IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MAGNETICS. VOL. 21, NO. 5 .
SEPTEMBER 1991
A Computer Simulation of an Induction Heating
System
Lawrence R. Egan and Edward P. Furlani
Abstract-A method is presented for the design and analysis
of induction heating systems. The method entails the simulation
of system performance using an equivalent circuit approach.
Equivalent circuit models are obtained for the three parts of
an induction heating system: the power source, the impedance
matching circuit, and the load. These models are combined into
a system model which is analyzed using the Advanced Contin-
uous Simulation Language (ACSL). This approach is applied
to an existing system, and the predicted performance is in close
agreement with measured data.
INTRODUCTION
I NDUCTION heating has been used to heat electrically
conductive materials since the early 1990's. Industrial
applications of the technology include metal melting and
heat treating, crystal growing, semiconductor wafer pro-
cessing, high-speed sealing and packaging, and curing of
organic coatings [ 11, [2]. The advantages of this technol-
ogy include
fast heating rate (6000"F/s in foils)
instant stadstop (no warm up required for each
cycle)
precise heat pattern (heating concentrated where
needed)
noncontact heating (the heat applicator does not
physically contact the part that is heated)
An induction heating system usually consists of three
distinct parts: the power source (oscillator), an impedance
matching circuit, and a load (Fig. 1 shows a block dia-
gram of a typical system). The load consists of a coil of
wire (work coil) in close proximity to the heated material
(work piece). Copper tubing is often used for the work
coil in order to allow for water cooling during continuous
operation,
During normal operation, the oscillator supplies time-
varying current to the work coil, which produces an al-
Manuscript received September 10, 1990; revised May 8, 1991.
L. R. Egan is with the Automatic Machine Systems Division, Manufac-
turing Research and Engineering Organization, Eastman Kodak Company,
Rochester, NY 14652.
E. P. Furlani is with the Engineering Research Center, Eastman Kodak
Company, Rochester, NY 14653.
IEEE Log Number 9101771,
0018-9464/91$01.00 0 1991 IEEE
4343
temating magnetic field across the work piece. Since the
work piece is electrically conductive, an eddy current is
induced within it, and heat is generated from the resis-
tance to the eddy current (shown in Fig. 2). Heat is also
generated in magnetic materials from alternating magnet-
ization and hysteresis, but this phenomenon is not ad-
dressed in this work.
Each new application usually requires a unique work
coil design. When designing a coil, there are two criteria
to consider.
1) The impedance of the work coil and work piece (the
load) should be such as to allow for an efficient flow of
energy from the source.
2) The coils must be of the appropriate configuration
or shape so that the induced heat will be concentrated in
the areas of interest.
These two criteria are related in the sense that the load
impedance is, to some extent, a function of the coil con-
figuration.
This paper addresses the first criterion explicitly. Spe-
cifically, a method is given for analyzing the steady-state
performance of an induction heating system relative to
variations in the load. The term steady state, in this con-
text, implies that the electrical and thermal transients have
subsided. The approach taken is to first reduce the system
to an equivalent circuit, and then simulate the behavior of
the circuit as a function of changes in load impedance.
This technique was applied to a Cycle-Dyne Model A50
system which consists of a vacuum tube oscillator
(source), air core transformer (impedance matching cir-
cuit), and a given load. The oscillator is powered by an
Amperex Neotron type 8867 vacuum tube. The load con-
sists of a 0.00035-in-thick aluminum foil (work piece)
fixed at a given height above a two-turn rectangular work
coil having a 3 in side length (Fig. 3).
This work was originally undertaken in order to under-
stand the relation between the heat generated in the foil
and its distance from the coil. In preliminary experiments,
it was observed that the heating ranged from intense to
nonexistent, depending on whether the foil was above or
below a specific optimum distance. The approach out-
lined above accurately predicted this phenomenon. It is
described in full in the following sections.
 -- - ---
4344 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MAGNETICS, VOL. 27, NO. 5, SEPTEMBER 1991

POWER - MATCHING
- LOAD
Since the vacuum tube was operating in a class-C mode,
it could not be represented by a simple linear equivalent
Line A.C. OSCILLATOR NETWORK
SOURCE
circuit with a dependent current source. Instead, data ta-
Feedback bles were created from its characteristic operating curves.
These tables were used to obtain the terminal character-
Fig. 1 . Block diagram of typical induction heating system.
istics for the plate and gate (shown in Appendix 111).
The Advanced Continuous Simulation Language
OSCILLATOR (ACSL) was used to implement the simulation [ 5 ] . In run-
WORK COIL
ning the ACSL program, the gate and plate voltages were
MAGNETIC
calculated and used as input for the data tables. The pro-
FIELD gram generated the vacuum tube terminal currents from
the calculated terminal voltages. In general, any multiport
CURRENT > device (linear or nonlinear) for which terminal voltage/
current characteristics are known or measured can be rep-
resented by a data table within an ACSL program. Load
conditions for which oscillations stopped were deter-
mined, and the results of the simulations were verified
(EDDY CURRENT) with experimental measurements.
Fig. 2. Illustration of induction heating from induced eddy currents
Some of the circuit parameters shown in Fig. 4 were
either measured directly with an impedance analyzer or
inferred from measured data. In particular, the load
Work Piece
(0.00035Inch Thick
[Aluminum Foil)
[ %
y:d;+?
n
):t
impedance was measured with an impedance analyzer and
compared to predictions from finite element analysis
(FEA). Similarly, the transformer inductance and cou-
pling coefficients were inferred from measured data using
linear transformer theory. The analysis of both of these
components is described in the following two sections.
L Source Current
Applied To These
L W o r k Coil Assembly
Impedance Matching Circuit
Terminals
From ac circuit theory, maximum power transfer oc-
Fig. 3. Work coil-work piece system curs when the load impedance is equal to the complex
conjugate of the source impedance. For induction heating
applications, maximum power transfer is achieved by first
INDUCTION
HEATINGSYSTEMANALYSIS determining the equivalent power source impedance Z g ,
and then choosing an appropriate impedance matching
Vacuum Tube Oscillator Analysis
circuit and equivalent load impedance to yield a complex
The high-frequency power supply investigated in this conjugate match at the operating frequency.
work consisted of a class-C oscillator with grid-leak bias The source impedance is typically much higher than the
(Cycle-Dyne Model A50). The operation of the general- load impedance. It is not uncommon for there to be three
ized circuit has been described in numerous texts [3]. The orders of magnitude difference between the two. For ex-
high-frequency power generating component was an Am- ample, a load consisting of a two-turn work coil coupled
perex Neotron type 8867 vacuum tube (manufacturer’s to an aluminum foil work piece (described later) had an
specifications are given in Appendix I). impedance of 0.84 L! at 384 kHz, while the tube imped-
Fig. 4 shows the vacuum tube oscillator circuit. The ance was roughly 1200 Q .
plate current is supplied to the resonant tank circuit made One technique that is used to raise the apparent load
up of C, and L,..Power is extracted through coupling to impedance to a value comparable to that of the vacuum
L,, and the feedback voltage (to sustain oscillation) is tube is to employ an air-core (and in some cases ferrite-
generated through Lf.The gate, plate, and cathode in Fig. core) transformer. The equipment used in this investiga-
4 refer to the vacuum tube terminals. tion (Cycle-Dyne Model A50) employed an air-core
The first step in the simulation of this circuit was the transformer with 35 turns connected to the oscillator cir-
specification of the state variables which were taken to be cuit and two turns connected to the load.
the inductor currents Z2, Z3, Z4, Z, and capacitor voltages In this study, the air-core transformer was modeled in
Vcp, Vcfl, V c m l ,Vcg, Vcm2.Explicit expressions for these terms of an equivalent circuit, as shown in Fig. 5. The
variables were generated by solving nodal and mesh equa- equivalent circuit parameters R,, L,, R,, L,, L,, RL, RL and
tions using the MACSYMA program [4]. Appendix I1 Ri were measured at the desired operating frequencies
contains a printout of a MACSYMA session, during which using a Hewlett-Packard model 4192A impedance ana-
unique solutions were generated for the three coupled cur- lyzer. The other equivalent circuit parameters k,,, M,,,,
rents: Z2, Z3,and Z4. R:, and L j were computed using (1)-(5), which are de-

EGAN AND FURLANI: COMPUTER SIMULATION OF INDUCTION HEATING SYSTEM
Fig. 4. Vacuum tube class-C oscillator circuit.
rived from linear transformer theory [6]:
w2MiS(Ls+ LL)
L; = Lp -
(R, + R ~ +) w ~~ ( L +
, L~)'
Ri = Rp i-
u2M;,(R, + RL)
(R, + RL)2 + w2(Ls + LJ2
R; = Ri + w2LI2
L; = L; + Fig. 5 . Linear transformer, load (work coil-work piece), and equivalent
In particular, the mutual coupling coefficients kps and Mps
were computed using (1) and (2), respectively. The same
procedure was used to calculate the coupling coefficient
( M p f )between the primary coil of the transformer and the
feedback coil.
Once all of the circuit parameters are known and the
tube data are entered into ACSL data tables, one can pro-
ceed with the simulation. Predicted voltage waveforms are
illustrated and discussed later in this paper.
Prediction of Load Impedance
In the previous section, an empirical approach is de-
scribed for obtaining the equivalent circuit parameters for
both the impedance matching transformer and the load.
While this approach is useful for existing hardware, it is
of limited used in the design and optimization of new
hardware. Often, it is desirable to be able to simulate the
performance of an induction heating system for a variety
of load configurations without having to fabricate or mod-
ify hardware. This can be done if one can predict the
impedance of the load from first principles. A method for
doing this is demonstrated in this section.
In induction heating applications, the load usually con-
sists of a work coil in close proximity to a work piece.
The coupling between these two elements in shown in Fig.
2. The work coil, which typically consists of a single turn
(or multiple turns) of copper wire or tubing, usually car-
ries an alternating current (60 Hz-10 MHz) of several
amps to hundreds of amps. This time-varying current in-
4345
RI
LL
(2)
R'"
(3)
(4)
EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
circuits.
duces a time-varying electromagnetic field that cuts across
the work piece. The impedance associated with this phe-
nomenon, as measured at the terminals of the work coil,
has both a resistive (RL)and inductive component (LL).
The impedance is a function of several variables, in-
cluding the configuration or shape of the work coil, the
spacing between the work coil and work piece, the thick-
ness of the work piece, the frequency, and the conductiv-
ity arid permeability (which are a function of tempera-
ture). A general method for computing the impedance
entails the use of electromagnetic field theory. The
method, as described here, is essentially that of Cendes
and Konrad [7]. It entails the use of finite element analysis
(FEA), and applies to loads that have an axisymmetric
geometry or are long enough in one direction so as to jus-
tify a two-dimensional (2D) analysis. A brief description
of the technique and an example of its application are
given in the remainder of this section.
For eddy current problems in which displacement cur-
rents and free charges are negligible and in which all ma-
terials are linear, the steady-state time-harmonic fields are
described by
V x H = J (6)
V x E = -jwB (7)
V * B = O (8)
V - D = O (9)
4346 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MAGNETICS, VOL. 21, NO. 5, SEPTEMBER 1991

where H is the magnetic field strength (A/m), B is the principle, they can be solved simultaneously to obtain the
magnetic field intensity (W/m2), D is the electric dis- field solution. However, it is also possible to obtain the
placement field (C/m2), and E is the electric field inten- field solution by solving (19) subject to a current con-
sity (V /m) , J is the current density (A /m2), and j is the straint (without solving for Y explicitly). This is the ap-
complex number defined by j 2 = - 1 . It is understood that proach taken here. However, before it is introduced, it is
the fields, as defined by (6)-through (9), are complex, instructive to see how (19) applies region by region. For
vector-valued functions and that their physical counter- this application, there are three distinct regions to con-
parts are computed by taking the real part. For example, sider: the work coil, the work piece, and the surrounding
air.
E(x, Y , t ) = Re [JW,
y) exp ( j u t ) ] Since the work coil is connected to an external source,
where E(x, y, t ) represents the physically measurable field. the current density in it can be thought of as consisting of
The Re [ ] and time-exponential phasor notation is sup- two components: an impressed part and an induced part.
pressed throughout most of this section; however, it is The impressed part, which is referred to as J,o,rc,,is due
reintroduced as needed. to an external source and is defined by the gradient of a
Also, it is assumed that the following constitutive re- scalar potential. The induced part is due to the time-vary-
lations for linear and isotropic materials apply: ing B field in the coil itself. Therefore, in the work coil,
J = uE (10) V 2 A - jpuuA = -pJ,,,,,
B = pH (1 1) where
D = €E (12) J,,,,, = -uVV. (21)
where E is the permittivity (F/m), U is the conductivity In the work piece, there is an induced current density de-
(mhos/&, and p is the permeability (H/m). noted by J e d d y , but there is no source term. The appropri-
Equations (6)-(9) represent a system of coupled first- ate equation for this region is
order differential equations. These four equations reduce
to two second-order equations via the introduction of the V 2 A - jpuwA = 0 (22)
potential functions A and V . Specifically, the vector po- with
tential A is defined by
Jddy = -juuA. (23)
B = V x A . (13)
There are no conduction currents in air (U = 0), and so
This relation follows from (8) and the results of Helm- (19) simplifies to
holtz's theorem. Substituting (13) into (7) yields
V 2 A = 0. (24)
V X (E + jwA) = 0 , (14)
For many applications, both A and J,,,,, are unknown.
which implies that Therefore, since there are two unknowns, two indepen-
E + j u A = -VV, (15) dent equations are needed. An approach that is commonly
used is to assume that the work coil terminals are con-
which, in turn, defines the scalar potential V . Combining nected to independent current source with, for example,
this with the constitutive relation (10) gives an expression I(?) = Io cos (ut). The idea is to solve (19) subject to this
for the total current density J: constraint, and then use the solution to compute the
J = -juwA - U VV. (16) equivalent series impedance of the work coil-work piece.
Once the impedance is known, it can be used in the circuit
Substituting the expressions for B and J, (13) and (16), analysis described earlier to predict the performance of
respectively, into (6) yields the second-order equation the system.
V x V x A = -jpuuA - puVV. (17) The constant current constraint implies that
This equation is simplified further by imposing the Cou-
lomb gauge condition (which is needed to uniquely spec-
ify A ) :
where J ( x , y, t) is the physically measurable current den-
V.A=O. (18) sity given by J ( x , y, t) = Re [J(x, y) exp ( j w t ) ] . Accord-
The resulting equation is ingly, (25) can be rewritten as
V 2 A - jpuuA = puVV.
Also, from (91, (121, (15), and (18), it follows that
(19)
I(?) = s
workcoil
Re [ -juuA exp ( j w t ) ] dS

v 2 v= 0. (20)
Equations (19) and (20) are equivalent to (6)-(9), and, in
 ____

EGAN AND FURLANI: COMPUTER SIMULATION OF INDUCTION HEATING SYSTEM 4347

where the integration is over a cross-sectional area of the

work coil, as indicated. Since there are two unknowns, A
and Jsource, the two equations (19) and ( 2 6 ) must be solved
simultaneously. These equations can be solved using fi- Work Pjece
nite element analysis. A key fact that is exploited in this (Foil not lo scale]

approach is that the second integral in ( 2 6 ) is readily ob-

tained for both 2D and axisymmetric problems. The de- Work Coil
tails of this approach are beyond the scope of this paper,
but can be found in detail in [7] and [8].
Briefly, the finite element technique amounts to divid-
ing a given geometry (which may contain many different Source Current
Applied To These
materials) into small elements (collectively known as the Terminals
mesh) and assigning to each element a polynomial that
Fig. 6. Axisymmetric approximation for work coil-work piece system
will approximate the behavior of the vector potential A in shown in Fig. 3 .
that element. The coefficients of these polynomials are

-
arranged in a matrix, and their values are obtained via the
solution of a global matrix equation that reflects all of the
information of the problem, including the location of each Cross-section of
Rlght-Hand %de 01
element relative to its neighbors, the underlying field Aluminum Foil
equations, the boundary conditions, and the material (Work Piece]

properties.
As an example, consider the induction heating system
depicted in Fig. 3 . This geometry represents an actual 1 Cross-section 01
Right-Hand Side
work coil-work piece system that has been used exten- Of COll

sively for noncontact heating/sealing. Note that the ge- Fig. 7 . Right-hand side of axisymmetric representation of the work coil-
ometry of this system is fully three dimensional. How- work piece system.
ever, it was modeled using an axisymmetric
approximation. The geometry depicting this approxima-
tion is shown in Fig. 6 . Basically, the approximation
amounts to ignoring the effects of the 90" bends in the
comers of the wire. Since the actual circuit is square, an
effective radius was used in the approximation such that
the area of the axisymmetric circuit equals that of the
square configuration.
The FEA of this problem is straightforward. The
MAXWELL software from ANSOFT Corporation was
used for the FEA calculation [9]. In particular, the MAX-
WELL Axisymmetric Eddy Current program was used,
and it implicitly solves (19) subject to the constraint (26).
Since the geometry is cylindrically symmetric about a
central vertical axis, the FEA can be demonstrated using
only the right-hand side of the geometry (the left-hand
side being a mirror image).
A cross section of the geometry and the corresponding
mesh for the right-hand side of the work coil-work piece
system (Fig. 6 ) appear in Figs. 7 and 8, respectively. Note Fig. 8 . Finite element mesh for axisymmetric analysis.
that the work coil consists of two turns of copper wire,
and the work piece is a thin sheet of aluminum (0.00035
in thick). dependent source current is maximum). For purposes of
The appropriate boundary condition for this problem is comparison, the flux pattem for the dc case (0 Hz) is
the Dirichlet condition. Once the material properties and shown in Fig. 10. Note that at higher frequencies, the
boundary conditions are set, a frequency is selected, and induced current in the aluminum develops a magnetic field
both the vector potential A and VI/'are computed. All of of its own that tends to oppose that of the work coil.
the other fields can be computed from these two func- The equivalent impedance for the work coil-work
tions. piece, that is, the equivalent series resistance RL and in-
As an example, a solution was obtained using an op- ductance LL, can be computed from the field solution.
erating frequency of 384 kHz. The magnetic flux pattern Since RL is a series resistance, and since by assumption
shown in Fig. 9 was computed for r = 0 (when the in- Z(t) is flowing through it, the energy dissipated per cycle
4348 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MAGNETICS, VOL. 27. NO. 5, SEPTEMBER 1991

tance, yielding
1
-
L - 10
2 sallspace CL dv.
-

Equations (29) and (30) were applied to the work coil-

work piece described above for a variety of frequencies
and configurations. The computed and measured values
of RL and LL are compared in the next section.
F i g . 9. F l u x plot forf = 384 kHz
RESULTS
Oscillator Simulation
As stated above, the motivation for this study was to
understand in a quantitative sense when efficient heating
will occur for a given induction heating system with a
given load. The system components have been described
\ in earlier sections and the load geometry is shown in Fig.
3. Recall that the load consisted of a thin foil of aluminum
I (0.00035 in) situated above a two-turn rectangular work
I coil. Experiments were performed in which the spacing
I between the foil and work coil was varied and the degree
of heating was noted. The following results were ob-
served.
1) For spacing of less than 0.045 in, there was little or
no heating of the foil.
Fig. 10. F l u x plot forf = 0 Hz 2) The onset of heating occurred at a spacing of 0.045
in.
3) The foil heating rate rapidly increased for coil-to-
(e,) is given by
foil spacings up to 0.085 in and gradually decreased for
QL = 1
PT

0
Z2(t)RLdt
spacings beyond 0.085 in.
In order to compare these observations to the theory,
four cases were considered. For each case, the load volt-
where, by assumption, Z(t) = Io cos (wr) and T i s the pe- age was computed and plotted as a function of time. The
riod of one cycle. However, energy is dissipated in both four cases are as follows:
the work coil and work piece. The energy dissipated per 1) foil-to-work coil spacing = 0.015 in (no heating
cycle in these two components is given by should occur)
2) foil-to-work coil spacing = 0.045 in (onset of heat-
Q = s,'ls workcoil U
Jzdv + i workpiece U
Jzdv ing)
3) foil-to-work coil spacing = 0.085 in (efficient heat-
ing)
where 4) coil only, no foil present.
The results of the analyses appear in Figs. 1 1 and 12.
J = Re [J(x, y, z ) exp (jut)] Specifically, in Fig. 1 1 , the load voltage decays rapidly
and when the spacing is 0.015 in. This implies that there

s
d v implies integration over indicated spatial region [20].
By equating expressions (27) and (28) and using the
fact that all of the time variation is time harmonic, one
obtains an expression for the series resistance:
would be little or no heating with this spacing. Similarly,
the oscillation is still decaying (much less rapidly) when
the spacing is 0.045 in. This indicates that some heating
would occur, but that it is not an efficient heating condi-
tion.
In Fig. 12, it is obvious there is no decay in the load

Rt = 1[i
Io workcoil
(JIzdv
U
+ iworkpiece
-1 JdI 2 v ]
U
(29)
voltage oscillations for a spacing of 0.085 in. One can
therefore expect efficient heating for this condition. The
same result is obtained when there is no foil present. This
case is included as a reference. Note that there is excellent
where the current densities have only spatial dependence agreement between the predicted behavior of the load
as the time dependence has been integrated. voltage and the experimental observations in terms of ef-
A similar analysis can be applied to the series induc- fective heating versus air gap spacing.
 ~

EGAN A N D FURLANI: COMPUTER SIMULATION OF INDUCTION HEATING SYSTEM 4349

L O A D V O L T A G E VS. T I M E ISPACING=O.O15 INCH1 LOAD V O L T A G E V S . T I M E ISPACING=0.085 INCHI

100. I I 250. I I

80. 200.

-
cn
60. -
cn
150.
c
J 40. 50 100.
0
2 20. 3 50.
W
a 0.00 y4 0.00
4
50 -20.

'
D
-40.
0
5 -60. 5 -150.-
J J
-80. -200.- I
100.
0,000
' .00002 .00004 .00006 .00008
I
.00010
-250.
0.000
' I I I

.00002 .00004 .00006 .00008

I
.00010
T I ME SECONDS I T I ME I SECONDS I

LOAD V O L T A G E V S . T I M E ISPACING=0.045 INCH1 LOAD VOLTAGE VS. T I M E ( C O I L ONLY - NO F O I L 1

600.
250.
1
- 400. 1 A
in
F

d> 200.

g 0.00
+
d

, ~200.
0
J

0
J -400.

-250.
0.000
' .00002 .00004 .00006 .00008
I
.OOOlO
600.
0.000
I
.00002 .00004 .00006 .00008 .00010
I

T I ME ISECONDS I T I ME SECONDS 1

Fig. 11. Plots of load voltages versus time for load conditions in which no Fig. 12. Plots of load voltage versus time for load conditions in which
heating occurred. Top: Coil-to-foil spacing was 0.015 in. Bottom: Coil-to- heating occurred. Top: Coil-to-foil spacing was 0.085 in. Bottom: Coil-to-
foil spacing was 0.045 in. foil spacing was infinite (no foil).

Work Coil- Work Piece Impedance
The impedance of the load depicted in Fig. 3 was com-
puted and measured at room temperature for several dif-
ferent spacings and frequencies. The work piece is a
0.00035-in-thick aluminum foil (a = 3.88 * lo7 mho/m)
and the work coil, which is rectangular, consists of two
turns of copper wire (a = 5.8 * lo7 mho/m). The wire
has a 0.060 in diameter, and there is a 0.080 in spacing
between the two turns. The work coil measures 3 in on a
side (defined by the outermost wire). For the axisymme-
tnc approximation, the radii to the center of the inner and
outer wire were 1.53 and 1.67 in, respectively. They were
computed based on keeping the area subtended by the ax-
isymmetric coil equal to that of the rectangular coil.
Four different load conditions were analyzed corre-
sponding to the four cases studied in the oscillator simu-
lation described above. The first condition (no heat) was
with a foil-to-work coil spacing of 0.015 in and an oper-
ating frequency of 450 kHz. The computed values of re-
sistance and inductance are RL = 0.269 Q and LL = 0.153
pH, which compare to measured values of RL = 0.344 Q
and LL = 0.189 pH.
The second condition (onset of heating) was for a fre-
quency of 416 kHz and a foil-to-work coil spacing of
0.045 in. The computed values are RL = 0.202 Q and LL
= 0.222 p H , and the corresponding measured values are
RL = 0.249 Q and LL = 0.269 pH.
The third condition (efficient heating) was with a foil-
to-work coil spacing of 0.085 in and an operating fre-
quency of 384 kHz. The computed values are RL = 0.155
Q and LL = 0.289 pH, while the measured values are RL
= 0.185 Q and LL = 0.343 pH.
The last condition was with the work coil only (no foil
present) and a frequency of 377 kHz. The computed
impedance is RL = 0.0204 Q and LL = 0.636 pH, with
corresponding measured values of RL = 0.024 Q and LL
= 0.729 pH.
Note that there is a 13-20% difference between the
computed and measured data. The main reason for this
difference is that an axisymmetric approximation was used
to model a rectangular work coil. The authors have com-
puted the impedance for numerous axisymmetric work
coils, and have found the error to be on the order of 1-
5 % . Nevertheless, even with the crude approximation
used here, the calculated impedance values are accurate
enough to be used for a simulation of system perfor-
mance.
4350 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MAGNETICS, VOL. 21, NO. 5, SEPTEMBER 1991

CONCLUSIONS
The behavior of an induction heating system can be ac-
curately predicted from first principles using a combina-
tion of nonlinear circuit analysis and the impedance pre-
dicting capability of finite element analysis. The
technique, as described in this paper, has been success-
fully applied to several induction heating configurations.
Once the initial models have been developed, the system
can be studied parametrically and optimization can be
achieved in a relatively short period of time. The advan-
tage of this analysis is that it eliminates the costly and
time-consuming trial-and-error approach that is typically
employed in bringing a new or modified induction heating
system on line.

APPENDIXI
AMPEREXMODEL8867 TUBECHARACTERISTICS

ANODE VOLTAGE(V1

ANODE VOLTAGE ( V )
 4351
EGAN AND FURLANI: COMPUTER SIMULATION OF INDUCTION HEATING SYSTEM

ANODE VOLTAGE ( V )

8867 CONSTANT CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS

APPENDIXI1
MACSYMA PROGRAMMING
SESSIONTO SOLVEFOR 12, I , , I4
load('[egan.modeli]osmdint.mac");
(C3) values;
03) [Vl, V2, V3, V4, V5, V6, DI2, DI3, DI41
(U)
vl;
(D4) V201 = - DI3DT MPS + DI4DT MPF + DIZDT LP
((3)v2;
05) V301 = DI4DT MSF + DIZDT MPS - DI3DT LS
((33) v3;
06) V601 = DI3DT MSF - DIZDT MPF - DI4DT LF
(C10) solve ([vl,v2,~3l,[di2dt,di3dt,di4dtl);
4352 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MAGNETICS, VOL. 21, NO. 5 , SEPTEMBER 1991

(C12) di3:part@art(dlO,l),Z);
(D12) DI3DT = - (LP (- MSF V601- LF V301) + MPF MPS V601+ MPF' V301
+ (LF MF!S - MPFMSF)WOl)/(LP ('MSF2 -LFLS) - 2 MPF MPS MSF + LFMPS2
+ LSMPF')
(C13) di4:part@art(dl0,1),3);
(D13) DI4DT = - (LP (- LS V601- MSF V301) + mp52 V601 + MPF MPS V301
+ W S MSF - Is MPF)V2Ol)/(LP (MSF' - LF LS)- MPF MPS 2 MSF+ LF MPS'
+ LsMPF2)
((214) fortran(di2);
DI2DT = WS*(MSF*V601+ LF*V301) +MPP(-LS+V601-MSF*V301) + (MSF**2-LF
+ LF*MPS**2 + LS*MPF**2
1 *LS)*K?Ol)/(LP*(MSF**2-LF*LS)-2*MPF*MPS*MSF
2)

((215) fortran(di4);
DI4DT = -(LP*(-LS*V601-MSF*V30l)+MPS**2*V601+MPF*MPS*V301 +(MPS*MSF 1
-LS*MPF)*V2Ol)l(LP*(MSF**2-LF*IS)-2*MF'F*MPS*MSF+ LF*MPS**2 + L S M P
2 FO.2)

(CU) load('[egan.modelilosmdintt.mac");
(C17) a l ;
(D17) DDDT = - (LP (- MSF V601- LF V301) + MPF MPS V601+ MPF' V301
+ (LF MPS - MPF MSF) V2Ol)/(LP (MSF' - LF IS)- MPF MPS
2 MSF+ LF MPS'
+ IsMPF2)
(C18) a2:
(Dl8) V301 = I3 (RS + RL) + DI3DT LL
(C20)solv~[al,a21,~di3dt,v3011~;
@20) [[DI3DT = ((LP MSF - MPF MPS)V601 + (MPF MSF - LF MPS) V201
+ LF LP (I3 RS + I3 RL) + MPF2 (- I3 RS - I3 RL))
/(LPMSF2-2MPFMPSMSF + L F M P S 2 + (LS + LL)MPF2-LFLPLS-LFLLLP),
V301= ((LLLPMSF-LLMPFMPS)V601+ (LLMPFMSF-LFLLMPS)V201
+LPMSF2(I3RS+I3RL)+LFMPS2(I3RS+I3RL)+LSMPF2(I3RS+I3RL)
+ LF LPLS (- I3 RS- I3 RL) + MPFMPSMSF(- 2 I3 RS- 2 I3 RL))
/(LPMSF2-2MPFMPSMSF + LFMPS2+ (LS + LL)MPF'-LFLPLS-LFLLLPHI
(C21) di3:part@art(dZO,l),l);
(D21) DI3DT = ((LP MSF - MPF MPS) V601 + (MPF MSF - LF MPS)V201
+ LF LP (I3 RS + I3 RL) + MPF' (- I3 RS - I3 RL))
/(LPMSF2-2MPFMPSMSF + L F M P S 2 + (LS + LL)MPF'-LFLPLS-LFLLLP)
((22) v3vOl:part@art(d20,1),2);
(D22) V301= ((LLLP MSF - LL MPF MPS) V601+ (LL MPF MSF - LF LL MPS) V201
+LPMSF2~3RS+I3RL)+LFMPS2(I3RS+I3RL)+ISMPF2(I3RS+I3RL)
+ LF LP IS (- I3 RS - I3 RL) + MPF MPS MSF (- 2 I3 RS- 2 I3 RL))
/(LPMSF2-2MPFMPSMSF + LFMPS2 + (LS + LL)MPF'-LFLPLS-LFLLLP)
(C23) fortran(di3);
DDDT ((LP*MSF-MPF*MPS)*V601+ ~F*MSF-LF*MPS)*V201+LF*LP*(I3*RS +
1 I3*RL) + MPF**2*(-13*RSI3*RL))/(LP*W**2-2*MPF*MPS*MSF
+ LF*MPS**
2 2 + (LS+ LL)*MPF**2-LF*LP*SLF*LL*LP)

((24) fortran(v3vOl);
V301 = ((LL*LP'MSF-LL*MPF*MPS)+VGOl+ (LL*MPF*MSF-LF*LL'MPS)*V201+ LP
1 *MSP*2*(I3*RS+ 13*RL)+WMPS**2*(IS*RS+ I3*RL) +LS*MPF**2*(I3*RS+
2 I3*RL) +LF*LP*LS*(-13*RS13*RL) + MPPMPS*MSF*(-2*13*I*I3*RL))/
3 (LP*MSF**2-2*MPFaMPS*MSF+ IPMPS**2 + (Ls+ LL)*MPF**2-LF*LP*SLF*L
4 L*LP)
EGAN AND FURLANI: COMPUTER SIMULATION OF INDUCTION HEATING SYSTEM 4353

I11
APPENDIX
ACSL PROGRAM
program owillator simulation ( cle-Dyne A501 no foil
constant rl=o.o41 ~ B p u i v a d resistance"
L
constant I1 =7.90.47 $"equivalent load inductance"
constant cp =4.73e-O9 $"tank capacitor"
constant rp=O.78 ("tank inductor resistance"
constant 1p=47.7e-O6 $"tank inductor"
constant m = 0.017 $"seeonday inductor resistance"
constmt 1s=2.5147 Yseeondary inductor"
constant rf= 0.25 $"fedback inductor resistance"
constant If= 15.54e-06 $"feedback inductor"
constant cfl = 1.- $"feedback coupling capacitor"
constant rml= l . l l e + 0 3 $"grid meter series inductor resistance"
constant lm = 3.6e-03 $"grid meter series inductor"
constant cml= 1.07e-10 $"grid meter aeries capacitor"
constant cm2 = 1.oe-08$"grid meter shunt capacitor"
constant rm2= 1.0 $"grid meter resistor"
constant kps = 0.83 Vprimarylmndary coupling"
constant kpf=0.58 $"primary/feedback coupling"
constant kst=0.0 $"seeondary/feedback coupling"
constant rg=4oooO.O $"series gate resistor"
constant cg= 1.Oe-09 $"aeries gate capacitor"
constant i2ic=O.O $"tank inductor current initial condition"
constant i3ic=O.O $"secondary inductor current initial condition"
constant i4ic=O.O $"feedback inductor current initial condition"
constant i5ic=0.0 $"grid meter series inductor current initial cond"
constant vcpic=O.O $"tank capacitor voItage initial condition"
constant vc 'c 0 0 $"series gate capacitor voltage initial condition"
constant vcRiclO.0 $"grid coupling capacitor voltage initial cond"
constant vcmlic=0.0 $"meter series capacitor voltage initial cond"
constant vcmZic=O.O $"meter shunt capacitor voltage initial cond"
constant vO1 =O.O $"ground reference"
constant vbs = -8.k+ 08 $"plate/cathode bias voltage ramp slope"
table ipt,2,10,13/-800.0,0.0,100.0,200.0,~.0,400.0,500.0,~.0 ,...
700.0,800.0,5000.0,0.0,125.0,260.0,375.0,500.0,750.0,1000.0 ,...
15w.0,2OOO.0,3000.0,4000.0,5000.0,...
0.00,0.00.0.00,0.00,0.00,0.00,0.00,0.00,0.00,0.00 ,...
0.00,0.00,0.00.0.00,0.00,0.01,0.01,0.02,0.03,0.04 ,...
0.00,0.00,0.22,0.50,0.50,0.64,0.64,0.82,0.82,0.90,...
0 00 000022 0 50092 1 2 2 1 3 0 150 150 1 Eo,...
0 ~ ~ ~ 0 ~ ~ ~ 0 ~ 2 4 ~ 0 ~ ~ ~ 0...~ 9 8 ~ 1 ~ 4 8 ~ 1 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 2 8 ~ 2 ~ 6 4 ~
0.00.0.00,0.24,0.56,1.00,1.sO,2.00,2.58,3.20,3.~ ,...
0.00,0.00,0.26,0.60,1.08,1.60,2.14,2.72,3.38,4.00,...
0.00,0.00,0.27,0.64,1.14,1.66,2.22,2.82,3.50,4.20,...
0.00,0.00,0.31,0.68,1.18,1.74f.36,3.00,3.76,4.44 ....
0.00.0.00,0.33,0.76,1.26,1.80,2.44.3.16,3.92,4.60 ,...
0.00,O.OO 0 39,O.M 138 2 00,2.62,3.36,4.10,4.82 ,...
0 00 0 00'048 0 95'1'50f:12 2 80,3.52 4 28 5 OO,...
0~00~0~00~0~sO~1~09~1~66,2.26~3~00,3.74~4~50~5~20/

800.0 a.0
tablei 269/-800000500.0600.0.700.0 ,...
h . 0 4% 0 O..:.
600.0'750 0'1OOO b lsbd.0 2bOO.O,.._
0.OOO:0.odo:0.01iob,0.0&,0.~,0.072~,...
0.OOO 0 OOO 0 00120 0 02900 0 OM00 0 06300....
0.000'0'000'0~00130'0'oo2so'0~03OOO~0~0~00,...
0.OOO'O:OOO'O 00144'0'00264'0 00400 0 01700....
0.000~0.OOO~0~00152~0~00272~0~oo44a~0~00,...
0.OOO 0 OOO 0 00160 0 00276 0 00500 0 00800,...
O.OOO'O'OOO'000148'0'00261'0~~'0'0016,...
0.000:0:OOO:0:~:0~001~~0~~92~0~00732,...
0.OOO.0.OOO.0.00016.0.00100,0.00200,0.00476/
constant tJ3top=1.044
nsteps nstp = loo00
cinterval cint=2.0e-07
minterval mint = LOe-20
algorithm ialg= 1
initial
pi =4.0*atan(l.O)
mps = kps*qrt(lp*ls) $"primarylsecondary mutual inductance"
mpf =kpPaqrt(lp*lf) S"primary1feedback mutual inductance"
msf= Wsqrt(ls*lf) $"secondary/feedback mutual inductance"
ooId =0.0
b l d = 0.0
ipold=0.0
igold =0.0
pavint=O.O
Igmavi=O.O
ipavi = 0.0
end $"of initial"
derivative
vb = vbs*(ramdO.O)-ramp(5.0e-06))
V601=v6-v01
v301=v3-vOl
V201=V2-v01
vbOl =vb-vOl

dvcfl.vcflic)
l n !%2E
vcml= integ(dVcm1,vcmlic)
d v c d = i7/cm2
vcm2 = intag(dvcm2,vdic)
dvcg=ilO/
veg= inw&,vcgic)
il= ipi2
DI2=(MPS*(MSF*V601 +LF*V301)+MPF*(-LS*V6Ol-MSF*V3Ol)+(MSF**2-LF ...
+ LF*hPS**2 + LS*MPF**2)
*Ls)lmOl)l(4P*(MSF**2-LF.LS)-2*hPF*MPS*MSF
12= integ(di2,dic)
 4354 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MAGNETICS, VOL. 21. NO. 5 , SEPTEMBER I991

D13- ((LP*MSF-MPF*MPS)*V601 +(MPFoMSF-LF*MPS)*V2O1 +LF*LP*(I3*RS+ ...

I3*RL)+ MPFo*2*(-IS*~13*R)/(LP*MSF**Z-2*MPF*MPS*MSF +LF*MPS**...
2 + ILS+LL~*MPFo*2-LE"LP*ISLF*LL*LP)

R**91
k =&g(di4,i4ic)
di5= (v9-vlO)flm
i5= inydi5,i5ic)
i6=i4-1 16
i7 = i5 + i6-18
ilO=i i9
i8 = (vkvb)/rm2
i9 = (v8-vll)lrg
vp=vl-vb
Vl=dl+VCD
v2=vl '2. *
V3 =Vi; + (ieL*LP*MSF-LL*MPF*MPS)*V~l+ (LL*MPF*MSF-LF*LL*MPS)*VZOl+ LP ...
*MSF**2*(I3*RS+ 13") +WMPS**2*(I3*RS+ I3*RL) +LS*MPF**Z*(I3*RS+ ...
I3*FU.) + LF*LP*LS*(-I3*RS-I3*RL) + MPF*MPS*MSF*(-Z*I3*R2*13*~))/...
(LP*MSP*2-2*MPF*MPS*MSF+ LF*MPS**2 + &3! + LL)*MPF**Z-LF*LP*LSLF*L...
T.*T.P\
;42~i3*rs
v5 =vdi3*rl
v6=v7 + i4.d
v7 =v8 +vcfl
v8 =vb +vcml + vcm2
~9 = v a i 5 * m i
v10 =vb +vcm2
vii=v8-vq
vg= v l 1-vb
mv= inted(i3**2)*rl.0.0)

&hedule &t :xp. -vb-vp

~ t @ ~ ~ p o r . i 2 . @1oooO.O)
.
d i i imt
s$v-pold)/(t-told)
pold = p v
I- = (iav-igold)/(t-told)
igold = i p v
ipavi = (ipav-ipold)/(t-told)
ipold = ipav
told =t
end $"of pavint"
end $"of discrete"
end

ACKNOWLEDGMENT [lo] D. H. Lowther and P. P. Silvester, Computer-Aided Design in Mag-

The authors would like to thank J. Sproul, who pro-
vided careful and invaluable guidance in the preparation
of this manuscript. The authors would also like to thank
Dr. L. F. Pizziconi, whose comments led to significant
improvements to the text.
REFERENCES
[ l ] E. J . Davies and P. G. Simpson, Induction Heating Handbook.
London: McGraw-Hill, 1979.
[2] S. Zinn, S. L. Semiatin, I. L. Harry, and R. D. Jeffress, Elements of
Induction Heating: Design, Control, and Applications. Palo Alto,
CA: Electric Power Res. Inst., 1988.
[3] G. M.Chute and R. D. Chute, Electronics in Industry, 4th ed. New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1971.
[4] "MACSYMA," developed by M.I.T. Lab. for Computer Science/
Mathlab Group, Cambridge, MA for NASA, Office of Naval Re-
search, U.S.Department of Energy, and U.S. Air Force.
[5] Advanced Continuous Simulation Language. Concord, MA: Mitch-
ell and Gauthier Associates, 1986.
[6] W. H. Hayt, Jr. and J. E. Kemmerly, Engineering Circuit Analysis,
2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971.
[7] Z. J. Cendes and A. Konrad, Elecrric Machine Modeling and Power
System Constraints in Electric and Power Problems: The Mathemat-
ical Challenge, A. M. Erisman, K. W. Neves, and M. H. Dwarak-
anath, Ed. Philadelphia: SIAM, 1980, p. 460.
181 J. Weiss and Z. A. Cendes, "One-step finite element method for mul-
ticonductor skin effect problems," presented at the IEEE PES 1982
Winter Meeting, New York, NY, paper 82WM102-2, Jan. 1982.
[91 "MAXWELL," developed by Ansoft Corp., Pittsburgh, PA, version
I 4, 1989.
nerics. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. 1986.
Note: Richardson Electronics, Ltd. recently purchased the Amperex
power tube line, but they were allowed to retain use of the Amperex name.
For more information, call (800) 348-5580.
Lawrence R. Egan received both the B.S. and M.S. degrees in electrical
engineering from Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, in
1980 and 1987, respectively.
His academic areas of concentration have been in electromagnetics and
high-frequency, high-power devices. From 1981 to 1990 he was employed
by the Manufacturing Research and Engineering Organization, Eastman
Kodak Company, Rochester, NY. During that time, he developed induc-
tion, dielectric, and microwave heating systems for manufacturing and
packaging.
Mr. Egan is a Past President of the New York Pi chapter of Tau Beta
Pi, and is currently a member of the International Microwave Power Insti-
tute.
Edward P. Furlani received the B.S. degree in electrical engineering in
1977, the M.S. degree in physics in 1980, and the Ph.D. degree in physics
in 1982, all from the State University of New York at Buffalo.
His academic background is primarily in the area of mathematical phys-
ics, with an emphasis on quantum mechanics and quantum field theory.
Since 1982 he has been employed at the Research Laboratories, Eastman
Kodak Company, Rochester, NY. His research activities have included
work in the areas of CCD scanning simulation, linear systems analysis,
magnetic recording analysis, and applied partial differential equation the-
ory. His current research interests are in the field of applied electromag-
netic analysis. His experience in this area includes the analysis and design
of electromechanical devices, the design of magnetizing fixtures, the anal-
ysis of high-energy permanent magnets, the analysis of nonuniformly mag-
netized materials, and the computation of device impedance using field-
based techniques.