of the first kind at x = a if lim- f(x) and or a local minima at x = c, f ¢ (c) = 0.
x ®a
dy
lim f (x) both exist but are not equal. Put = 0 and solve this equation for x. Let c1, c2........cn
x ®a + dx
(c) Discontinuity of second kind: A function f is said to be the roots of this.
have a discontinuity of the second kind at x = a if neither
If dy changes sign from +ve to –ve as x increases
lim f (x) nor lim f (x) exists. dx
x ®a - +
x ®a
through c1 then the function attains a local max at x = c1
Similarly, if xlim
®a +
f (x) does not exist, then f is said to have dy
If changes its sign from –ve to +ve as x increases
discontinuity of the second kind from the right at x = a. dx
For a function f : through c1 then the function attains a local minimum at x = c1
Differentiability Þ Continuity; dy
If does not changes sign as increases through c1
Continuity Þ
/ derivability dx
Not derivibaility Þ
/ discontinuous ; then x = c1 is neither a point of local maxm nor a point of local
But discontinuity Þ Non derivability minm. In this case x is a point of inflexion.
dy dy / dt dx 1 r = n -1 æ r ö 1 r =n æ r ö
If x = f(t) and y = y (t), then = , provided that ¹0 å ç ÷ f åf ç ÷
n r =0 è n ø or n r =1 è n ø , then its limit as n ® ¥
dx dx / dt dt
Thus, the rate of change of y with respect to x can be
1
calculated by using the rate of change of y and that of x each
with respect to t. is ò f (x) dx
0
dx dy Area between curves :
Length of Sub–tangent = y ; Sub–normal = y ;
dy dx b
y = f (x) Þ A = ò [upper function] - [lower function] dx
ìï æ dx ö 2 üï a
y í1 + ç ÷ ý
Length of tangent = è dy ø ï
îï
d
þ
and x = f (y) Þ A = ò [right function] - [left function] dy
c
ïì æ dy ö ïü
2
Length of normal = y í 1 + çè ÷ø ý If the curves intersect then the area of each portion must be
îï dx ï
þ found individually.
Equations of tangent and normal : The equation of the Symmetrical area : If the curve is symmetrical about a
tangent at P (x1, y1) to the curve y = f(x) is coordinate axis (or a line or origin), then we find the area of
æ dy ö one symmetrical portion and multiply it by the number of
y – y1 = ç ÷ (x – x1)
è dx ø P symmetrical portion to get the required area.
The equation of the normal at Probability of an event: For a finite
P (x1, y1) to the curve y = f (x) is sample space with equally likely outcomes
Probability of an event is
1
y – y1 = - (x – x1) PROBABILITY
æ ö
dy n(A)
çè ÷ø P(A) = , where n (A) = number of
dx P n(S)
elements in the set A, n (S) = number of
Two standard forms of integral : elements in the set S.
M.D.(x) =
å fi | x i - x | , M.D.(M) =
å fi | xi - M | , dy f (x, y)
can be put in the form dx = g (x, y) where f (x ,y) and g
N N
(x ,y) are both homogeneous functions of the same
where N = å fi degree in x & y .
So to solve the homogeneous differential equation
Variance and standard deviation for ungrouped data
dy f (x, y) dy dV
= =v+x
1 1 dx g (x, y) , substitute y = vx and so dx
s 2 = å (xi - x)2 , s = å (xi - x)2 dx
n n
dv dx dv
Thus v+x = f (v) Þ =
Variance and standard deviation of a discrete frequency dx x f (v) - v
distribution
ò ò
dx dv
1 1 Therefore solution is = +c
s = å fi (x i - x) 2 , s =
2
å fi (xi - x)2 x f (v) - v
n N
Linear differential equations :
Variance and standard deviation of a continuous frequency dy
distribution + Py = Q ....... (1)
dx
1 1 Where P and Q are either constants or functions of x.
s2 =
n
å fi (xi - x)2 , s = N
å fi x i2 - (å fi xi )2 Multiplying both sides of (1) by e ò P dx , we get
s æ dy ö
eò ò P dx
P dx
Coefficient of variation (C.V.) = ´ 100, x ¹ 0 ç + Py ÷ = Q e
x è dx ø
For series with equal means, the series with lesser standard
On integrating both sides with respect to x we get
deviation is more consistent or less scattered.
Methods of solving a first order first y eò = ò Q eò
P dx P dx
+c
degree differential equation :
(a) Differential equation of the form which is the required solution, where c is the constant and
DIFFERENTIAL dy = f (x) eò
P dx
is called the integration factor..
EQUATIONS dx
y eò = ò Q eò
P dx P dx
dy +c
= f (x) Þ dy = f (x) dx
dx