Vitamin A

Outline

 Vitamin A is also known as retinoid (all-trans retinol)

o Can have many structures
 Digestion must occur before absorption
o Carotenoids are hydrolyzed in stomach, protein -> pepsin
o Important binding protein: CRBPII
 Bind with retinol and retinal
 Form chylomicron -> lymph system
 Absorption occurs in small intestine, 70-90% vitamin A and about 5% carotenoid (uncooked)
 Transported through chylomicrons that eventually go into lymphatic system
o Esterified retinol is stored in liver
o Important proteins: proteins: retinol-binding protein and transthyretin
 Carotenoid metabolism occurs in the liver
 Functions include:
o Trans-retinal make vision possible
o Carotenoids are antioxidants and can help attack free radicals
 Interacts with vitamin E and K
 RDA:
o Men: 900 μg RAE
o Women: 700 μg RAE
 Toxicity is over 3000 μg RAE a day, can cause birth defects
 Assessed through measurements of rhodopsin and rate of regeneration in eye
 Sources include
o Liver, dairy products, eggs, and brightly colored fruits and vegetables

Pathways of Vitamin A

The transport, metabolism, and processing of vitamin A

Functions and mechanism of action of vitamin A

How vitamin A functions with eye health

Structures of Vitamin A
Main points of vitamin A research paper:
 Research the use of ISX to repress (stop) BCO1 enzyme
 Explain the link between vitamin A and immunity in relation to ISX
o See the role of vitamin A in immunity
 They found if ISX is deficient, higher levels retinal will occur in the small intestine
o Resulting in bad bacteria for the body
 They also found that it had an effect on inflammation and glucose intolerance
 Important in the pathway of RAR and RXR, ISX is another transcription factor

Vitamin D
Outline

 Vitamin D is also known calciferol

 Two different types
 Can be consumed (fatty fish, beef liver, fortified foods) or taken up through the skin
o RDA is 5-15mins in sunlight or consuming 600IU (ages 1-70)
 Does not have to be digested
 Absorption occurs in the distal part of small intestine and about 50% is absorbed
 Transported by binding protein DBP
 Metabolized in liver by 25-OH D then transported again
o In the kidneys, 1,25-(OH)2D
o Initially stimulated by low blood calcium in the bones
 Has many functions such as cell differentiation, growth, and proliferation
o Enhances calcium uptake in the muscle
 Interacts with calcium and phosphorus
 Toxicity is not common, must consume over 4000IU and symptoms may include nausea,
vomiting, and a poor appetite
 Assessed by measuring 25-OH in the blood

Pathways

Below is the synthesis of vitamin d being taken up through the skin and converted to D3 (cholecalciferol)
Below is the pathway that explains the serum calcium homeostasis

Vitamin E
Outline

 Vitamin E has 8 compounds, separated into 2 classes

o *Tocopherols and tocotrienols
 Digestion only occurs with tocotrienols due to the larger molecule
o Pancreatic esterase and duodenal mucosal esterase
 Absorption: passive diffusion in jejunum
o 20-70% absorption rate
 Transported by chylomicrons and HDL/LDL, excess goes to the liver
o Eventually transported to lymph system -> blood
 Vitamin E is stored in adipose tissue but cannot be released from there
 Functions in the aid of terminating free radicals
 Positive interaction with vitamin C
 RDA is 15 mg alpha-tocopherol
o Toxicity is levels above 1,000mg= can result in superoxides
 Assessed by checking genetics (hemolytic anemia)
 Sources include nuts, seeds, and wheat germ

Structures:
Pathways

Vitamin E Transport

Free Radical Pairing

Interaction with Vitamin C

Vitamin K
Outline

 3 different types of vitamin K

o Found in leafy greens (spinach, kale, broccoli), cheeses, and is available in a synthetic
form
 Vitamin K does not require digestion
 Absorption location depends on type of vitamin K
o Duodenum and ileum/colon
 Transport: incorporated into chylomicron -> lymphatic system
o Taken to tissues in need, excess goes to liver or VLDL
o Stored in lungs, kidneys, bone marrow, and adrenal glands
 Functions: mainly helps with blood clotting
o Important: Gla protein
 Negatively interacts with vitamin K and E and pts on warfarin
 AI: Men: 120 µg/day, Women: 90 µg/day
 Toxicity: can cause hemolytic anemia and/or liver damage
o Assessed by blood clotting test

Structures:

Pathways

Gla protein in reaction with vitamin K

Vitamin K must be present on all squared reactions in order for fibrinogen -> fibrin

Vitamin K is a co-factor that makes Protein C active

Function and Cycle