INTRODUCTION

Control in process industries refers to the

regulation of all aspects of the process.
Precise control of level, temperature,
pressure and flow is important in many
process applications. This module
introduces you to control in process
industries, explains why control is
important, and identifies different ways in
which precise control is ensured. The
following five sections are included module
❑ The importance of process control
❑ Control theory basics
❑ Components of control loops & symbols
❑ Controller algorithms and tuning
❑ Process control systems As you proceed
through the module, answer the questions
in the activities column on the right side of
each page. Also, note the application boxes
(double-bordered boxes) located
throughout the module. Application boxes
provide key information about how you
may use your baseline knowledge in the
field. When you see the workbook exercise
graphic at the bottom of a page, go to the
workbook to complete the designated
exercise before moving on in the module.
Workbook exercises help you measure your
progress toward meeting each section’s
learning objectives.

Refining, combining, handling, and

otherwise manipulating fluids to profitably
produce end products can be a precise,
demanding, and potentially hazardous
process. Small changes in a process can
have a large impact on the end result.
Variations in proportions, temperature,
flow, turbulence, and many other factors
must be carefully and consistently
controlled to produce the desired end
product with a minimum of raw materials
and energy. Process control technology is
the tool that enables manufacturers to
keep their operations running within
specified limits and to set more precise
limits to maximize profitability, ensure
quality and safety.
TARGET OF PROCESS CONTROL

PROCESS CONTROL Process control refers

to the methods that are used to control
process variables when manufacturing a
product. For example, factors such as the
proportion of one ingredient to another,
the temperature of the materials, how well
the ingredients are mixed, and the pressure
under which the materials are held can
significantly impact the quality of an end
product. Manufacturers control the
production process for three reasons:
❑ Reduce variability
❑ Increase efficiency
❑ Ensure safety

Module 1 – Feedback Control

Bathroom toilet tank ( working as feedback control system)
STEAM BOILER

Consequently, there are two sensor’s element both in

linear characteristics (temperature and pressure), therefore
this process must contain root retractors before using
comparator selector switches
Module 2 – Process Control Modes
It explains the four modes of control action that are commonly used to
control industrial process operations (i.e., two-position, proportional,
integral, and derivative). Objectives: Identify the four types of process
control modes. Classify each of the four process control modes as either
discrete or continuous.

Control loops

Example Of A continuous flow control loop. Signalling is by industry

standard 4-20 mA current loops, and a "smart" valve positioner ensures
the control valve operates correctly.

The fundamental building block of any industrial control system is the

control loop, which controls just one process variable. An example is
shown in the accompanying diagram, where the flow rate in a pipe is
controlled by a PID controller, assisted by what is effectively a cascaded
loop in the form of a valve servo-controller to ensure correct valve
positioning.

Some large systems may have several hundreds or thousands of control

loops. In complex processes the loops are interactive, so that the
operation of one loop may affect the operation of another. The system
diagram for representing control loops is a P&I D
Piping and instrumentation diagram.

Example of level control system of a continuous stirred-tank reactor. The flow control
into the tank would be cascaded off the level control

A further example is shown. If a control valve were used to hold level in

a tank, the level controller would compare the equivalent reading of a
level sensor to the level setpoint and determine whether more or less
valve opening was necessary to keep the level constant. A cascaded flow
controller could then calculate the change in the valve Commonly used
controllers are programmable logic controller (PLC), Distributed Control
System (DCS) or SCADA. position. A programmable logic controller (PLC)
is a specialized processor/ computer with all the hardware and software
to do a specific automation task, say running a plant/factory. This means
that all the Field/REL world Inputs are processed by the PLC (using Input
interface hardware )and the same then issues commands to various
devices and actuators(via Output interface).
Module 3 – Process Characteristics

Crude oil treatment:

Crude oil cannot be used directly for industrial purposes.
Thus, before being delivered to the users it must be
subjected to the process plant to reach the quality
standards defined in the specifications of sale.
The crude oil must therefore:
- Be stabilized to eliminate the volatile components such
as methane.
- The emulsified water content must be reduced.
- Be more or less free from the salts.

The important of the process plant:

* To separate formation water.
* To separate the salt from the crude oil.
* To separate the associated gas.

The procedures of crude oil treatment:

Movement: from wellhead to process area.
Separation: separation of water and associated gases.
Stabilization and treatment:
elimination of emulsified water.

Treatment of emulsions:
Emulsions are mixtures of two or more dissimilar fluids.
They are normally created by the individual components
being subjected to changes in pressure and agitation.
Such conditions arise when oil and water leave the
reservoir and move up the production string through the
choke and other items of equipment, end route – track -
to the separator.
Water is associated with the crude oil as following:

1- Free water:
This water is not intimately mixed in with the crude. It is
basically a volume of water that just happens to be
moving along with the crude, such as in a pipeline.
Free water should settle out the oil in any quiescent zone.
It should settle in separators, knockout separator and
storage tanks.
The rate of settling of an immiscible liquid (water) from
another liquid (oil) can be calculated from the following
equation:
K (ρw - ρo) gd2
Rate of settling =
μ
Where:
K = constant of system involved.
ρw = density of water.
ρo = density of oil.
g = gravity factor.
d = diameter of droplet.
μ = viscosity of oil.
2- Emulsified water:
If the water and crude oil have been intimately mixed
due to turbulent flow together or by the shearing action
when passing through pumps, orifices, valves, etc. Then
an emulsion is formed. Tiny droplets of water are
scattered through the continuous oil phase that called
water-in-oil emulsion.
The electrical, heating and chemical treatment are the
efficient way to separate the emulsified water from the
oil.
On the other hand, we deliberately inject wash water into
the crude to create an emulsion to wash out salts and
solids.

3- Soluble water:
The solubility of water in oil is to a great extent a
function of temperature but is also dependent upon the
type of hydrocarbon.
Soluble water will not settle out with time. In fact
lowering the temperature of the oil is really the only way
to remove at least some of the soluble water. Neither
electrical nor chemical dehydration will remove soluble
water.
API is the American petroleum institute.
API gravity is based on empirical scale gravities in
degrees.
API gravity and normal specific gravity are linked by the
formula:

API degree = (141.5/ sp. Gravity) - 131.5

Module 4 – Process Variables

Process variable is a condition of the process fluid
(a liquid or gas ) that can change the manufacturing
process in some way. The measured variable is the
condition of process fluid that must be kept at the
designated set point.
** common process variables include :
Pressure / Temperature / Level / Flow / Density /
Ph (alkalinity or acidity) / Conductivity, Etc.
Module 5– Instrumentation Symbols

Flow Sensors Symbols Used in P&IDs:

flow sensors
Module 6– Instrument Loop Diagrams
There are different loops for instruments system depends
upon its function in electric, pneumatic, mechanic, etc.

The (4–20 Ma) convention was born in the 1950s out of the earlier highly
successful( 3–15 psi) pneumatic control signal standard, when electronics
became cheap and reliable enough to emulate the older standard
electrically. The( 3–15 psi) standard had the same features of being able
to power some remote devices, and have a "live" zero.
However the (4–20 Ma) standard was better suited to the electronic
controllers then being developed.

The transition was gradual and has extended into the 21st century, due to the huge
installed base of 3–15 psi devices. As the operation of pneumatic valves over motorised
valves has many cost and reliability advantages, pneumatic actuation is still an industry
standard.
BASIC OF FLAPPER / NOZZLE SYSTEM AS AN PNEUMATIC LOOP
To allow the construction of hybrid systems, where the 4–20 mA is
generated by the controller, but allows the use of pneumatic
valves, a range of current to pressure (I to P) converters are
available from manufacturers. These are usually located locally to
the control valve and convert 4–20 mA to 3–15 psi (or 0.2–
1.0 bar). This signal is then fed to the valve actuator or more
commonly, a pneumatic positioner.
 The positioner is a dedicated controller which has a mechanical linkage to the actuator
movement. This ensures that problems of friction are overcome and the valve control
element moves to the desired position. It also allows the use of higher air pressures for
valve actuation.
With the development of cheap industrial micro-processors, "smart" valve positioners
have become available since the mid-1980s and are very popular for new installations.
These include an I to P converter, plus valve position and condition monitoring. These
latter are fed back over the current loop to the controller, using such as
the HART protocol.
Module 7– Piping and Instrumentation Drawings
The P&ID acts as a directory to all field instrumentation and control that will be
installed on a process and thus is a key document to the control engineer.
Since the instrument tag number assigned to field devices is shown on this
document. The instrument tag associated with, for example, a measurement
device or actuator of interest may be quickly found.
Module 8- Controller Tuning
A control loop is a process management system designed to maintain a
process variable at a desired set point. Each step in the loop works in
conjunction with the others to manage the system. Once the set point has
been established, the control loop operates using a four-step process.
Control tuning
with the others to manage the system. Once the set point To tune the
control device then must refer to the set value in manual mode before
transfer to automatic mode.
PID controller theory

The PID controller calculation (algorithm) involves three separate

parameters; the proportional, the integral and derivative values. The
proportional value determines the reaction to the current error, the
integral value determines the reaction based on the sum of recent errors,
and the derivative value determines the reaction based on the rate at
which the error has been changing. The weighted sum of these three
actions is used to adjust the process via a control element such as the
position of a control valve or the power supply of a heating element.
By tuning the three constants in the PID controller algorithm, the
controller can provide control action designed for specific process
requirements. The response of the controller can be described in terms of
the responsiveness of the controller to an error, the degree to which the
controller overshoots the setpoint and the degree of system oscillation.
Note that the use of the PID algorithm for control does not guarantee
optimal control of the system or system stability.
Some applications may require using only one or two modes to provide
the appropriate system control. This is achieved by setting the gain of
undesired control outputs to zero. A PID controller will be called a PI,
PD, P or I controller in the absence of the respective control actions. PI
controllers are particularly common, since derivative action is very
sensitive to measurement noise, and the absence of an integral value may
prevent the system from reaching its target value due to the control
action.

Note: Due to the diversity of the field of control theory and application,
many naming conventions for the relevant variables are in common use
This section describes the parallel or non-interacting form of the PID
controller. For other forms please see the Section "Alternative notation
and PID forms".
The PID control scheme is named after its three correcting terms, whose
sum constitutes the manipulated variable (MV). Hence
:

where Pout, Iout, and Dout are the contributions to the output from the PID
controller from each of the three terms, as defined below

Proportional term

The proportional term (sometimes called gain) makes a change to the

output that is proportional to the current error value. The proportional
response can be adjusted by multiplying the error by a constant Kp, called
the proportional gain

The proportional term is given by:

Where
• Pout: Proportional term of output
• Kp: Proportional gain, a tuning parameter
• e: Error = SP − PV
• t: Time or instantaneous time (the present)
A high proportional gain results in a large change in the output for a
given change in the error. If the proportional gain is too high, the system
can become unstable (See the section on loop tuning). In contrast, a small
gain results in a small output response to a large input error, and a less
responsive (or sensitive) controller. If the proportional gain is too low, the
control action may be too small when responding to system disturbances.
In the absence of disturbances, pure proportional control will not settle at
its target value, but will retain a steady state error that is a function of the
proportional gain and the process gain. Despite the steady-state offset,
both tuning theory and industrial practice indicate that it is the
proportional term that should contribute the bulk of the output change.
Integral term

Plot of PV vs time, for three values of Ki (Kp and Kd held constant)

The contribution from the integral term (sometimes called reset) is
proportional to both the magnitude of the error and the duration of the
error. Summing the instantaneous error over time (integrating the error)
gives the accumulated offset that should have been corrected previously.
The accumulated error is then multiplied by the integral gain and added to
the controller output. The magnitude of the contribution of the integral
term to the overall control action is determined by the integral gain, Ki.
The integral term is given by:

Where
• Iout: Integral term of output
• Ki: Integral gain, a tuning parameter
• e: Error = SP − PV
• t: Time or instantaneous time (the present)
• τ: A dummy integration variable
The integral term (when added to the proportional term) accelerates the
movement of the process towards setpoint and eliminates the residual
steady-state error that occurs with a proportional only controller.
However, since the integral term is responding to accumulated errors
from the past, it can cause the present value to overshoot the setpoint
value (cross over the setpoint and then create a deviation in the other
direction). For further notes regarding integral gain tuning and controller
stability, see the section on loop tuning

Derivative term

Plot of PV vs time, for three values of Kd (Kp and Ki held constant)

The rate of change of the process error is calculated by determining the
slope of the error over time (i.e., its first derivative with respect to time)
and multiplying this rate of change by the derivative gain Kd. The
magnitude of the contribution of the derivative term (sometimes called
rate) to the overall control action is termed the derivative gain, Kd
The derivative term is given by:

Where
• Dout: Derivative term of output
• Kd: Derivative gain, a tuning parameter
• e: Error = SP − PV
• t: Time or instantaneous time (the present)
The derivative term slows the rate of change of the controller output and
this effect is most noticeable close to the controller setpoint. Hence,
derivative control is used to reduce the magnitude of the overshoot
produced by the integral component and improve the combined
controller-process stability. However, differentiation of a signal amplifies
noise and thus this term in the controller is highly sensitive to noise in the
error term, and can cause a process to become unstable if the noise and
the derivative gain are sufficiently large
Summary
The proportional, integral, and derivative terms are summed to calculate
the output of the PID controller. Defining u(t) as the controller output, the
final form of the PID algorithm is:

The Tuning Parameters Are:

Proportional gain, Kp
larger values typically mean faster response since the larger the error, the
larger the Proportional term compensation. An excessively large
proportional gain will lead to process instability and oscillation.
Integral gain, Ki
larger values imply steady state errors are eliminated more quickly. The
trade-off is larger overshoot: any negative error integrated during
transient response must be integrated away by positive error before we
reach steady state.
Derivative gain, Kd
larger values decrease overshoot, but slows down transient response and
may lead to instability due to signal noise amplification in the
differentiation of the error.

Manual tuning ‫الخالصة يا باشمهندس‬

If The System Must Remain Online, One Tuning Method Is To First Set
Ki And Kd Values To Zero. Increase The Kp Until The Output Of The
Loop Oscillates, Then The Kp Should Be Left Set To Be Approximately
Half Of That Value For A "Quarter Amplitude Decay" Type Response.
Then Increase Ki Until Any Offset Is Correct In Sufficient Time For The
Process. However, Too Much Ki Will Cause Instability. Finally, Increase
Kd, If Required, Until The Loop Is Acceptably Quick To Reach Its
Reference After A Load Disturbance. However, Too Much Kd Will Cause
Excessive Response And Overshoot. A Fast PID Loop Tuning Usually
Overshoots Slightly To Reach The Setpoint More Quickly; However,
Some Systems Cannot Accept Overshoot, In Which Case An "Over-
Damped" Closed-Loop System Is Required, Which Will Require A Kp
Setting Significantly Less Than Half That Of The Kp Setting Causing
Oscillation.
Effects of increasing parameters

Settling Error at
Parameter Rise time Overshoot
time equilibrium

Small
Kp Decrease Increase Decrease
change

Ki Decrease Increase Increase Eliminate

Indefinite (small
Kd decrease or Decrease Decrease None
increase)

The Final Control Element

Being The Final Control Element In A System Is Not An Easy
Job. To Start With, You Are Blamed For Any And All Problems
That Crop Up In The Process. You Are Subjected To Corrosion,
High Velocity, Cavitations, Flashing Liquids, Cryogenic
Temperatures, High Temperatures, Abrasion, And Thermal
Shock. You Are Expected Not Only To Throttle Along Through
All This, But Most Likely, You Are Also Being Asked To Act
As A Block Valve And Shut Off Tight.
As You Work With Control Valves Always Keep In Mind That

A Control Valve Only Does What It Is Told To Do.

 A Control Valve Is A Power-Operated Device Used To
Modify The Fluid Flow Rate In A Process System. Well, What
Happens If The Power Is Cut Off? When A Control Valve Is
Sized Or Selected To Do A Particular Job, One Of The First
Questions You Should Consider Is How That Valve Will
Respond In The Event Of A Loss Of Signal Or Power. This Is
Called Its "Fail-Safe Mode" And Knowing The Fail-Safe Mode
Is The Key To Troubleshooting It.
In Most Applications (About 80%), It Is Desirable For
Valves To Fail Closed. In Other Applications, You Might Want
A Valve To Fail Open Or Fail In Place. Safety Concerns And
Process Requirements Will Mandate The Fall Mode Of The
Valve.

When A Valve Is Not Sitting In Its Fail Position, It Is

Being Told How And When To Move By Some
External Signal

By The Comments One Hears, You Would Be Led To

Believe That Control Valves Sit Around And Think Up Things
To Do On Their Own. Perhaps This Will Some Day Be True
When All Control Valves Are "Smart."
If A Control Valve Is Observed In An Unstable Condition Or
Appears To Not Be Responding Correctly To An Input Signal,
Remember That

Something Is Telling The Valve To Behave That Way.

A Control Valve Is Only As Strong As Its Weakest
Link.
When The 1965 Ford Mustang First Appeared, It Was Powered
By A 6-Cylinder Engine With A 3-Speed Transmission - But It
Had A 140 M.P.H.(225 K.P.H.) Speedometer. The Fact That It
Had A 140 M.P.H.(225 K.P.H.) Speedometer Did Not Mean It
Could Actually Travel That Fast. In The Same Way, A Control
Valve With A 600# Rated Valve Body Cannot Throttle And
Shut Off Against 1440 Pounds Of Pressure.
There Are Two Basic Types Of Control Valves: Rotary And
Linear. Linear-Motion Control Valves Commonly Have Globe,
Gate, Diaphragm, Or Pinch - Type Closures. Rotary-Motion
Valves Have Ball, Butterfly, Or Plug Closures. Each Type Of
Valve Has Its Special Generic Features, Which May, In A Given
Application, Be Either An Advantage Or A Disadvantage

Linear Valve Features

• TORTUOUS FLOW PATH
• LOW RECOVERY
• CAN THROTTLE SMALL FLOW
RATES
• OFFERS VARIETY OF SPECIAL
TRIM DESIGNS
• SUITED TO HIGH-PRESSURE
APPLICATIONS
• USUALLY FLANGED OR
THREADED
• SEPARABLE BONNET

Rotary Valve Features

 • STREAMLINED FLOW PATH
• HIGH RECOVERY
• MORE CAPACITY
• LESS PACKING WEAR
• CAN HANDLE SLURRY AND
ABRASIVES
• FLANGELESS
• INTEGRAL BONNET
• HIGH RANGEABILITY

In Addition To Linear And Rotary, Control Valves Are Also

Classified According To Their Guiding Systems And The Types
Of Services They Are Used In.

Control Valve Classification

CONTROL VAVE CHARACTERISTICS

Following important information in this chapter is summarized below.

Types of Valves Summary

* Gate valves are generally used in systems where low flow resistance for
a fully open valve is desired and there is no need to throttle the flow.
* Globe valves are used in systems where good throttling characteristics
and low seat leakage are desired and a relatively high head loss in an
open valve is acceptable.
* Ball valves allow quick, quarter turn on-off operation and have poor
throttling characteristics.
* Plug valves are often used to direct flow between several different ports
through use of a single valve.
* Diaphragm valves and pinch valves are used in systems where it is
desirable for the entire operating mechanism to be completely isolated
from the fluid.
* Butterfly valves provide significant advantages over other valve designs
in weight, space, and cost for large valve applications.
* Check valves automatically open to allow flow in one direction and seat
to prevent flow in the reverse direction.
* A stop check valve is a combination of a lift check valve and a globe
valve and incorporates the characteristics of both.
* Safety/relief valves are used to provide automatic over pressurization
protection for a system