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Hans Kelsen-Pure Theory of Law PDF
Hans Kelsen-Pure Theory of Law PDF
OF LAW
bJ HANS KELSEN
_............. _--
_ ..
MAX l\;NIGHT
..........
,.
PURE THEORY
OF LAW
by HANS KELSEN
•
vi TRANSLATOR'S PREFACJ;:
nOl a, the final woro but'" an ent..p,i.., that would wne/i' by
CQutinued additi""'_ "'linemenu. Ot improvement. in ~enL
Thi' tnn,lation, camully checked by the amhor, "'present, •
cOJtlpromi'" bo,tween a content,-wn.ciou. auth", and a furm-wn-
JCious transl.t"". Kel'en', irom""'" ."pe,ienc. with mi,intttpre.
tation' of hi' worb as a mmlt of "elegant" tl"anslations had to be
the deciding faetol" when .."",ingly repetitiou. "" G..manic_
"""nding passage,. e"punged from"" «pbr.ued. in an e..litt dult
of the t'an,lation .. too literally milT01"lng the ""iginal, w..e ..-
.un-ed. In view of the de.. iled Contents po.ge an ind.,. was
di,pen.!ed with.
A pe",onal note moy bo, pennitt.d. It w.. my good fonune to
Oludy under Profe"'" Kelsen lJoth a, the UOlve",ity 01 Vienna
and at the Un;"e",ity of California. My admint'on r", the JCQpe,
integrity, and con,'oteney of hi' the"'Y hoo Wen mateh.d only
by my '''peet for bi. humanity and mod..ty, and my aHrctinn
for the man him.elf. The long work.ing association with him pr0-
vided me with my most """'an/ing intellectual experience.
I would like to expre.. my app«cinion to hofessor Albert
Eh«m;weig of the Uni,·..,i,y 01 Califomia L.a.w School in Betk..
ley wh_ initiative made thi. work. possible, and whose good
ollie'" srcu<rd the ,pon..,nhip 01 the Imtitute of Social Scienc,,"
and of the L.a.,.. Schoo!", Committee f"" In'e-.nation.l UgaJ
Studi...
M"" Knigh,
CONTENTS
j_
"mg. """'" ,or;
ej Nonn ,nd 1I,IUi"
Ib, SOC,,[ Oiikt
"
'I
1EIF-£e;:;g;;;,w oruer.
t "tot
~i
'I'. Ygal §l'lP""'" r<_
~nikntUSn
",}'Mo, $llltu"'~1
Upl C\>unooni"
.::
II JAW AND MORALS 59
•"
,. Mono.! 1>0,,", A. Soci,I No"'"
S_ Monl. A> 1l<r:1"oon 01 '",..... llli'hi"."
.. Mot>I•• 0 Pooi,.., !<OTK<><JC'>< Oid" 6.
IQ I,,, A. 0 P.... 01 MOl1!li 00
1I. lltlotivity of Mor>1 VIllU< 0,
n. Sepon,;"n 01 Leg'] .nd MOl1!! OtdCTI •
's. IUI.-Guo" <>t Lilt ,hTOiijib Moral>
•
Ill. LAW AND SCIENCE
' •. !.<gol So,,", A. the Obr' 01 ,ho Sci<"", 011.>",
l'
,.,.
,
VlIl
,.,.
IY. THE STATIC ASPECT OF
LAW 108
'1- The S'ndK>n
'I Tho s..,>ronn ol N.tion.1 .nd Im""";"",,l 1..0"
b Th< 0<11<:, ('ho Wrontl io No, />loP'>:>n bu, Condi,io" 01
".
~u.
.8. Lq;,j Obllg"ion (D",y) aoo illblll'J '"
'I Log.1 Oblip'ion and s.."",lon
".'"
b Lq.1 Obllll',ion .nd ''(Iugll'"
<) Liab.ill'y
d) I"OJ,Wo.1 and COU«tiV< Li.oblll'J ....".,,
~ ....,,
Liob.ill'J llJoed on F.ult 'nd AbooI"l< Li.blll'J m
1'h< Obl~tion ul Il<l'"""ion
GnU",,;., Li.bili'J .... A_ul< Liabl]iry
'9- .. in • SUbjoni.. 5<no<; Rlgh, and Ao,bo:i..tion
a) IUfh' aud
<l Th< "R13h'"
d) Th. "lUib'"
Til< "Rlgh'"
Obl~'IQn
bj Jw od ..", .nd Jw in 1><"""""'
Lenlly P",,,<t<d In'......
l4:a1 Po_
AI • l'oo.i,i,. P,rnlJ"iou
'",'".
'"
:~
,u. 2 Th. Poli,lcal Righ"
'~'J to Ac<; Comp<"""'; <I" Gnn",p' of "O~.nH
a) Capaci'y to Au (H.ndlt<nt"iihi,k<ilj
b) Gnmp<l<no<
'"'"
,.'
<) Th. Gn,o«p' 01 "(lopn"
". L<:f;.1 Capaci'y (llu/u'li/UtUil); R'p1U<"..tion
, •. Tho !.<pI R<l.Ition
,,'
'"
",
55. Th< L<pI Sl.lbj<c!; the PaooD ,0
aj Th. Lq;.l Subi«' ,0
h) Th' Pbl·tical P""""
,,.'"
, Th, jUm'l< P"""n (Corpo"""")
d) Th' u,ioti, P"""" A,.n Acting Subjot'
P.""" ,"
",
'.
.) The "ri"ie a Sl.lbj«< 01 Oblip,lonl .nd R13h"
l} Til< ",;,t", p.,...,., n Au.ili.ry eo.;",p, 01 L<pI
Sci.n«
tl The Abolition of '''' Du.I)... ol RJgh' .0<1 Obliption
'.'
v THE DYNAMIC ASPECT OF
LAW
Nornl
a The Mnn;
>to<' ,
Th. R...,n for <he
• ..-
•
..,
•
..'"
.".....,
n,
• • .
..••
VI. LAW AND STATE '79
w ,,1,It..
.., , "on 5"
.rol'" n,n
,,,on 0 < W ... .."
Vlll. INTERPRETATION
lS Th. N.m", of [n'''p ''on .,
'j Rob,;,·. [nde.ni or ,he L..... ppl,;ng A<'
bj Intention.1 'ode.n'ten"" of the 1.>"·'PP'l'ng ,I.e<
ej !In;n,,nd<xl lOO<bn;,,,",,,,.1 the l.>>M.pply'o& A<'
dj n.. I..>w '0 /Ie Appll"" 1J • F"'me
e) The Sn<>ll<d Meth.,,, nf 10'<TJ,'''''''ion
.."'
~
~
•
•
•. Til. Acr ....... ITlI ~ "lEAS'S"
If we dilI "'ia'e b<:,ween wllunli and JOCial aeJ(nc..-,;ond rhere-
by betw mlUrc and .ode'y at two diuin'l obj('C.. of ocicnlif..::
«JgIlitloo tht' quntiOJ1 an- ",h<1htt .he ..irncc of 1.>.. ;. • ""unl
or alOtiaJ lCknce: wh<oth.... law is. natun] or a..aaJ phCDOCD<1'lOll.
SOl' 1M dan drlu..iPOioo becwfm ",,,"'....... -'ny is DOl euy.
b«:a_ ooxirtr. undeuu>od as ~ ""..... li,-"" "'I"1hcr 0( human
bei........., be rhou&f!. aI as pan 01 life in JrDftal aad i>nIa: of
.....urt- JInMin, Ia........,.. wbat is ,""'.'niEr 10 calle<l--«alU at
lcau panly to be fOOCed in ... lU~ and to ""v•• ,ural~ ""ill·
M ....
_b
IUldo:ntood by 0Ibrn. This ..,bjoni"" roeaning may. but need .....
lltCNa.ily. coincid.. wilh itt objecti"" meaJI.inc, thai it. the 1I>C'aIl'
q the :oct haucwniina; to 1M I;Iw. F<Jl" a;lJ:Ilplt, l ~, .....los
t_..
_ dispooiliom, .... ti... in writi"ll wh.>. is to h.>pptn t(l Ioi< tor.
lortcinfs wbtn ht dits. Tht ..,bjoniv........ni"ll of lhil KI is a
L Objecti"""" how....... it is DOt, Iota..... _
formaIiti... wft.. 00l obltrvtd. Supp<>lt a otCttt organiat;"" In.
t ding to rid lh.. 1Iaiion of ... bYtni,.., tl......... ts, condtm ... to
lqpl
4. TII1' N..-M
.) TIr.. NOTm I'll • $(Ir...... 01 /nlnpd_/i,,"
Th.. cxltmal fact w~ obj«tive m..aning i. a ltg.al or iI1tg:o.l act
it .l..·..).. an ",...nt that can be' ptrc..h·ed by th (beau... i,
occun iu ,imt and .paCt) and th"Teferr.. a na", l ph..nomtnon
d.ttrmined by cau..lI,y. How.. v••. this ",...'" as .uc:h••••n el.·
m....t of n.lu..... ;, no< an object of l<:g.al rognition. Whll< tum. Ihi,
....mt inlo a legal or illegal xt i. not its pbyoical "",iIlC'llCe. d..",..
mined by th.. Ia,.. of couIIlilr pr....ailing in noWIT. bu. the obja:.
......w "NO N"TUU
"
•
...ppootd to ais< (<ba. m.. "0UJhc~ is ,'<llid)~"ftI if lhc: will.ea>eI
lO u.isI ~hOIe oubjcctin mnning i. io----H we UIWlX that an ladi-
"id..... ought «> b......... in • «TUn. "'....,. nn:I if to. dots not boo.
ollhc: let ..-llooot mcanin& is <.bat be ought 10 bd\a..., in lbi. way_
Th.nI the> Moupt,~. tlx objoaive mnnin&" 01 an act. iJ • olid
...... binding upoe lhc: addraKC. lba
i. is dilftltd. Tbt ousb' which is
incI'' ' ' ....
the It whom
bj«tin II>aDi.ni ot an an
objta"..,
of will ;,; aloo <he mean,. . of this act. if <hi, act baI; be«>
invest'" with th.. meonilllo if ;t hu beftI au~'-d by. norm.
which lhttrk..-e hu the chat'ICtC't 01. "higherw norm.
The command of I pnpter 10 tum o'".r to him I «rUin
amoun, 01 m.,,,,"I' h;u ,he ...me wbjtt.i".. mnning "' .he com-
mInd of an income..... oIIiel.I, namdy ,h.. ,h. individual It
"'hom ,h. command i. diroculd ought to p"y """,..,hillg. Hut only
,h. ",>mmlnd of Ihe .. fl\c,.I, nOt ,b.! of the gang>'cr, hal ,h. meln-
ing of. valid non'll, binding Up"" the add.aocd indiyiduaL Only
1M om oldc., nO( the olher. is • nOTl'll'p""i,ing aco. ~u.., lhe
oII">cioJ', ""t i•• ulhoriztd by ...... law. "'ben:u Lbe pupler'. act is
not baKd on such an luthor;.unl nonn. TIu: lo:giolati,'c OCI, which
lUbj«linly Iw the ~nil\l ot ....'ltl. aloo I\.u 1M objtcliW'
mcaning----thal is. ~ lQ~ntna of a mid nonn---b«<IuK the mn-
sUIUI"" hal OODftrmi thit obj«t.i.~ _inti up"" !he IqilJatiW'
act. TM art ",hoM -inc io !he coruti<ution hao not only the
Itlbjtcti.~ but aloo lhe objecti"", _inti of MOf.tIht.~ that it to
lay. ~ cbano<..... of a bindi. . no<m. if-in """" it it the hiltan.
ully " - a>nKiIUlion-wc prcsuPf'lle in .... juriJUc tltinki"lilta'
..., """,,I to btlta,~ _the constiluti"" p<a<ribeo.
If a a:wt in .-.:I .u another ....... loo- bdp, tM ... ~jfrfn..
mo:aning of tltil ~ _ it t1u1 Ih~ oth,.,. ought 10 help bi",. Bul in
an objeaiW' sntSt I>t ought 10 Mlp (tha, it to laY. "" it morally
oblip to ""Ip) only if a gatenl """" eSlObli.Md, for ilUt20ntt.
by the round~1 of. uliSioo-b valid that CQffiIJlJlnW. MLov~ you.
n~ishbot:' And this lauu nonn iI t>bjttt.ivdr ...lid only if it i.
ptt$uppoKd thai one oughl to beh...e a. th~ religious found., has
eomm.nd.,d. Such a p't$uppt><i!ion, establi.hing the objeclive
validity or the nomu uf. moral or I'lal otd...., will h~,. be called
• /J4Jie no"" (Grundno","),' Therefore, the obj«,;vc nUdity of
'alill L
lAW "''0 ~'''TUU ,
a nOl'IIl which i. the .ubiceti_e meaning of an act of ",iIlth.t m....
ought 00 bthave in a certain way. d<>a not loll",,' from the factual
act, that i. to ....y, from an iJ, but .gain from a nonn .uthOTi,ing
thi.""t, that i, 00 say, from an ought.
NcmtU "ceOTding to which m.... ought to btha_e in " c......io
way can abo bt created by cu.OOm, If m.... who JOCially live to-
ge,her bth.ve lot Klme time and undet the ..me circumst.oce" in
the ..nle way, then" tendency_th .. i•. psychologically. a will_
come. into an exi.tencc within the men to bth,ve a' the membt...
of thc group habitually do. At fi ... t the .uhjcetive meaning of the
acll ,hat constitute ,he CUStOm i. not an oughl. But lattl', wh....
thel<: at.. have e"uted for some time, the idea arises in the individ·
ual membtr th.. he ought to bthave in the manner in which the
othor membtrs customarily behave. ,nd at the same time the will
ar;oes that the othet member. ought to behave in that ",me way. 11
OIle mttnbtr of the group dOt> not bth.ve in the mannet in which
the other membt", n",omarily bth.v., th.... hi. bthaviOT will bt
di....pprm'ed by the othen," COntrory to their will. In this way the
cu"om htcome. the exptesoion 01 a collcetive will "hOOt .ubice.
th'e meaning i. an oughl. However, ,he .ubicetive meaning 01 the
acU that constitute the cullom am lit intctprtted .. an objec,ively
nlid oOtm only il the custom h.. betn in"ituted by a higher
nolm .. a nOtm<Teating f.ct. Since c"'OOm i. comtituted by hu_
man acts, ",'tit nOTro> created hy custom are created by acU of
human bthavior. and are thttefort-lile the nOl'IIl' which are the
.ubjecti.. meaning of legi.la';,', acu--"pooited" or "poohive"
norms. C""om may "eale moral or l'galoorms. Legal norm. a",
c",.ted by cu.tom, if the cot",itution of the social group ins'i'ut..
Cu.tom_ .pecially delined CUstom-a> norrn<",ating fact.
Finally it is to bt noted tha,. norm need no< bt only the mean·
ing 01 a ",al act of will; it can abo bt the content of an act of
,hinking. Thi. i> the cue if the norm i> only p""upposed in our
thinking, jU5l'" ",e can imagine things which do not I<ally eei"
but "exi,t" only in our thinking. we can imagine. norm which is
oot ,he meaning of a ",al act of will but ",hich exists only in OUt
thinhng. Then, it is not a pooith'e norm. But .ince there i. a
cOT",Ia,ion between the ought 01 a nonn and a will whOOt mean-
ing it i., there must bt in our thinking a1Jo ott imaginary will
,
'"
...11_ meaning io ,he norm which;" only presupposed in ouc
thinling--.>.'l iJ <he ba.k norm of a po<itin ["PI order.'
"
.... w ANI> NATlIU
thing ~I", Ihan Ihal h il actually applltd and obtytd; i. m~anl that
"
it "YEAI to ~ ~ w and appliw, although il il orue tllal there
.....y ~ .....,~ connK.ion br.w«n ""lidi.y and ~f(ccli~...ao. "-
general l~l norm il .~rdtd U ~alid only if ,!w: huIlWl be-
hnlor that il .quLo,W by i. ac.ually conlonnl wich iI, at least to
.....,~~. A norm chao il not "bo'yfd by anybc>dy anywh~.~, in
ochn ..onIs & norm tha. it no< ~lICCl"·~ ac l~... to 1OIIl~ degJO:<:. it
not .cprdw asa oalid ltpl....."q. A minimum of dfcc.ivmtsl it a
cooditioa 01 Y:llio;li.y. ''Validi''''' 01 a ltpl norm f'TnupP""'", b!>w•
........ tha' i. it poocibl~'1> brha.~ in a r.ly CDIllnlTf to it: a nona
that w... ~.o proaibr ''''''1 lOClICIh'ng ough. to ~ done 01 which
~~ t . - l ~ba"" tIw i.e cctllSl bappen ..... .....ruy ac·
carding to lhoe laWl 01 nat",.., alwa)" and tftJ)'Wbn~ would ~ all
~ ... a AOrlIl which _ to preKribe tha' lOnlfthing ""gbt
10 be<io:lM 01 which on~ u- before'band tha' i' it impoooibl~ ac-
cordina; to doc laWl 01 ..... u,..,.
N.... do Yalidi'T and elf«un'ttelf co<ncio:Le in u...... A kpI oorm
becom<s nJid btl..... it ~.. tlItcti~e, that it, btlor~ it it ap-
pIitd and ~ ; a law court tha. applin a IUwl~ imlDCdialdy
allCt" pn>aIulpt~ btl..... lhoe Iota.utt bad a cbancc to
htJc ; • M..aecti«~_pp1iel a oalid Itp.l norm. Bu. a Itp.l DOrm is
no Ion coouidtNd 10 be .'l1id, if it .-aim pnmat>t»tly in·
...ro E.I«tiftt>ft& it a -.di.ioo 01 validi.y in eM lmSt Wt
ckcti>'mnl Iw ... joia lhoe pooitina: 01 a Itp.l nottlI if <he nonn it
D(lI to 10K iu r.tlicUty.
"
.....w ANO NAnJU .,
"To permit" i. also u"'" in the oeme of "to emi,le (b""h!ig.").··
II If i. command<d to tnduro that B beh.'·e. in a cOT....in way, it i•
..id that B i. pennitted (that i•. entid<d) '0
behave in thi. way.
And il If i.< command.d to ronder a cOT.... in oervk. to B, it i...id
that B i. pet"min<d (that i., emid<d) '0 r"'eive the oervke of A.
In the Ii"t e..ampl., then, the ..ntenee "/l i. permilled behave '0
in a cottain way" oay' the .\ame .. the ..nt.nee: "If i. command<d
to enduro that B behaves in a cOT.... in way." And in th.lI«OTId e..·
ample, the oenttnee: "B i. pet"miued to ""cei,. a cottain ,",...ice
(rom A" oays the .. m. A. the ICIltencc: "A i. command<d to ,..,ndcr
a oe",k. to B." The quality of In behavior "to be permitted"' "
n'OT.ly the reAex of the quality of A'. behavior "to be com·
manded."' Thi, kind of "'pcrmitting'" i. not a function of the nor·
mative order diff...nt lrom its function of "commanding.""
"
LAW ...NO N"'ruU .,
i( ili. value i, con"i,u,cd by an objec'i"ely valid norm, ili.n the
judgment that ",,,,ething r.al. an actual human behaviOI. i,
"good" or "b>.d." expreaoes the idea ,ha, ,hi, behavior conform,
with an objec,h'ely valid norm: that the behavior oUgh' to be the
way it i,; or ,hat it doe, no, conform wi,h the objectively valid
oorm: that the behavior oUgh' not '0 be ,h. way it i" Th.n ,h.
,'alue u an "ought" i, placed in jux,aposi,ion to ,ht ttali,y as the
"i,"-,'alue and reali,y belonging to 'wo differtn, .phe,,,,, j"" a,
,h. "ough'" and the "k"
If the sta'.ment tha, a behavior- conform1 or doe, not conform
with an objectiv.l)' valid nonn i< de,ignOled as ....Iu. judgmtm,"
then thi, valu. judgmUlt mu" be di"ingui,hed lrom ,h. norm
tha, com,i,u,e, ,h. valu., Th. , ..Iue judgment can be ,rue or un·
,rue. becauoe i. refe... '0 a norm of a valid orde., For example. the
judgment ,hat .ccording '0 Chr;"ian mo",lity it i, "good" to lov.
on.', friend, and to hale one', enemi.. ;. umru' benu.. a norm
of the valid Cnri"ian mo...lily command, to lovt not onJ)' one',
friends but also one', enemi.., The judgment ,ha, it is logal '0 in.
flic. upon a thitl the ~n.hy 01 death i, unITu. if 'he valid law in
qu..tion comm.nd. '0 puni,h a thief by deprivation of l=dam
hu< no, by depriva,ion of life, A nonn, how.ver, cannot be eith.r
<ru. or un,rue, bu< only valid or no, valid,
The ··judgm.nt..-......lled-pronounced by a judge. i, no mOre
a judgm.nt in the logical oen.. of the wor<!, ,h.n lh. norm ,hat he
applie., That "judgmem";', in"e.d, a ""rm-an individ=J norm,
limi,ed in i" validi,)' to a concre,e ca.«:. as di<,ingui>hed from a
gentral uonn, called a "law,"
The value comti,u,ed by an objec'i.ely .alid norm mu" be dis-
,ingui,hed (rom ,h. value tha, con,i,.. (nOl in ,ht rtlation '0 •
norm. bu<) in ,he relation of an object '0 the wi,h or will of an
indi.idual directed a, thi, objto. If ,h. object i, in accordance or
nOl in accordanc. with the wi,h or will. it ha, a pooitiv. or n.ga-
.iv. value: i, i, "good" or "b>.d," H ,ht judgmtm d<'1Crihing ,he
relation of an object to ,he wi.h or will of an indi.idual, i, d.,ig_
nated a, a value judgment and ,h. objec' which i, in accordance
wi,h ,he wi,h or will a, "good:' lht object which i, not In accord.
ance wilh ,Itt wi,h or will a, "bad," ,hen ,hiJ ~alue judgmtnt i,
not difJ...", from a judgm.nt abou' reality, Fo.- i, d.soibe, only
tht rel ..ion belWten two fKu, not the r.lation be,.,'.en a fac, and
aO LAw ANu NA-ruU
an ,- 'j«,ivdy valid notm; i, i, only a .p«ial judgment about uaol_
ity.
If somebody "'l" that IOmething i. good or bad, but if ,hi, " .. e-
ment is m..ely ,he imm<:di..e up,,,,,ion of hi. emotional attitude
toward a certain obj«l, if it ex",<:ss<:I that be wi.h"lOmethiog or
<10<:. nol wiob it but it. contrary, then .h e .tatement i. nO value
"judgment,"' b«au'" it i. not a function of 'ognition, but a lunc-
tion 01 the emotional component of consciou.n...; and if this emo-
tio","l reaction refe,.. to the beha,'ior ofanoth.. individual, then it
i. the up,,,,,ion of an emotional appr""al or disapproval, akin to
the exclamation "bravol'" or "phooeyl"'
The value tMt comi", in the rda.ion of an objcct_patticubrly
of behavior_to the wi,h or will of an individual can be dcsignat<:d
a. Juhjec/iw ,.. Iue, in con.ttadi"inctiOll to Ihe val"" that con.ist>
in th. rela.ion of a behavior to an obj<:cti".ly valid norm that ,an
be designated .. obj<:rliu. valu•. 1£ the judgment ,h.t a behavior i.
good me,..,ly "'eam th.t it i. wime<! by another individual. and if
the judgment that a behaviur i. bad me""ly mean. that the oppo-
.ite behavior i. wi.hed by an individual, th.n the values "good"
and "'had" ui" only for 'he indi,'idual who wi,hes tbe bellavior.
but not for tb. individual wh= beh.vior i. wished. If a judgment
lhal a behavior;' '"good"' mea", thaI the behavior conform. with
an obj«lively valid norm (and if the judgment that a behavior i.
"'bad"' mcan. thaI i, docs not confonn with an obj«tively valid
nonn), then the ",loes "'good" and '"bad'" e"i" 101" ,he individual.
who"" behavior i. being judged, that i., lor an individual. wh<l$<:
behavior i. rcgutat<:d by Ih e objectively nlid O<lnn ,egardl"" 01
wheth.. th... individual. Ihcm..\ves wish this behavior or not.
Their behavior, th.n, h.. a positi." or n,galiv, ,..10', no' bccalU<:
it is wished or not wished. bill bccau"" it ronforms. or docs not
'onlorm. with a n01"m, Th, act of will. whose objective mcaning
the nOrm is, docs not com, into colUid.....tion .. far .. the ",Iue
judgment i, concern<:d.
Value in the .ubj<ctivc sen... lhat is. the value tba. con.i", in
the ""Iation of an objcet to tl><: wi.h 01" will 01 an individual i. dis-
.inguiilicd [rom value in tb, obj<c.ive ...... (tha. i., ,be ",Iu.
thaI coMi", in the ""lation of a behavior 10 an objectively valid
norm) allO by the bet Ihat th, .ubj«tlv, value can ba,', varion<
"
LAW ">10 >I"TUn
"
<kgrtt:s. For ,be wUh or will
of an individual i. ""pable 01 '!I,fIer·
em degr<:.. of in,emily. But a graduation of an objective volue i,
not p<:>Mible beeau.. a bebavior aln only <:<Inform or nOt conform
with an objectively valid notm, but cannOC do '" more or I....'
Value judgm.nt< ,ha,
"ate an objroive value arc designated as
oLjttti..-volu. judgmen,,; th""" that "ate a lubjecti.. ".lu• ..,
lubjttti,'e·."lue judgment<. If thus d.fined, the adjec';""' "objtt_
live" and '",ubjective"' ,-dn- to th••tated valu"" not '0
,h. judg.
""n' function a. a lunction of cognition. AI a lunctWn 01
cognition any judgment h.. to be objective, that ii, it must be pc"
lormed without regard to the wi.h.. of the judging individual.
Th;' i. """ibl•. lt II """ihle to determine the telotionlhip of a
specific hum.n behavior to a normative order_namely whether
the behavior doc. or docs not conform 10 the order_wi,hout tak·
ing an emotional "",ilion, either approving or disapproving,
towanl thlo order_ Take for example, the qu."ion whether accord·
ing to ehri..;"" morality, it i. good '0 love one', enemi... The
atuwn- to this qu..tion, and ,he,..,lore the value judgment that
goes wi,h it. can and mu" be given wi,hout regard to whether the
one who h.. to gil', the answer approv,," or disapptov.. loving the
enemy. Or another example: The amw.. the question whether '0
according to a valid law the d.ath penalty ought to be imposed
upon a murderer and consequently wnether-legally-the dea,h
penal,y in case of mutder i. valuable. can ond must be given with·
out regard to whether the one who h.. to give the an,wer approve<
or dioapptm·cs 01 ,he death penalty. Only ,hen I, the v.lue judg.
"'en, objective_
To sum up: If ,he judgment pronounce, the re1a,ionlhip of an
obj"", (..pecially of human beha"ior) '0 the wi.h or will 01 an
'1/ • norm p...."l............\0< .. hkh I. pooo;bl< !D dll<ri", ~ I, look>
so If .... nocm mold b< ob<y<d ;ft dikri"l _ ,hot 10. mot< .. 1<00. Tb;, ;,
• 1>1l><,. h.......... If. "" =mpk. • norm JW""rl"'" tha, m ..."'" _ , ,. b<
1"'"1""" by '''''''1 l"'n 1ft priooa. ODd If. tkn, _ .,.", f'lI" ...... ",u",," by
l;lt-""" Imp""",.... t oM . _ ",.n f'lI";"'" "'.""" by "" Ttl'" ;m".......
m<nC
no.m ,
it " "'" 'n><
that .... Judlt"""" io .... 00--.. 'ft ""''''''''''T
ppllo<! • ..1 tho ""''''' ......" bu' no"b« ;, in """....'1
with the
If •
..... p...rn"" .,.,iT "", mu",," ""lih' tQ b< p"ftlobed by prl""" wli t ""-
...... '"1.. ,It< l<r1Ith 01 I.,p,'-""'. ,,,,",, • l.""""t l",pooI"lI lil.,.""" "......
;, .....__" '" ooolQnnl'T with th< """" tQ b< .pp]lo<! ',.<d~ ....., Impooi"ll
,_.ft'l"" "",..n ftO, - " bu,.11 ,hr« J""_t< """y;ft <000"""'''1
w,,~ the ........ Tb< " "I<a- do .... rn.-. '" II>< _fono.l"I ho, '" ,lI<
puniob"""'.
.. lAW ANI> ""Til""
_i_
actually thil bo:h.aviOT may be b,"",,&h. about by 0<11... moc;vCl.
According 10 ilS "'II......... moning. .he order may ~ibe ..."".
lion> .',hou. '<gud 10 !he tint xtually. in _It. sinp,
ax. ha,~ b...... gb. about l.Iu= bth,,,ior conditioning 1M ",noions.
~ lD02fiiog of the O<'dtr .. ap<ftSl:d in <he .... lI:IMI>l lila. in l.Iu=
cue of a oem... bdl:lvior_b<oughl about by wba~n _i.-eo--
Y""m [m u.. be...", ........ 01 u.. wOl'd, tha, ... """"m"" pw>-
ishmulI) cugb. 10 be cucutal 1Ddet:d. an onkr _y auxh a
u-ward 10 a bduovi".. only if i. had 001 bttn DlOlino:od by 1M
dfaift f".....-..anI. F.,. ~p1~, a moral 0Idn may honOf only u..
om who d .... good dHds for wir -.. san, noIlor hQnor'IJlk.e.
Sina in d>t I<ftgoins pIlgtl ,Ite liditr of a 1OCi.1 ord.... has
bem diltinguishcd from iu dI'«.iva> i. mould be noot<\.ha. a
klCial onl.... prdCribing rewom.".. puni<hm~nll i. ell«li.'e in 1he
li'enlleme of ,Ite wort inlOU. only .. the beh.vior condi,ioning
,h. reward il cnued by ,he desire lor ,he """'Td, .nd the behavior
avoiding ,h~ punWunen, b c:a,,~ hy ,he fr'T of punl.lhmrn,.
How......... " i. ulu.1 to <prat of .n elf«tivr order al", if the be-
havior of !hi: individuob IUbj«'rd to ,h~ onler by .nd I.'it' cnm:.
spondo to ,he order, tha, i. to Hy, if ,he individu.b by and l.rge
by ,heir behavior fulfill .hr condi.iono of .... , .....n!•• nd ..oid
"
., ~ :... ·n'''''
I~AOJdd""p pu~ I~Al>JddV "p;lAO.I<1<l"'!P AlI....olU ~ Jl"''',,!q "OW
pu. "\I.... DWlU! <:>"oq>q ~'1 "''1'
'.lOl"",,>q :lll.oddo ''fl .,.'lO.ldd •
.lO 101"°4"'1 p"pU.WlllO:> ''1'
"Ao,dd..!p ,(po<pm", Jl 'p"AO,dd"'fP
.lO!u'l><l ,,[,oodo ''I' <"
"-"'1'0> ''1',('1 p:I.>OJdd. "'I '!l:J>!qn. ,uo
''l'lo .IO!A"'lXJ. ""PUIUIlOO:> ''1' "l(l AjOo:>UO'ljOW" 'pUClUUlOJ 1]
"O!A0'l><J "!'tl.» •• p".mWOJ JJp10 \ .... OlU. JI :'"'1'
Im0ll >q "nm
If "'pro I""om "'jUOjPu,,", J<' A'fll'l!"'od ''1' ,~pn( 01 J.:Ipm "I
."'ll'''
.0018
"H" • ,n",. 1"'11 '" pUt "OO!""'rl \-.nu'p"',,""l!.l' '1'1'" "IUo uo
lnq 'ouop"",," Inolll!" J.:Ip.lO [UOlU. >OIl f! 11 'PI'''"'' "!'l' II! 1I1,m
"l{S!und!OJ .p!Ao,d IOU Pop 'Pi'!'" JOp'" l""'w '1'1' ul p>pnpU!'1
ppo.. J.:I'I'O:l'" "! 'lQ<D'l'lUnd ""IV "poo.\l 'Il]M poo.\l >tIl "tOO 'OU
pUt 'I'~ '1'1'" 11"" :>11,,1», lOU =p O<j..._ppo.... '!'11 U! IIollnqlJ101
JO 'Idpu!,d ''Il jO UOl'''''!1dd. "1' .. ,.mo"'" 0'1'" .1l0 ''1'
01 ~
·UIOJd '1 PJ\!1>1.>J (J"ltl.J'>O ,ou qS""",[") AjU'''''''H '!"'pop"" AI....!'
.u;> '00 '! OO!lnq[,,~, jO ,[dpopd ,,,, P'q>U"" ,.,,,8!,, JO "p'o
[UOW "'" O! u;>A> ""oJ""'''' po. 'p'L"'" .1[0,.\0'" ,,,, 01 "",,, u'J
",J,,,,,,,r ·Al'U~plA3. ""m.. ,,,, 01' """»llo~ "., ,,,, 0>," 'OU O{l
,n"" '''0,/ P'''''''' '0,/'" 'noA '''OJ 0,/'" "",/1 '''01 n"" JI .>0.'1
"Im.o> ,no, ,MI, ·no" 0, A'" 1 '''II :Aw,u, ,no....." 1'''. "'"
,,,S!'U ,noA ~Mll II"'" no}., '1'1'" ••'" '! ,.", 1".'" "." no}. .
·1!.....! 0,/"'00 "I''''' 10" oa ·no" 0' ..'" 1 ,ng :,,'00' • ,oJ "'001
.1'''. , .., U. 'OJ'l.> uY. '1'1"' ...'" 'I ,.", p.l<~" '''"1/ no.\" :poooS
JoJ poooS '11"'.>Oj !1,;>-,u;>m.,"'.L 1'10 ''/' JO 'Idp"!m ",,!In,!!,',",
'lJ1 11»[" "1P"p!»p ,,, "'''o»q ',uoIP"'" "'I'" JOp.lO luom "
,[ood 01 ''''''<IS lug ,. ·ru". lOU 0>0Jl 'lUnol~ ,,,, Uo uow.l>S 'I" U[
'."ur 'JOp.lO [olbl ''Il wo;q P"ll'lnSU!"!p "'I""'''' '! puo '...,p.lO lOP
..,.," 'PO"'1 0' P"""P!OUO"I "plO l1Uow'lJ1 Allon.o 'p"!lddo 'OU
'! uo[,n'l!'''' JO 'ldpUIJd "'I' 'P!"'" "! "plO u" 't[ '""~'Iooddo
111 'OJ ,u,m'l'!und '0 'I '01 p'L"'" .lIU!'!,.,," InO"'!'" :IO!'mj
"><] U!"u>:> ••pUOtuIllOO '"lJ1 'Uo '! (pro." "'l' jO >1["" "1'1" 'lJ1
U!) '00"""'" SUIQ!J:>t>,d JO!,-,o I"!""" " lllO.Ij '''''".!lIP "IPUp'la
1'''''!l'u"S /no¥"m "'P'D IOPOS 'U'I.L ',V ('I
"" die f~llow _~ <II. the _unity an: JmKd as motam and
putJi>hmen. rnd .....,. thndon: be inlerpTeted as o;lIlCIi_ Somt-
li"".,..My:oK mote dI<'Cti~ JanCtionJ than Olho:r f _ 0#. Tt;1O'ini
UId puniohmmt, b«a~ ~ "'i<fy 0.- hllrl man'. <ksi", for
n:p<1ta.ioa,. ... hid> .. OM olihe _ irapanan. componmu of ,he
inuiDn 100- sdf.~,ion. " iloo be noud <luI the , .... monl
ntw = the one command"" a o:rooin bchariur and 1M (lilt I"""
tcribinll dioopprunol for the opptasitc bchariur_" -...iall,
conna:ltd, and Ionn a uni,y. " is ,hnriort doubtful wllKhcr a
di$linctioo between iOWol Olden with and wilhout NJICtiom iI
paulb!•. The only "'I nt dilf....ence ""... ~n social orden il not
,II>' """" prncribe OCt"'" and the «hen do noc. bu. that they
prescribe dilf""mllypn of .. ntl;ons.
the ltpl ord..... then this coerci,'e act has the char.u;ttr DE a lanc·
,i"". The human behavior against which the coercive act i. di·
r«ted is to be coJUid<!rM a. prohibited. illegal_ a delie<. It i. ,he
DppOiIi'e of lhal behavior ,hat i. regarded a. commanded or legal,
namely ,lte behavior tlt.t .void. the applicalion of lite ",,,,,,ion.
That the law i. chacact....ized a. a "coercive order" doe. not ",elln
_ i. >onteti", .. a....rted-that it "enfor="' the legal, tlto, is, the
'ommanded. behavior. This behavior i. not enforced by the coer-
cive act, beeauoe the coercive ac, is to be executed pr«ioely when
an individual beh.vel in the prohibited. noC the commanded.
manner. It i. exactly lor thi, caoe that the coercive act as a ..nclion
i, prescribed, Perhapl, how""..., the men,ioned ....... tion .hould
be talen to mean that the law, by prescribing .. nctiow, triel to
induce men ro behave in ,onformi,y with ito command. in th.t 'he
wiob to avoid tlte lane,iono becom .. the moti'-e tlt.t bringo about
thi, behavior. 1I0wever. the motivation in qU<:$tion i. only 'l'O"i-
ble. not a nec....ry, function 01 the low; ,be legal-that i., the
commllnded-behavior may be brought .bout by oth... modv..
also, especially by re!igioo. and mOIal ""es. And this happens Ire_
quently enough. The coercion that i, implied in ,he motiYOtion is
• p'ychic coercion. which i•• l'O"ible effec' 01 ,he ide. an individ_
n.l h.. oE ,he l,w, .nd which tak.. place wi,hin tlti, individual.
And thi. psychic coercion muR not be: confnsed wi,h ,he prn<rip-
lion of the coercive aCI. which tal.. place within the legal OTd.....
Ev....y effective social OTder ex«" >DIlle lind of plf<'hic coercion.
and some orders-.uch a. ,he religiou, OTder-in much higher de-
gr«' than the legal order. Thi. plf<'hic coercion, then, i, not.
charac,.riltic th>! dhtingui,h.. ,he law f'om oth.... social orders,
The l.w i. no, a coc,d"e order in the .en", th.t i, .x....... plychic
coercion; but in the ..,n$O that i, prescribe. coercive acto. namely
the forcible depriva,ion of liEe. freedom, economic and other
valu.... a conocquence of cen.in conditions. Thcoe condi,ions are
in the first place-but not exc!wively_ definite human behavior.
wltich preci>ely by being a condition of a ..nction ...umeo ,he
charactCT of legally prohibited (illegal) bchavior_ delict.
"
..nee of ,h. u.. of physical force. By dc",nnining th. condi,;OJU
and Ih. c,,~tiv. org:on. fur lh. we 01 f""",. by c'tablishing a
monopoly of forre of <he legal community. the l<gal order paci6es
this community_ BUl the peace of law i. only a toluiy. pe>cc. Th.
law does not exclude the nit of phy>kal force'" man venus man.
Th. law ill no' a folcel= order, .. postulalM rOT by utopian anor-
chi>m. The law i. an order of emmon and, ... coercive ordcr_
ao:wrding to its evolution_an ord.,. of ..curlty. that ii. of peace.
But precisely .. the concept of eoHoed". """urity may b< ddintd
in a IUrrower ....... and applied only whore the m<>nopoly of force
of society is Cffitf1l1ized, "" _ may iMum. that a pacification of the
l<gal commun'ty tak .. place only on that l.."cl of legal d",·c]op.
ment in which ..If.help i, prohibited, a,I"".,
in principle, and col.
1,,<;11,-. _urily in the narrower ..n.. of the word prevail•. Acto.
ally, we can hardly ...ume ""on a T~lativ~ J"'Cification of th~ IrpJ
(ommunity a. loog a. th~ law i. £till in a primilivo: condition. As
Jong a. no (mIn. ""i.t that objectiv~ly a"""tain wh~,h.,. a pm_
hibitM we of fore~ has tak"" pIa«; as long as e>'ery individual
who con,ide" his rights viol"M by .no,h.,.;. attthorizM to u""
fo",e •• a .. nc'ion; as long a. the individual again.!l' "'hom for<;<:
wa, U.M i. authori",d 10 reacl again" thit we of fo",e by Ihe u...
of loree, which he tan jwtify .. a unction (tha' i., a. a reaction
against a wrong ",ff...-cd); ., long a. blood Wlenge i. a legal insti·
ullion and ,he duel 1~lly pttmiucd and even rcgul.tM by law,
.. long .. only the Hiling of free feUow (ountrymen, but not ,he
killing of alien. ond .lav.. is reg.roM,. a crime; •• long. finally.
a. war i. nO' prohibited by international law in the rela.ion. be-
,ween Ita,e" one cannot very well a""'l 'hat the Slate of law i.
n=rily a .taft of p"a.:e and that the securing of peace i. an co-
.....ial function of ,he law." An one can say is that the develop-
ment of .he la"- run.;n .hi. dircclion. Th"",fore, even if pea« is
Tcg:udcd •• an abool",e mo....1 value or as. ,..luc COmmon to all
pos;ti'-e motal otde..-whkh. as we >han ..ela''''';' nOl the cue--
,he sceuring of pea«. the pacifica,ion of the legal community.
cannot be con.id.,.ed .. an ...en,ial moral value COUtmon to an
legal ord ....: i, i. not the "mor:al minimum" common to all law.
The prohihition of aU use of for<;<: reveal. the tendency to en-
MThl. """,",.",•• oip'~'" .-lIiao,"'" 01 ... vb "" ....... to,,,,,, ""_.
r.....nd p<>«" p,.,..,trd 1."1 """.".1 "0"", 0/ '--....,Joo". ""_ ...
LAw ...........n.ru: 59
la"F tho opber~ 0( faN thlol arc aubliobcd by tho lepl order ...
aIOdi..... aI. coercive acu; Ibis Ift><IeDq bu ck.dof"'d. far bqood
IhiI pruoIUhition. by tho macbmml aI. conci•.., xu AI COIIK'"
'l.UU>Ca ooc ool,. '*
10 tbr III Io<u. bu. all<> 10 othn acu. and
....,.. 10 ....;.;,..,. 0( acu. U tho eom,he ac< eubl.i$bed by Ihoe law
d a raaioa apino< ~Iy dm-iu>en~ beha....... .and if tho fuDc·
...... 0( IUCb '"" aubliIl:I....... is 10 ponm. wc.b a beha....... fondi-
ridlUl or seoer.U p"eYuuioa). Ibm IhiJ ac< bu <he dwx..". aI. a
~ in <he opeciIic and nanow............ aI. tbr word; and <he
faa that a «nain bduo.. lor U m;ode Ibe cot>dirion for a _Ii... in
,his KlIse meaDI thlo. ,his lIdIa..ior illeplly p,olIlb,ud, a delic..
TI>ere is a <Drrd..i"" !K,w«n Ibis <0'''''1'' of sanell"" and Ib~
con«P' of delicL The ..nc,ion i, Ibe ronscquena of th. dellel;
lhe d.lict i••he condition of lh~ ..netion. In primitive lcpl ,)T<I~..
Ibe reaction of lb...,,<<ion again" ,h. d~llct iJ enlltel~ dtcClllnl.
lied. Th~ rucrion iJ left 10 the diocretion of the indi.iduall whOM:
in<Clem ~v~ been violated by lhe d.licL The~ arc au,ltoriud 10
Idcmily ift <Oft<>"elo AI a delict wha, has!>ttn 10 idcmi6ed by Ibe
lcpl order only ill ~llr"lo; and Ibey are au<hori«d 10 CC01<C
1M oanction aI<lblilhcd by lhe lcpl onI..... The pt"inciplc of Klf.
help f""'&ils. In Ibe (.'OIIf'R of cmlutioo this -roo:oion apinK <he
cklia is inct-asin&IJ ccnonliled, in <hat <he id.... t.i6cation 01. tbr
ddia and <he caccutioa 01 tho Andion is ' .... "cd for lfICCiai or·
pns: Ibe alUTU and excculi.., alltboritia. I1>efeby 11K p"iDCiplc
of oeU-belp is limited. but il anOOC be ..,,<i,dy elim.inloted.. Eo.."
i!l <he 'lI><Jd<Tn llta%e. in which centn1i..,ion bu ~ <Iw hip.
... dqrtt. a minimum oIlCll-bdp remains, IClf-defmx. ""id-.
Ihctc Ott 0Iber <aJQ i!l1DOticm, cenonlizcd Icpl ~ thai
have !>ttnlargcl,. ipoTcd in lcp1 theo" in which, 10 a limited
ntml, the uoe 0( phys;al fmu is noc ,eservc:d f.... opecial OTpnl,
but left 10 the d .....tt;on of individuah in<CrCsttd in il. We .pt:ol
of Ibe right of corpnnl puni.nmcnt Ibat ....en modem legal orden
conctde 10 pa,en.... a mea", of educa.ing ,hei, <hlldren. I. is
limited to lhe ext.nt lhal it m.... not hann the child', health; bu.
the dc.:i.ion, which bcha.io. of the child i. 0 <ondllion of co'"
poral punishment, that i., which be~vior i. pedagogicolly and
hence .odaUy undcsinble, i. in principle left 10 the pa....... who
....y pass lhisngltl to profCJIional cducato",.
....w ..." " .... nzu:
i' (or, more correctly formula'M: '0 'he £Oct that it i. """'"
.. inM in a legal proeMure) a coercive act, a' thi. fac' i, made by
.'
'he legal ordcr 'he condi'ion of • coercive act. And ,hi. coercive
act i. a ..nction (in the ..,n", of a reaction agai",. a ddi<;,) aod.,
,uch diotiogui'hable from other legally otabH,hM cocrcive acu
only in 'hal the conditioning fact of 'he form...- i. a legally a",...-,
lainM human behavior, whe.... Ute coercive act> which have nOl
'he charac"" of ..nction. arc condi<ion«l by o,h...- be..." Some
of the coercive act> belonging '0 'he J«;OT1d ca.egory may be iOler·
prClM as sa"ctio"" if 'he con~p' of ....""'ioo" i. no, linti'ed to
",ac,ion. again" a definite human beh.vior wh"'" .ctu.l ex'.'ence
i. legally ...eruinM, but i. ex,endM to .ituation. in whi<;h 'he
coc"'ive act i. provided for a. reac'ion agai"" a deli<;t-hut again"
a ddi<;, whO!lC c"",mi..ion by a definite individual has no, yet
been legally aJCC1"tained. ,hough ,he individual may be .u.pee'ed
of h,,'ing commiued i' ""d may therefore be arrest«l by 'he p0-
lk<:; and '0 .i'uatlon. in whi<;h the coercive act i. a reac'ion
agai"" a delict 'hat ha. not even been commluM ye'. hu' I. ex·
pected in .he fu'ure .. a powbili'y-a. in the ca>eo of intern men.
of d.ngerou. psychopath. or per10lU of und"'ired. opiniOn>, reli,
gion•. and rae... insofar .. 'hey arc in«toM in concen"...ion
campo to prevent 'hem from a oocially und",ired behavior of
which. righ'ly or wrongly. in 'he opinion 01 'he legal au,hority.
,hey are con.iderM capable, Apparently, ,hi. mo,i,,, i. Ute b..iJ
lor 'he limi'atio'" of lib<rty '0 which, in a war. 'he ci,i"n. of the
one b<l1igcrcm par,y living on the rerri'ory of 'he other arc .ul>-
jcc'ed by 'he lauer. II we ex,end 'he con..pt of .... nction .. in thi.
",n"" i' i. no longer congruen, wi'h "con""1Uen~ of a delict,"
Sanc'ion in ,hi, wider "'n'" of the word doc. not n""",,"'Uy follow
'he delict.
Fi",lIy. 'he concep' of "'netion may be ex,ended '0 indude all
co<r<;ive acto coubli.hed by .he legal order. if the word iJ to ex·
pr... mcrd}' ,h.. ,h. legal order ,eoc" .dlh ,hi. action again .. "'"
dally undeoinble cire.."",anc", alld qua1i§ .. in ,hi, way 'he eir·
cum"anceo a. und..i",ble, Thi•. indeed, i. 'he commOn ch.rac'er,
i>tic of an c""rci"" action. commanded or aUlhori'ed by legal ""
den. The concep' or ....netion," undcntood in ,hi. broa-d.., "'n....
tben. 'he fo,ce monopoly of .he l"l!"l communi'y. m.y be formu·
-c"~.~,,
,
~I .... w Il/<D .....~
r ....i"i.."", of tiM"
As a IUlCUoa-poucribi"llClCial ...dcr, ~ Law utuLa~ humul be-
ho.riot in twO""ys: in a pooitiw ocme. commandi... RICh bcba..
iClO" and tl=eby prohibit"" lho oppooi~ b"h.:n.".; and, nep.iytiy'.
by not a.tadtit>g a conciu act 1(1' cnu.in btbarior. <herefQft .....
po-ohibitiDg <his bth"'iar and not com.... ndi... the oppooite be-
ho.~ior. Beh>vior thatlfllolly i' not p<ohibi<td io legally permiutd
in Lhis negative snue. Sine" human btha"ior is "iLher problbiwl.
or not prohibi.td,.OO .Inee, 1£ no< !",ohibiotd, is to be rtgardm ...
permi.,<:d by Lhe legal order, '''y behavior of an indi~ld.... l .ub-
jee'td '0 • l<gal order In'y be r"g.rde<! OJ regula.ed Ly it_poooj.
ruor.T
lively Or n<gati....,ly. I OJ the bth.vior of an indlvidu.I il per.
mined by Lhe l<gal order In d.( n<ga.ive oenoe-:o."d th•• mean"
Me prohibi.td--the indi.idual illeg.lly free.
The fttedom left to the Indl~id....1 by the legal order .imply by
nol prohibiting a "nuin beh. .ior mUR bt cfutngtoi.ned lrom 'he
f'ftdom which is "",i.i.dy gu:uan~ to Lh" indl~idu>l by <ha.
ordt-r. Tl>e fretdcm of.n indi'·ld....1 wh;m cnnoi'" in pnmilting
him a =uin ~ by noc pn:.l>ibi.iDg it. is guaranleed by the
kpl ordtt <mI1 10 the exten. Lhal the O<der CIllOIImUIll.t the 0Iher
indi>iduallto rnpoct <his frftdom; IM...dcr £orbids w... to inter·
fere in <his op/IoeK of frudom, lho.. is., the ordt-r {.".bids a bcbarioo"
by which an indiri<bW is P""""1ted from doing wbal is noc prohib-
Iud and what tberdoo-e in ohis Iemt is permi.wI. 1(1 him.
,hen can lho _po-ohibi.ed (In a ..eg:Il"·e pnm,ued) be-
On'"
"",.;.". "" looted upon :to ri&",ful: <hal is '0 .. y the contenl of a
righl. which i' the rdIex 01 a corrnponding ol>ligolioa."
Hcn-"'\/tt, not ... ery bd\a.ior 10 pennillal--in ohe negali~e
len .. 01. nOl!>eing f<nbiddetl----"IOf"l""'rdtd by the prohibition 01
'he op"",i,e btha.ior of ath",",: nOi e,'tty permitted beha.'or 01.
on" Indlvid....1corre.pondllo an obliga.ion o£ .nother indl~ld.... l.
h is f'OI'Ilble tha• a beha.'or I. not prohibiled by the legal order
(and therdor•• in thi, ..,me, p"""i..edj. without an oppotlte be-
h••lor 01 othen bting p'o1I,bl'e<! by ohe legal ord""10 that thil
oppooile behario<- i. at", permitted. A behavior may not be prohlb-
-u.... '...
UlW AND NATUU
"
"",rial 'pheT" <>f validity ,h. gang opc...., .. arc actually applied to
,h. robbers' activity .. b<ing illegal behavior; if <he members of
th. gang arc deprived 01 their Jihttty or their Ii,·c. by COCK;'" octo
that at. illtCTptclro .. imprisonment ""d death ",mene..; and if
thus ,h.. ac,ivity o( the gang j. renninaltd_in ,hon, ii the coercive
order fCgaro".) a. the lopl order is rno,.., elIre,;". <lun the COOt·
.h"c order constituting the gang.
If the validity of this coercive on:lor i. , •••rioted to a <.,(;Iin tn-
.itory and if it i. effective within <hi< "'rritory in .uch " way ,hal
the validity of any other coercive ordot of thi< lind ii eJ<LJuded,
then the coercive orda may inde<d be reg.roed ... a l<gal order
and ,h. communi,y cotl>tituted by it may be regardrd as a ".latc"
-.,.."cn if it< cXlcnul ac,ivity i. illegal according to positive inttt.
national law. Thus, lrom the .;x\<I,mh to the beginning of th~
nlnele~nth century so-<:alled pirat~ "ates exi"ed along the north·
west roast of Africa (Algiers. Tulli., Tripol;") wfIos<, .hips pr<rye<1
npon navigation in the Medite..,.an~an. The.. communi tie. were
"pin,.." only wilh r..pen '" their exerci.. of for<~ on sltips of
other lI.at .., in defiance of imematio""l law. Y<t, their internal
order pt.. umabJy prohibitw mutual employment of force. and
thi. prohibition was by and Iafll;~ obc)·td, 10 that the minimum of
collecti,'e security ex;"ttd which is th~ coudition fnr the existence
<If a ...,lativeiy fasting wmmuni,y wnstituted by a n<>Tmati,·~
order.
C<>l1ectiv~ seeuti,y 0< pe><:e--a. w~ hav~ oaid_i. a function
,ha, ,h~ c".rci,'~ nrder. d",igna'ed a' "law" hav~ in variou. de-
grtts when 'hey have reached a c~...ain l~v.1 of developm~m. Thi.
funCtion i. an obj..,ti,·~ly determinable fact. The .d~ntific .tate-
ment that a l<gal otd~< i. pacifying 'he legaf community, i, not a
vafu~ judgment, Specifically, this statoment does not mean that
the realization <If justice i, essential to th~ faw; ,hi, valu., there.
10..." cannot ~ mad~ an c1emcm of the couc~pt of law and em
therefore nOt .,,,,.~ a. a critrriou 10< the di>tinction ~twun a
fegal community and a rob~r gang. Thi•. h""·e>'er. i. th~ di"inc.
tion mad~ by St. Augustine who oays in his Civitas Iki: "S.t jn..
tice a.ide then. and what are kingdom. but thievi,h putcha...' be.
CaU"" whal ar~ thi~ves' purch.... but littl. kingdoms?" .. A stat•.
-,.tn'
,'01. t. _
A_,... n.
", <hap. ,.
c;/] ./ G<>d, 'no ... by joll" '1<0.1, ("""'bu"", ."",).
UW AND NATlJIlL
"
;0 UW AN" >lAT1JU
Annl"" iI auached• .,.., rul~ 01 Ia.. lha. &tcribts thit ....... <ioo "
$lll'" ul{ lhe individual, .uthorilcd '0 lcgi.... ,~ hn., iautd. VD-
naI.-m armo-ding 10 which. thief 0. 10 boo puni<bed in '«room
way; and i1l.be ooun aul!lorited br lhe Code 01 Cri",inal pl'OCftd.
inp ill a Jl""'"'dUK po"aaihtd br tho. mdt has :ucnuinftllh.a':aD
Indindual has ~i,,«t llwf,; and ir lba. coon has ordcm:Il.be
kpIly ~=ain«t punia!>mwl; .hm a CIO"Uin..pa ou,gh. 10 P'-
«ul~ the I""'Uhmmt. By thus pl.....ing the ru'" of Law tha. dot-
N
B. MoULl' AS RUU"'"rION
OF IHTllNAL nEHAVIO~
A distinctioo bot",.en 010131, and law cannot relate 'n the behav_
ior to which the norm, of these two social orden obligate man.
Suicid. may be forbidden not only by moral" but also by Jaw;
courage and cltot.l,ity may be mnral as well a.logal obliga,ion'_ Nor
is the frequently a.""",d opinion Correc' that law p••«rib.. oxta_
ml and moral, intemal behavior. The norm. of bo,h orders deta_
mine both lind. of behavior. The moral virtue of courage con,i".
not merely in the intetn.l quality of feadeom""" but also in.n ox·
ternal behavior cooditioned by this quality. And if, On the other
hand, a legal order prohibits murder, it prohibits not only the
btinging abou' a man', death by the e"temal behavior of ano,her,
but aloo an intemal beha,-ior, namely ,he intention to bring about
ouch a result_ The "imemal"' behovior_po"ulated morally a<;<;QTd·
ing '0 lOme moml philooophen--i, .uppo<ed '" «l11.i" in • behav·
ior which, in order to be qu.lified a, "moml;' must be directed
.gail"t O1,e'. inclinatiom or .gain!t one', egoistic;>1 inte..... So far
a. thi.< merely meam an obligation cre.. cd by a moral norm to he-
h,,-e in a cetlain w.y .~i,,_hat i. 'o"'y that ,hi. norm i. valid,
even if inclination or egoistical imerest ate opposed '0 the COm·
manded hehavior-then thi. also applies '0 obligation. "',....d by
legal nonn•. It i. una,-oidable tha' a social order "'ill pr..cribe a
behaviot that i, poSlibly directed against some inclination. or
egoistical ;ntere't> 01 the individ"ah whose beh.vior the oro...- re~_
ulates. It would he ,upern"o". to prescribe onl)' a belravior tha,
c""form. '0 all inclinat'o,," and imerest. oJ 'host wbjrctrd 10 ,h.
nonn. People follow their indination. or try '0 re.lite their in'.r·
em even withoU! being oblig.d to do 10. A soci.l order i. mean·
ingful onl}' if a .llil.,ion i. aimed., other ,h.n ,h. O11e ,h .. re.ult>
LAW ANn MOI<ALS 0,
when evcrybody follow. hi' inclination' or tri.. to Teali,e hi. in-
'''''''', which would be pTe..nt wi,h~, 'he ,...1idhy and effe~d"e_
n... t>f a .odal order,
It i. '0 be noted that, if individual,mbjected to a ,oda.! ord... ..,.
,ually IJc,have in conformity wi'h 'he nOrlltS of that order, they do
10 only because ,hi, behavior ~onform, with their indina'iun Or an
egoi'tic.ol int.....t, which wa. elicited by the social order and i.
possibly-but no, nw,,,,,,rily--oppos<:d '0 the indination or in'.,-·
e1t that would be pre..nt wi'hou' thc intenerence of the social
o,der, A man may have con,radictory inclinati"". or inter..u. Hi.
actu.l behavior then dcpcndo on which indina'ion i. more inten,
,ive, which inlere" monger. No social ottler i> able to eliminat.
m.n'. inclina'io... and egoi"i...l imer.... '" motiv.. of hi, actions
and omi..ions. The social ottler Can only create. if it i. to be ellec_
tive, the inclination or the interes. to behave according to the on-
~ial order and oPPOOC them to indina'ion. and egoistical imeresu
thaI would be pte..nt without that order,
The mention<d ethical doctrine i. somelim.. unde"'oo<! to
mean that only a behavior dir",,'<d again" inclination or egoi",i.
cal im.....t h.. any moral value. Since "to hav.. a moral value"
mean. to conform with a moral nonn, ,h.. doctrine impli.. that
morab prescribe t<•• upp,.... one', inclination' and not .0 Tealiz<
one'. egoi,,;cal intere.u, but to OCt from other motive., Th"
mea", that the moral norm refen only to th.. moti"e 01 one'. be-
havior, Apatt lrom the lac. ,ha' the fulfillment of the postul.te to
oct (rom motiv.. other 'han inelin.,io", and egoinical int.....t i.
p<ychologically impossible.• moral order wh"'" norm relate. only
to the moti,'C o( the behavior pr.. uppo.." dillCTent socia.! order.
which prncribco an CJfternal behavior, A notm of morals which re-
lates only to th.. motive of the e~,ernal behavior. i. incomplete; it
em be valid only together with tlte nonno that prescribe the exter-
nal behavior, and tit.,.. norm., too. mull be moral nunnl.. Not
every behavior i. moral wh.n ir i. pcrform<d again" inclination
and ego"tical im....." If one obel" somebody .1..·• command to
commi' muttler, then thi' act cannot have any moral value, .ven if
performed again" hi' incHn"ion or egoiotical inter.... a, long ..
murder i' morally forbidden, A beh.vior can It... e moral value
only if not merely th. motive but tb. behavior i""lE conform' to a
moral norm. In pronouncing a moral judgment. the moti,·. and
. LAW""," .......U
.ri.... Thi, queo'ion h.. ''''0 meaning>: One, What i, ,he relation·
"
,hip be'we"" the 'wo? The oth...-, What "ughl i, be, If both q" ....
,ion. arc int.tmingled, miounde"'tandings re."II. Th. fim qu...
tion i. rornetim.. amworttl by uying th.. law by its very na'me i.
moral. which m""nl th" ,he hehavi", commanded. or prohibi,ed.
by legal nor"" i, al", commanded or prohibited by ,h. moral
nonn•. Furth.rmore, tha' if a ><>cial order command. a beh.vior
prohibited by morab or prohibits a beh,vior commanded by
mornb, thi, om.r i, no' law. because i, i. not jnu. Th. q"estion is
.1", an,wered, bowever, by .",tiog ,ha' ,h. law may, bu, n.ed no<,
he moral_in ,h. m.ntioned scruc, that is, "j""'"; ,ha, a IOciaI
ord.r ,ha, i5 no, mornl (which m.an>: jn") may neverthcl... he
law, ahhou~h ,h. po""la« i. admitted ,ha' ,h. law ough' to be
moral, which m•• ns: ju".
If th. qu."i<m of ,h. rclation.<hip he'w.en law and mornlJ i.
und..... 'ood a' a que"ion conc.rning ,he con,en, of law and no' a.
a que"ion conccrning ilS form; if it i, ..id ,ha' law according '0 its
nalUr. has a mo..1 con,en' or co""i,u'", a moral value; 'h"" one
a"""" by ,h~ .tatemenu ,ha, law is valid within th ••pber. of
morab. ,ha, ,he legal ord...- " a part 01 ,b. moral order, ,ba, law i.
moral and ,h...-c1or. by iu nalUr. just. So fa, ., '\lch an ....rtion
aim, a' a j""ificotion of law....... nd ,hI' i. ita 'ru. m.aning_i, m""
preo"ppooc ,ha' only one moral order i. valid cons,ituting,n abS(>-
lute moral valu.; and ,ha, only norm. that conform wi,h ,bi.
moral order and therelou comti1\l'. an ab",1 u'. m"",l value. con
be regarded.,.. "law," Thi, means: one proceeds from a defini,ion
of law, wbich determine> law as a part of m"",]" which iden,ifies
law and ju"ice.
1<c<nding '0 that order i. ,,,il under all circum...."""'; if, further,
one admiu lhat at diff,,,,,,, dme. and with different nations and
""." within ,h ....me na,jon. depending On .arion, d""". and
profession.. very dill"'''1 and contradictory In",... l .)~tcm. aTc
"did; if OIl. grams ,II"under different cin;um".nc" different
MharioT may be con,idOT.d good or evH. just or unjust, and noth·
ing h", to b<: con,ider"" good or ""il, jn" or unjust. unMT all P"'"
.ibl. circunnlancc.; if. in ,hott, one aclnowledge> that monl
val"". arc only T.l.,ive: 'h.n, ,h. assertion that "",,;,1 nOTIT" rnn",
have. moral cont.nt, ro"" be ius' in order '0 quAlify a. bw, urn
only man that ,h... norm. mn" contain something common to
all possible moral 'l"''''", as 'f"'''''" of justic •. In view of ,he~·
,mordina!)' heterogeneity, how.,,,,, of ".11,. mcn in fact h",. con .
•klc~ as good OT nil. just or uoju.. , "' different time. and in
different phccs, no clement com,,'on to ,he cotllentl of ,he variou.
mnral on:lcn io de"ctabk It ha. been .. id ,h.. all moral 'j'Olem.
pn<tul..e to f'T""""'e the peace, to ioflic' force on no one. But al·
ready H....di'u. taught that war i. not only the "fath",," (hat i"
the ClUIe, 01 e"erything, bu, al", ,he "king:' ,h .. i.. the high..,
norm'Cr.. ting au,hori,y. the highe" '·alue. hence "good"; that
righ, i, figh,. and figh' therefore in... And ~''''' le"" "YO' "Do
you ,hink ,h.. I have come '0 gi"e peace on earth? No, I tell you,
but rath.... divi'ion ...
lem, proclaim. thereby tha, peace i, no, the high." value, at
lea" no' for 'he moral md.... of ,hi, world. h i, possible '0 deuy
'h>t ~'en tnday many ate cO""inccd that war h.. mnral ,·alu.. be.
caule i, mak.. JXl"'ible ,he prac,ice of vir'u.. and ,he realiza,ion
of ideal. that arc higher ,h.n the "alue of peace? Or i, the mnral·
ity of pacifi"" uncont""cd? lloc. the philosophy of liberali",,_
,ha, compe,ition, cOIl'.", guarantee the best .tat1l' of .odety-
conlurn, with ,he ideal <>f pe.ce? Thi. ide.l doc. no' reprelen' the
highelt \'aille in an moral .yo'.m •. and no vaille at all in IIOnte, But
~-en if on. conld detec, an elem""t common '0.11 mor.l ,yotem.
",,-lid 11(I far. ,h"e would not be 'ufficiettt rcaton to regard a, no,
"moral" or not "ju"''' aud th.-rdore not .. "law" a CO<1'Cive order
that doc:t no, contain thi. elemen" tha' commatld. a behllvior
'hat 11(I far in no communi,y hat bc.-rJ co",ider¢d to be good or
jus< and th.t prohibit.< a behavior ,hat'" fur in no communit~
h.. heen cnn,idetcd '0 be ~'il o'unjult, For if one dnct not pr<,-
lJIW "~D "'0.....'-' ';
.uppooc a" a'pTlon, that U, ahsolute. ",oral value, one is u""ble
to determine what mUll be <:onsidered good and e,it just and
unjUSt, uud... all circulUsta""",. And theu, undeniably, aloo th..
which ,he mentioned co<:TCi"e orde, command. may be con.id,
ered as good and ju", aud that which It prohibi'" as e,il and
unjust; so that thi> OTdet too i>-relati'eJy-moral Or just. All
moral orders have only one thing in common: namely, that they
are social notm•. that i•. nOT"'" thot order a c<rLoln beha,iOT of
",e"-directly or indirectly-toward other ",en. All possible moral
.y.t=. ha'IC in oommo" their lorm, the "ought": they p,eoerib<
something, they ha"e normati,'e ch"a«er. Mor:ally good is th,t
which COllform. ,",'Ith the social norm th.t pr.....lbe. a certain
human beha,iOT; mOTaHy evil thaI which I. oppooed to .ucb •
nonn. The ",l.tl'·e mo",l ...Iue i. cstabli"'ed by. soci.l norm that
men ought to be beha"e in. cert.in ,",'ay, Nonn and ,alu. are OOT-
telat;"e oon..,plS.
Unde, these pre<uppositiOll' the .tatement "Jaw i. moral by n.-
ture" does not mean that law has a certain COlllent, but that it is
nonn-n.mely a social nonn that men ought 10 b<ha-. ill a ..,'tain
way. Then, in this ,dative len", e"ery law i. moral; e"ety Jaw
con.utute. a_relau,<-moral "alue. And this mrans: The que..
tion abou, the relationship between l.w and morals is not a qu","
tion about tlte cottlent of ,he law, hut one about its form. Th.n
one cannot ..y. as is sometim", said, that the Jaw i. not only nOTm
(or command) but also cot",i'ute. or rraH>es a value-sueh an as-
..r,lon i. meaningful only if an absolute, divine ....lue i. p",.up-
posed. For the Jaw com,;,,,,,,,a value preci..ly by the fact ,hat it is
a nOTm: it <:omtit"'''' the legol volue which. at tbe same lime. I. a
(telati"e) moral value: which merely means that the law Is no,m,
The theory, howe,er, that the law in ito ."..,nee repr....,,'" a
moral minimum_that a c""reive order. to he r.,..rdod as law,
must fulfill a minimum moral poo,ulate_u nt>< th....eLy accep'ed.
For '0 assume the ",i"enee of this pootula,e ["",upposes an abso-
lu,e lUor;olity. determined Ly i... oo",ent, OT at leasl. con,ent c.om_
mon 10 all positive moral 'y"ems-usually ,he ideal of peace. Fmm
what has been ..id it foHo...·.that ,he 1.,..1 ""lue, os uord h....e. does
no, rep",sent • moral minimum in this sense--tha'.•pecifically,
the pe.ce v.lue is not an element es:sential lor the con..,p' of law_
,
.
, •• SU'loaAnoH or LK.u,.
...~"D Mooo..u. o...as
"",It
_"'Iess
If i. it:oooumed that 1.1. . . monl by ""~, then, PfeM>ppooi......
• b.ohll~ monl ........,. it it 10 dClWld dw <Iw law
I to bt monI. Sl'Cll • po~nl.bte is IQMniogful ... Iy (and tile
prauppoocd .....-alit)' "'l"~l$' yanhticl for the II. only). if
<Iw pa;o.iblli.J' of the Qiileou or an immonllaw is admit~if,
in 0lhcT wOldl. thr definition of low doa no< inchock ,hot ~lcmmt
olm"..l O)n'OD'" J( ••1>eooy of pooiti..., la. &m.andJ. di"inction
bttwem law and monol. in gene",I, and ~",ecn law and justice
in panicul,., thm ,hi. d,~y i, di,,,,,,M .inot ,he ,,,,ditioml
view, r<gardtd " obvious by moot juri..... which prelUPpostt ,hat
only cne absolu,ely ""lid moral order and there lOT< only <>'" .bso.
lute junk•• "j".. The demand for ...""ra,ion be......" bw and
monlJ., law and ju"ice, "",.no .hat ,h. nlidi.y of. poIoitivc lopl
order it ind<pendmt of ,he valid;,y of wit
one, 001.1, .,.lid, at-
IUl<: mont ord...., "lb." moral order. the moral or<kr".r u<d·
I...u. If only Tda,i'-e moral ""lueo aTO pr.... ppooni. 'b.....hot f'<""
,ulate Lh>.. the law "",101 '0 be moral, tho, it, jUOl:. can only ",un
tho. the Ionnati... of pooitin law ""llh. 10 conform 10 OM opocilic
nw:w:al ~ among tM many pmoibl~ S)-.tnm. Thi" J>oo,,'nTI".
<loa not adlKk the poooibili.y of II... pou:ulatt tlw tlw lorma."'"
of pooiu.-e law ""&fl. 10 COGl....... w,lh ano<hrr monol _J"C1n_nd
oo....lIy perbaF- <Xl<Ifor<m wi,b i._hik i. do<. ..... coni"",, wilh
a monI.,....... th>.. i. dilf...m. I
.ive valu.... !he dnn;,nd u madot 10
'l.
It prouppooi"l only .da-
ratt law and ..-.1. in gm.
.....1. and la.. and j ......... in panicolar, <ben l.hio dnnand <loa not
mean th>.l La... and """"I" I.w ..... jml~. af<' unma.ed; i. doeo
..... """"n lhal !he conrqx of law il ouWde .II~ conrep' of ,h~
Good. For Ihe rol""'p< oil"" '.good" cannOl k tk6ned Olherw,,,,
lhan al ,ha, whid> ought .0 be: tha, "'hid> confo"", 10 a lOCia]
norm; and if law il d~6ncd .. nonn. then ,hi, Impliel ,ha. wha' il
lawful i. "good." The postulate, made under .he ,uppo,ition 01 a
rellti,'i"ie '"eory of valu•. '0 "pan.e law and ,noral. and III......
fu.. law .nd jUllie•• m...ly m.an' thu: (I) if a legal ord.. i.
judgcd 10 be moral or immonl, jult or unjwI, II>oc .""Iultions
"'prtM the relalion 01 the legal ordn to on" of manJ f>C*ibl.
....w ANn MOa",...
monl '}'Ite.'" but not to "the" moral 'l~..m ~nd therefore con,d· "
tu'" only a relative, not an absolut•. valu. judgment; ~nd (o) ,he
v~lidi,y of a p",iti".legal ord<"r does no, depend on itJ conformity
with OOme monl '1"tem.
A rela,i,i"ic theory of .....Iu. i, often mi.und....tood to mean
that th",.., are no val".. and. particularly, that there i. no ju,tice.
It mean. ta,h., Ih.t "olue, are tel ..iv., not .b$Olut•. that j""ice i,
,.Ia,i"e no, ,,!»oJ"'e; that 'he "alue. as e"abli.hed by Our ItOTm-
crea'ing acU caltnot claim to e""lude the I"""ibility of opposite
"alue•.
It i, obviou, that merely rela,;'·. mor.l. <:anno' render th" func_
tion-<Dnrion,ly or ttO<;<>nJCiollJly demand.d_to provide an abJo.
lute .tandard for ,he """Iu",ion of a poslti ... legal order. Such a
ltandard of evaluation .imply cannot he found by >eienti/ic cogni_
tion. But thi. d.... not mean tha' ,here i, no ,uch 'tandanl-e,,,,ry
mor.l '1"'''''' Can ..-rve a"lIch. But olte must he aware, in judging
a po,;,i"e legal order from a moral poi", of ,iew (a. good or bad,
as just OT unjll") tha' ,h" n.ndard of """Ination i, ,el.,i,e and
that alt evalnation baJed On a differ.ot moral .y"em i. nO, .,,_
cluded; fllnher, tha' a legal ord.r evaluated on the b~,i, of on.
moral .y".'" as unju", may well he ev.:Ju""d a, just on the ba.i,
of ano,her moral '}'I'em,
,.
,.
lh~ logal th«>ry is the proce. in which law is croated and applied
_the law in motion. Wh.... by it i. 10 be noted ,ha, ,hi> pn"'...
jn"n i. rognJa,<d by law. For it i. a most ,ignifiant p'0uJiatity of
Jaw ,ha, it regula,es ill own crea'ion and applicotion. The crea-
tion ollhe ~n.r.lllegal no,ml-\h. pmc... of legi,lodoll-i, regu-
lated by the constitution; ,he formal or procedural ....'nto. regulate
the appl""'t;On of the malmal .... lU'.. by the con'" and ..dmi,,;'"
,ntive OTWin', Th...<fore. ,he aclI of law creation:rnd la"" applica.-
,ion" th>.t <OlUli,n'. the legal process are comidcred by legal
cognition only to the """01 that they lorm ,h. wn'<'I\' 01 legal
norm.-lh.t they are determined by legal norID'; h<m<:c ,he dy·
namic th~ of law i••1.., di=,ed toward legal nonn., namely
,oward ,h= ,ha, regulate the creation and application of ,h.
law.
•
,.
pear in the i<>rm of ....rtion••taling be.... Fo< ~>:3mpl~. the norm
that lhd. ough' to "" puni.hM i> h"'luently formulated by ,he
legisJaoor in ,he ",menee, "Tholl ;. puni,hw by imprioonmen,";
the nOlm ,ha, the head of .ta,.
i. authoriud to .""dude tre.t~ i.
""pr<.-ed by ... ying: "The head of .ta,e conclud.. 1m· "<,,,i..:'
pan.n" howey""~ i. not ,he lingui.(ic ferrln, hut the meaning 01
,he law<tt.,ing, llorm'po>iting act. The meaning of lhe act is
diffe",,,, from the meaning of til<, law-<!""'ribing mi. of law. The
dif!<relltia,i(>ll between "rule of law" (in German: RcchI$-Sat<J
and "legal nono" (in GemLOIl Rech...N",m) ""pr..... the cliff....
enee be,w""" lhe function of lopl cognition and ,h. entirely
diffe<en' function of legal authority ropr...nted by the organ. of
thelegalwmmuni,y. The ><ienee of law hn to know ,he JoW-<lJ it
"eTc from ,he ouuide-,md to describe it. The legal org.n.. a,
legal authoriti.., have to c,."ate the law "" that afterward It may be
known and described by the seien« of I.w. It i. troe that the law·
applying organ, al", ha"e to know-u it were Irom the imide-the
law they are applying. The legi,lator who appl i.. the con'titution
ought to know the con"itution, and the judge who appli.,. the law
ought to know the law. But thi, knowledge iJ UOt the .,...,ntial ele·
mem o( their (nnction.; it i, only the preparation for their func-
tion....
It i. further true tltat, according to Kant', epi"emology. the
science of law a. c<>gnition of the law. like any cognition. has con·
"itutive chancter_it "cre...,.·· iu object insofar as it comprehend.
the object as a m.aningful whok Ju" a, the cha", of sensual pet.
ceptions become. a cosmOl, th.. i.. "nalUre" ... uni6ed .y"em.
through the cognition o( " .. ural science, so the multitude 01 gen.
eral and individual legal nonm. c,."ated hy the leg.l org:"'., be-
comes a unitary 'Y'tem, a legal "order;' through the ..:ience of law.
lIut thi, "creatit\ll" ha, • purely epi"emological ch.tlI"er. It i,
fundamentally different from th. <:rcation o( obj«" by human
lahor or the c,."adou of law by the legal authority.
The difference between the function 01 the science o( law and
the functIon of the lepl authority, and th<tchy th. dIff<t<JtCe be-
tWeen the pT<.dllCt of the on' and tha, of the o,her. i, fre,!uently
ignored. Lingui"ic.allj· law and science of law a,." often used
.ynonyruoUily. For example by .peaking of "dauical intern.tional
• Ct, ~ JOlt, ",Da<ctl... -Tt>< """,1,",1,.. wn<>rr '" tbe jooJid>1 d<tiMoL·
b .... one aaually me:uII a <nUln lheol'J of internationalla..; .,..
by opeakingol ~ 01. law " . IIOU= of law, one mnm lhal 1M
"
tcimct ofla.. an t.! a bindi,. .s..;.ioo of a Law cue, Bu. (ho,
oOmce of law an ' Jamk Ibe law. it CUIDOl jlfnaibt a =-
Wn bdlarior liU w law crated by t/>r lrpl au!heri'T (m thr
form of ~ .. iftdiridual 1>QnIl>). No jurist an <kay Ibe <So-
.....Lial di.""mtt bnWftn. law published in the olliciaI ~I p_
In,,, and a tc;mlilie commmtary '" this bw-bctwcnl ,he penal
CUlk and a ,,,,,,boot on crimi... llaw. The .... ,....,~u formuL:"td
by the -:oinK" of law that, occon:Iing '" a una", Ilpl ordtr. oomt-
thing ....p ••0 be done or """ 10 be dOM. do nOl impolt obIig:o·
,ion. nor conf.... right< upon :lnybody; ,h., may .... ,rue or blse.
nu' <he n<lnm enacted by ,he legal au'hori.y. imp<>:linS' obliga.
,iOll' and conferring "gIll" upon ,he leg:oJ robje<:U 'r. nei,her uue
nOr fob.., hut only ~.Hd or invalid; ju", a. faeu are n,.i,lo .... true
nor f.I .., bu. only "";'Wlt or llonc><U,enl, and only ,'n/eme"t.
abom bel< an b<: ,rue or f.I..,. For e",,-mple. ,he ,.(I'eme", COIl-
llIi"ed in a tal <xl c;v;1 la.. ,""•• penon who doa not fulfill •
prom.... of mam"i" h» 10 compmsa.e for tb< damage CIIul<"d CIr
d..e • ciril affUtion o"lht 10 Ill: di......"" into hi, P'OfJf'I'~' ;. b.he
if <he b .. 01 the ..... e...hlch 10 de<ocribed in ,his l<pl,,,,,•• dots lKX
... bliob IIICh an obIiption bent..... i, dots noI preocrilll: IIICh a
eMI Cl«<1l'' ' 'TI>e antWr to tbe queotion 01 ..·hnhtt RICh a
kopl """'" ;. nlid wi,hin a ltpl .,.-<Itt elfI be-lncliucdy-
~mliftl boaust <be r>onD. 10 be nJid, ""'" have ....... o-ea"d by
an empirically iden,ibble KI. BI.. <be nann maaed by the lep1
aulhurir;y (p<e-ribina eompen........ 1m- <be ~ all<! (i";1 CJ(-
«IIlion in <Me of oonful~llmn") elfin« be true or fal~. bten.....
i, i, ..... an ~i"" abolll a fatI--no< a 4nttiption of au objecl
bul a f>rnttiprion-an.d iu, _h .he objecl,o be delo:ribed by ,he
ociena: of taw. TI>e norm con.. itut"" by the l~wator (pracrib-
ing ,""""u'i",, '8"i".. a penon who doe> no< ful~1I • "",nl.S"
prnmile and d.......... <ompen\;l,e for <he damaS") and ,he '''',e-
m..,t formula'ffl h~ ,he .<o;i..,ce of bw and drocribing ,hi, norm
(,h., execminn ough, to I>e carried 0'" .ga.in" a pcrson wl,o d.....
nOt ful~ll hi, maniaS" promise: .nd d..... no' <;<>mpm\;lte lor .he
damage aused)--th"", ,""p•.,..iom are logka1l~ differ"". II i,
,httcfote <ot"...,i.." 10 diff~,;",e ,hem ,erminolog;c,lI~ ..
"I<pl norm" and "rule of 10.:' II foil"," from.hat hal been Did
LAW ...... SClI:NCIt
that d.e ruI.. of b.w formul.a~ bJ """ ocima: of Ia. ar<! not 11m·
plr ~ptUlions of the lopl _ ontM br the kpl authori..,.
The objeoion that rula of law are a1p<rl1uous is oc-.IO obriousI'f
unfounded. bowntt.... """ ~ thai a ....ttrn.llcimoe is ",peril...
ow baide .... tul""C:. too- DIIun dooo ..... """Iif... judf itl IpOkm
Inc! wriltm wordI, II """ Ia. doa. il>t ,i_
thai I rIIk of Ia.
formu.1.lwd bJ the ocimtc of I•• is a1peri1uous bnide the Iopl
oorm CUlt"'" bJ """ 14isl110t" (:In be "'" oul'f b1 poinli"C oul
thai ouch ........ would .mounl 10 the opinion thu • ocitoli6c
praentalm of I criminal IIw iI IUI'ftllUOW bftide thil criminal
II•• thallbe odmce of I.w il I<II'ftlIUOUl baide the I••.
Si""", lcgalllonnJ, bl:inC prCKripciOUl (.....1 i,. COffil\1l.ndl, I'l'r·
mll$lonl••1Ithori....i(JIlI). can neitll hoe true nor fllw:. Ihe qu....
don Iri.IQ: How COn logical principl e:!puillly ,lie Principle of
Ih. Exclu"on of Cottl ... dlctlon .nd ,he Rule:! of I"fer.",. lie.p-
plied '0 the 'ela,lon lietw.... I.... l "or..... If, accoTdl"l In ""di.
,ion.1 vi..... ,h... prinodpl .. It. applicable only '0 alSCTdoM .....'
con bl: Itu. or "'I..,. Th. a"ower 10: Logical prin<ipl", uc applica.
bl., Indl_,ly, to legal norm. 10 .... c>:ten, lhal Ih.,..n: .pplica·
bl. to """ rules of law whidt dncribe th. legal nonttl Ind whicb
<:Ill be ..... or bloc. Two lcpl nOl'lltS arc con.radictoo'f."" ca:n
~ Dot both be ."Iid .. """ 0ImC time. if the tWO rul", of
Iaw .....1 dcocribe them an: COt\lradiaorr: and one ltpl norm tnIl7
be deduad fronI .t1OIhn" if .he rIIla of law tha. dnt:ribe them ca:n
rorm • Iogial oylJosism.'
Thi. i. not lnmmpotibl. with """ bet that thac ...Ift of law an:
OUfl:lI.·...u:-..a aDd m.." be OUsftt-llllaDCOa, heallit' they de-
x:no. norm. prncribi"l thallQmOClh.ing ougbt to bt. "The ""(to
mm. dCKribins """ valid;,'f of • norm of criminal law tha. prt-
Jaiba impriaottmmllor thef. would be fal.., if i t . _ to 117 thaI
accordinC '" <hat norm theft iI punllhcd bJ i"'prj..... mm._i.
would be fal..,. bcc:r.u.., ,hcr<: ar. dtctlm"alVes in whidt dapi'e
,h. ""lldily of thai norm Ihcll i.. in facl. not puni.hcd: fOt" """"'.
pl•••h.n the .hi.f I. nol ough,. Th. rul. of I•• dClCribing this
..........., .... NoI" .., tor ,II< 'PI"Icobltll' 01 ,''' IoJI<aI ",h><lpl< 01 ,II< .
" ....... '" ""',,..."""'" .. pool,l ,"Ide b, It.n, ,., .
1 " ....,.... ' ..
~d".·" ~ In J• .."..... In 11_ 0/ R _ I'ooowl. .... ..., ..I....
l'I n ....... <b< ..,so 01 ' .... _ku 5od<tJ b Up! ""''''' (J""""poI~
0D0l 1'1 y_, __........ ~ 'tot). ",. ~ ...1<. _ .. "'" ."'1.......
01'100 _ 0 1 1 0 _ .. _ _ -J.<drt_ .......-'.....Xlt: ••,
(VIoooo>. Odobtr.•,0,). """ .......). .... xn, 'OS (N , - ,•• il"'l).". _ _
....w "NO SCIE1<CE
"
.....w AND scrENCE
rul. of Jaw rotmuJated by the ",i.nee of law doe. nOl. ....um. the
.u~hor'tati,·. meaning of the legal nnrm delCfibed by the rule; the
"ought" in the rule olla'" hal only a d<>criptive ehaTOeter. On the
othet hand, from the fac. that the tule of Jaw dcocrihe. some,hing
does no, follow th.t what i. de><ribed i. an actual faCl, I>cctuoc not
only actual fact., bu' also norm., tbat i•. ,h ••pecific m.anins' of
facts. may he dcocribed. Specifically, ,he rule of law i. not an im·
petative; it i., rather. a judgment, • ".temCtl' abou' an object of
c<>gn;tion. Not does ,h. rul. of la", imply any approval of the d.-
""ribed legal norm. The juri.. who de><ribe> th. law scien,ifically
docs n'>, id.ntify himself with the legal authnrity enacting the
n<>Tm. TI,e rul. of law remains objcctive dncription; i, doe> not
beenme p''''''ription. Th. rule does no mnte than 'tate, like ,he law
of nature, the link between two.lem.ntl. a lune,ional connection.
Although tbe object of the science of law i. 1<'g31 nonm and
therefore the legal values con"i'uted by th.se nonns, the tuleo of
law arc n...·mh.le... like the law. of nature of the natural ",ienc...
" ,..Iue·fr.. dcocrip'ion of their object. "Thi. means, th.. the
description hal notela,ion '0 a meta-l.gal value and d"". not im.
ply .ny .motional approval or di..pprm-aL If a juri", de"'til>ing,
from ,he point of view of 1<'g31 ""i.nce. a posith'e legal order,
O&$Cr" tha, und.r a condi~ion deterntined by the legal order a
...nction ought to be executed determined by 'hi. order, h. a...rto
thil n.n if he regard. the imputation of the ",nction to the condi·
tion .. unju>" and th<rclore di"'pprov.. 01 it. The norms ,hat
con"i,u,. the legal valu. mu", be differentiated from the n<>Tm.
acconliug to which the formation o£ the law i, ..-aluated. If the
lei.nce of law i. called upon ., all to an.wer the question of
wheth.r a conctet. behavior docs ot doe> not conform to the I.w,
the 'nlw.r can only be an al>ertion to the e!fe<:, tbat 'hi. behavior,
in the legal ottle' d<1Ctibed by the science o£ law, i.commanded or
prohibited, auth<>Tizcd <>T not authorized, pennitted Or not
permitted_regardl... of whethe' ,bit behavior i. judged by th.
On. who mak.. the ....rtion to be morally good <>T b:ld. and
whrther he approv•• <>T di..pprO'.... of it.
Since the rul. of law in a d.scriptive ..ns.c, lik. the law of na.
ture (of the hatural sci."ce) ."pt...... a functional cooncc,ion, it
can al.., be dcoignated a. Icgallaw (meaning law in a legal sense.
German: Rulmguel». in analogy to law of nOlur., A. was em.
ph...iled ~arlitl, th~ rul~ of law hy wing th~ word "ought" e"·
pTe"'" mtl~ly th~ .pccifie meaning ill which condilion and conoe-
quence. particularly delict and .anc'ion, aTe connected by th.
legal nonn; ..·h....by 'he ronnection d~>cribed by 'he legal law is
analogo"" yet differ.nt, from th~ connection of cau.. and .ffect
.xpr.......,j in a law of "",ure.
Pteci>ely a. the law of natu,.., (th......nion d=riblttg natur~)
I. DUl the d~scribed ohj~Ct, >0 th~ legal law (the a""Ttion de>crib-
ing ,h~ law OT, in othtl word" the rul~ of law formulated by ,h~
ocienc<: of law) i. not the described object, ""mely the law, the
legal nOrm. Th~ lalleT-<lhhough designated a, "law" when it h..
g.II....1 cbarac~r_l. nUl a law In a "'"'" analogou! to a law of
natu,..,. For the legal norm i, no' an a<senlon docTibing a func·
tional connection. Tbe legal nonn I, nm an a""nion a' all, but
the m.aning of an act by which something;" puscribed .nd by
which 'he funCtional connec.ion b.tween facts i. first ••tab·
li.hed_a connection described by the rule of law, the legal law.
Th. Tul. of low tltat pr"",nt.< iudf a' a leg.l law h.. a general
char.teter, like the lawof natUT., which m.a", that the legal law de·
>cribn tlte gen....l nonn. of the legal order and the ,elatio",hip"
constitu,td by th"", nonn,. The individual legal norm" created
by judicial d""i'iun or administrati ... acu, are d"""ibed by the ocl·
eoc<: of law .. a concr.te ~xp<riment io described by natural
.dence by 'detting to a law of nalUre tb.t manifelts it"'lf in the
exp<rim~n,. A tex'hook on phj'!ic. might, for example, contain
,h~ worm; "Since, according to a law of natur~, a metallic body
.,.po.nd. wh.n b.ated. the me",nic 'phe,.., .ha, physidst X
dropped befo... h.ating througb a wU<><kn ring, did not p"'"
'hrough it alter heating." 0, a t~x. on Getman criminal l.w
might ..y: "According 10 a legal law to be formulated wi.h Td...-
.nce to German law, an iodlvidual who committed theft ought to
be punl,hed by a court by imprioonmeut; ,h.....fo,.. tlte Coull X
iu Y, having determined .ha. A ha. committed thel•. has decided
that iI ought to be forcibly confined in prison Z for one year." By
oaying that Nil having committed a <:<enain thel. ought 10 be forri·
bly confin<'d in prioon Z for one year" the individual norm I, de·
tcrlbed which Court X in Y b.. enacted.
If the connection between condl,;ou and consequence. ex·
pressed by the word "ough'" iu the rule of law, i. cantd "imputa.
....w AND SCt~NC~ 0,
lion," th~n !'fih.P' a new wOTd but not " uew conc"", i'
int..wuc<:d into a disciplin~ which a1waj~ UoM 'he coucop' d...ig.
natro h.,-e by tho word "impu,ation." Thi. i' impliro in the
co""ept '"""ponsibility:' That an individual i' r~,poTtlihl~ for hi.
h<havior mean' tbat he may he puni'hed for thi. behavior; and
that he i' iltt,!"""ibl •. 0' not responsible, mean, that h•. lor ,h.
~,me behavior_bc<au"" he i' a minor or i",ane--may not be
punisllro. Tha' means. 'ha' in the /irst cr"" a delini'e behavior i"
in the """ond ca"" this behavior i' nol, eonn"",ed with punid,.
ment: 'hat th~ beh.vior i. or i. not a condition lor punisllm.llt;
'hat puni'hnle", is or i. not impw.d '0 'h. behavior. It i' trUe
'ha' by oaying: an individual i' r..pon.ible or nOi respornible for
hi. behavior. one mean. 'ha' ,h. behavior i. or i. not imputro to
'he individual. But the behavior in que"ion is imputed or not im_
pu'e<! '0 the individual (...hieh meano: the individu.l i, ""po",i.
hIe or not r"porr'iblelor hi' behavior) only by th~ faCt that in 'he
fonn.. C>le the 1><ha"ior .. conne<;tcd witb a "'nction and th""eby
qua1iliro a, a d.lict. wh.rea, tlli' i. no, done in ,h. la"er co"'" 10
that. ,h",.fore an i"..ponsible individual cannot commit a del k,.
Thi, means. howe'''". thot imputat,on m.",Iy consi.,. in thi' con-
n«tion between delie< and ..net ion. Imputation. which apr......
i,,,,,l£ in ,h. con«p' of rcspon<.ibility, is ,h.,-d_ not 'he connec.
tion betwoen a conain behavior and an individual who titus
htha,._.. a"umed by traditionalthenry: lor thi•. no connec'ion
by a legal nom, i' n"'....ry. htcau,,", ,h. behavior and 'he behav·
ing individual onnot ht ..,parated; e"en tlte hthavior of a not re·
spon,ible man i. "ill hi' b.havior (hi. action or hi. ",Iraining
from action). e"en if it i' not 3n imputable d.lict. Imputa,ion.
implied in 'he coru:ep' 01 'etpon,ibility. i.I 'he conn""tion betwoen
3 cenain hthavior, namely a doliet. with a ""nctiou. Thercl'or. it i'
paMible to ...y: 'he lanction i, impu'ed 10 the delict. but 'he ",nc-
tion i' not "eff"'ICd by" (i. not "cruoM by'") th~ delict. 11 i' obvi·
ous tha' th~ s<:ienco of law doe. not aim at 3 causal eKplanation "f
tho legal phenomona delict and ",net ion. In the rul" of bw by
which the science of I>w describe, 'h"", phenomen,. i' i, no' 'he
principle or cru",lity which i' employ"", bu' "no,h., p,inciple
,hat "'e d"'i/;Oat.u as impu...,io'"
••
'9- TIIZ 1'Jw<o"-& Of' l ..PVTAT1O!'< ".
n<~ T"""",so; Of! hn<nt>"I< MA."
All i""tuiIP';'" 01. pri",i.i.'t ~ and of primi"..., ....... wi'y
>howl that ,he same principl~ iJ :II the buis 01 thc in~tion
of n~'''Te by prim,,;..., men." Primi.i,-~ mu> probobly did """ ....
plain ....'un.l phen<J<nmll accordi"ll to thc principk of eo .... lit)'.
Thil principl~. tht lund>mm.al priDcipk of ""unl oc:icnce--likc
"'lUnllCiencc i....lf_is ,he xhie<'rmcn, 01 a nla.i".. ly adn.nccd
ci"iliu,ion. Early roan interpreted bcu p""",iYcd by his ..noel
acxording to the .."", principles ",hiell regulated the relatiocuhips
to hi. fellow men, namely a<X,mling U' oo<ial norml.
Whm men li,-.. togethn in l group the ide.. arises I~t' cttt.in
behavior is good and another i. bad; in other worth: ,h., ,he
memben of the group oug'" to b<:h...e undor cerl.;" condition, in
• "",,,in manncr 10 that ,he individual who in. concre'e ti'ua,ion
tlni ..... the oppooitc behavior and o<,ually behavn accon:Iing '0
!.hi, desire, iJ """,", no< 10 have bd.;,...,d n he ought ,0). Tlli.
""""" <hal in !he comciown.... 01 oocia.lIy li.ing the ide. "".
"u that """"" binding 'M individuals "'i"b.", ir mu,,,,,1 tot.
havior. FltI'tbomnort. mm liring tIlgI:<htt in a poup j~ their
IlImu.ll lxha'rior ao<ordi"110 ouch .-ms that ICl.l1.Illy come inlO
hd.., by cwtOUl, ~ <hclu&h thtJ a", ioterpmed It W am>-
"""""" of a IUpnbU-" authority. ~ okldo. .-nu ol ........ kind
a", prnbiIbI, <hoot aiming a. a ftSUinioD. of W ........1 impulot
and w delire of agrosion. Inca< and mllnkr are prllbabl, w
old(M crimes, outb.,.., and blood ,e"tlj\C the oldest IOCiall,
orpnimJ ..octioos. Thcoc unctions were baotd on a nile Iha.
dominated !he oociallife of primi.ive .... n: the nile 01 retribution.
It inch.1dtd both punishment and ,..,..-nd. It rna, be formuLuod
roughly :u folio..., If rou bch ..... tightl}'. rou ough, to be ,'"
wardod, .... t is, a bcne~t ought to be bcslowod on y<ItI: if you be-
h.we wrongly, }'on ought to be p"niohed, that is. ~n evil ought to
be inftic'od on you, In ,hi. buic tnl_, condition Ind consequence
arc not connected with each olller 3ccording to the principle of
ClIuuJi,y, but according to tItc principle of imputation, So for "
-a, tu.. ~, , ..,.~-. ...... lr'-'" (Dn " _ 'M'). "" '., pol
......,. - ' .,...... ~ 'M.\I. pp. ...
lAW A'''o SCI£NCi:
-o«I'PM
·~"",d ~41 AI"'" m'! '"'''"110 lU~lUO:> ~1I1 .. ~U!w""p>Jd JOU <XlI'
Alp."!J'1O u"!ln.!"uo:> ~41 :nn.~ p>l"p,,,d ~ AIPJ0'l U~ mUOll
\U,n:>S >0'4' jO <lO!,.'-O '4' ~wo"nJ puc ""owl_flbl liq 1""='
.lUJOU 1cll>11.... u:>S 'Il' I.'", Alu.w!m ""0 ''''("m,! '.unin Jill "'I
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n""3':>I' <INV "'VI .
dor<: of legislation. A pr<dic.ion of a jodicial rl""i'iOll, how~cr.
"
O1\<n'i.>Hy r"U on the fact that the COUtU by and large apply the
gto"a' norm. cr....ro by lcgi.llator or CU,tom; .he pT<diction
th«cfore cOIl.im m=ly in the SUI<'ID... , 'hat the cOUtu will de_
cide .. 'hey ought to decide acrording to the ""lid gon.....l nOn"'.
Th. pH,dictions of realistic juri.\=d<nce differ from the rul ..
of law of nonnative juri.prudence (norm"i,-. Jeiene. of law) only
in 'hn th..., predictiOn> are iH,atemenu not ought..... '.m.nu,
but-being i.-otawncmo-do not tend .. 'he .~ific mUlling of
'he law. To the .~lent that <ourU creale new law by their d<'Ci-
sion., predictions ale jnlt .. irnp<>Mible ., prrdktion. of general
nOTrru 10 be created by legislalon. General norm., however. con·
stitute the bull of the law with which the science of law i. cOll-
cerned. But enD to tI.. """"n .ha. p'cdieti01u "r~ po.. ibl~, tho'"
ar< not Lho wl or th~ «:i~no: of law, which i. abl. '0 d.""il,.,
individual 3nd g""...... l nOm" only aft~r thoy ba,'~ !>ttn cr~"t~d
and becom~ valid, Th. pr«lictioll of. futur< couct deci'ion nlight
I,., co"'idet«l part of th~ b",in~.. of a pr:actlcal1awj'eT courneling
hi, cli~nl, But cognition of tb~ law mu", not I,., confounded with
logal advie..,. E"en if a by aud l.rg~ effccti". legal ordet could I,.,
d~'CTibed by 'l.atem~ltts which, lik~ law' of natUf~. a""rt th..
uudot c~ttaiu condition. cortain con>e<]uell= actually tak~ plac.
(in oth~r word" that, if ",m~,hing i. don~ which according '0 ,hi.
legal ord.r i. d.fined by the law-applyiog organ a, a d~1ict, Ih.
sanction proocribed by th~ legal oro"" will I,., O'<ccuted) .,iII,
it i.
not th~ «:ieuc. of law .hat aim. at .uch a description, For th~ ,d·
enee 01 law. by formulating rules of law, doe.< not descril,., a causal
connection bu. a nortl1"i,·. connec'ion beLw~en th~ el~m~n" of
its object: u.m~ly, imputation,
rn<ti, of thi, Illan ough, \0 be rewarded): that the man ought 1<>
do:> """ance for hi> .in (more pTtc~ly: ,hat ti" .in of ,hi. man
ought to h,,'. its penance): that the oiminal ought '0 be pun-
'''",d (mOTe p,«;.. ly: that hi. crime ought to get ,he pnui,hme",
it d..",•••). Il j. nol behavior defined a. merit, ,in, or crime th..
i. imputed to the man_mch an impntaton would i>< mptT8u",,',
.inee human behavior c.anllo' be "p"rated from the bchaving
human !>ting. If the qu."ion of imputaMU j. ",i.. <1 aher a man
has bchav<d mtTitotion,ly. hao ,innect or h", committed a crime.
,hen ,hi. quell;on i, not: who h.. ""rfoTmed the mtritorion. drffi,
who 11<.. commiutd ,he .in or the crimel-.h;. would be a que.,ion
of fact: the moral or legal qu....ion of imputation is "Ilhe" will> is
,c.pamibl. fOT the behaviorl And thi. que>!;on mea"" ,,'ho
ought to be ""w3fd~ or who ought to do pen.nce or be puni,hed?
It i, tI.. ,..,ward, the penance. the puni,hment that a,.., imputed ..
,pecific conoequence, to .pecific condition>. And the condition i,
the behavior that ""pt=n" the merit, ilit, or crime. The imputa·
tion of the ,..,,,,at<! to the met;t, of .he penance to the .in. and 01
the pun~h",ent to the crime includ.. the imputation to the man,
although only thi, imputation i. cle.rly expre~ in the common
u...ge of language,
The problem of monl or leg.l "".pon.ibility i. fuodamentally
conn.ct~ witlt that of retribution; retribution i, imputation of
reward to merit, of pena""e to .in. of pUlli,hment to crime. The
principle of ,..,tribution conn~t' a behavior whith i, ill con·
lormity to a norm with a ..,,'at<!, a behavior which i. in conflict
with. noml with penance or pun;o!lment. Th", it presuppo... a
norm that command. or prohibit, thi, behavior or iJ a norm tll3t
prohibits the behavior jll.t by al~hing " puni,hment to it. Dut
the behavior th.. constitut.. the imm~ia,,: condition lor the ...
wat<!, the p.",.n«, or th. pun;,hment may it..11 be command~
or prohibit~ as consequence of a d.fin;te condition. If by imputa.
tion we und.rstand every connectioo of " human behavior with
the condition unMr whkh it i, comrrl3nd~ or proh;b;t~ in a
norm." the" al"" th. behavior to which, as to ic.s imm~i"e con·
dition, the ",,,..d, the penance, or the p"ni.hn,ent i. impUl~,
mal' be imput~ to the condition under whkh it i, command~ or
prohibited.
·cr, I', ..'d h"'·
ro< example: Monl. command that if someone" In need he
oUgh' '0 be helped; if klmeone obep this command, hi. behavior
oUgh' to be appro....d. il be dilObe)'., hi. heha"io< ough' to be di ..
approved. The "'nctiom of approval and di...ppro,,1 are in'p"'ed
to ,h.ir immedi..econdition-4he commanded aid and the prohib.
i'ed nonaid; tbe commanded aid i. imputed '0 the fact whO$<:
;mmedi". condi'on i' io: na",ely tha' ",nlebody is in n.ed. Thi.
fac' is 'he medi"e condition of ,h. appro'..al (Iunc'ioning .. Mne-
,ion) of relld....ing aid and 01 'he d"'pprO\'al 01 not rendering il.
Ano'her ""ample: The law comm.and. ,hat if klm.one receives a
loan and doeo nOt repay i'. d"il execUlion_a. a ,anction-ough"o
be direcred into bi. proptrty. Tbe ..netion 01 civil ""ecu,ion i.
imputed to 'he nonrepaymen, of 'he loon. d.6ned as a delkl-the
nonrepayu,.." being 'he iunoediale condition for ,hi...netioll;
tbe commanded repalme", m'he loan is imputed '0 ilS imm.dia'e
condi,ion, 'he receip, m'he lo'n. Thi. fac' i. ,h. mediate condi-
'ion of the sanc'ion 01 the ."ecution. Beyond 'hi' mC'diate COIl'
di'ion of 'he ..nction nO imputa'ion tak.. place. Bu' the reward.
penance. punishment (including civil execu,ion) are no, impu'ed
'0 their mediate condition, bUl only '0 'heir immC'di"e condition
_meri' ••ill, deli<:1. Reward, penance. punishment are not im-
pu,ed '0 the condi'ion und..- whi<:h a certain behavior i.
commanded as m",i,oriou. or prohibi'ed as .inful <" unlawful:
they are imputed to 'he man who behav.. in conlormi,y Or in con·
fliet with 'be command, or, more preei..I)": hi. bebavior in
confonnitl with 'he command is rewarded, hi. op!""i'e behavior
penanced or puni,hed. In this behavior end. 'he imp",a,ion 'ha'
cons,i,ut.. hi. m""l or legal re.ponsibilit)",
If, how.,..,:, a certai" event is 'he effect m a can"'. and if thi>
cau... a. alway., i~lf hu. cause, then thi. caUle, '00, aJ cawa , •.
mora, i. a caule of 'he evell' in que"ion. Thi, event i. not only
refe-rred '0 its immediate COule, bnt 01", to all lIS mC'di ..e """",
and thus is i",erpre,ed a. the effect of all 'hOle caUIe' that form au
infinite chain. The deci,ive point is: the behavior that, under a
norma,ive (Le_. a mOT.1 or legal) order. i. the end poi'" of an im·
puta,ion. is, under the causal order, no end poi'" (neither aJ cau",
nor a. effect) bu, o"ly a link in an i,,~ni'e (hain.
Thi•. then. i. ,he lrue meaning of the id.. 'hal m'n," tho mh·
jecr of a moral or legal order, 'h,' i., as a lnctnl>er 01 a society and
LAW ANI> SClUICIt
"
"'0>1 "'us! speak tho lnIth .1... )'0 and ~hru; ~ kJlow <hat "
lIICII .... ~ .put the lru,h and at othc1" tilncs lie. Bu.........
IDlUI opeab lbe .... th or wbm M lies, tI>cn in both o>et his be--
IoaTior is c:o.-IIy d..n='IlCd. lhal IDaDI, dnenniMd b1' law 0(
.... ~ Nor. by. law ollWlI~attOI"din& to wlli<h _ ",we'MY"
IfIC'1.l 1M trUth or .,hAJ'llw, bu. by anotl>tt bw 01 n:ll...... (or n-
.mp~ by....., attOIdin& to which IIWI. cbooocI WI bd\a.icw from
which M ""pet" tho rrca,tsI ...nan"'l!"_ ~ ideo of the norm
thot one ougb' to ope>t Ihe truth can ~;n """form'., with this
1... 01"".... . - dt:OClin "'OIiu lor bdlavior llCCOfdinl to the
!>Mm. It norm that would prncri"" that man ""ght not to die
orould b<: .. nsel ... btallS< we know brlDRlland ,hit all rom
m".. die according to. I.w of ,,.'"It.
Til<: idu of ,"ch a norm
Cannot be an ,ff""" ••
mo"ve for • behavior a«Ording '0 ,h. norm
but in COT1.ndic,ion to ,h. I.w e>f n'!IlTO. The ide. of ,"ch • nOTm
i, r f>T<'C,,,,ty ~II" of ,h. bet of ,h. posoibili,y of au ...]
.Woe ....
Som•• iznn i. i. odmittM ,h•• nun', will. lit. all kappmi"8'- i.
aetUlllly countly d........;O«I. b... it is aurnd 'M', in onI... '"
1WI1<e monl·l~ impu~'ion poIOib'" man mu!ll "" toprd<'d as il
hil,,-i!l ...~ frte; tho, _ns. _ beli~ i. nf:«tOl'1' I(l main·
tain ftttdoIIl <JI...-ill (tha. i.. aual no:-innmin.a.ion) .. a nOttO-
AryflctioD.
H-...·....... hen impauUon n naI£7lized at a conneaiOll <JI. fao>
dill,...... f...- augli,y b.n by _ mom in ooollia wi'" it.
6aioa bKomnoup<Tlh.o.....
"'i.
Since the obj<coi~ dclenll;N'ion <JI. thc -.ill acconli"8 to thc
la.... <JI. au.ali.y an..... bt !lmin!. aome "";",n btl~ '0 bt abk
to ~ thc poosihili.y <JI. impaUtion upon thc ... bj«<;~ fact rna<
man. ahloough no< fo~. nroncoool" bdi"'·... hi~lf to bt fott:
,h.,. base thc aMumpoion .11.>. bt btl;"'... him..11 10 bt Irtt on lh~
'ac' rna. h~ fttls ........ orw when h~ h:o< commilled a lopl or mon.1
wrong. Bu' ,hi. i. no< Corr«'. Ry no m""", do .11 mon 1..1 ,10-
mone as a ..... ,,1.of. commhted wrong. Abov~ .n. m.ny do not
...,gard;oJ, wrong ,ha, which. according '0 .holtga.l 01' moral order
under which .hcy arc living. i. a wrong: t>csid.., wha, is wrong i.
dHIe...,n' aa:ording to difl' ont lcgalor monl Mde... Men f""l TIO-
tt>OrX even if lhcy aTO .on ,II.>, llIc'y have commi"ed. de«! thq
,hcm..lv<'S rqard u a wrong. forud by a motiv~ tko. w,", nrongct
uw AND .lC1~"CE
,ha~ ,he olle that preued Ihem '0 rd'r.. in from comminillg Ihe
de.,./. E"en a convinc"'/ de,"tmini", can f",,1 ",rnone when he h..
done somelhing that he con.iden to be wrong: ju" a' even a con·
vinced determinist doe. by no m",,,, d.,.", Irom hi. view the con.
du.ion that a behnior forbidden by moeal. OT law must not be
disapprov"'/ ot not be puni.h.,./_th.. no irnpu,ation muSt take
place. Imputation pr"'upJ'O"" neith" Ihe fact Ot fiction of Olusal
nond<lerminatiOll. not tlo< .ubje<;,i"e error 01 man to I>< f",e.
Some writer. I><lieve they can use the following way.o solve the
problem 01 the .onnict be.w«n fr«:<lom 01 "'iIl .. an indi.pen....
ble .upposition 01 impu\3tion and .he principle 01 cau...lity thaI
d<t<rmin"" all "'enlS, A man u moralll' or legally r«pom.ible for a
happening if i, "... caused either by hil aCl of will or by hi.lailuro
'0 ptrfOrIII an a(t 01 "'ill that could have ptevent.,./ the happen.
ing. He i> no' r"poDlible fot a happening when i. wa> no' <aused
by hi. act of will or hi. failu", to penorm .n acl of will th.. could
ha"e p""'en'ed the h.ppening. Th .. man i. froe merely meallS,
accomilll: '0 ,h= wri<crs, hi. a"'aren",. '0 be .ble to :oel •• he
wishes. Th«e f:u:.., 'hey m.intain. are entirely compatible wi,h
st,ict d.,enn ini'lll because the :oe, of will or the £oilure to ac, are
considered a> r.ausal1y determined.
The allernp' to maintain the idea of fr«:<lom of "'ill by inter.
preting it as ,he awaten"" of the f'O'o'ibility 10 aCl as DOe wishes
must fail. For ,he awareness to be able to ac' a.olle wish.., i. the
knowledge ,hal 011' acU are caused by our will. Rut 'he question i.
not wheth" our aClion i. caused by our will_indelermini,m doeo
no, deny thi!; bu,. ralher, ",hether our will is cau'l3.11y detennined
or not. If the mentioned a..empt i. not merely a denial of freedom
of will, but i. 10 reprcsen, a oolotion of the problem ",hile m.in.
taining ,he .uppooi'ion tha, re'pon.ibili'y .. posoible only under
Ihe condi,ion of Irttdom of will. then we 're merely confronted
wi,h a ,hift of the problem. By presen'ing the problem in ,hi,
w'y, i, i. merely proved that. mmal.legal imputation i, I"""ible
and aclually occu" though tho will i, causally determined.
The 'upposition tha< man h•• a f,.., will (thal i,. a c>usany not
del.nnined will). j, n..,e....'.,.----.o
it i, £re<fu.mly argned-IO ex·
plain ",hy only men, not ,hingo, animal •• and n.tural events are
m.de morally.legally '<,po",ihle; why imputadon tak", place only
wilh ' ..peet 10 m.o. However, imputation tak.. place on]l' ",i,h
lAW "'''0 SClI!.NCf;
r.spec' '0 man btcau<c and insobe .. mornJ and I'gal ord,.. com·
mand only human behavior; and 'hey do 10 bc<:au.. it i, ..,umed
w..t ,h, idea 01 theie nor"" create acts of will only in man_am
'bat, in turn, cause 'he comm.nded heh..·ior. The .xplana'ion,
tb...dor., i' not tb. Irttdom 01 will, but, lu lb. contrary. 'he
cauw determin.bili'y of the human will.
Another argument in favoe of the dogma of ,he fr..dom uf will
i' lbe reference '0 'he fact ,bat mooom l"ll"l on:!..... exempt cortain
cases from r.sporujbili,y (and ,hat mean., Irom imputation). bo-
cau .., i' 10 said, in th... ca<C$ it cannot he ...umed 'hat a free act
01 will takes place, Thu., children and ,he men",lly ill ar<: nOl.
hold respomibl. fo.. their conduct and its efftcts, and even m.n-
tally ..n. adul" if they are placed under "irrosi"ible compul_
si.on." Th. explanation for ,he fin, twO c:t<CS ii lh. a..umption
thaI children and the men'ally ill (bee.u," 01 the condilion of
,h.ir con.ciou",...) cannot, or nol .ufficiently, he ..u",d, by ,h,
id.. of I'gal nonns, 10 beh.,'e in conformity wi'h 'h"," nom,,;
olher motives are u.ually mong.. ,h.n ,h... ide'" .specially .inco
,h... indi,·idu.l. do no' "'m know of legal nom". For mentally
sane adults, bow"''', i' may be a..umcd lhat u,u.lll' 'he idea uf
legal normS and of ,h••vil co" ..qu."ces of lhei,. violation is •
"rong.. mOlive 'ban 'he mOlive, lhal lead to an illegal brh"'ior.
To br 'Ur<:, lh... loner motives may also br strong.. in an adul,
and a menl.lly "ne individual, bu' lhi. would be 'he excep,ion.
Mooem legal orde.. pre,upp"'" an av....ge human bring and an
average .., of eXlomal circum".ncci und" which peopl. act
cau..Uy determined. If I""h a human bring under .uch circum·
.tances exhibits a conduct lI,., the legal ord.. prohibits, 'hen
thil hum.n bring i. ""pon,ible lor hi' conduct and its effects
according to ,hilleg:ol on:! If h., causally d...rm;ned by ciecum·
ltances olher 'han tho.. p upposed by 'he legal order. exhibits.
conduct prohibiled by the leg.l oroer, 'hen he ilsaid to 1<1 under
irresi"ible compulsion. Actually man alway, ac,. under i"esi,,;ble
compul.ion, beau.. his ac'ions .ee alwa~. cau<ally determined;
and ca.u..lity, by ill "ery natme, i' irrcsiSlibl. compulo;"", Tho'
which i. called "irre,i"ible compulsion" in legal terminology
.ctually i' only a Ip<cial ca." of irresistible cornpubion_namely
th" lor "'hieh th. l.gal oeMr doe' nOl .. ipula" r<:'p"",ihilitl',
'\'hen impUt>liou t>kcs place, itt..i"ibl. compulsion i•• Iw.y>
pr~ ...nL But imputation don not take place in .very ca... of
irresi"ibl. c<>mpul.ion.
Finally w~ mu" memion th. view that d.ttrminilnl and moral-
ltgal re.pomibility can b~ con.ider«! In be comp:uibl. only by re.
f=ing In th. fact that OUr knowl«lge 01 the cau..l d.t.rmination
of homan behavior i< ittad"'l.uot<'-that w. do nOt know, or not
know oufficiently, th. cau.... that detenoine human behavior. 1£
we folly lnew th~... cau.es w. would not be in a position In hold a
penon respunoible for hi. behavior and their con...quen"",; th....·
fore 'he pTOv~rb; "To undent,md ev.rything m.an. to forgive
everything."' To undemand th~ bdL1vior 01 • human being
m..n" In know its cao....; In rorgiv~ him meanO: to renounce '"
hold him reopun.ible for hi. behavior, to renoun"" to blame or
puniili him, to renounce to link hi. behavior witb a ..nction-that
i., to renoonce imputation. Uut in many ca.<eo in which the cao...
01 hi. behavior are known and hen"" hi. behavior it ond<....
•lOOd, imputation i. nO< renounced, the behavior i. not forgiven.
Th. pro"crb re.1S on the error that causality excludes imput3,ion.
Itlollowo that it it not fTCcdom, i.e_, nond<termination of will.
but its "cry oppooite, camal determinability of will. that mak..
imputation !"""ihle. One don nOt impute a ..n<tion to an indio
vidual" behavior l>c<:ausc he i< h-ee, hut the individual i. f..e be·
cousc one imputed a ..nction '0 hi' behavior. Imput3tioll and
f..«Iom (in thi. . .n••) ... iodeed e...ntially linked. But thi>
f..«Iom cannot exclud. cou..lity, and don in f""t not exclude it.
If the a""lion that man a. a moral or legal f"""Onality i. Itee. i.
to have any meaning. then thi< moral or Itgal freedom mwt be
compatible with the cou..1 determination of hi. behaviOT. Man i.
Ire. inonfar and becau.. rewaro. penance, or puniohro.m are im-
puted a. con.equence to a cOTtain human behO"ior; not becau..
thi. conduct i. cau..lly indetcrmined, but altbough it i. causally
d.t<:rmined, nay, berdu... it i. ca .....lIy determined. M.n i. Ire<: be·
cau.. hi' behavior i•• n end point of imputation. And thi> be-
havior CMt be an end point of imputation ",'en if it i. cau...lly
detennined. There/ore ,h. . .",ality of the natural order and
f,,«Iom under a moral and I~I order.re not incompatible with
each other; ev.n .. the natural orocr and the ltgal.moral ord.n
arc nOt contradi"'ory-and cannot I>t cootradictory, I>tcausc the
one i. an order of something that iJ and th~ Qth.,... ar~ ord~,... of
ocmethins tho. _ ,•• 10 k I_patibili" as OllIlK<\umce of
lopeal con,r.>d.iction (:lit nJM only betwem an UIft1ioa
"
,h>._..
th.i:Ilr u aft<! an UIttlion mat i. iI IIor," brlW'ftn an .-n.ion !hat
-.mtt.h.... -eM 10 be mel an a"",,"ion tho. it .. ~,.l ..,., 10 k;
bu• . - bt...... an ....uon thallltlllXl.hi"ll if md that it 00«111
"'" to k.
"
.....w "'~D IKU>OQ 'o!
>p«i6c pooiti, lcpl
t'fOID. this ~i
-'''J. dill"<UDt f..... a "'onl _ins.
point. _ I y th~ natun.l, .,..... 11'tc<tncr;Ud,
C'YUltl aod <he legal xu lDnt'IJ in thrir anuali". b,.. nee thrir
$p«i6c a>eani"J. a", tUm intuoomidcr.uion. Thi. opoci6c mtaD
inc. <he Mough..R" .:, )Idi,.tu tIx Krio!ogical int~rpnu,iao
lID iokological fallacy aod th",dio.~ tw DO pIaet' in. lICimti6c ok.
ocripci<llt of <be bw.
Suc.b b1lacy ind«d ill ",antt il <he IqaJ """gluM is ,n~td
'0 comt.i"'1e an aboolu,~ .... lu~. But OM annol .palt of an ideo-
iogical fall""" " th~ "oul",R in <he law-dnttibing ",I~ of taw
m.... i' has th~ meaning ofl 'p«'6c lunolional connKlion. It has
1>«'1 ..... wn abo•• w, ouch a iptti6c funct'onal connoclion.
dllr.",nt from a au",1 con"..,.ion, ,. 'he imputation. Th. cau",l
connoc"on which lopl socioiogy describe>, conti". (Jr i' ."i'li at
all) I:>o,w..n cottain economic or political laCll Ind 'he ilw·
cr.a,ing "CII on the OU' hand Ind I:>o'w..n th.", ac" Ind ,h.
human I:>ohovior 'ho' the, i"'.nd to bring lbout on 'he ...h.... I"
'he la"n cue. the au",i eonnK'ion ""i... only il'hl< I:>ohavior i.
actually moti""'td by men', id.... bou, the i"..",ion of ,h. Ia....
noting actS, • motiva'ion which by no ......... is .i.... l.. the cue
bea"'" obedience co ,Ite law i. &e<j..... tly awed by other mo-
'iva. ,,~ .U. hown.... I ..... oth... fxu an connecltd by Icpl
i",pu",<ion: not the !.aw<reUiDl!; act with <he lawoObcr'ns be-
harior. bu' <he bet determined by <he lrg:ol ordn. a condition
with the mnscq....... determiD<'ril by thilt ordn. Imputation. lib
CI li..,. is a priJociple of onler in h"""''' thinlt'''J..nd thnd"'"
j "'lICIt or jWl ... liltle an illusioa or itIcoIosr as a ..... 1i..,.
....hidt-touoc H,,_'.or Kant'. wonlo--isonlya thinltinrhabitor
Cllego<J of thinking.
Thai the IUbjKti"" ",ng oflaw<ttating acto i. In """"'I"
annot be ....iowIy d ittl if th..., acts "'" lootrd upon aa:otding:
to their """''ling as «IfIl.... ntlt. a. 'mpentiv..... Quntion:lble i.
only wh.th... ,hi. can be litO in'erpreted as ,h.ir ohjective m""n·
ing: wheth.r 'he "ough'" mlY I>t: loo~ed upon as In oltj..,.iv.ly
,..lid norm that impooet oblig'lion. and oonr.... righu upon indi-
vidual •. Th~ qu... iott i' in wh.. way law.."e..ing acli diffe. from
och... command.. for """mpl. from th. oomlYtlnd of a high,,·.y.
Wd.1'I'- j t
'Of .... W AND tcID"CIt
man. In oht P"'rudi"ll i'l'&"I oht condi,ion was shown under which
thit diJrerenlialioa is poooible: .he condition iI: P"'at>ppo6ilioa of
~ bui< '-<D.
If all "1Gnin&: is denial. to the IXWm (loolcd upon ... objoc-
!ivdy ,.uid) wllict> ..,....;.u.ct the «JI!NOIon DIlled ~impuwioa~
-if aU _inK is dcD.iod to Uw: ~.....p.M-tbco it .......1<1 be ~
Is 10 SlIy: uthio is IcpUy permi..cd" lhat is f...-biddm·'; ~this be-
Ioonp 10 me, tha, to ,.....~; "X is wtillod and Y;, obIiplcd. ~ The
lhoutandt of ..",,'0> in .. hid< the law is e<proeacd daily would
be ......1..... In cor" 10 thi., the bet is und""iable II",. l'\'ny-
body undo:ntuJd, ,cadily Iltal ;1 i. one .hing 10 "'y' "if it legally
obliptod "> poy $',000 to B:' and quite anoth ' "There i. a c....-
...In chana:: ""', if .dll pay $,,000 W n.n Ev ybody ur>d.nund.
th31 i, it one thing 10 Ny' "11,l/. bcltavior it a d.licI acrordi"ll' to
Ihe law .nd ought 10 be puni,hcd according to the law"; and 'I"ite
a dill.....n. thing W "'y: "He who Ita. done Ihi. will probably be
p"nithcd," The imlIl.1nem meanings of Ihe aeu direcled by Ihe
leaitlator to the la..... ppl'ing orpn, by thit organ-in Ih. judie"'l
d«ioion or the .dmini.,.:nh... acr-w the ."bj<'<t, by ,he ...hjcc'_
in the legal <nnsac.ion-oo the other ... bje<:t is not comprehended
in the ..... em""l.bout. probable conIX of f..,ure btlta.ior. Stoch
• MaLcn>al1 is iHucd from a point of ,'iCY thaI uans«n<lo the law,
I. don no< .""wtt ,he tp«ifically Iepl quation of whal ""lb. 10
happen lICItCIf'ding 10 the law, btU lhe mca-Iqal q......iort of ..'hat
attu.JJ11 happcnt and what probably will happen. Tbc Icpl IU<C-
tnmlS W, oac ough. '" behave in a oenain ""'1 Dlltnoc bt K-
dlOnd 10 .... tcmoeIIlS a...... prncn..... future f:ocu. beo~ the
former do not refCO' 10 Aocb baa, not l'\ 10 oht bet that anain
,ndhiduala wi"" ,ha...... otis''' 00 btba in a ttJUin ....1. Tbc
legal judgments refCO' 10 .he specific mcanin& which ,he Fael or
""'" an act or will hat; ~ the "ough.," the nontl, it P"'cciscly thi,
meaning lbal it dift....nl from thit acl of will, Only if "~ngy"
il "nd<'ntOOd:u a corunll 10 tl>c reality of {acts-tbu ii, iF ideol-
ogy i. und.... to<><J ...,'erylhing that i, nol can.. lly d.l....minNi
rcality or a dClCripl;otl ,,' ,hi. reality_th.n t~. law ~ • llorm
(Ihat i', ...h. 'me.ning of Ihese Kit, dilf.re1U {rom til. <;J.uoany
det.m,ined acto) ;. .n ideolngy, And then the ",bj«1 of the sci·
enee or law that dcsCTiha onl, the no,m, and nor ,h. xU in their
ClItUllly dnerm,nNi conn«,ion with other bc........."nd dcocrioo
.,
'hem in rules of law that do not....."" am,,! conn""';",,, Jih Ill<
l.w. of na'ur~. but linh of imputJo,ion_i. an i<lwlogy. Then the
PUT< Throry of Law ha3 "P",,,,d .he way to lha' ,-jewpoint {TOm
which the law may be undentood a. an "ideology" in thi. 'p<ci6c
"'me:_. a sy.tem of ronnea;OTl! different from 'hat of nam,.".
The p""'ibi1i.y and n=",ily of ,uch a diocipline dir«ted to-
ward the law as .. nonna,i," meaning i. proved by the (act that the
>e;enee oE law h.. been in exi'lence lor millennia--.. ",iena: whith,
a. dogmatic juri.prude""e, oeTVes Ihe intelleaual nttili of Ih<»e
who d""l wjth the law. TheIe i. no rc>son '0 lu.'. (hel. emirely
logi,;""". need. u"satisfied and to gin up such a science of I>w.
To replace this seiena by l~al oociology is imJ'O"iblc, beo:au.. the
lauer U COllC,ruM with an emiroly different problem. A> long a. a
religion exiOl>, 'here mwt be a dogmatic theology that Cannot be
roplaced by religiolU poy<hology Of religiom >o<iolog,'; in pte-
doely the ""me manner the.. will be a nonnati"e 'dmee of law a.
long •• lhere j. a law. The nnk of thi> Ieienee in the 10lal 'f.lem
of ,heleienee. i' a subordinate qu.. tion, Whal i. important i. nOt:
to give up thi' Ieien<;e of law 'ogether with the ca..goti .. 01 lhe
"oughl"' or lhe norm; bnl: 10 confine this Ieienee of law 10 i" mb·
ject and to darify critically ii' melh<xl,.
If we do no' under1tand by "ideology" everylhing lhal i. not
nuunl reality or ito dellCl"iplion. but nonobjective p''''''''la,ion of
the .ubj"'t influenced by 'Ubjeclive "alue judgmenll ""d glorifJ'.
ing or dnfiguring the .ubject of cognition; ""d if we d.,ignate as
"reality" nol only the IUtural realily a' the oubject of natural ""i·
.nc., but every .ubject of cognition indnding the ,ubi"" of the
""ience of law, n.mely J'O'itive bw, .. legal reality; lhen a presen·
ta,ion of l'O'itive law mml keep iuelf free from ideology (in 'he
ICCOnd meaning of the word). If po<iti'" law i' looked upon ..
normati," order in relalion '0 'he rea lily of aCinal happening"
which, according 10 'he claim of poIitive law ought 10 oonform to
il (ahhough, actually. it doe> nol alway> confotTO to il) then pool.
'iv. law may be clIancterilrd a. "ideology" (in the fim meaning
of 'he word). If poIi'ive law i' looked upon in ill relalion to a
"higher" order, which claim. to be lhe "'ideal law," 'he "righ'"
law, and demand' thal lhe J'O'itive bw ought '0 be in conformity
with 'hi. order-for example, in rela'ion 10 nalUnllaw or to lOme
type of other ju"ice-then the J'O'itive law {trn.t iI, the law
.'" LAw ""0 IIC'ENCZ
created by human a~.., ,he nlid law, the law that i. by and large
applied and obeyed) p~nu i~lf a' the "real" law; and ,he" a
theory of JXlOi,ive law which mi~.. the lattor with mlural law or
any other type 01 justice in oro.. to ju.tify DC di"'lualify the [><'\li.
t;,·. law mwl I>< ""j~tcd ... "idrological" (in the >«.oM meaning
of ,h.. worn). In ,hi, ",n,. the Pure Theory has an outopoken anti·
ideological u.ndellcy. The Pmc Theory .~hibiu thi, tendency by
presenting pool,;,". law £,.., {tom any admix'u« with any "ideal"
or "right" law. The Pu,e Theory d..i,es to pr... nt ,he law a. it i••
no' a. it ought to be; it seekslo Imow Ihe ,..,.1 and posoible. not ,he
"ideal:' ,he "tight" law. 1n ,hi, """c, the Puro Theory is a radical
realistic 'h.."y of law, th.t i., a theory of legal po,idvi,m. The
Pure Theory ,du",. <0 evaluate ,he po;<i,i,-. law. A•• ,cionee, 'he
Pu,", Thwry rega,d< ;,,,,If ,.. oblig:".d to do no m"'e th~n to
gnup the essence of pooith'e l~w ~nd, by.n an.lysl. 01 ito "ruc.urc,
10 undcnt,"d it. Sp«lfic.olly, the PUT< Th=y tef"... to seTVe any
poli.ical In"",... by supplying them with ~n "ideology" by which
the e,,;,,'ng social order is ju.tifi<'d. or dl"lualifi.d. In thi. w.y the
Pure Theory prevent.> Ih .., in the name of the science: of low, a
hightt value i, ~ttrihut<'d. to po.ltlve low tkon it actually I."", by
iMntifying it with an ideal law; 01 by denying po>ltl"" I~w ~ny
value. and ,h"" any ""Iidi,y, by claiming th" It contradict.> an id..1
law. Th...by lb. Pu .. Theory plac.. itoelf In oha........ cont"", '"
tradltion~1 juri'prudence which, consciou,ly or unconsciou.ly,
sometimes mOle, oometim.. 1..., h"".n "ideologie~I" eba"",ter in
the ..,.ond m.~ning of the "Old. Preci",ly this ami.ideologiC2J.!
,endency ,how' tba' tit. Pur. Th.ory of Law i." true science of
low, For ""enee a, cogniti<>n hu the imm.nent tendency of ,cve~l·
ing ilS ,ubject. Ideology. however. v.il, re.1 Ity dthtt by glorifying
it with the intont to con..rvc and to defend. It 01' by mi.rcpr..."t.
ing it with the intent to .ttaCk. to d..troy, and '" rcplace it by 'n·
other. Such ideology I. roo'.d in Wi,hing, not in Knowing; it
.prill!!" from =tain imer.." or. more correctly. from in"'re'"
other tbau the Intereot in truth_which, oE course, i. not inlendtd
'0 say any,hing .bout the ,·.Iu. or dignity of thoo< o,her inte.......
Th. authority that cre.'" the low .nd which therefore ~tlempt.> te>
pr"""," it may ne>t ~pprecia,e an ideology-free cognitiOrt of 11lI
product; likewi... ,he Eore.. ,h.t try '0 de"tCIJ' the ox"ting e>ron-
"
lAW AND SClVlC&
""
and wish tD replace it by .unth"", thnught tn be better, may unt
have much me 1<>1" .uch a cognitinn 01 ,he law. A tTue ",ience nr
law, however, doe< not care aoom the nne or the oth...., To be
such a _denee 01 law is 'he aim 01 the Pme Throry or Law.
IV
THE STATIC ASPECT OF LAW
'0'
no. STAno:: .uncT Of' ...... 'og
ol. pan of ~ body; in""",, of imprioanmm. th~ dq>ri..... ion 01
libnty; in GISt 01 a 6n~, the !ali.. away of _ ... np<cially ~
<fly. n.., dq>riv:o.lion of od~ .;ghlS ""n .bo be Mipul:o..... as a
puniJhmem, 'uch:tO .h~ I.... 01 In office or 01 polilical right!.
Ci.il u'CUlion tOO i' .he lon:ibl~ infliction 01 an evil. I. is di.
tingullhcd from punishment in thai civil execution;" carri'" <lUI
in order 10, as i. uW.lly IIi<\, "righting a "·rong." Tile .,all""
rigb.iD,g of a WTOIII con..... in the endillJl of .he MI'" of :lBal... w •
... 0""'" by "'" unbwful btba.·ior and in bringins abou. a MI'"
01 albin tha. confomn wi<h "'" bw. Thi< ...", of:o.lbin may be
the .. _ "" tIM: OM ..... <boold ha"" hem broup. about by a bw,
lui behavior of .he <klinqu..." b". if i. is iatl"*,ble to bring
abou. "'ch a .... ~ of .lbin, another one an function "" a ,ubOli.
IUle, F,lt:o.rnplcs for th~ lormer case arc: A bib,O f"lfill h;" dUly to
rrnd~r to 11 3J1 ob)"1 in A', poISCSS;On, .he .."ction of ,ivil exec,,·
lion con,i". in .he forcible .. kinglway 01 .he object £rom A and
r<:nderirtg i. to Bi or: A fails to 01«1 h;" duty ollppcaring bel",""
the COlOr< IS a "-i,,,",,; the Yn<tion oorui<u ill forcibly bri~"1 A
before the court, which means ..... A wm be del" i.ft! 01. h.iI lne-
doat too this purpose.. ...... CUlIlple for the bu.. 01. the I~
..-.tioned """""' A bils 10 llU'a hit obligation 01 raodcrinsll:an
obj«u nOl in A'I ~ion or to pttfono • <ClUi" work lor JJ.
n.., IIncliQn 01 ci..il ....ecution <onsi... in lorcibly toling .....y
Ironl A I piece ol p~rty ~"ivII.nt ill Vllue '0 .he objecl or
work that A owe,.o B, and in r~ndering to 11 proceed. from altC·
tionln8 off that pi,,~ of p<0perl y. 1£ the unlawful beha.ior eonm..
in au,i"l damage 10 ~ individual (I' in <he 6rs. a"" I..,
eumple). then the sanction 01 the execution aIRIi... in npairing
the illcplly caused dlImage- In .... t CHC, t.hcrc is a omaln similar·
ity bel....... the lUte and the civil .,.eattion. BOIh arc cnfo< ....... nl
pro«dureo di.-eacd agains< I"opt.t,. Thq- diller!rum...ch 0Ihe<
I" lha" in asc of.he fine. which ......11.,. hal the chane 01 a
pecun"'TJ penalty. th;. """'~ roes inlo a public f,,"", wh in
~ 01 a (ivil u«lltion i. il ginn to th~ illegally dlffil8""
indi.idual in order to r'p"ir the rna"rill or motal damage. In
.hilc..e a definite purl""" detrm'linrd by .he lcpl order i. mani·
rCl'. which i. no< Jo in case of 'he puni"'mcnt. It ;1 hlrdl.,. ""","ible
to define the (:(lI\«pt 01 punilhm~nt :lIXlJ<ding to its purpok. be-
<:auS( ~ purpme 01 the punilhmcn. is _ no< dir«tly-
''0 ""t! lTaTlC .uncT OP lAw
n"wn. from the con~' 01 the IcpI onItt. That !.hio purpooe
carui... in prnmting (by dttt'lTina) the commilhon 0' _I";""
ol an aeti<m iI an inteTpretalion whidt iJ poooibl~ abo in caoe 01. •
aimiDall<pl ordft-. w~ at>bliduaea.... no< «lNciousIy ck-
In'1I:Iinrd by the ick:a of pm'WtiorI. but simply by the principl.~ of
I'ftributiorl.: tD mal;"'.., il with eYil Capiw puniohmen. :llIId
i",prioarImcnl rnnain laDle whnher lhq ~ .ipub~ wilh
dlt ""..-pow: of. p<e>mtion or wilhout iL
In this rupo:t ~ it nO mcntW dilt:ermce bonwfa! punioh-
mtn. and ci,il """""tiorl..b«:a_ the lat~r. felt u an nil by !he
dectftl individu.ll, ""'7 h.t~ a prn'en,i,..,..Rect '00.10 thai in ohio
ax'M compmsa'ory and pr........ lll.;vC dftt.. may boe combined.
80th kin<h of s.>n<:tiom-punllhment and civil el<eocullon4.0vc to
he ordered by the judie;,,1 or adm'n;,...,''''' authorities In I pr<><:<:.
durc itt up for ,hi, pu..-pow:. Thero/on: it i. ntcnsllry '" din;n.
guilh judici,l puni,hm,,,.. In be or<krttl by criminal con,... and
admini"n..i,·c punt"'m.nl'o be ordcffii by admini&lrativc author.
i.i... judi<oia! civil ",,«u,lon 10 be <>Jd<nd by &til COUrU and civil
aro;u<ioru to be ~ by adminiotrativc .uthori'lel. II OJ .100
n~ to djjtingu~ ,he act by which the sanction ol'kc 1"'1"
i>hmctlt or civil aocu,ion is om""'" from lbc act bJ whkh Ihe
llOI'M• ...,.,led bJ Ibis 1Itt. is appliod--<he punishm.... t or civil
lCtecootion is anied ouL The butt act is ... waJl pnfonned bJ ""
admini:lrnti~atilhorifJ.
"The santtiooo of gmnal in~"""'l b .... ttpriIlIh I.ftd waT (as
d~ bItt). ate nrithcT de''''''' ,.. ptInisluDm. nor as ri~il
eucuti"". but 1beJ ....... <p<.. n•• fon:ibl< <kpri.....ion of ...Itlts
or. in oIhtt won:b, " viol.tion•• iptlbled bJ lbc 1<pI ord<T. of
oobenri>e "",,«led in'<TeIU of .,... ....'" bJ anocheT. If it i.
uoum«l ,h'lt ..,ording 10 f'O'i.ive inlemationall.w one: IU'" rnaJ
IUOT' to repri..... or.o ..... apiltlt anoIhtt rtli'" anlJ IF the bu<'T
Tef""", .0 rep;lir.1>< ilIepllJ Cluvd domagt'; and Ihat Ihn<: (Ott.
d"e """ (repri"". and WIf) maJ be ,.,,,,,,,,ut«l only for .he pur""""
of obuining reparation; then a '<'TtOin .imilarity be.w~n til,
",neti"", of gellmol intern.,ionallaw ."d civil exT,,"ion may be
acknowl«lged. It i.. however. di,put,d wllClher "pri",l•• nd wlr
.....y be interpttl«l:ll "'nellan. of inl.......tionall.w.• nd whnh<'T.
th<'Ttfote. inlemation.ol law may be regaro«l I i • leg.l orlkT."
·d·l ....·
."
.) Tiu lk/ia {I,u IV....." is NOI N~plio .. h,
C",""UW.. 01 llu Uw
~ to tht I""'«"i"i dty.••;.... tht Ktion .. rdnin......n
o:>mti•.,tint u.. mndition of th", (Oncivt xc onkrrd br lIlc kpl
0Id0r "po... nll 1M dellc' (......Uy called ~tht wrong"), and the
CXIftci.... XI icpo_nu ..... A.ot1...... An .:tion or rdn.inmml
Ulllma the cha~r 01 • ddict only if the lqal ord<1" "",k.. i.
tht (()Ilditi"" 01. • concivc 8<1 . . . oanction. A COl'~i :IoU as-
JIUIlfd tho chanr..,.,. of ... netion only if the leg-III ..d ""',.. it
the corucquenc. 01.. dclinit. action or rerrairllll..... AI "'.... i""ed
before, coercive acu IlipuJated by the lcg:al oroo OJ the corn,,-
qUell'" of other facu, or. nO( "oanc,ions" in the .pecific weaning
of ,h" word; and ,h. condhionlng foctS--<incc 'he)' arc "oll~ally
d.elerminM actions or rdninmc"ts of CeTuin individual......-do not
hI'. ,he chane..... 01 dclit...
Thord...., a <kiini,. ",,;on oriCfn.inmenl is nO~'lndhion.l
j.. r~ assumQ--<Ol'lIl«trd with. cotn:ivc xl bcauoc this
action or refn.inmm. is. <kli/:l, bu, • definile :action or ••f.-...in·
mnn is. tidier. bec2_ II is mnlK'Clrd with. conci.... Xl. !hal is,
with. 1UICtion .. itt conlItquellCe. No intmanml quality. no rda-
lloa loa mcta-Jqpl .....u.....I .. di"';"" norm is lIM: moon lor qual ..
1Jirta; ,. .prifioc hllllWl bd..rior 10 lit ttg3rded as • driict; but o<>ly
and adusi..,ly tbt: toet WI tbt: poolti..., Icgal ardor hM a»odr thil
bdta>ior tbt: c:onditioa ol a o::omi..., an-d a ana;on.
The doctrine prn'O-,lina; in rnditiocW jutiJpnlocknu Wt a
mor.oJ nluc ekmmt is immanm. in the <lOOlapu of delict and
AtlCt~ idno .h..>. a delic. n«noarily mWl man oorneth'''Il
ionmonl and Wt punish""",. "'uK n«aoarily ~ -.etbi"ll
di.r.onor..ble--i. untmable, if fOt no OIhcr fe1.tOtl than bcu.... uI.
ttee ~ct')' nlati..., e""neter of the f<'Sfl«t'..., ....Iue Judgmmts. It
may well ~ that the beltaviOt which, .wnding to a poo.;ti..., logal
ofder, i. ttee condition of a ..uction i. con,idercd imnto..1 by Cef_
tain groupo, but mOTaI by other groupo, FOf example, a m.n who
kill, hi, '""ult....,u. wife or her lov", i. a rnmirtll according to moil
pooi,ive lcg:al onie.... but hi, action nuy by no m.an. be di.. PI''''''cd
by all, and may eYen be "1'I'ro...d by many ill the exm:ioc of hi. not'
ural righ'lOddcnd hi< honor, The duel. puni.....ble under tile law,
...
io f'O:I"l"daI .,min a entai.........um of oociny by no IJlCIU ' ... monl
but. to the WDtnl)', a monl obIiption, and the jail _~oe pro-
_ c d as tbe CIllWt<jllmCe, it no<,~ asdishonon.b~. IlIJO.
far as the civil <!diet. and iu ............ (civ~ ace"......) an: aJQ-
cemed, cnditiorW ju.iipnadm<e don DO< ~ alUmJlC 10 "wI>-
llOin the doctrine of the ......,tiaI lII<ln1 qualilicotioo of tbe drli<L
From tbe point of win< of a l.beory 01 J"D"itin ta.... lMn' is DO bet
wi by iudI_tho. ;., •..p"IlCli 01 a corIK<lUftlU aipullll.d by u...
Itgal onL:r--is a dditt. Tbne att DO mat. ;,. "', bu. ""If ....s..
poI!ibito. Thit it only the COfUC<[ucntt or the principlc.lemnll,
RO:JgD.iud in criminal low' "ull..", cri.en ""e lege, nul,. P«'"'
,inc lege; Illd !hi> prillCiplc which is valid JlOl only lor criminal
law, not only lor criminal bu. for all d<lieu. not only for punl"'·
ulcI1l hut for all sanctionl, i. me.dy a consequence ollopl poailiv.
illn. The "cry same bet may Ix • ddie. according l<> une legal
order ~u'" ,hi, o,der aluch... sanclion '" it, bu' not kCOrd.
ing '0 "noth... tho. j>Tovid.. for no .""h conseque"c•. 11 il ~If·
cvilkm .Jut the legal onl<r nuk.. a <n... i" hum<>n bc:h.>vior the
condition of '''0<;''0<1, bca.... 1M l<pl au.hori,y TtgartU .hi. lx·
haviorashannful woocitlJ,1Kna undninblc. But from .ht point
of "~of an 3l1all.... of tht UnlD>Jlerll meaning of 1M kpl ord....
<h;, cittu~ is irrd~1 for the coocq>I 01 tht delict. II 3
anaUl. twh>.rioo- has btm ~ the condi.ion of a WKlion. <he :ac.
lion is 10 be rcgudcd ... dclin. n"ftl by "- juriM ...no .....y no! reo
prd il .. del.rimcntll a' .U and pcrl>ar- n·..... u.nul. .nd .. ioce
''tnlI. -n... dislinnion bct"'toen 3 bel Ih,,, i•• dclin boa...., it i.
punishable acmrdinS 00 poo.itivt Low and 3 f:act <h,,, is punishable
bft::o, ..... i. is,. by its.-cry IWUU. 3 dcIioct-lhis dillinClioa is baoed
011 3 D3'u.-aI-tow dow1ne. h pr.... ppoo<s w. tht cIIa_l" 01 de_
lioc.. tht neoga""e ,."luc. is immanenl in ur.... in bao and l'O"ul.o,..
preo<ription of punisIJ",,,", by pooiti,.., Low. When ,II" n••ural.law
doorin" of valu'" being imman"n, in ",ality i. rej«lm•• hen the
dillineri"" ct>lIaJ'OC$<
Such word, .. ··illtgality:· ··l""aking'" or ··,·iol.. ing'· tht I.w,
"xprt.. th" thought of a nogation of the law; they gi"e the id"" nf
Klmtthing that i. on"ide the law .nd dirttttd "-g,inlt il. th"'''en-
ing. inle1TUpting. or "ven aboli.hing <he exi.t..,ct of law, Tni.
1<lt3 i. mioleading; it i. elUot<! by doe f:act that the rtla,ionship tw·
t,"""n a norm tbal prC3lCTibcs a anain bch>.viot and an .'....1
bdlavior which
n<E STATtC ASPECT 0 .. LAW
'"
is the contnry of the prncribed one are inter_
preted .. logiul contradiction. But a logical contndiction can
exiOi only between t"O ,tat<me"10 of which one say. ,Ita, a i•. and
,he Other that a i. m>t. Both ,"temen" canno, be true. Bet"een
the norm-<lescribing .talement that a lIlan ought to beltave in a
certain "'ay .nd the 113tem""t tha, he ac!Ually doe> not SO behave.
no logical conu"diction exis... Both .,atements r.an "and !ide by
.ide, both can be 'rue", the same ,ime. The exi"""ce or validity
of a nonn commanding a <'<'rlain behavior i. nol "brohn" by the
opP",ite behaviOT_in 'he way lhat a ch.;n migh' be broken th.t
le"en a man. The chain of law le"en even tbe man who "breakJ"
the law; the nOnn i. not ",-iolated:' as a human being can be vi.,.
laled (lha, mean" injured in hi.> ""i"e,,<,<,) by an ""foreement "'.
tion direcrrd against him. If a notmotive order command. a cer-
tain behavior m....ly by attaching 3 ..nction to iu oppo>ile. 'heo
the e""nti.l lac,. are e"hau"ively described by a conditional
"alnn""t that ..yo; "JI a cerrain behaviot i. present. lhen a cer·
tain sanction ought to be ex""utrd:' In this 'ta'emenl. the delict
appeana. 3 condi,ion. oot a' a negation 01 the law; and ,hi. show.
that the delict i> not a fact ...nding oUIOide, much 1... in oppo>i.
lion '0, the law. but a fac, in.ide Ihehw and determinrd by it_it
shOW1 that the law, ,""cording to iu nature. relen .pecifically to
thi. fact. Like everything ebe. SO the delict (in German: Unre<hI,
literally "\lnlaw:' liL: "u""ction") C3Jt legally be nndentoo</
only a. law. 11 we 'peak of "unlawful" behaviot. we mean by thi.
the behavior that i. the condition lor a c""rch'e act as ...",:tion; if
we .peak of "lawful" behavior. we m.an the opposite, a behavior
by which the coercive act i. avoidrd.
The Pure Theoryof Law. by reinterpreting the delict_which in
the naive, prescientifi c thinking is COll<O",vrd of a. a negation of the
Jaw, a, "un_law·'_. a condition determined by the law, fulfill.
a .imilar function a. the<>I"l'O' toward ,he prohlem of theodicy. the
prohlem of evil in the world creatrd by .n-good .nd all_powerful
God. Since C\'ery,hing .hM exl.,. mm' k concei,-ed a' willrd by
God. the q"e..ion ar'"'' How Gin evil be conceivrd ~. wille<:1 by
the good God? The an.....r gi,..n by a comi"ent monoth.."ic th".
ology i. ,hat rvu mn" be interpreted a. a condition nee....,..,. for
the realization of the good. The a.\:!umption 'hat .... iI i. not the
wMk of God. but directe<:1 aga'n" God. the "'ork of ,he devil. is
".
- . ((lmpo.<ibte with !he ~ ~ ~_ ouch an
_ption ......w Impl, ....., -.cepe 01 an iUlti.cocL
$ina tJ:>o. ddic< is '""" ,he GOlly e-dioion 10 wlUdl • tanttioa is
auaehal ointt 1M CGDdi...... '''1 faa as _ .sbaI1 - r be ......
J-UI 01 many parts, indudinJ buD».D. bdlarioo- rna. anDOl bot
deinl'd as delia (1Udl as. for CAmpl•• lhc I~t;ye xl aeati"l;
lhc cn-rnoJ IloOnJl .hidllktnmin.. <he delia; and !he judicial an
dcccnnining •..., ailtmce ofl alnCrft<' oidia). u... quesc;';'" ario<s
how <he beha,·ior .0 "" dc&ned as delia io 10 be di.inguilhed
from othn- kluvior ,h:I. octun all" pan 01 the condition,,,, facia.
O«Iinarily. tI>t dcliet is lhc bo:havior 01 \he individual "PUnt
whom ,he .-,."j"" >Ct. funaioning" ..net;on, i. directed. Haw·
ever. ,bi> delinition of ddict applin only if the ..nct;OO ;,dir~
agaiml Ih. delinquent_ d",. iI, lh. individual who. by hi> "'.
ha.;or, hal <ommiuod th. deHct. Thi, i. the cue-diJcusstd later
--ol li.bili" for ooe', own behavior. But th. . .nction n«d no,
.l..... rs bt dirocted _galnn ,h. delinquent, or not only .pin.. him
alon•. hut may abo be dirOOCled "PiM' an<>thtr individual or .....·
ttaI o<hrn. Th" is tht ~ of !;,bitity for JO<IICOIK tloc', bchaYior.
In tho. c:ue the lqal order muse <lcttmlint the .tlatio;Nuhip be-
tWftll the deHnqumt and lhe indi~idual liable for the delict 01
the ftwmn. The losal onkr ""'y "",t.c liable the fatba". the
opouoc. or othn mnnben 01 the ......-n- or wi<lct- family oIdle
dclinqucnL If we dcoiputc. for pta.."..... oIliDguistic limplilia-
uon. at ~rcbliod" all thooc indmdu.als who _ in a lcpUy dem·
miMd ...bticrl. to the delinqOCll' (mcmben 01 <he lamily. c1....
lU'e). Ihco delict may be dcfiMd .. the bd>arior oIlhat individ-
ual topimt .......... or apinS! ...""'" TCIativca, <he .nc:tion is di·
rect"" .. a comcquroc.-.
·.UO"
"0"' ''1' P!o," ") ''''l' 'uol"'S!]'10 ''flJl9["J 'O!""'1'q '!'Ilq 0111"
""" '.IOP-""l' 0'1'" PU" ·.oo",u", ''1''DOq" lluliq II.' "! '"4' "UO"
,.ll!\qo ''1' ""IO!A lin ·.IO!A"'l~ '!'11'1 '0'1'" l~op'hlpm ''1' '! 1[
·'~'I'.]" ')'1 '0 !""P!A!PlJ] "'I' lIDlo.ll. P"'''''!P 1I0!U,,", ~ ~'I""".
'! """01»<00'. so ''1'!'I'" 01 "0]l!PU'" ''1'" JO".q~ "'"'I'" I"n
'P!A!P") ''I' 'I UO)'P~I['[() [&1 " )0 ",[qnt ''1.1. "['l!S1IWP" "DOP
,oll![qo ~'I' JO ,»[qo'.. ~ JO ,dOJDO' "jl 'I ~u" '141 U! 1100 'UO!'
'oll!jqo !dOl ''fl )0 '''",uo.> ''1'"""!""0' ',u~w~P 1")"'''''' ''1'
ql!." ""':»IIUo:> 'Iq"-'''''''''I "1"1'1'" '01'~'1~ 0 JO lU'W'P [ouou,.]
''1' '[IlO_["OP).uPU! U" )0 JO)A.q~ D'",'" • 11 uo Inq 'DOp"ll'lqo
loll,[ 'ql 10 """J ''I' llU!q!I:>O:>P D'qM p"u,~,uo~ OJ. ,." mo'l'"
q,,'" ll. Ir 'lon, ,r Irllp!.'IP"1 '4' '0" 'I 'I 'n"''''!'1 UlOlI "'''''':!lIP
~tl!'ll'lUOII'" uop.llnq" ~'1' 'Ploq _0 '"'I 0'1'" lp()'p'UJOII'ou '! 1"0
_P!A)P") '!'1' 'Oil ·oo".~,[qo ''1'
JO J>fIl04 .10 ''''('Ins '41 '~p"I~U
'~)"P '! oq." 'DOprll![qo ''I' JO m>luo.> "'[1 ",m]l'uo;> '''!AO'pq
,..
""''I'" I~OP)A!PU! ''1' '! " 'l!l~[[llON ".1"0 Ioll:>[ ''1' ,('1 p"'~rnd)"
"'.., ~o .L:»:d$"V C>UVU ~,,-'-
n' THE STATIC ..... P~ OF .... w
pose obligatiom, and that the .pecific function of Lb. law_in con·
uadistinction <0 morals-i. '0 confer rights. But a. ooon .. it ;•• <'C-
ogni>.cd ,hat the obligation to beh.<'. in " certain way means
merely that this behavior i, commaodtd by a nOTm, and that th.
legal order-like ."cry nonnative ordrr--<ommalld. a certain
boman behavior, then "'0 impose an obligation" mo" be ".
ganl<d as an """mi.] funcl;on of the law and mu" even 1><
""knowledged .. the primary function, .. will be .hown in the
an.oly$i. of ,he function of "conferring" right," that follow. 1><low.
Stnc.. Donm nOl only comm.nd or prohibit. but may also a,,_
lborioe behavior, it may not be .uperfluou. to point out that, il an
individual is authorized to beh.,". in a ecruin way, he 'hereby
uN<! not nrcessarily 1>< "blige<! to thi, beh.,-;ot. Since "to au-
thoTioe" mean., in ,hecont""t of a legal QTd<r, '0 confer 'he power
'0 ct~at~ law. only positiv~ action. not the refraining from a<;'ion.
C2II be the IUbj~t of an autho.iza<ion; a command. Ott the other
hand. can rcl.... both to action and reh.inmenL Therclore OIle
may be Icg:oJly obligated '0 do something: or to rof"'in from doing
500t~thing, but one can !>c: oulho";xed only to do some,hing. How_
evet. one may be l~any obligatw to make usc of one'l authoriza·
,ion; an ac'ion to which an ittdividU<l1 i. au,horized by tho legal
order may. at Lhe .. me time, be e<>mmandw. tltat i" it may be
made the e<>n'"'" of hil obligariolL The judge is authorizw-tha'
i,. the legal order "'" coufetrw upon him, and upon him only, the
authority_to in,pose puni.hment under cenain e<>nditiono. He
may. but ueed not, be obligatw to impos<: this puuishment: and
he i. legally obligated to do ro, if hi. not doing ro i. placw uoder
..nction by the legal OTrIer. Th~ ume i. true, if a certain behavior
i. positively permiuw (by a norm that make. an exception '0 a
gen.......1 prohibition). The Icg:oJ order may, bu' need no'. ",pulate
an obi igation to make us<: of this ""rmi..i,m,
In this e<>nnec'ion i. might be permitted to repeat: if the rule of
law i. formulated in the .sentence that under certain condition. a
c~rtain coercive act "ought" to be performed, the wOTd "ought"
docs not "'y whether 'he performing of the cocrc,,'e ac' i. the e<>n'
tent of a legal obligation, a po.itive permi..ion, OT an authoriza·
tion; all thr<e ca.... ate covered by it. Jl the l'>vrd "ough," ii ~
'0 d...ignat. the meaning of aUthrce ca..... 'ha' ii: if the ..u!enee
"somebody ought to behave in a certain way" only mean. that this
behavior i, "'puluM in a norm, .h~n ,he 'tal""'ent .hot oom.,.
'"
body i. legally obligattd (h... a legal dUly) to behve in a CeTtain
way. ,."ren '0 a behavior "'hkh it the opposite of 'he b<h.vior ,hat
i. the condition of a «)<'rd,-. act .. " ",nel;on. And ,hore i. a legal
obllg>.tion to cxoc"" ,hi. act if the noneJlocn,;on i. ,he condition
of anod,.. eMrei"" act a. a ""oe1ion; <>the....,.. the ex"",ut..ion of
,h.. eot'ei,-. act .. only aUlhOT,>ed or positively pennitted. Legal
oblig..iotl i. nOlo or no, immedia'ely. ,he behavior th", ought to
be." Only ,he eoere;'-. 0<1, functioning as a ...""don. ought \0 be.
If we ..y: "He who i. 1"",lIy obligaud .0 " cclt'lln behavior,
'ought' to bdUlvt in ,hi, way aocording '0 the law," we only"'"
pr'" ,he ide. 'Ml a <<>erei,-. act;u" sanaion ought.o be ""'cuted
if he d,," no, behave in thi, way.
0) Liability
The concep' of legal ""'pon,ibili,y. or liability. i. c..enti.Hy con-
nected, but not idmtkal lI'ith, the concep' of leg.l oblig.,ion, An
indi~idu.l i, legally obligated to beh.,'e in a certain way, if bi,
opposite bella-'ior i, made the condition of. eo,,,,,i"e act. But thi,
e""",i,'. act need not be dir«ted again« the obligated indi~idual
_the "delinquent"_bu' m.y be directed againot .nother indio
vidual related to ,he former in • way determined by the leg.l
order, The individual .gainst whom the lanction i.direct«! i. laid
to be "li.ble" or leg.lly ' ..po",ible for ,he delict. 1n .h. former
ea", he i. H.ble for hi, own delict_in which caoe the obliga,ed .nd
the liable individual are iden,ical: ,he p"trntial delinquent i,
liable, In ,he ICCOnd cue an individual i, li.ble for a delict com,
mitted by """eone eloe-the obligated .nd the liable individual
are not identical. An individual i, obligated to a lawful behavior,
and he i. liable for an unl.wful behavior, The obligat«! individ·
ual C.n bring about or avoid ,he ..netion by hi, beh.vior, The
indivIdual. how",'CT, who i. only liable for nonfulfillment of .n·
other indIvidual'. obligation (that i.. for 'he delic, commiued by
oome!>ody .1",) can neither bring aoout nor .void the .. ne,ion by
hi, own behavior, Tbi. i. obviom in C'" 01 crimin.l li.bili,y for
"""eone el",'. delict, that i" whm the sanction ha, the char.>cter of
a puni,hmmr, Bur it also .pplie, ro civil liability for the delict 01
MC}, p, .~
,
rH~ SrAnc ASPI'.Cr OF lAW
somtone elst, when the !anction ha. the charact.. of a civil ""ecu·
lion. A i. ohliagatm to ..nd"," t,OOO to B, if the l<:gal ord"," "ipu_
lat.. that a civil "",cution;' to bl: directetl into the prop<:tty of A
or C in the event that A d"",, not ..nd.. the t,OOO to B. C cannot
bring abou. the sanction by hi, bl:havior. bl:<:au.., the condition of
the ..nction i. the bl:ha"ior of A, not that of C. Nor om C a"oid
the _ction by hi, bl:havior, if he i. only liable for A', ci"il delict.
Thi. would bl: the Gt«' if the l<:gal ord" ",,,e to stipulate that the
!anction i, to take place against C if A foilo to .. nder t,OOO to B,
""en if C rend<:" t,ooo to B; th;' mean" if the legal order docs not
accept the fulfillment <:>f N. obligati<:>n by C a' ,ubstitu,.. Not
only may C be liable if A doe. not fulfill hi. duty to rendor t,ooo
to B, hut h, trL1y also bl: obliga,.d to rendet t,ooo to B, if A docs
not fulfill his duty. This will occur if the legal order ,tipulates (a,
it u,ually d"".) that civil ",,«ution i. to be directed into C, prop-
erty, if eithe,- A oc C fail. to render ',<)00 to B. In this cast, C-u
the subject of ,he obligation It. render ',000 to B_is able to hring
ahout or to a,..,id the sanction by hi, behavior, In C1>C of Hahility
for the nonfulfIllment of a legal duty con>ti'uted by civil eXecu-
tion into a property. tWO """ibilitie. must bl: distingui,hm: (a)
that the prope.,.,y into whid> the civil execution has.o he dir«w:J
is the propcny of .he individual agail", whom the coercive ac, i.
dirccttd; and (b) that the l'rop<:rty i, .hal of someone else over
which this individual i••ble to di.po>e. In the former case the in·
dividual i, liable witb hi, pnlOfl and hi, proper'Y: in ,he latter
c:ue t,,·o individuah ha"e to be con,ideretllor liability_the one
who has the authority to di.pooc over the prop<:rty, and the other
who is the .ubject of the right> which constitute the prop<:rt)·. One
i,liable with hi, person, the other with hi, prop<:"y.
In the cast of liability for somtone eJ..,·, delict, the behavior
,ha, i. the condition for the sanction is not a behavinr nf the indio
vidnal agai"'t whom ,he sanction is dirrettd. but the bl:havior of
another individnaL The individual who i, liable for someone
eh..'. delict is no, the 'ubjre, of a beh~vior det"mintd by ,he
legal order 3! the condition for a !anction; he i. only ,he objre, of
a behavior dete,mintd by the legal order., the ronsequence of a
delle!, namely the obj~ of the coercl"e action of the sanCtion. In
thi, re.pect a certain similarity exi... hetween this stt of lac" .nd
that which i, 1""""'" if the legal order stipulates the earlier.
",~ STATIC ASPl:Ct OF lAW ",
men,ioned coeTch.., acU which do not have the eha",eter of .. ne·
tiono: In these ca~, tOO, ,he individual agairu, wllom the coo",ive
act is dimoted is nol the .objec, of a I:Jehavior delerrnined by lhe
legal order as the condilion for the coercive ac'; bu' only the
object of a I:Jehavior deurminrd by the legal order •• consequence.
namely ,he object 01 the coercive acto dimolrd against thi, individ.
ual. The difference i, th>! in ca... 01 liability lor lIOmeone e1....
delict, the condilinn. of ,he coercive act include a «rtain beh.vior
of acertain individual. where.. in ,he cale of roercive acts Lhat do
nOt have the chaneLo' of sanetio'''. ,he condition, do not include
.uch hehavior.
vidu~l has d<U Recht, 'ha' i<, the "tight" to ~havc in a ~ru.in
><>-y. Nothing marc may b< m<:an, by thi' lhan the negaL;ve fac'
that the individual is I~Uy no. f,.,.bidden (he j" in thi. sc"se,
nogativcly ~mlittcd) to act OT rdrain from acting: in ,hi. way_
th.t h. i. lree to ~rform OT to "lnin I,om a certain action. Bu.
the ...."'m.nt may mean .110 that a "",tain indi.idu.l i. legally
obligaled-<>r, in<ked. dul all individuah au IrgaUy oblig'ucd-to
beha"e in a «rtain way toward anoth•• individual (that i., tow.r<I
the entitled individual, Or 'he lubj..:. of the righl). The behavior
which i. the immediate obligation of an individual toward an-
other. may b. a posith" or negative I><havior, that is, it may be"
specific a<;.ion or refrainment. The ac.iun con,i", in tendering a
performance by ,he obligated individual toward .noth.... individ.
uaI. The perfOllllance may comist in tnn.fening a certain thing
(in German, s..chleistung) or in r.ndoring a S<'rYice (Dien:srleis-
lung). The refrainment which i. the obliga,ion of an individual
vi""·vi. anothor individual may either be the ,efraining from a
certain a(.ion (for example, killing ano,he' individual); ot the
,draining from p'e'.'enting or impairing the beha"ior of another
individual (.,.petially p'e"eOl;ng or impairing ano'her individual
in hi. behavior toward a cc''''in tbing). In 'he laller cast we .peak
of tol=oting the behavior- of one individual by another, and we
jUXlapoiC the obligation to perform (ui'tung,pflichl) to the 01>-
lig.tion '0 ,olera,e SC>TTtething (Dulduog'Pflicht).
Th. ohlig"e<\ behavior- of one individual toward anotber corr.,.
'ponds wi'h a certain behavior of 'he other individual. The latter
may demand the behavior of the forn,er. In tbe cate of an oblip.
tion to petlonn SC>TTtething. the other individual may =ei"e the
t~,lerred thing Ot tendered oervice. In the case of an obliption
to toler..e lOttle'hing, the behavior that corre.pond. to the obli.
gated behaviut comi... in the beh.vior to be tolerated; in tbe c_
of toler.uing a certain behavior in relation to a certain thing: in
the use of the thing; if it i, food. in conmrning it; !inolly even in
d",troying it.
The behavior of one individual th" corr",pond, to tbe ob-
ligated behavior of the other i' ",ually d",ignated a, the coment of
a "righ("'_<.. the object of a "claim" that corr"'ponds to the
obligation. The behavior of tbe one individual that corrnpon<b to
the obliga'ed bebavior of the other particularly the claiming of
THE ...ATIC A'FECI" 0" .... w ",
.he oblig..ed behavior. i. d..igno.ed .. ex'rd,ing a right. How-
ev", in elSe of on obligaLion to r.frain from .n ocLion. ,uch .. LO
refrain from murd.... or burglary. on. does not u'u.lly .peok of ...
righl or claim "nOlto be murder.d" or "nOl '0 be burglari>ed," In
cue of an oblig..ion 10 tol..... 1<: ""m.thing, th. behavior of the on.
cor"'.ponding to the obligation of lhe other i••pok.n of •• "en·
joyment" (German: Cm ) of the right. Particululy .... 'peak of
e"joym... ' of a right ....h we d<31 wi,h ,he ,<.tC. comummation,
or even da'mnion of a ,hing.... hich anolh" individual i. obli.
ga'ed '0 '01 ..... 1<:.
Thi. "righ'" or "claim" of an individual. howev..... io m".ly the
obligation of ,h. o,h... individu.1 or individuals. Jf the right or
d.im of.n individual io .pokCTI of a' if i, w'" different from the
obligation of ,he other, ,he imp'...ion of 'wo l.gaJlj· relevant facto
i......,ed where oniy one io preoent. The fact in qucs,ion io ex_
haustively de><:ribed .. ,he legal ohligation of One illdiyidual '0
behay. in • c.rtain w.y toward ano,her. Tha' an individual i.
ohligated '0 b.have in a cortain way mean, that in ca", of lh. op-
posi'e beh....ior a ...nction ought to uk. place; hi.obliga,ion i, ,he
norm ,ha, command.thi. behavior, hy .uaching a ..nction '0 the
oppooil<: behavior. If .n individual i, obliga,ed to ••nd... a per.
formanco '0 ano,her, ,hen the petformancc to be reeeh'ed by the
o,her con,d,utco the con,ent of the obliga,ion; one can render
untO another only that which the oth.... acccpto. And Han individ·
u.l i. obliga'ed ,ow.rd anoth.r to toleral<: • c......in beh.yior of
the o,hcr. th.n the ,olerance of thi. behavior i. th. conten, of ,h.
obliga,ion. Thi. me.no: the behavior corrcoponding to ,he obli-
gated l>ehvior, of the individual toward whom the obligation
.xi.... i. cod.t....mined in the !>ehayior that conotitutcs the <:onl<:nt
of ,he ohliga,ion. If One d..ignatcs a. "righ," 'be rclotion"'ip of
one individual tow.rd whom .no,her individu.l i. obligated '0'
c.....in behavior, th.n ,hi. right i. m....ly a rcflCC1ion of ,hi. obli·
gation.
It io '0 be not.d th.t th. "suhject" in this ",I..ion.hip i, only
the oblig;ated individual_the one who an viol.1<: or fulfill the
obliga,ion by hi. beh.vior; th. "entitl.d" individual_the one to-
word wbom the behavior i, to toke plaee-----i, only the objr" of the
behavior whkh, becowe corr"'ponding to the ohligo'ed behavior.
i. cod.l...mined by Ih. lau.... Th. concept of. right which i. only
., TH& ,rAnc ..... u:r or UlW
"
." Tl<I: ' ....ne .uncT 01' lAW
cnuin iDdi."iduaJ. Tha. this indi¥iduaJ "hM" " ri&ht. i...... a"fW'
cil>o:: I'PI p""""". ont«ly meBIO ,hi•• Jeg:ol nOfm lou made ... cu·
tain IICt of <hi. indi~id.... J the wndirion for cC'nain «mscqu"ntft.
If traditional .hooty dtarac..'i..... ,he right as .. Ira..l powe, con·
ferred by tbe l<gal ord... ,h .." ,II" theory h... in mind the 1011"1
power uC',ci><:d In ,h.. law $,,1•. Ilut not only ,hi, ltgal l'O"'~f
alone il undentood by right (i..... doe law in ..... bjoc.il'<' omx).
but this p"".... in UMln=ion with rd\o::r; ,i&"., ...... is, 1M
oblipciorl againw. .. boor DODf"J&lImm acn:ioe of the ltpl
pot<cr" direeu.:l; in o<b<-r wordo: .. ,~ rish' ~Il;ppal wi,h ,hia
l<pl poo<n. TM _phHis ~ i,on .... rdks. ti:gtlL AI. hal bttD
demon\u:lItcd "1>0>',,, howr\..".. the ~ of ,ig'n ,lut is more
then a me,"" rdlu of a ltgal obligation ron"; in ,he fact tha, a
leg:ol no,," oonf..n "1'0" an indi,i,J .. al the leg;ol power to bring
about hy. 1.w luit ,I, •••""u,ion of ...nc,i"n at .. , ... ction .gai""
\l", """1"16111",,,,, of 'he oblip.'''''' We "",an ,IIi, 1"1\"1 norm
conlcrrinll"" ltgal po....... upon all individUllI. WMn in the 1011_·
ing ...., OfIC"k 01 .. tiah, in th~ I«bn;CIII o=oe.
no. cou.bli.r. l of JUdI ";&bu, unliu ~ nu.bli<hmm. of
!<:pI ob!lp'i<lns. iJ .., ."......~ fUD<tioa of law. To cou.bl ....
sudo rilhcs I~PO<:K'''' Oftly a pouibk...... a D«CS$l'T ".""ion of
law-.l lptCiallcpl lCChniq"". Ie is ohc lptCilio:: .~dmiquc of tIl(
api<alifl, Icpl on:l~r. insofar ill ,hi. order g"onnl"'" .~ ;nllitu·
IIOB of pri"ote property ond t~re(OT( con.ide... (lp«i.lIj· irnl',·i(\.
oIl inter..",. Thi. lechnique dot. 1101 prevail in all 1""'" 01 the
copi",li<t legol order, ond oppea... fully developtd only in lhe
,nlm of IO<aiIM I'd,,,,,,, 10"" ond in aome 1""" 01 admioiit"ui'"t
law. Mcdtrn crimi...1 law does noc..... onl, ~«"P'ionoIl,. nult
..... of th.. lCChniq"". In tb<: aM! of murdn .......... slaughccr. lhe
indi~id",,1 .inst whom ohc prohibiud bdI.o~;"'- hal <aktn pba,
has ceawrllO ~iit and <hc<d....e CIIn".,. bri"ll an ....:tioo> . i.... obe
murdeTeT or nunolloyer. bu, altO in ocher caso of crimi...l be"",'·
iD'l" th( individual ",'100 il ,he victim of ,he cri",e i. rtplar.nl by an
0'll"n of lhe '''''e who... pl'OOtCulor tJ< officio 11Im the f"">C<du...,
thl' lead. to the eXl'Cu,ion of the ..net ion. Hence the CiSCoe< of
th~ righ, chataCt~ri"ic for p,ivote law comi... in th;" the 1"Il01
order confen • Ip«i/;c Icpl POW'" upon an individual (OOl an
~orpn~ dlbe communit,. but an individual .ndi,ionaUy delig.
penon"
....l<:d II • ''priYll'" and ld....ll, upon tb<: indi,-idual
'"
TII~ STATIC ASP£cr OF UW
..
dolend."" docs not exist. In ,hi. ca.., w. do not characterize the
legal power of the defendant a' a '"right" in the 'p<'Cific technical
~
1) TN PoIilic.J llitAU
The soalkd "polilial r¥>u~ reprncnl a spttW (:11"10'1. n...y
.. ~ u.... UJ <kfin~ ... the POW'" 10 inftuence the forma.ion of <he
"'ill of mo. ...."'; uu.~: '0 panici!",'" dirutJJ or indir«,IJ in
,h~ fomuolion of ,h~ Itpl ordo:r in which 'h~ ~wm of the 1U,.e"'
u.,......... i~lf.
In ,pplyinllhi.de~ni,ion. how<"Yer', one corllidm
only 'M gon......1nom" of ,hi. order: th~ mUllet. P,nidp."ion in
l~gi.l,'ion ,h•• it, the O"~",ion of the g.n......ll"l!"l norm•. 1ry Ih....
• "loj",,~ to In. no,m. i. th~ u ••mi,l el.m.nl of ,h.
democratic
lonn 01 go'·emm""t. in eon,.... to autO<n.lic governm.nt in
which ,h~ ..,loj«tJ are excluded fro<n tharing in .he lomu'ion of
,h~ will of th~ .tat~, and 'herefore have no poIitiall righlt. Dnn...
aa'io; teg;.b<i.oo may be ~lI"eo;t(d diuctlJ by "the pcoplc,~ thaI iI"
TH", IT"TIC AlPUT OF UlW
"
... .,."... nAne A,nCT OF ....W
prolIibiled by <he lop! order iIIwt tbo: beh>.vior ...... th~ <:(lD-
dition of a sanctiort--and, being prohibited. i, is not appr...·td.
Hawna-, >he word ~au<bor""UoD.·· iI aloo u>cd in a narrower
......, wbell it doQ i",p1y a~; in <hio _ - ..... hotUatiort~
dor:o DOt include the opacity of OIICIUIliuing I ddia; in >h.. .....,
tndititlall oheo<y spc:W of opaci'y to act (U....I"""/..i,u")
in amondistinctioo. to ~opaci.y to COIJUai. a t1dia~ (DcliAJo-
filti,hil), ddinin( tl>e Iom>tt ,.. lhe Dp:aci<y of I man to bo-io&
a....... lepl dfecu by his beblvior. Sin<e thtoe "dlfCtI" are "'"
dl"fCtI in the ouoal sense. th~ OpKily to act comiJu ill a.....,·.
opaci,y conferrtd by >he legal order to bring about legal conse-
quences by his heba"ior, thaI is, consequences .,hicl< >h~ legal
ord.... attacl>n ".>h,. behavior. Til_legal consequmen ar~. how·
eYt!', no, >he lIJ1C,iom which ••• CO/'''''Iuencc of • beMv;or arc
dircacd aa:oin" the individu.1 ""h..ing in thi, w.y (Le., 'gain"
the delinquent or hi. ,cl.,ivet). The capacity 10 bring lbou••
$OInt:tion by one', ""haYior il>h~ capacity to commi, I delict and II
diainguilbed from the capacity to .ct. The legal <:nnsequ~ncn '0
which lhe corta']>t oI>h~ capKi,y to act ufen are, a.ccordi"l to
,radi.ioaallcience 011.0.., esKnti..llly obligatiooJ .nd rightl o .... ted
by 1"&,,,1 ~ ~ opKi.y to act II pri ....rily the cap.city
to oondualepl .... nRO'ioN (CacM/Ulilti«ieil); bu, capaci'y to
a<I aloo mana tbo: capacily to inllumce judicial procedure by a
Law .. l, or an appeal (l'rtnaJ/ilti,Acit)..
This boI..,..,.,riDncd ClpKIIJ ill JIO"'"" conf,...,.ed by tIoe 1ep1
order '0 puti<:ipL1te in tIw: oelltion of an (nd,ri<!uallepl nonn"...
...blishcd bya judici..ll deciloion. It is, tbm,' lqpl powft"•• nd ......
ferring >his paw.... IIle>tU ~au<boriza,ion" in the IUrTOW..... _
Ip«ir.c."""", of >he won!.
But abo >he lcgal capacity 10 conduo<:' legal .nnucliont, ,hot i,
IOAY. "'" cap"dly of <:!'tOting obliga'ioni aDd righ,.. " ouch • lcgal
pow«. For legal obIip'ionJ and rightl are .....bl;wft! by lqpl
norm" and ouch nonu, .re anted by legal ,.. ngetion•. An
'llIly.u of the l~pical Icgall"mo<:tion, ,he COlltract. <lcmonlt"..",
lh;•. The conlract Itipul.t.. th., th~ contncting ""fliet ough'
to bl:havc in th~ir mum.l rel.,io,," ;n • c..... in w.y; ,he C"n-
tr.o<1 of tale. lor example. Ilipul.tel ,bat the !CUer ough, 10 rendcr
an ob}c<:IIO the buj and ,he hoI}'.... a ",m of money 10 ,he sell ....
i1oecon'nocl , .,hOl< IUb;c.:,ivc IIl.....ing .. on ~OIllht.~ The
",
lopl orda, in <l.uUoorWnI individual, by am<nl .-.... to aNI-
clude COG<nas, eJn;,us the ",bj«ti,.., me:on.ng ol: the lnNllCtioa
10 an objective one. "11M: confTXt etta...,. abliptionl 01. thc toII._
trlICt.inB pania. beau.. thc Jepl orne.- ~Oad>D _;on. 10 a be·
havioo- COIltnry to the tnms of d.. 00IIU'Xt. I .. ohis _ the
Il<lna auted by Ibo uanaacUon is a d<prndm. I\OI"Ill, n.. con·
tnlCl "utel righ.. of oM mn1rxlin& pannos. b«a_ 1M ltpl
onkT....-by aulharizj"l <he iDdi~id.ws to rnadudc o;o.mxlS--
a)Ofen upon the alIrltnlC"n, particJ the lcpl powe>" to king
about by a Jaw ...i. the ...rorttlll'l'n. oJ. <he f.. lliUm"", ol.1>e obl'-
pt,oa etta""'- by me conu"OCt...'hie" lb<2nS: to bring about by a
Jaw lUit the """"",ion 01 • .."e,;oo ;u a u>oction again .. the ,"iola-
don oft"c obligation create<.! by the conl~. and ,il... to partici-
pate in the U"tation of ti,e individual nOml 01 the judici.l
decision. The capacity 10 «Induct legal ,ran>a"i.,,,, jJ ,he ca·
padty. confcrr"", "pOll individuals bj' til< 1tg"~1 order, to croale,
on the bali, of gen...... l Itg.1 norm., J<gal norms of a lower level
and '" participate in the en'''""" of individual nOm" '0 be 0<'-
alocl by me bwcour... Thlsc>paci., iu. true lopl pown.
1£ (2~ty "'.' is underwood '" m.... D the OIpaci.y of bringing
about lcpl eoDKqumcn bronc'. bch:l~ior, and if ODe rcprdo as a
corucqucncc 01 a Icpl ,nruxtion lhc lcpl obIip.icn-and that
""""'" an iDdj,iduall>(lt1l>--<'rcatnl by this Xl. lhcn lbc opoO'J
01 fuUilli"ll' Icpl oblipliont" ,lou ... lbc o~ilJ 01 avoidi"( """
oanu..... by aM" awn bduorior, mar aloo he UDdcntood ... o~
i'f 10 act. ThnriD. lin tJ>e--.-ptin---lcpl alWC'lUCDCC 01 fulfill·
laCIl' 01 an obllptioaL
b) Co..pelmu
I, ia .tM1ily to be otero w. u,., """'rei$<! 01 thia lcpl POW'" has
nJtI1tially .~ wnc du.t'Kttt ... the runction 01 a lcsi.lalivc organ,
a,,,horir.c<! by <he lcpl ordcr, to create gen.nllcg.l norm.; an<1 ..
,he fU,,<,ioru of the judicial and admini""uive organ., .,,<hori.ed
by ,h. 1<'g.1 order, '0 ~reale individual Ic!>"1 nonn. by applying
dlO$C gcn=1 on ••, In .11 lhese ~a.!M> just as in thc ca.IC of th. ro-
.alltd .. padty to arl, all I"thori",.ion is present to ~rcuc, or to
participatc in thc .reation of. lcpl nonno-in all 'Moe ~:un thc
Icpl order conf.... a Icpl powC't upon c...... in indi..idualL Bu, not
'~~4I"'S0 ..udlo" JO llb,uo, ~tp
'01 "'1""'P "'l,.nrn U011JUn, '4' JO ''''m''''
~41 wOJJ lU'.I.:IJ!!P'1
'041 JlU!4'~WOl u'41 'AI!UnWUU" {d,! 'II' 10 mdlo P;>lI~J IOU ~o
UO!lJunJ "II ~U!'P"X' ']""Pl"PU! ''II """" ='11 U! '",U!S ,:"U',
.:><IWOJ,. '0 ..uop"'l"l,n(., P'II"'" W''11 uoon p".u:>Juo, .I.:IMOO ,do]
~4' '1 IDU :A,!UnUlUJ<Y.> !oli,[ ~lll JO ..su1!&1o" P"II"" "'_ 'UO,,""'U"-'1
]d.>( "npuoo 01 MOl {"tuopOU .\<j P>l!104'O! ,[O"P!AlpU, ~l]1 lOU
'UOl}JunJ '14' ~U"!""''''" U! '"m.'41 .I.:Itp!'U"A puV 'A'lunWllJOO
]OUO!,...1.I>1'" ~'11 U!'111M 'IOJ lUE'uoowl tI" Ao(d 'MO( \"""!'OU'"
·U! ,{q pa!lOtp"o "10" Aq p>popuro "~!I"~I Aq 'w'ou ["-,,,u,ll JO
u0]10"" ''I' '"'II puo :"PlO [olio[,tp Aq ol~'lfl P"'lID4,no ..mOl
.,:><1 ~,lti!,d., Aq p""npuoo 'UO!"""O'I ,"3o[ Aq P"''''''' "'l AO'"
'<mou 1"",,,,ll OlIO Inq 10np!Alpu! A\UO lOu '"'I' "",ou :>q 0'" "
puy ·,UllOU (do( jO 00,,0= ''II A]~UI<U :0"''' ''I'
'! lU"<ro, '4.L
·.uO]"onJ '4' JO 'u~'uoo ~4' ul OJu,J.:IJl!P o:>q lO"u"", '!'I1jO UOI
·0"" ~4' ,:",u'I:odmo,.. JO "OOl'''ll''!ln(" to p"loull,,,p ,ou '! ""''11
uodn p>J"llIOJ J.:I•..oo ,<301''1' 'U"'O'J '!tpl0J 'J1 puo 'Al1unmlUOJ
'<~'I "II JO "ru1!&1o" lOU puO ..'UOSl:><l 'Ilti!ro" "'l 01 P"""Pl'uoo
"'0 (,,,,"]dmoJ 0 ,~O'" O'IM ID 'Io:>ddo 10 "'lIOU 'Al11 "'lM 10) AI""l
.:>woo ,.",olio 1m' MO( 0 lluuq 'mp>1[l.ld "lIU"lU!wpo ID ("P!P
.n! 0 u, 04.... t:>IUro ''11 Jl W ',UOII"",,,,', ["S>[ ,m", "opuo, 0'1'"
']"OplA1PU! "1' II ·J.:IMOO [o'il>[ Jl"!<!JJ~X~ ruo!l'unJ ''''1' H- U""'I
''''l A'!-'"11wP ]"11"""" '4' "olq AlloIOU!w,~, [!uollrP"-'.L ''''1''0
~A"E'I"UlWJl" ""." 01 ID "uo"l"P IE!J1Pn[ '1"'"
0' '''lOm'I'''u,
Ol,("npJA'PU! "1m'", JO All,,",,'" ~'II" ~."", """, "ll uJ "JJllOI:>d
·woo., '10 'lonpl'lP"! "" JO (tlqJl!. 1""'11100 .0 ~'OA!'d) UU'I
''II JO JS"" ]""!"'P" "p U! ",{.Il!, PU! ',UOp""'U.'1 ]d.>( "np
'''OJ 01 A"JEd., ''I.L '.1.:11"0 loll,[ ''I' Aq P>ll'IuOO ""'00 10&>[ ~'I'
JO "'p.,x:. ~tp til II,,,UO' 'I"'IM p:m.lJJuoJ '1 UOIPunJ ''I' 50 '"J
to P>U'lOO! 10" '1 ~JlI,,:><Imoo JO ld"uro ''11 JO uOllm,m,] '!'I.L
.. ·~:nlJl:><lmnJ .. ID "UO!'''!p'!,n(" P'll"" lOu
~J! llUJI ~'II JO "'''''' [""UtpOl ''11 U! 'l'IlI!, 'I'! ~"!IO,' 10 1411!J ~4'
10 ",,,.,x:. '" 'jo:>dd. "!U' .,,"[ .\<j 'UllO" ldo] JO uo!,o~n ''I' '"
'l\:dl"!l..d 01 Jo 00!'''''''',,",1 10So[ 0 Aq <OUoU 101lo! >1u'n 0' .."'"
.,:><1 "o.,!,d" 0 uoon P>H'I"OJ ,>MOO [olio, 'q.L .:~J"'I:><IWO'.. Jo
..uO!lJlp'lmr.. 10 flu:><l• .lroJ'I1 1""01'11"'" '''!'!-I04Io0 ~"'I",,,ruIW
'p-. '0 'uno' ."0] '" q,n. A'lum"mn" ~q' JO ruo.ll.1o JO .tl0llJunj ''1'
01 lJ:><I", '1'1" ~ll"1;:od" ',,,,,,, 'woo U] .. '1'" 01 All""""".. JO ~o:><l.
"'o>q, louo)l'pu, "'op "MOO l',llJl 0 llu!'''lllO' JO ."., [[0 III
;" ......., ~O J.:>:IdSV "uns XlU
.,. TIt!: ....TIC ....PI:CT OP "'W
,.
Till< STATIC ASPEC'< OF lAW .,.
the brood." sen...) by iI, can be allribUlrd 10 lhe communi,y con·
"i,u,rd by lhe norma.ive OTder, can be inlCTpre'rd a' function of
.h. community; and .v..y individual wltmc behavior U d.ler-
mined in l~. nonnal;". orocr-.\nd thi. mea", ev.ry m.mber 01
the community-ean be TI,ga.rd.d a. an OIgan of lhe community.
An individual i. an organ 01 ,h. communi,y, if and '0 .h••,,"'n'
thai, h. f.nd... a be~a.iOT ,ha, can be a'tribu'ed '0 the Cornmu·
nity; and a bellavior can be .ttributed '0 .b. community if i, i.
dctenninrd •• a condi,ion or • C<lJU«]u.nc. in the norma.ive
ordCT tb.t con"ituteo the community. T~u i. ,be primary, the
bo.... concep' 01 ,be function of an organ-il i, "o.-gan function"
iu the b.ood.., <Cn". And i, i• •he con""pl 01 "organ func/;on,"
not of lh. "o.-gan,'· which refe.. 10 the .""miol f..ts. especi.lly in
lhe r..lm 01 legal ""i"""". The concepl 01 organ ."pr•...,. lb. idea
of ••ubjcc/ or '·hold.." (G.nnan: Tragu) of the funclion; i.•.•
tb. pcnonal eleme", of l~e behavior l~" repr=nts the funclion;
this funclion. Iik. any hum.n behavior, co",i"," 01 a penon.l
and a malCT;'1 dement. The eoncep' of lhe org.n a. ,h••ubjcet or
hold., of. function diff.rent from lhi. ~oldcr- i. a concept of ,ub·
.lanee and .. ,nch 10 be ",ed Wilh the aw.ren... th.l. f.om .he
point 0/ ,·i.w of scienlific cognition. on!»lance i•• o be rrducrd to
funclion, In the concep! of lh.organ a. the holder 01 the funetion.
the personal clement i. detacbed f,om lhe mal....i.l clement.•1·
.hough the tWo ar<: in ..parably connected Only with thi. r...",'.·
lion can lhe concepl 01 lhe organ be used as .n .u"il iary concept
wbicb ladJit>.tes lh. pre..nlation of the !aet. to which the concept
01 "organ" refen.
The concept of "organ fun"ion" whid! appca.. in tradi.ional
legal ..nninology {.nd which is not onilonn in its u..ge) i. nar·
rowe., howev.., than that JlTC1Cnle<l h..... as prim.ry or b.... con·
cepl. Sioce the la.ter rel.les to every behvior d.t.rmined by lh.
nonn..i,·. OroCT-<O far a. it i, a bch.1viOT dct..minrd by ,he legal
<ml.... and thCTefor•• fun(tion of th.legaJ community_it includes
abo lh. beh.vior which,,, a condi.ion for a ..nell"", i.e.. a. a de.
Iiet. i. legally prohibiled. Usually, I>owev..... on. d.... no, .uribu••
a delic, .0 • legal communi,y. The view acc<mling 10 ..'hich the
prohibiled beh.vior i. illegal (unlawful; in German: U",ccht-.\
lin<! 01 negalion of the l.w) i. r.pugnant to the .iew lh.t the
~CI. !'P. ' ..... "H
"
I~l communily commits an il1"83.1 act. Th~e i, a ..nd.nCj' <0 at·
!Tibut. tn tbe oommunity only a human behavior which i, de..r·
mined ill the nonnati,'e ord~, but i, not de,erminro a. a delict,
thot i', prohibit.d," l£ th. ",'oro "authorizing" i. tt$<:d in the
broader >tn'" that indudes also the capacity "to older, to pen"it
positi"ely;' then one am ...y that a tendency exi", to attribute to
a 1"83.1 community only lhat behavior of an individual <0 which
he i. "authorized" by the legal order-that i., a behavior by which
legal norm> are crrated or applied, an oldered Ochavior, not a
prohibited behavior, and a positively permitted behavior; so that
an individual i. co",iderffi to be the organ ot a legal community
only insolar a. he manifests a behavior "authorized" in thi, StllSC,
Howe,'cr, a. we shall sec, linguistic u'"ge is not co",i...m in ,hi.
'''pee'' Occa.ionally a delict i. attributed to the legal community,
e.pccially when the community i. regarded a. the .ubject of obli·
R"tio"', because the capacity to assume obi igation. pr..upp""" the
capacity to commit a deUct" But the th.,i, that the legal com-
munity ca""or commit a delict, Le" cannot Ocbave il.legally, im·
pH.. th" the a"ribtttion to a legal community i, limited to
human behavior "authori'ed" in the just deocribcd se",,; it
impH .. that the delict, although detcnnintt! by the legal order, i.
not attributed to the community, l>e-causc not "authorized" in the
narrower StllSC. If the attribution to the legal community;' thus
limited, then the individual committi"g a doHct is not intCTpreted
to be a community organ, and hi, behavioT not a, the function of
an organ (an "organ function"). To the 1"83.1 community, then,
only thaI behavior i. attributtt! which refen to tbe concept of
"capacity to ac,"-which doe> not indude the capacity to commit a
delict,"
If we thu. eJtClude the committing of a del;'t from tbe organ
functions attributable to a 1"83.1 community, then any beh"'i,,r
d.tcnnined by .he 1"83.1 order constituting the legal commuuity
may he regarded .. a function 01 the community if it dOC' no< con·
.i" in committing a delict: Thi, behavior may comi" not onl}' in
th~ «cation and application of legal nonn., including the partid,
.... _ t. diKl.",t'" ' ... «>ndi_ 01 "'" '"""""" qU>llfted., "<1<1""" " -
ott><-< «W1d"'om .. lh< .. nctlan. "'" p, ".'
.... f.. ,b< aoP"'i'r 01 , torpOI'Ot...... , I~rloti, ~ ,. """"" .... ,~
"'" ,.~ ,."""'... "Obhpll"", of 'b, ja,;"l< ....-."
·Cf. pp. ,.. t
pa,i"" in the creation and applica<i"" 01 legal norm, by I.w '"
,oit,
appeal. compl.i,,! and ,h••"ecutio" of eOttr;... ac,_]] ,bi, i. ,he
Ja"'-<:tt.ting .nd Iaw""pplying function; but it may abo con,i" in
th< lulfilllllCllt of kgal oblig,"imu, in 'he ."erci.. of ,ell"x righ..,
and in the .""rei", of those right> tbat co",i" in • po<iti,'c
permission_Enncti"", ,ha, may l.>e deaignatcd .. law.()bscrving
func,i""•. E,-cry jodi,-idual, therdore, who perform. a legal lune-
,ion in the narrower or broader ..n",. j. a legal organ. Thererore
,he individual who exerci"'... legal power by bringing .. I."...ui,
against ",mebody or by conducting a legal ,=,10" may I><:
designated .. "Irgal organ" and ,h, legal power I><.to".. ed upon
him a. hi. "oompctena"_in lh. $arne ..n.. in which the legis-
lator, jud~. or admini.trau>'c lunctionary .,." deai&',a,«I as "<:>r'
gan.;' and the legal power bestowed upon them, .. ,heir "compe-
ten",," (or "juri"";aion"). Even 'he individual who lulfill. hi.
legal obligation, or exercises a ""nex righI, or make. usc of a p<>'i.
tive p<nniMion, may be 'ega'ded ••• legal organ. Thi1 concept of
"organ IUl><tion·' exp""sses only the relalioruhip of the func,ion to
the normative oroer determining the function.
However. in legal terminology ,he COll<:ep< 01 organ is used in a
still narrower "'n", than here deocribed. Not every behavior de,er_
mined by the legal order, and not being qualified .. drlkt, i, in-
terpr<<ffi;u a function of the l<gal community; no' every individ·
ual who perform' ouch a funelion i. de,ignated .. an "organ" in
rhi. narrower st"st. Hi, behavior i, attributed 10 the legal commu·
niry .. its function only (and the indi,-idual i. de.ignoted .. an
"organ" only), if ,hi, individual is qualified in a certain way.
Jf a function determined by a normative order i, to be p<r.
formed not by aoy individual .ubjaot to thi. ottler but only by a
qualified one. ,hen a functional di.i,ion 01 labor i. e'tablished_
Only functions exerdsed by individuals quaUr,ed in a ""ruin way
are attribu<ffi u> ,he 1'"831 community; only ,he.. indi.iduals are
deo.ign.ted a' "0'lr""'" in ,hi, narruwer stn",. Communid.. which
have "org:uu" are d.. ignated a, "organi>ed" communi,i... Bu'
every cOmmunily must have o.gam-....,"en Ihough not ,he kind
,ha, [unction. according to 'he principle of di,-i,ion of laOOr_
becau"" a community an only function ,hrough organ>. that ,•.
,hrough individual. determined by ,he nor""'tive order. If "
normative oroer determln.. ,ha' (,",,,,in funetio,," under <enain
,,. 11<:[ ....ATIC A$PI!Cr OF ....W
.,.... "'I.
'Cl PI'-
~f ~ of _nlla,lool ..... - . . . . ...... _1,0<1.
'! "''l'~J ',PH'" ~4' '~ldw""" JOJ 'J! '~P ~4' .oJ ~lq"'I'!:>SP Apoq
·Au. 'OU 'm .lll"l"~ru ~'" .0" 'PIl4' ~4' J~4'!','J. ".IOjA"4X1 "''''
JO """""'XI,, ~4'!""d 1l,,!X1 'I I""P!A!PU' "''110 A" ••0" ru~41
)0 .~4"'u u'4' ']""P!'lpUI U. JO 4"'P ''1' .""., u~ II! All"'
-u~w " .10 PI''1'" JO .IO!A"4X1 ''11 JI "UO!uuO<. JOJ UOI'lpUOJ J'I' 'ou
'I 'O!A"4X1 'PIl.L '<IO!,.ll!lqo u. llU1Ul""'")0 .lqOOOl,OU "oJ>J~4'
P'" lJIPP • ll"!ll!tDUlOJ )0 ~lqoo"" lOU ,." 111 AIl"l"'W ''I' P'"
U>JPI!'1' lng '"opoll!I'l0 uo ,wn"," 0, A'IJoo" ''1' '.'"'1 0' "'1"0
ul UIPP ",!W""'" OJ .l1!J1!dOJ ~41 'A"" "nw'4 pUt ',:re OJ A'I",dOJ
''I' 'A"4 "nw '4 UJ'I'-JJ"'''bx"oo loll'l "<0 "op'"" " .IO!A"'!
'''1 '!4 Aq 1110'1" llu!'q 0, ~Iq" " ''I J' ,"""01 4'14'" '('<10""1"
'!4 .0) 01'" "u!oll, P»:>;I'IP "O!lJu.. " JO UOP!PUOO '4' '! .0!A"4Jq
~,!ooddo '14 J!~A .." "1'''=" "I 'A"'1Jq 0' p.ll!lqo Andol 'I ]~"PIA
-!PU! U, Jl "'!"'l""" I""'!.I:> ""pun dn pu"" 'O<lU,," A='1' '!'lL
"]""1''''PI
,oU ~,. A"Jod., 1&] P"" "'" 0'A,!:>o<l., '41 AJ0>4' jO"O!'lPU,
''1' 01 llu!p.loJJV '("o"",u,,",,d>J lim",,,,, 1"'11""""') '''''!'''"'U''''
]dJl Aq 01'4' .oJ ..pnp pUt "411!. ~,">J' p"o '''P''P 1I!!I"l "'ljll!,
...
"I"'x, JI"'IJq '1''1' U! 0'1'" ","'''l"~,: d,, 'Ao4 ""w'l"nplA!pu!
=q' """I ll.l'pow 0' llUIPJ= '>J0J''''1~ 'II! An',"'Ul ~'I' pu.
""Pl'4' ',(d""u Jorll!.~ll!t{)IJ<llu"IPU"H),po 0, A,pl!d1tJ ~4'"
~,,"'1 0' P!""'I 1""PlA!PU' A"'A' ,OU mg """I u"'pow "pun "I'"
0' PI"'~" l~"O] 0".....,'.1' ....ptlS-A'IJod., loBo] 't"'1 "'l'" 'I'"
'PlAIP"1 :"lmp P"o "'Ill!, JO ,,,[qn,,'11 "I """ (""P!'IP"! "om,,'1
A""",, 'A=ql ~'" "'.. ''''"I """pow "p"n ""!'''P P"" "'Ill]>
jO ':»I'q". '4' "I 01 .10 """P Idol puo "411,. ~'"'1 0' 1""PlAlpul
u. JO A,!Jod., '41 A,podoJ ]oBoI .. ""."ll!"p .uo,'1' I'''OP!PU~
"O,.......L",..,.J~d."lI
:(I'.~ll~¥"*I¥"Il) .ur.lVdv:J "tvo:., ",'
."
punisMd, tbm lhe punislulblc <!diet is Do< oM killin, of 1M indio '"
ridual. but the viob'ior\ 01. oM fattw:r. duty to suptni« the child
and 10 PfC"'"'" Ui an,itocial beha'ior of oM dUld. 1M beha~io< of
the child Of mmt1l1y ill, wbkh. il uhibiud by indirid",,1
apobk of aaiJ>K. CIDlUti,uta l.bo 01_ of murder IIIUrdn.
1M child and thr m«IlaU, ill do .... ho.", thc ~ du.ieJ oonsti.
lUted by puni,'.., laftCliono !>«a1Ut <!Iti. bthayior is no< thc <'Ondi-
.ion of. punl,;..., ..nc'ion-b<a..... u...,. CUlnot bmavc in a ""y
w. can brin!: abou •• punitive ..netion; .hq MC .... ClIp;lblc of
OOfDrai,.ing • iklia (a,.. no< rapoo.oib~ for tOn). and in thi.
~ ""''''''p''blc of .,ing.
Thi.. howeve<, d_ niX Kf1l> '0 apply to dclicll whic;h a,.., Coo·
lIi,u'cd by. finc or dvil execution. For these ..netion. COfl"" in a
lorc~ dcprivat;on of Ul<:U, p&nicularly of proper,y; and. llCcord·
ing to .he n.di,ion,' 'heory. an individual incap"blc of acting ,till
an have prop"", righ ... He /Ill' no acting capacity, bu' he II....
legal as-;ity. H •...,.,.• child or in .." .. individual i...id to be the
OWMl" of • hou>e .nd ill f"rni"'ing>; if 1M pr<Iptny ..." •• not
paid. civil """"""ion may bt di.t:CIed into tht propt", 0( the
individual. From th" one might dcduu that the indiri,h..l in·
capable of:oning. il he an be the oubjcc< or pn>pmy rights, an
aloo be the ... bjcc< of .... obIiption to poy the ",open, tn. By
.... I&m<' n2SOIllinl an indhridual incapoble or aain&o could. il he
"rqankd:u the ... b;..« of P""Pfttr lights a' all. alto be reprded
.. the oub;.a 01 all ~ obl.ip.,;.- ooost.it"ud br ciril ouno·
,m
H~. if only dtaI individual ;" ~ to be the oub;"«
01 a l~l obliga.ion w..... br his own beha";"...." 1"lfill or <rio/;l'e
<he obligatioll_nd il the oblip.ion un only be fulfill~ or rio-
laud br the ~ .. ti.--hm the IlIbje<' at the obIiption u
,he tep'"..."...ive. not the individual in",poble of acting. From
,he lac. tha. the l.t,er individual can be the ...bj«t of prop-
er" tights could only be deduced that he i' liable for the vlob'ion
of fin.>nci.:tl obligation. and 'hal he con be li>.ble-int<lfar :u hi.
rep.eltlll.tive i' a"thori,<><I 10 di,pooe 01 hi' p.oper<y--<>nly with
hi' property. not with hil perlOn. If we ...."mc 'hat an incop-
able individual cannOt be 'he rubjee. of • legal oblig:nion, and
tha' an individual ;. the wbj«. of. filW>Cial oblip'ion onlr if he
has to fulfill the obligation from hil own propm.r (il ..e. there·
,ro T ...I: ITATlC .... 1'Y.Cr OF U ..
ga,ion, of the OTga", In erealO or apply 'he legal norn,,), but '"
reftexe> of the obligations e"ablished by ,he'" nonn,. Besjd...
in thi, case we cannot ,peale. of a relation between ,uperion
and inferiol"$, bec.""" the norm<reating or ·applying individ.
u.ls (as subjecu of the obliV"ion to create or apply legal nonm)
are on the same let'e! as the mbject> of the obligations or righ",
e..ablir.hed by these norm•. This i. panicularly true for relation.
in which~rding to th. 'radition.1 formulation_.he "ate ..
th••ubject 01 a l<'g.l traJt.la<:tion. for ex.mple a, buyer or ..,11 ...., i.
confronted by • private individual_if the oct 01 one 01 the Iwo
panner, iJ .mibnted to the sw. as a "juristic penon:' Oniy in
the ex.rei", of a legal pow.r. tha' is, in ,be creation or application
01 norm•. could indi,·idu.h be colUidered a.< .uperior to tho.. wbo
are obligated or en,itled by the nOmJ' croated or .pplied by the
othen. However, "superior"'o .ho", obligated o••nti.led by the
nOtm. aro m.rely th. obligation'e>tabli,hing and right·establish.
ing norm" not the norm-c",ating or -applying individual" becau",
the", ,hem..,lve. aro .ubject to the 1eg:>1 order, namely to du'
norm. authori,ing their funCtion.. It i, to be noted th.. by pre.
",ming individuals '" "inferior" to the norm. of the legal order,
and .h. norms", "superior" to the individuah. we employ a figure
of speech which m.rely .xpr...... ,h.. the norms of th. legal order
comnullld, au,horiZ<. or JX>Silh'ely permit the behovior of indio
vidu.h_that ,he norm. of the l.gal order h,,'e the beh.>vior of
individual. '" ,hei. conlOnt>. If the figure 01 .pc«h is taken liter·
ally. a relation bet"'een th. l<'gal order and individnal """'" '0
exist. who.. behavior is de'ermined by ,h. nOnn' of ,he legal
ord.r. However, no ",lation can .xist between a nonn and the
httman behavior ,hat i. i" content, breau", lh. norm and itt con·
tents lorm an indiviSible unit.
From the point 01 view of cognition directed to,"".rd the law_
that is, towaro legal norms--reb,;orts betw'en individual...e not
at i"ue, but only r.btion. betwe"" legal norm. (cr.ated or ap-
plied by Individual.) or be'we"" facts determined by the legal
norm" among which buman behavior repr"""" only one .pecial
ca.., albei. a very important on•. For th, COnten' of legal nonn. i.
not individnal., btlt th.ir behavior; il i. not human beingo, but a
cenain httman behavior and no, only this behavior but al", other
I""" in connection with human behavior. Th;, i, recognized in
U"M'",! uOI,ol>J ''1' .0 ""u"" 'w.. "1' U! UO!,ol>J I"s,r jH'Ind.. 0
'I P""'!P'! ""!"'O ''I' W0'l'" ''''!o~o lonp!A!pu! p;>,cll!rqo ''1'
puo
,n. 0' .,."lOd I"s,( ''1' 'I'P" P'l<>AU! tOnp!A'PU! ''I' U~"\I'q UO"
·01>1 ''1' "''1'0 ''1' "" PA>l 'w.. ''1' " uOII,ulp.lOOJ pu. PU"'l'lIO
'q' uo UOI'O")p.1OqUS P"O tlO""U!P-IOJ>d,,. o=.\t'>II >J""'ll!P ''1'
"0 "". '''01'"1''"' 1"s,1 ,,",,!,d puo "lNnd """""'1 >J"'''ll!P ''1'
,...J '" ,nil ..uo,q, rOUOl"plU,,(q "" ....,d .. '0 p>,.uS!t>p ""P"I"
1"8>1 I"J)d'(, ''II '! II 'uO[",u" ''II ,oJ '''O!I'PUO' •• "p.oo IVbI
'II' ill P>,"uJl!"P ''''"j 0"" """"""1"01'01'" ''l' '! '!'1l.. ·(U!I'P
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'Il' 1I"11'" "U'"~ .IO)A"4><1 ''1' puo
(un)"" I~l '41) ""MOd IVb] '"4'
JO "P"x, '4' tI! "'!<Un:> '"'l'
JOfAOq><l ''II U"""><l trol'.r"''l' lnq ~Ul41Ou'1 '''.'''"''04 'UO,,"1
.;u '!l(J.. 'IOnp!A!pU! p>,cll! Iqo ''1'
PU" J,.\too l"s,r ''1'
'1'f'" p>'<>A
·UI ,"np'A[p"! '4' "»""><J "lx,,""P ""f'"I"-' ,,,s,1 • """" '"'1' UJ
·uo!lcllHqo "'I p».[OIA '"4 0'1." l"np!AlpU! "1' ,,"!cll" P;>>:>"!P ><I
0' 'w,ou rti:l",lIo iq IDJ P'P!AO'" '"ol'Ju... JO uo!,n>:>"" ''1' lIl1!
·"pID [[Uou r"lIp!A!PlI! uo unOJ 0 "q lIu!n,,! 01 ~U!P"'I 'JOp>xud
o 'UO!''''' r"8>r" 1IU1~'" "'I '''~'!lI! 0' ""'00 r"s,1 ''1'
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-=" u, 'A"4><1 0, p:llcll![II0 '! r"npf'!pu! ""II"'U" m04'" p.l""''''
I""P"'PU! U" '" "'AUOJ "1"0 {8i>r''l' >s"" U) ',u""w '!'l' :1"0'"
'II' JO ""u"" 1""!U4"'" "!I''''''''
''fl UI l'lll!' " JO """" "1' "! "!X'
s>op-sl"lIPIA!PlI! 0"" JO JO!"oq><l P>U!UJJ"'p-,,,or ''fl u»""><1
'''Il:»lio, >JOW 'JO--1I"np!"!p"! 0"" "»"\1><1 uo,,"!""' lol!>( V
..,"x' 'IIl1!, ""IF" lIl1!puod""oJ ''I' pu-. ,(Inp 1"s,1 " u"""
~q uOP'p' ou ''''J'''IIl.. 'P"1I91nJ "'l "''''I
UO!,O~!lqo,'fl mo'l'"
rHO",,,, l"np!"!plI! ''1' JO 'lI!od""I' ''1'
UIO.lj u»o 'no!,cliH'IO
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""~" JO ,dOluo, ''1'-'"1''' ''1'
10 uopollHqo '41 'I'!'" 1""!"IOP!
'! 'uO ''1' 10 11111!J ""U', '11' "1"0'" J>'I1O UJ '-"'U""W lI!mJ>J
• ul 10'9 ''1' pJ"."OI ',''''l><l 01 p"ollnqo " ,"np["tp,,) "'1'0 'J'I'
'''1' lUll xp lI"!'I'OU •.1.. '''UU"UJ p>lcll!lqo '4' u, w''I 1""."",
'''"4''''1 Pluoll' ""P ApO<PlllOl '"'I' '4~!J (x'"~J) ~ "'I ,(PO'PWOil
:lU'W~l", 'ql "U""><I puo :uop',,", 'II' ]oJ "O!'!PUO' 0 '! '1')'1.1',
.lO!A"'I>q ~'I' JO ~,!roddo ~ql '" ID!"Oq>q P"1cl![lqo 'Il' lIl1!]""
~]d A'l P>"I.!-OI">P "llU'PIlJUi ,," "'0' ,u."~!" 1U.l!>t "1' "noJ
.", Oil '! 'I'I~ ·.u.mou'4d IU"""I""' ,(1108>1 'IU>J'JI!P 0.", 11>'' ' >q
IIOP"I" . . . '11'!X' ''''!llJP' \08>, Ou ,.., '!II' U! 'rx!",d 'J,.,
·.>l0H .''l~J x.u" ~u!puod,,,",],,, "! pur uo".lI!lqo r'~'r' 11>,"',
-""I 110""1" .....u,,!'"p] rcll>1., jO UO,,!U9'1' '41 U! ,,,8>p 'woo
....Y> '-0 .endS>' 'u.n, a,,-'- ",'
na .UTI<: ..... u:T OJ' LAW '67
~ """n funcliOlline U orpn 0( the stne aod the obIip<ed
ill>
individual Foo- u.. lopl pow« 0( the indiridual eD'itlfd lO brine
an action.:opinst ~ indi,-idual <..... jot. 0( his capaci,y lO par-
licipone in the era....... 0( the individual ......... which orden a
-u- "I"insl: ~ oblipcloa-violating individual. II ,he fUDC-
tioa of the 0>Un is auribu,fd lO ~ ....'" aod [f, thedo<e. the
$i,.... tioa is inte<poeted u tdatioa bnwem oM .... ~ in iu capacity
u lopl authority and the ddendan....b;.am lO this authority.
wbich IJICUIJ U a rda""" of "'per. and ...bordi...""". 'htn-u
pointedou._the flitloCtioro of tht plainLiI£ c.JD be in~fd in the
ame .....y. Aluibu,ion of the legal fuoctton lO ,h. lopl commu·
ni" oll,rely exprnses ,he v~w Wt this £uDetion is de'ermined by
the lepl order. The ~lllion of .uperordinati"" and .ubordi...-
t;on 'ha'. according 10 tnditional theory. exist. hcrc bttween the
....,. (reprC«TItcd hy tht «Iun) and the ddend.Jlt, .110 exists
between the plaintiff .nd 'ht de£endonr. Thi. reladon o£ super.
•nd .ubomi"'''ion is mer.ly ,lit .... per.• nd subordination ex;"ing
beI.... n the legal ord.r .nd th. individual, w"- bcha.ior it
l"t'gUlateo-b.ncc nothina; b,n a ligun'i"" nprcalon for tht bet
Utal the behavior of the individuau fonns the tonten' of the legal
ItOnDJ. The authority ~niftSlcd in this figure of ~ is the
••nborilyof ,he IepJ <>rdft" which, crn<ed and applial XDllI11ing
to ito "'"' prtapU by ocrtllill individ...l.. obIip1et and enti'les
othet iDdi..idua1s. If the 10'" is prnm<ed '"' ...perordinatcd 10 the
individual. this -.tly ..... nt WI iadiridualo '" c.pns of the
... ~ create 2nd apply _ _ wMch rcgub~ the bdtarior of othet
indirid.,'" IIwI whid!. *J>OCikally. obIig:... Olbtt" indi.. idualo 10
behav. in. cctQin ....y. If aprascd without the U$t of lhc spatial
fiaure of speech: this 1Mt.ly menu tho, "'.lopl Iltdtr OOmnina
be" by which lopl .-nu are crn<ed tho.' connta a ettUin
human b<ohavioo: OJ condilion ...ith CttUin conei... lICU al conse-
quenc•.
A Itpl rclati"" of a *J>OCial kind exi... whcr. ,h. obligation of
on. individual towa<d anothtr il conne<;tm. hy the l.w, ..-;th the
oblig.tion "f ,h~ I.u.... toward the £ormCT. Thi' i' 10, for ..... mpl~.
in a contr'Ct of laic wh~r. the obliga,ion t<> deliver certain goods
\a 'ied to th. obligalion '0 p.o.y th. purch..~ pric•. Thcn a legol
«:lation ""iota belw..n the norm th., obligat.. Ih. bu,..,. and the
nonn Utat obligat'" th~ ... 11~r, or, mllt~ corr..,tly. bt,,,-ecn the la...·
d.t.m,ined heha"iar of lh. On' and lh. law-d.,.rmined boha,'ior
01 lhe olh..,..
Paran.ling lh. tI,co'l' that lhe right is a legally pTOtoc'cd inler_
e". i. the tllCO'l' that lhe legal "Iatinn i. an actual relalionship of
a sexual. oconomi<:, Of political nalUre, exilling independenlly of
the legal ottl..,. in "",ial te.nty, and meuly regulated but not
constimwl by the legal order. Howe.'er. ju« '" the ",hjeetive
right is not .n inler"" prolected by leg.1 no,,",. but lhe prutec_
,ion tha, consi", in ,he.. legal nom", in the ",me way i. lhe legal
.el.tion not an aetual relalion existing in "",ial reality, only re&ll'
lated by legal non"" but a relation primarily co""hutw hy legal
nonn._ The Ieg"dl rel ..ion of matrimony. for eumple. i. nOt a
cr.>mpl"" of sexual and «onomic relation, between tWO individual.
of different""" me,ely •.h.ped into a .pec.ific form by bw. Wilhout
law the", ,imply i. no .uch lhing as "m.trimony." Mdtrimouj'" a
legal ,elation i. a legal inllilntion, ,hal is to say, a compln of legal
obligation. and right.> in Ih e 'pc<:ific.ally l«hnical ",,",e thi.
mc:uu, a complex of legal nonn•. Th. relalion, lh., CO"""," '"
here .te rel.tio", bo'ween legal norm. or reladom hetween £ac"
determined by legal norm>. For a c"Snilion ditceted 'oword lawaI
a system of norml, no other legal relalionl exiM. But aho fTOm ,h.
poin, of ,-iew of a cognition dir«ted toward actual teality it mtUt
he admitted that by bw_and this me:uu by the idea that men have
of a legal order p...... ppo:!ed to be valid-actn.1 r.lation, botween
individuah o<n be crealed, which. without .uch an idea a' a mo-
ti"e of behavior, did not .nd could no, exi .. ,
,
TI,E STATIC Al;PECT OF LJIW
'7 '
j«.. sul>ordl"",ed to it. Con<tquendy there i. no full ""jf.
de'amination .ven in private law.
Th. Idoological funeli"" of thi. ""If<ontradietory eone"l"ion of
the logal !Ubjeel "" ,he hold", of righ.. is ...ily ",en: Th. function
i. '0 m.intllin the idra ,hat the ."i"ene<: of the Irg:i1lubjcet .. the
holder of a right--4Jld ,hi. mram holder of a property right_i.
In a category thot tr:llUC<:IId. th. objn:tivr law, namely ,hr po.i.i".
law mad. by man attd hence changeable by man: in ",hrr wonb.
to maintllin the id.. th.t property i. an im,i'u,i"" protceted by.
barrirr irnurmountllble by the I.gal order. The concept of. legal
.ubjcet who, .. the hold.. of a oubjceliv. right, i. ind.pend.nt of
,h. posith·.law, bet:om.. aU the more important if ,he legal ord...
lha, guannteeoth. irn,itution of private property i...cognized a.
changeabl. and for""... changing, created by human wHl and not
by thc .....""1 will of God or by 'L"ure---e<ped.lly wh.n the cr..·
tlon of the log.l ord.. is acrompluhed by a democratic procedure.
The id.. of a legallubj<'Ct independelll of th. I.w, ,hal i•. ,he k1..
of a hold... of a "",bjce';"e" law which i. not I...., perhaps "".n
more, "law" ,h.n ,he "ohjre';".," that i., the poai,i"" law. is
deaigned to pro,,,,,, ,he im,ilUtion of private property from being
reocinded by the legal oro",. I. i. ,,"sy to und...und why the
ideology of legal subj.... ivity ..,.,h to .....bliah a link wi,h the
ethical "due of individu.l f,<'Cdom and of an aUlonomou. pet-
"",allty. if property i. alway. included in thil freedom. An ord",
tha, rdu,.. to recogni.. man as a free peraonali" in thll ""'''''.
that iI, an otder that dtl<'l not gnann"''' th. lubseetiv. right of
property. i. rrj<'C,ed by ,hi. idwlogy as not being a legal otd.. a,
."
b) Th. Ph.,.,iC41 PtNOn
Traditional th.ory i, identifying ,h. con«p' of "l"gal ,ubjce,"
with that of "I""oon.'· Th" dtfini,ion of "person:' according to
traditional ,heory, i" th" hum.n being as a ,ubject of righu.nd
oblig:"ionl. Sinc", how"""r. not only a human being but abo
oth...n,i,i"" .uch a, corporation" municipaliti....nd IIat.... ar"
p,esented as penon., a penon i, defined .. th" hold .. of righ..
and obliga'ionl, whr,..,by" a holder not only a human being can
'71 TIl. srATIC ~UT OF lAW
'he PToblcm of "I"'non" i. ill the lau anal)"';. 'he problem of 'he
unity of a complex of nonm. The qu"'ion II: what <XIJUtitut..
thi. unity in 'he One co", and in the other?
The unity of obligalion> and rigb" (that is, the unity 01 'be
J~I nom.. thor coneen> u. here) which. i. p,..,,,,mM., ... plll'sic.]
~n, <omi." in the rac, ,hat it i' the behavior of one ond th.
",me human being "'hich constitu~. the comem of 'hese oblig;>'
tion. and righ.-that it i. the behavior of the same human being
which i, determined by these legal norms. The oo-<allcd phpi<al
penon. then, is not a human being, but the persl>nifitd unity of
the legal norm. lhal obligate or authorize one and the same
human king. It i. no< a natural reali,y but. Icgal construction.
erralM by tbe 'den"" ollaw-an auxiliary = p t in 'he pro",,,!.>-
tion of log.dly 'denn' !.oct•. In <hil ..,,'" a phy'icai I""son i••
juti.tic ~n.
"
ponotioa .. a jurUlic ~non.... IJ tboK obI'p,i",,* and rigbto ue
."
rdro"". which arc inlCl"prnm 10 lit Iboot of <be <OIP<UUon.
We ......, oaid lha.. all obHp.ioas and ri&hll have 1M bcharior 01
hu_ being>,.. theU ..... tmL If lbe natiooallcpl ordct ;"'1"*'"
ob/ip'Qn or bcolows .ipqlh.a,,...., il:ll~ 10 be ~ of <be
COipaalion; and it _ opcU ollbe obligations and lithll of the
Wipooation ,""" Q.n ... Ir be obIiptionJ thai PC fulfilled, and
. .hIS that are uoorciJcd. by .... bdl.a.vior 01 human brin&s w.... ~
Ions 10 !.he corpo"lI;on. And it thnc: obIip....... and rip" an:
lltributed '0 the WipiAiUion. Ibm lMse ind;Vi<!lW', in th<ir tole
as 0fjpIU of the <.oq>Or.Itioo. mull. fullill (or viobtc) .1Ie oblqp·
.ion> or .......dse <he right$. Thnd",-c the n:l.ion.:llleg:al OTOO. in
im~ing obligation. or bntowinll Tigb.. upon a corponl;on, de-
te11IIin... only the mater;.] clemen. of the beh••ior 1M' consti·
lU'''' the ."men' of the obllg.lion or right. and I...·e/. .he d.'...·
mina.ion of the p<Toonal "Iemen., th.. iI, of the indi.'id,..l who is
to lulfill .he obliption or .....m:ise ,h. right, to the lIU'n'.; 10
,,,,,,........, the Ri"ionahip bt,.....,,, the ...... tional ltVl ord.... and
the obligated or .u~iud juri...ic 1""""'" is the relationship '*
IWttfl .w<> ltgal onIcn, • I.(JtlII and • parti.oI one. T'htnby me
III&lU>n in ..·bicb tM natlon.l 1lW'1 ont..-_ opnk in .1mnI 01
rndi,ionaI ,..-minolofn'--obliga... or .u</><Jl"ius a """"".ioo as •
juriRic pn1O<>. dilrtn ITom tM m>nt"Ott in .. hich <he ..... iomJ
kpl ord... obIip.'..... authoriles a human brint: IS , phroiea!
pntOD. III <he bit.. ClIlC 'M na'iorLal lqpl order k<.mDi.... eli-
r«tlr _ only tfxo ..... lCrilIl. b.1l .bo 1M ptnao:t.>I f~t 01 <he
bdYrio.- <ha. OlIrtKi,u,n <he o;oa<m. 01 u.. obliga,ion or npL
In ClIlC 01 in......l obliga'>ons ..... rigblS of ,he WOponlion,!he
....'U'f dfI_iIIn bodI,hf rna.frial md J>f""D>1 flmlmu oIlhf
bdYYior thai COWIilUtn <he CClttmt ol ,he obIiK;otion lit" npL In-
wrnal obIip'>ons'''' ~,ipula,"" ...Mn ,hf ItllnUf rr-ribn .....
.....vior '0 ..h""" <>pp<>li'f ,hf na,ional I~ ont.. I ...d,n, An<·
.ion. Internal rights a~ llipul.lIl"" ...h.n 'he '1.1IUlf nl.:lbli""..
obligalion. of lhe membel'l ",h""" lulfillment an be asserted,
Icccmling to thf na,ionlllepi ord.., by an aelion fn,.red by an
individual. determined by ,h. IUlUl., in hi. Clll"'clty ao ot'lI"" 0/
'h. oorponlion.
,., TilE STATIC MI'=r "FlAW
"
",
TIW i. 'he .i,ua,ion when ,h. obligation is .",ihuIM to 'he
corpo....'ion .... juristic pen.,n (is im...-pr..<d to he 'he .ubject of
the obligati<"') and the individual who actually fulfill. or violal<"
the obligation i. considered 10 be an organ of <he CO.po.... tiOll.
With the aid of this fie,;,iou. attribution 'he juri"ic penon i. rep-
, ...ntod as having- ,h. capacity of being obligated and of commit.
ting a delict.
The problem of the corporation', capa':;;,} of being obligated
and ,he much di.l<uMCd ""d closely linkrd problem 01 it> •• poeity
of committing a ddi" are ptobl<ms 01 .milm'ion; and attribu.
tion i. a mem,l o!",ntion which may. but need not he, ptt.
form<d; fOf the fac.. um be ue'CTi!>ed without ,he aid of <hi< "'ttl·
la1 operation, which in any co'" inyol,,," a fiction, particularly
when a delict is allributed to a COTp011ltiOll. A delie! i. an a<:t oI
human behavior and thereiOTe can only he commiLted by a de6_
nite human being. In fuet, as Jingui... ic u..ge .how:<, the attrihu_
tion of a hUlIl3.n behavior, determined by the ltgal order, to a
community com,itoted by thi' ....m. order. i. not carried out with
con,i"ency because it i' nut alwaj" carried out a<;co,ding to the
"'''''' (,iINion. The attribOlion of human behaviot can be Ear-
,caching 01 .emkted. If only a ,puifirally functioning individual
i>-rtgarded a, an "org.n" of the community;" if it i' ."'med. IUT_
ther, that hi> beh.viot i' not att,ibulab!e to the (Ulnmunitj' whett
the beh.viot i. not autho.ilCd by the normative ot<:Ie'; and if,
finally, it i. as",mcd that the st"U'e 01 corporation authotiu:s its
org',"' only to fulfill, not to "iolate the oblig>tion' "Labli,hed by
the national legal order_nd, =o,ding to the national legal
ot<:Ier, only .... n .uthome the fulfillment, not the violation, of
obligation>-then the co'pontion i. nOt capable 01 committing a
delict. But oin(e nothing ...nds in the way of attributing to the
corporation the fulfillment of the obligation which the organ i,
authoti,cd by the ""tOle to fulfill, the corporation may be re·
g",ded a. the SUbject of an obligation which it can fulfill but nO!
viOI",e; in thi' limited sen,e, then, can tbe corporation be de·
scribed a. having the capacity of being ohlig:"ed without having
the capacity of committing a delkt. It may be objc<:tcd th., thi, i'
incompatible with the concept o{ legal obligation as rtevo1opcd in
these page', ""co,ding to which only he i' capable 01 being obli_
---"-crp:p:-", L
"
,s.
gated who i. ""pable oi oommiuing a delict; but <his objec,ion i.
irtcle.an, btt>u,," ac'ually (without the fic'itiou. attribmion) no,
,he cor?",..;"", but only IMl individuol i. logally obligated and
GilpabJe 01 b<:ing oblig<lltd, ",II"", !>th....iot <..tn fulli.ll or violale
th" obligation. t"rom tbe fact lhal in Ihe lonne, ...'" 1h. individ·
ual is regard..! .. an organ of ,be e<r<J'Oution (i.e., that hi> l><--
havi n• i. attributed to ,he corpora,ion) d"". n,,' ntcnsaril~ follow
to regard him ,hul in ,h. buu ~. Such amibm;on i. al""y.
only pouiblc, Dcvcr o«....ry. In fae'. hOl."cver, lb" corporation i,
rogarded .. <apo.blc of wmmitting a deli<:!; in common usage of
language we amibut. to the corpora,ion the nonr"Hillmen! 01
cor... in oblig>o,iom stipnl"t"" by ,he naLion.llegal ord.... It j. &aid,
for .""mple, the corporation ... a juri,'ic peTion failed '0 pay' tax
and thereby committed a puni>habl. d~liCl; or ,bat tb~ corpon-
tion lail<d to I"'y rent for a rent<d hotUC or the purchase price for
a bough, picee of land thus commitring • ci~il delict. All ,hi.
mean. that th= delic" ar~ ."ributed to the corporation: the cor-
poration i> regard<d .. the delinquent and may tbtrdore .t.o be
regarded .. the .ubject of the obligation< ~ioIOl<d, Bnt if not only
,be ful6Jlme", of an oblig.,ion. but at.o iu ~iolatioll i. a"ribut«!
to a corporati"", then one b" to recognize... an organ of the COT'
pora';on, ,b~ individual authorized by the .ta'ute to fulfill tbose
oblig.tion., even if he .Cts outside this authorization in tbe nor·
rower ..mt-if he does no' fulfill ,be obligation imposed upon the
corporation. but ~iolates it by bi. bebavior. Tbi. i. entirely lea.i-
ble if one Tc<;ogni.... ,hat the attribution of buman beha~ior to a
corporation merely expr..... th., this beh.~inr i. somebow deltr-
mined in th~ 1101"te constituting the corporatinn; if one r""'K'
ni.... th., "to ""ribute th~ behavinr of. certain individual to the
corporation" only me"'" "rerring thi, beha~ior to the " .. "t~. A.
has beett ,ho."" in pree<ding cxplmation •• the behavior by which
an obligatinn 01 the cO<pOr.ttion i, violat<d, and which. according
to ,he n.tionallegol order. i, the condition of. ",netion. i., indi·
ttetly. detcnnin<d by th~ ,ulUte 01 the torpor..ion in50far as the
individual r. determin<d by the "'lUlte who by bi. beb3\'ior can
fulftH or violate the obligation. If, for example, the ,"'tute J>Te·
",ribe, that tb~ corporation', ",xe' ougbt to be paid by • <;enain
organ rrom tbe corporation" t"amry, then thi, organ .Inne can
viobte the corporation'. obligation to ""y th~ tax..; and thus, thi,
.nne ....ncr
TH~ OF LAW
fin., ~nd if, fin.llly, cncution i, calTie<! directly into the I'ropttty
of ,h. company 1I«au", of lad of p.}ment, 'hen tho iBogal he-
h,,'ior of ,h. organ i•• mibuted to the corporation; and it i. not
assumed that the ill<gal behavior took place oulside of the .tatu·
tory a"thOTization; it i, no' ...umed that .he individual who be-
haved in that way did no' 'let a. an organ of the corpm.tion, and il
i. not a"umed that the "."ute wbieh Iud authorized 'he J:><,havior
(especially the individual nom> which had au,hori..d or obligated
the OT!l"n to tefu,", payment), wa. innl;d.
1£ Ill' attribution tn 'he community of. ddict committed by an
organ or ffiffll"" of 'he community is made dependent 00 'h, d.·
lkt having "'en authorized by the n,mte constituting ,he <"rn'
munity, then ,be an.we. to the question whether auribution to
the community iJ possible d,,,,,nd. on the inlerprelat;on of the
.totu",. Thi, qu..tion nuy '"<>tne up in judging political aim..
commiued by memben or o<gan. of a political "'Pnization. Even
if the ,tatute of this organiZ3.tion 13.C~' a 'p""ifie daU.le that au·
,hor;'.. the commitment of the crime to be judged, it still may be
"",,umed tltat the <;rime w.... committed in aceord.ltC<' Wilh the
,totu", if the OTgan or member of the organil3tion in committing
the crime acted according to th<'-while nOt 'p""ifically marked.
hut_tacitly understood aim! of the organiZ3.tion.
B..id.., the auribution to the corporation of • SUtutorily 'u'
thori'ed illegal behavior COn .110 ,.ke phoe on the \>a.i. of an in·
,·.lid .t.tute. Since this optiOllal mental operation i, legally
belevan" even a .totute th.t i' illegal from the viewpoint of the
legal ordet may serve ••• "'heme of inlerp'."tion. This i' the case
if crime•. committed by OTgan. of membc... of political organiza.
tion' which arc active on the ba,i. of .sc<ret ...tute' .uthorizing
their "'PllO or memben to commit ,uch crime•. ate atttibuted to
the.. organiZ3.tion. and if. conse<]ucmiy. the "'Poil3tioo••rc de·
'0
dared he ,ubvcnive and "imin.!....
1£ the ques,ion 01 who i. ,h. "",bj""" of an obligation tltat I,
de",rihed a, on obligation 01 the corporat'on I, to be .llOwered
"Th. " n .. 01 'b' tntnn"kInol Tn""..I... ~~b ,,' p"rt '" "" ..· Uo<I
London ,.". 'b' p""""t1"" ..... Pun''''"",,' 01 ,I>< M.jot w" Crim' ',
01 "" ~."'I"'n A,;" "J" 1ft Artlcl< j' -A,
,I>< ,n.1 01 .nl ;"~'rl<I",1 ""mho'
~l .nl ~p '" ",",n;",100 ,I>< T,'.... n.' ""I do4> .. ~n "",_I"" .. ith ,n,
.ct o! whiCh th< I.d''''''.'' ""I "",vict<d) tha' 'b< p-oup .. _ _,.. <Jon of
"bl<b 'ho ' ' ' rid..,..... _ <rim'''' _n'........·
TH& n-... TIC .uncr 01' .... w ,85
witbou.t u.. aid 01. auributioo. tbnl "·e can only cocuidn at ...1>-
jccl 01. the obIipli...- we han dooc--the iDdi>·idual who.
brhio bch.>vior.can£ul6.ll 00" ,·iobte theobliption, ia other ..........
1M <ompnc::ut orpn of .... mo-pontiao.. If we considn that the
financial. obligations (whidt arc the ODCS usually C1tlOU,n"') att '"
be f"lfilled fror:q the propeny which is intcrp«tcd as that of the
COI'pOration. nol fror:q that of the lJlP". aod i f _ we .mil _ La·
lCT-lhe prnpntyof the 03tpor.ation may be C"C'lidned at the col-
1«li"C ptopeny of the members of the corporatioD. then the obi;'
...ion of lhe OXlfJ"'Ti'li"" ....y be coruldcn:d u belnl the «>Ilulive
obl;"'tiOll 01 .... mcmbcnol. thuoq,or.nion. This mnru: The"'"
l;p'ion in q"eI,i"" GIl be a'tributed '0 the mcmbcn 01. the corpo-
ra,ion jun a. well ... '0 'he juri"ic pnsoo of the corporation. But
for ,ho d<s<rip'ion of the preKnt ... of fact.! ""i'hcr the one nor
the oil'" a.. rih",ion i. ncedctl.
1u" as 'he ohlilati"" a"ribu'"" to 'he corpo....tion i. not to 1>c:
fulGUctI from tnc: proper'Y of 'he wrporatioo organ, but Ir"'" tho
proper'y interpre'ed as the P'''l''''"ty 01 the corporali"", to in case
of nOlllulfilimem of u.. obI ....ioa the ..".:tiono prcocribcd by the
national legal Older, ,nc: civil cucution. is 1>01 di.ected in,o the:
propo:ny of thoc "'PI> bu' into the p.-opnLy auribu,'" to the CUI·
pantioD. A<x:oniinlto this auribution we may opca): 01. a .."",ion
directed . i.... the Uhpooa,ion aod tbndoo-e 01 a liability 0( the
C1ClI poo,...... lor tbc _I"lfillmn" 01 the oblip."" which an io·
diridual daip'''' by ,be IUlI,te OUKht to fulfill u. his (2pad'y ...
an "'l"" of the C1ClI "",ation.
Lidili" of I1u p.riJlk t--'
If tbc <"'PD"',iun'..... ~ily to commit a delict is ..woo.... this
d_ n()IlDC'aIt 'he nclwion of the J>DNlbili'J of the corpor.alion·.
liabiH,y: only the liabilit,. in this cur. is nol one lor the <01 pan-
tion', 0..0 delict. tha' is, for 0 del"" .."ibu,ed '0 'he corpontion,
bu, for IOOlco<>e elJC'. dollc', nomoly tha' committed by ,he indi·
,·Wual d..igna,cd by the ."'lUte to Fulfill the obliga,ion. Uable for
'he delict i' the individual agal"'l whom Ihe coercive let. condi.
tioned by the deliet. i. directctl. If the ..nction comiltl in 'he
coercive deprivation of property. Ihon the indi,·idu.l who h.... 'he
right 10 di.pooc of the proporty.nd again" whom th¢ coercive x.
i.dit«t.... is liable with hii pe",,,,; and the illdividu.1 ".1>0 is 'he
,",
~ ~"' ""'••"" I. ' ......" .....1 ",lotiono il ;. ..!d, .. , '""t!. . of 000.... 'h"
......... """'''''' , .." apt"" ,.«h" "'''. "<hough n•• rom! ><to .. hido
"""'''u'' ",.-tltll.~, ,"um""",. coptu,......,., dl,«t<d ,.11, ... t I<>dMdno"
............ of the "'''... ,h" the 1'" of , _ .. 'to I, ,"rihut<d lO the
........._ .. the iutllti< _ of ,"". a. 5.,b ,nd d.
-,·t''.',.:"-,. i'~·
~,,;:';;!I P"i:'E-·"··
HI ." "! • Hn~ ~HH·"
'c.·.·c;w ·,·.r;.•. !c•••• -l.~.~~.i"'- .
.. ~ .. -.. - -
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~ ~ ii ~ ~ ~~'- ~~;."- - t~ 10.;.. l"
0',
HHiglJ
;:"i5'''.~''';;:.'l g; g]~~;." 'i'il!tl1g,,;!S~Jr~o;ltnI'6-'
i
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lt~:'
,~
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~·a~!~l~·~:~
i.EIi "''';-6~-' -~.-*&~~'[~~f~'~·-!·l~i~,·i
~. • ~=~~
'"n .. if . . . .
-.~~n~·~;6e:o
to. ,~a~
."
,,.
i.. uod thi, C<llllIlJand in hi. ScrolOll on the Mount." But in both
ca<c. the reuon for ,h. ,.lidily il not tha, God or hi> iOn issued a
certain llmm at a certai" ,iroe in a cer...in pi""" but 1M tacitly
pte>upJ'O'Cd norm that one ought to ol><y 'he wrumand. of God
<)r hi, $<m. To be <cue: 1" the syllogism whox major p,.mile i. the
'"
poud, becau"" it Cannot be "posited," that i, to oay: created, by an
authority "'ho"" competence would hne to Teot on a "ill higher
uorm, Thi, fipal norm', validity cannot be derived from a higher
norm. tl.. TCo.IOn for its Yalidity cannot be que"ioned. Such a PTe-
.upposed h4\:h." norm i, rderred 10 in thi, book .. ba,ie noTIU."
All nOlTIl' whose validity can be tmeed back to on. and ,h. same
ba,ic POlTIl constitute. 'y"em of nonn., • norm.ti.. order, Th.
ba,ie norm i, the Common source fot tbe ,...lidity 01 all norm. that
belong to the ..me or<ler-it i, their common re• ."n of Y.lidi,y.
Th. foe' th.t a ceruin nmm belongs to. certAin mder i, baled on
the ein:;um'tancelhol its 10" r""",,, of validi,y i, ,he ha,ic norm of
thio order. It i, the bOlic nonn that com,hut.. the unity in the
multitude of norm, by rep=nting the TelUOP for the v.lidity of
ali pon", that belong to thi.or<ler.
"
,." TIll: DYNAMIC ASPECT 0" UW
a,,~n.in """",ive 1<1 ought to or 'lUgh! no, l<I b< p",f",-mro under
cen";,, condition... ThtldoTc.logical principles in general. and th"
Principle of the Exc1u.ioll 01 Contradiction. in ponien]a" are
applicable to rule. of law de'CTihing legal norm.< and therdor. in·
directly abo 10 [<gal nonn•. Hence it;. by no mean. absurd to .... y
,h., ''''0 legal norm. "coo,.-.din" ..eh o,h",. And ,herelore only
one "I tb. tWO can be rq;arded .. objectively valid. To $.i.f ,ha, a
ought to be and at 'h" ...me time ought not '0 be i. jmt a. mean·
ingl... as to say that a i1 and "th. "me 'ime 'hat it i. not. A con-
Ak' of norms i, JDOl as meaoing)... as" logical contradktion.
Ru, ,ince the cognition of law. liJ:. any cognition, 1«,,10 I" un-
d.""md ito .ubject a. " meaningful whole and to d.-.:,ibe it in
nonc<>ll1t3dictory ....t<m""tlI. it .... rts from the ... ump'ion thaI
conflict. of nornu within the no'mative orde, which it 'he obj~t
of thi, cognition can and mn« be ooh-ed by intetpretation. Since
the "TUctU"" of the legal order i. a hi=rehy of highet and lowet
nonm, whetehy rhe highet norm determines the cre.,ion of the
lowet one, 'he problem of norm conllie," within the ",me legal
ordet prelent< itself in two fonno, depending on whethet the <.on-
f1iet i. betw..n two norm. of the ..m. I.vel or b<otween a higher
and olowetnonn.
To begin with, we .hall <on,id" con/lic" b<otween nonn. of the
....m. I.vel. If ",. have a confliet b<otwe<:n g.n=l nonm, Cte3led by
the "me organ at different times, 'hen the volidity of the later
ltonll .upcncJe. the validity 01 the .arli.., contradictory, on. ac.
cording to the principle lex po.ur;or deroglll prjori. Since the
notm-c,.ating organ-the ling or thc p"li3.ment_i. normally au_
thmi'ed to rrreo<:rib<o changeable and therefore aboli'hable nm"",
the principle lex po.ter;or derogat priori may be rrresumed to be
jnduded in the authori,ation. Th. p'inciple aloo applies if the
conflicting nonm are rrr=ibM by two diffetent organ.; for "".
ample. if the comtitution authori'es the king and the porliament
(0 regulate the ;arne 'nhject hy genct:J.l norm., or if legi.laW" and
c"",om arc both Cltablithed .. I_w<'feating fae... How.ver, th.
conflicting nonn. may have been preocribed .imultaneou.ly, by
the ;arne act and by tbe ...me organ, '" th.t the mentioned rrrinci.
pIe i. nOt applicahle, for example if contradictory dan... are con·
tained in the ;arne .tatute, .uch as: ""uhety U p"ni.hable and
adultery i' not puni.hable: or: .vetyhody who cornmiued • <er-
''1 "! 1"'11 'J'\j'OU~ ~'1 poll!nb,. puo ,.moo 'uo ~'1 pouw'puoo
'1 uo...xI !'>'in,,,,, uo '0'1' ''1 It'", 'ow 1! "'., l~'Il ul 'pou>dd~'I
'0'1 puo 'Iql~w, 'ou '! '! !Uq ',nb]u'l""' l-.b{ '10nbopou! 100W
o'! ']\j' "JI1' "'I o~ ·....'1'0 ''1' JO no)'!""P''I' 'I.It"'!x 01 "!lO'I'
-no ''I'lJllO' '110 ''I' JO no,,!,,"p ''1' SIlIA!S ln0'l11'" ,,"" 'Ill,," ''1'
'p"op 0' ".mo:> 0....' "!.l0'l,nOl'lS!1U "'01 V ·,u.llJo 'ua....Jj!p ''1 PO'o
~ u''''I ""0'1 O\llJOU 0...., ''I' JI 'IHln,!,,"'" "uo"pap "no, 0"'1
,x '1,n, "lUJOU lonp!AlPU! 0"', """""'1 "lX' Oilo 'WI "!IIuo, V
'WJOu "!""'1 ''1' ''l po'!W!,!RaI
Jlupq JO '1'1""'.' '! JiU)u..w ,.,!,,,"[qn' _'I'" 'U>$:IJd n ", ou
:SU)u"w "'!,,,"[qo ,. pa,:ud....,"! "'l """ l"'ll lIu.;ud '! lIU!""w
'A)lJ>(qO. OU U''1' '(J''I'O 'I'" 'II!'" 'lq[lOOWOOU! ruo[ld!JJS:ud
.10 '\,,0'" l""l'u"'uOU 'U!""IO' "1"1"" XJ! '.[dwxn .lOJ) no" SU!
,uo'w OU JO ('II11"l" U! papunndoJd .uo.'I' 0 JO aldnn,x, JOI 'nop
-u.>. uO JO S"!U..W ''I' n 'I,n.) SUIU••W 'U:U'JI!p. ''''I .," "'II
n 'asu,," 'A!'OWJOU '!'l' "! InJ2!u!u.. w "'l "nlu,,' ''1~ "0'" u!o,
....., . U! 'A0'l"'l 0' "ISno 'I"np!A!p"! 'mjl S,,!u~.w ""!,,'[qn, ''I'
-lIu)u....'" 0 "'1"'1' ,;ro uo "ndn 'luO lnq '"• .u",,,, nodn "'.IOu
PH'" 0 JO SU!"...,,,, '·'1,J>[qo,'P "'o'''''! 10U.:IOp UUOU ,IO"'l ''lL
'WJOI1 ')''''l''I' 01 lIul\,,"""O pa,!sod" uaaq '.'1 "0 :>11' 'ISn0'l'l.
'lu,.,Jd '! W.lOU Ixllal PH"" 'l"A!".[qO ou :lIU!u••w 'A!,:>:>(qO fl!
,. p>1",d..t>11l1 ... un lI,,!u.. w 'A!,:>:>!qn. """I'" UO '" ". ou "'01
""'1' put uopo"", W.IOlI 10 ",. ""llInm..", ".uq n.'1' .,... :""1
,SD!lItaw SU!'Il>llIOS "" •••" JOl.I,!RaI "'P u''1' '.]q]nod "! UO!''''
...,dJ>IU) JO\jlO ''1' JOU auO "'[' ....'I'!.u JI .....'I"!und "'l 0' lqSno
'U»1Jn0J JO ,1I0 ''11 ....ol"'l .uouad JO DOl,d."". ''ll 'Ill'" '''11
"p U!~, " pall!"'WO' "'" 0'1'" 'poq'JOA:'I .. ".I.. 1] :.. pa'l'!und
"'l 0' 'OU l'1Sno u»"noJ JO :>lit ''1' "'0[>'1 ,UQS..L;><f "uP pa'l'!
-und ... 0' lqSno ''''I'P U!",,,., X ,,!mm<n 0'1'" 'poq.u'AII" :,""
'jlll SUI'I"""!>""'"! "'\' '>OJ' JON ,:pa'l"!und "'l 0, 'ou l'1Sno ''1
.10 paqnund ... 0' l\jSno m'ln!", ,,!WWO, 0Ij'" 'H .. :""It :.. P"'1"
-nnd "'l 01 'OD ''1Sno puo ]»1{S!und ... 01 ,~no .u",[npv.. :Ii.,
,ou .>op 'jnJ SUI'l)n.'p-.... l.'I~ '''''110 ''11 JO "!P!l~"'ll SUll!U]![
... 01 poolu>pUn "'l ux, nuou '110 ''1' D''1' '.uOl'!pt-I'U01
'[UO """ .w,ou 0"', ''ll "ldwox> "U'I;'" '']1 U) so 'JI ro :,Spn(
'[l'""
''I' '·S-. 'u.ll.to lIu!~ldd.·.,,~ ''l'''1 "!0Ij' X011,,"[qn. "'l 0, POOl<
'J>jlUn "'l un norou 0"'1 ''I' ''''l1'3 :"1'" l:>JUno"lfl JO UO!,nl'"
''I' roJ "'!'II!'1!l'SOd Su,,,,01\oJ "'l' ""'1~ ·'j'loq.!und 'OU 'R , j .
,..
10 .. ~.,' U»l'1>OI '''''ll ""I JO ruouad I"'" 'j'loqOltmd 'I "!l'P mOl
"'V'1 .0 .J;T.IJn' "'I<V","," :flU
,"
ought 10 be puni,hed acrotding to the one nDIm and no' punimed
ac<:ording to 'he other; or it may be ,h" 0'" COurt may find for
<he plaintiff •• claimed and another court may di,mi.. the ""ion,
whkh mean. that according ", the oue nonn civil ,,,,,<u,ion ought
to be directed imo the property of the defendant, but ""cording ,()
,he o,h... nOTm that civil ""ecmion ought not to be dirttted. The
conDie! i. who<'d by giving ,he exeauj,-c organ the choke between
the two dec;,iom. If civil encution i, carried out as p'eocribed by
,he one norm, then the other norm urnai". permanently ;"eff",,·
ti,'. and thado'. lose> iu v.1idily: if .x~tion ;. not <arrltd OOt,
it i. ,he other way around. Thi, inlerprelJtion ,. advancoNl acroro-
ing to ,he basic nonn. For ,h. buk norm pTeocribe" "Force ought
to be exerted under ,he conditiom .nd in ,h. manner pTOocribcd
by the by and large effective COn5tilUlion and by ,1" hj' and la~
elf.nive gen",al .nd .If<e'ive indh'idua\ norm, cre.,<d according
to tho constituti""." Ef[<eti,..n<$' i, "ipul.,<d a, • condition for
tho nlidity by th. ba,ic norm. [f a conflict i, pr...", ""ithin ,h.
sam. COurt d.d,ion (for "".mple il tho judge i. in.."e). then the
act i••imply meaning["" and therdor. no o!>j.ctively ".lid [<gal
norm .xi In this ""ay ,he ba,ic norm mak.. it pos.ib[. to in,er·
pre' the rn ial .ubmitl<d to l<gal cogni,ion at a meaningful
""ho[e, ""hieh rn •• "" to d.",ribe it in [ogically noncontradictory
..1ll<t1e<$.
No conflie, i. possib[e be,,,,,«n a high.. nonn and. [ow",
nonn, that i•. I><tW<el1 on. "ann which detennin •• ,he cre.,ion of
ano,h... nonn and ,hi, other norm, b<Cau" the low« norm ha,
,h. rea",n for ito ,.. fidi'y in tho higb.r norm, I£ a low.. norm i,
regard<d •• "al id. it mlllt be r<gard<d a. being "al id acroniing to "
high.r nonn. How this i. do"e will I>< dioculM<! in ,h. descrip,ion
of the hi<rarchy of ,h. l<'g.l ord",."
"
iu ..... ponl sphere of ,~idilJ' ....' be lim;""; tht ..... nni.. and
..,
end of iu .-a!idity mar be ~in«l by IM.-m ludf or by a
b~ nona ,,,,,,la.'inc u.. Cft:Ition of lhe low<:r ....... 1"bf """'"
01 a IcpI OIrlkr arc .... Iid ....,il ,bUr n1idity is ",""in>.~ atte«I.
ins 10 1M ,...la of thi. kpl onkr. Br ~lat.il:l& ill -.. crn.ion
and application, tht ltpI or*' oktnmincs 1M bqj".. inS Ind mel
of tht r.o.Iidity of tM I....' .....-mL Wrium consti,u,iom ......n,
con,.i" tpttial rula """""""" tht method b, .,hieh.hqr an be
,""nged. The prin<:iplt ,Ju". nonn of. ~ ordn it "lid un,il
it. validit, is .rnninall'd in.""f de,nmincd by thi.legaJ 0Idrr or
rcpbco:d by ,he ••lidi" of.~ nann of lhi. ont.., is caUt<! ,h.
principle of legitimacy.
Thi. prinodplc i•• ppliable '0 ... n.'i.,....1 Itgal order with on.
Important limi ...,;"" only' Jl don not apply in c'..e of. rcvolu_
.ion. A rem!n,;"n in ,he broader ..,n", of the word (,h,' indud..
... coup d'~13') i. evcry not l"8'ilimot. change of ,hi. cons,i,,,-
ion or iu rrplacement by an other cocu,itu,i"". }"t'1)nl ,h, poln, of
vicw of legal .oenc.. it I, irrcle....n' wh.-tMr ,hil change of the
lq:al """"ion "". bttn brought .bout by the applQtion of lora:
apin.. the kgi.inwHe I"'nnmen. or by the melDben of .lul p '
emmert. the""dva. ...heth.... by a mH& """'...." ••" of the populo..
,ion 01" by a Jma111JO"P of ind"'id..m. Dtrioin it only tha. the
...lid RIfIIl;tuUoa hat beat chan,pd 01" ...paced in a manne DOt
~bod by me ......ci.u.ion ... Iid unt;1 then. Utually a """'...
.... aboliohcs only the old consci.u';"'" and tttUin poIi'icoIly im-
pon<ul' "",tut<:S. A ~ part of the Itll.utel <rGud under the old
cunu.u,;"'" !'<"IDai"• ...tid• • the ...yinz goes; bu. mit OPJ'Ol'"
';001 does DOt lit. If tMw: ..a,u,es are to be regarded .. beit'll ""lid
und.... the DeW rnnoci.u'ion, then thit is ~ible mIT beooue.hey
Iuve beat ';olida..... ""pleMly OT taeiuy by ,he new con"itu,ion.
We are con[ron.od he.e root wi." a creation of new law bu. wit"
lhe: m:cption of nonn. of one legal ord.... by ."oth....; IHch :II Ihe
'e<ep,ion of the Roman Law by the Gennan Law. Out .uch'e<q>-
lion tOO i. law etCalion, becoouoe ,he diTC<:. 'UlOlt rOT .he ""tidi.y
0/ the leg.1 no.tIntahn OVer by .he n..........OhHlon• .,. ntlbli.hed
COllJlitu,ion can only be the new COllltitut;on. The content of
th.,. norms ",maim unchangod, but the .nJOIl for their val idity,
In fac. me ..uon r.... Ihe Yllidity of the en,i", legal ord..... h..
bcm changed. N the new com.;'",;on becomes ...lId. 10 ';m..l·
uncou>ly chaflget the buic nona, tho. is, the p'.... ppooi.u. 1oC-
cOldi"( to whidl ne inonpr(Vd .. nDnII-auLiIl( and ...""..
appl.,.u.g be" the COIlJtiwlioa~ be. and the fac" eoub-
IUhat aa;ordrng ... the c:onsti"......... Suppooe the old comti.utiorJ
bad the cbano;tn of an ablolu.e -..:hy and the ""' CD< <Ji a
parliammoary do""",IoC,. n.... .1>< balic ........ DO Iongn" .<'ado:
"C......,;,.., acts ""Sbl to 1>< arri<d .... t undtJ the <ORditiont and ;n
the mann<r . . do.ermin«! lor the old. DO 1ong<r ""lid. ooruLi'u-
,iooo'o:. and h...u hy the ~""I and indimual.-.ns crn.od and
appli<d br Lbe ooruLi.u,iQn.ally 1Unclionins mon.atch Ind .he
"'1"nl del<g>'od br him; inlleod, 1M haole norm .odo: "Q:lerci""
.." oughl'" be CltTinI .... t under the condi.ionI and in the man-
nn" de'...... inod by ,k new conl,i,",ion,"' and hence by ,he gen.
.....1 and indi~idulI norm. cr'lt<d and appli-.l by ,he parlilm.n.
ol~,<d ,'",cording'D th.. con""u';on and by the org.nl <klq:.. -.l
in 'h.... nonnL Tho n.... bu;c nonn dO<'< no. m.li.e i, pc>!libJe-
lik. 'he old one-,o 'eg.rd a <.... ;n indi~id....1 al ,h••!.>sol",.
mo..arch. hut make> ;, poIIibl. '0 reg.ard a popularly oleet<d p"'li.o-
m"lIas a legal auU-i,y. A«ordiug to the buic nonn ofa nl'ionaI
lopl onkr. Lb. gmttlllllen" which nt:>... <lIee,i~e gt'....... l Ind in-
;nd;~id .... 1 .......... bas"" on an <lICCl''''' COItlli'utiorJ is Lb. lqiti-
mo.'. pemmen' of tlte lUI•••
n... <bang< of the baP< nona lollows the chongt' of the fxu
tha.' are in,crprctcd as nca'ma: and apply'''( nlid kpIl1O<mL
Tile hat.io: IJ(InD refen 0011 to a <0ItJt.i......... which iI loClually
...h1ilohcd bt IqiIllLi"e loCI. or antom. and is deem A OD."ti-
IUliooo'o is ~clIcai...~ if the nomoi created in lonnily ilb ilar.
lor and large applied and obcr<d. As th. old tomtilution
lofa its eft«ti and lbe ""' one bu beeo,,>( dl"mi"", the
XU thollppear itlt the ... bj«li"" _ing 01 crea.ing or appl\'
ing legal norml an' no longer ,nter~ br preouppooing .be old
ba$ic norm, bul by p..... ppooing the new 0.... The ,ta,u,a wued
und"" tlte old conlli,u'!on and not tall.= o~er are no long.......
prd<d as ....Iid. Ind .he organ. luthoriltd br tit. old <on"it""""
no long<:r a. <ompeten'. If 'he revolu,;on i. no, "'.....f,,1 Ihore
would be no rea"m to replace 'he old ~k norm by I new One,
Then, ,he re~olu,ion would not be ~rdod II procedure cre.,ing
new Law, bU'--a«ording to 'he old colllLi,Ulion and tbe criminal
tl .. baled on il and ~rded as ""lid_.......ld be ,nlerp'et<d ..
."
b.i&b Tbt principle appIi~ htre is Lbe principle of dEtc-
tttUOOl.
li.-mca. The principle ollqi.ill>XJ is limited by u.. principk of
cletti~me..
::S""~Q,":,, "M'
~ ... :::.~
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-
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al'f-
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E'
HHi
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',f :lgfg;rI>il'-:s.!I glC ~
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~·e -li:""ii~ $l ... r~'lIj"~
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i~·~! ~ttj~.~i~~·1 ~il'~ L;·~~.i[~~ ~ ~,~ a..ij.~~~~~; ~
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5
;",. :l;; a.. ~. a.: £ f ~ r l: ~. S l".g. :<. ~ ;l~ ~ i ~ ;- ii:lo a. 6' ;
n _ !f l;:
!1.~ =.~ ~ i~'! ~I ~l ~. i·~~f &i:§ L; ~t 6' ~~I ~.~ l!§'~t t
~ ••• "'-'1. 1,,_ i'-'-'-,s,
-.,.:ll l$.~. •"·I'.~'
11
"
., TIlE DYNAAUC ASprer OF LAW
-C/·A.·1>-<l
~C1.... do
~ The a-r, held by
........ fO'" ,
_.y . . . ."(.... " on< ,;
ןס0o 10 <II< booio .. ''''
" ' " by .. pd~ ,bot tho
;0",' 10.. I. ", "" ni«....
1>«>_ It em "" in.. '0«1 ",,'y with <I>< .I<l <>l tile t!cti"" tho' ,t>< <not...
....b1iob<d by <II< rondDd ot _.... ;,.. toci' ",,,,,.
,
n<~ OY><..... IC .urECT Of' ...... 111
i"lttna,iona.llaw, thm,~ lauer .. uD<kntood as a lepl onkr ....
perioo 10 l.bc former and Ibndo<r as tbt higbft< IOftfrian kpl
CO'tkt-. If l.bc .... , ~ if. tIK na'ioon\lopl ...or.-", ~'...
tbolal m",nd 10 as ~_ ..rip•• thrn <his M..,.,trrign,,...
<an _Iy
_ tha' l.bc national IqpI O<dn> ;ur .... b<><dina<ed. o.d, 10 tbo
in<nmtiona.lloopl CO'tkt-•
I,,,
<K
_ .. O<d<r. h< "'*'"
th< bui< ....... y"", "".. pO< .... id_lnl' Tb< ••• «hi.. <motio<Wly ..j«to ....
to ,II< I.w; II< won... _ .. ,oiiy htt '" «>-
com..",;" ...... "u«d ..itl.uu""""';" .. .!<T. A.. t<II.... 10. poIl,"'"
"'i'oo.. I>..,d .... ",toin wiob. Tho ~ I In"",,,''';,,,,. ~hk>. do<> ...
_"PI""<' ,,",I, _m, ... ,-''''.1 ."i,,",,,. E'''''n ...."h;". II 1>< ..", •
p''''..... '" "". oould d<o<rib< poolli. . "W . . . 'l"'''" '" nil<! ....,..., w".om
N.iOI '0 'PI'tO" '" 'hi' ,,"w, .... y ..."".,., In ..hi<h ,.. "piw.... kpi O«k<
i. d<ocr;h<d . . . opkm '" .."... """""""'I .... ;p,...... •u,.<>ri..,...... "'''''',
iu"""!dl_." wrl". . .,. l.,i'" who poIl'l<olly ~i .. p...... '" 'hlo kpl onk•.
4\ The Comlitul,,,,,
The peculiarity of the law that it "gul.t'" iu own c"a,ion, h..
been pointed out before in Ihese ~., ThiJ c.n be done by a
norm detormining merely the procedure by which another norm
i. to be cre.ted. But it can be done al ... by a norm detormining. 1<1
a ceruin ""tent, the content of ,he nDnn to be cre.ted. Since, be·
cause olthe dynamic charaet... ollaw, a norm i, volid bec2use, and
10 the extem that, it h.d been create<! in a certain w'y. tha, iI, in a
w.y detennined by another nOnll, therelore tha, other norm i. the
immediate r.,.,.,n lor the validity 01 the new norm. The ula,ion·
.hip be,w«n ,he nOrtll that ugula",. ,he cr..,ion of .nother
norm and the norm created in conformi,y ",-i,h the former C'n be
metaphorically presen,ed .. a relation,hip 01 ,uper· and .ubordin.·
tion. The norm which regul",'" ,he creation of another norm is
the higher, the norm cre.ted in conformity ,.,-hh th. former i.
the lower one, The legal onleT i. nOt. '1"'cm of coordinated
non", of equal level. but a hierarchy of different level, of le-
gal norm •. lu unity i, brought about by the connection ,hat re-
.ul.. from the hct that the validity 01 • norm, c..ated according
... TH.I: DYNAMIC A&PtCT OF LAw
.........
'
"' <L' PYlooIrido Karl _ ......,. Ir_ ho ...., ~..-. -..~
... no' DYN"M'C ASPECT OF ....W
"
"ria DyN"M'C ....PE(:1" OP .... W
."
forrtd to .. civil law, criminal law, and admini"rati..~ law, al·
,hough ,h. nonus lha, regulate lh. procedures of ili. law cou,,"
and admini.trativ. agencies are ci..il law, criminal law and admin·
i":ra,i.. ~ law nO 1.... Abo, wh~n .~aking about ilie nornu to be
.pplied by th.... organ. on. usually think& of the mllt",ial civil
law, criminal law, and admini"ratiye law only, althoogh material
civil, criminal, and adminutraliye la"" cannot be applied without
.imul...neou,ly applying formal (proctdutal) law. Mat.r;al and
lonnal law af~ itJstpatably connecttd wilh each other. Only in
th.ir organic combinalion do they constitute law 1M, regulate' its
own c.... 'ion and application. Each rule of law that compl.t.ly de-
scribe. thi> law must eon...in the formal .. well •• the materi.l .1.·
m.n... A rul. of law d.scribing a "om, of criminal law lOU" be
formulated_much .implified .... n at tMt-app",,,irnately a. fol·
low., "If an individual has committed a cfime d..~nnined in a
general lego.! nonn, thon an organ designated in a general l"!ral
norm (a law court) ought tu ord.r a sanction. determined in the
fonn", leg-al nonn in a procedure d.tefmintd in a gen.ral legal
norm." We >hall "'" later that a still m"," complicated formula.
lion i. nec.....ry, nalody, "Il an organ. whost nomination i> de·
tennined by a general legal norm, has ;ucertaintd, in a pracedu,"
determined by a general l.gal nonn. that fact. afe pr...nt '0
which a g.ne....1 legal norm .,tach.. a "'rlain 53nction, then
Ihi. org;>n ought to order a sancdon detrrmintd in Ihe earlier·
men,ioned leg:sl n"nn. in a procedure d.termin.d by • g.nrnl
leg.1 no:rm." Thio formulation of the rule "f law. ,hen, .how5----1lnd
therein li.. the eo.sential func,ion '" Ihe rul. of law describing the
I.w_he .yst.ma'ic conn..:,i"n betwren the SCK3.11ed formal and
the SCK3.11ed material law (that i., be,ween ,h. d.termin.,ion of
the delict and the ..nction on ,he one hand and ,he dctennination
of lhe law-applying organ and hi, procedure on th. other).
The r.la,ion be,ween the gene....llrgal nonus and their applica·
,ion by judicial Or admini>ttativ. organs i.....nlially the same.,
that r"i"ing between the Hllli,itntion and ,he cre.tioo of grnr....l
legal no:rnu d.t.nnined by it. The creation of gmerallegal nonn.
i. an application of the constitntion in the same ..-ay that the
application of the gm....1 legal norm' by judicial o:r admin;"'.·
,i..e organ. i, the cr~ation of individual legal normS. Ju" .. the
grnerallegal norm. created by legi.lation or cu.tom are lonnal1y,
.,.
and ptthaps aloo matcrially, rletCTmin..J by ,h. "<>TOl' of ,h. ron_
"it"tlon (that is. by norms 01 a highCT le,-d) in ,h" "'me way a~
,h. illdi.id"al norm. c.eated by judicial or admilli",..,h'. 0<,>-
materially a' well a' lom1ally----<le,ennined by general norm. of
.tatutory or <u'LOmary law (that iI, nom", of • higher le,'d). !Iu'
the rela,;on be,w••" the formal and the mata ..l dement i. diffCI'
ent in ,he twO instances. The con"i'u,ion (in the material st"..
<>, the word) u."any only de,em,ines ti,,,
organ< .n<! ,be proce-
dure o1lrgi.Ja,ion and leav,", the detCTminalion of the content of
the .t."" ...
LO ,he legisl";,,, orga",. The con"itntlon detennina
only ~cplion.lly (and dl«;ti"cly only in " ntgativc """) the
ron"'"" of the .tatuto. to be <rea,ed, by excluding .....taln con·
1<tI".
As lat law crtatinn by ,,,"om, the con"i'nt;on tan dolcga'e
only ,he procedure charac,cri>.cd .. ·'cu",om." Thc consti'u,ion
canno, exclude a certain content af the leg.1 nonns created b}' cu..
tom, hc<;au"" the constitution itocl(-~ven a form.l, written con·
"itutiOll-...<an be changed by legal normS croated by Cu",om. The
geoenl legal norms created in acwt<lance wi,h ,he conSlimtia",
hawev«. not only detormine the otg'"' by Which, and the proce_
dure. in which, they are to be applied, but also-albeit in va,iou.
dcgrec>-the C""tom of the individual norm. th.t reptc..,n, the ju_
dici.l ded.iom and .dmioiot"'tive dec...,e•. In criminal law ,he
p'ed<tctmina,iotl of ,he cuntent of judicial deci.io", usu.lly goe.
very far, -00 that thedi",re,ion of the criminal wUtt in creating the
ittdividuallcgal norm rep,..,..,med by its deci.ion i. 'elati,'ely lim_
ited. In admini",..,ive law the di'Cretion i. u.ually ex,.",ive. In
o,her wonil: The con"i'u,ion h•• predominantly tbe charnete. of
fo'mall.w. where... ,!Ie iromediatdy ittferio. level of law cre.,ion
ha. the cbaraClet botb of fonn.1 and material law.
"
.~II!IJI~·lril!'i·rl~IIIII!AI~fil.t!rl!'
fP"~loa!? Ii B~i rrli6.a~~-Q~IF'i~t~rM ~Q' ~
ll~lli!i~li~li~~r .!.~!I~lr:!!!I!.~;·I· .1•.
t.t~:III~III·"!IIII'I!;~!'II"~l.lrl.[,
t.g,;;'ii'E. &~~ti i'll g';~ ~ I:.o~§ ~ 8.' I'~ II 9.,1
Jilj;'
Iii"
=~""3~l!g~f J-
E ~~.~i~_.~~~
'"
,
.. .•
'.
i '....
'-.il"" .... i·e~c~i
~ ;~fl·§'~n~~~~'E~I~{
I!~
~II'"
~"-i w.:l~ ... 51
..... g;;-"sEl
il,,~5'
.W'i!lliil·
II·.!,
~~-t-·
e.~I!
dO-
...
"··'··I-""~··
!:i Q; =.::"2. ' . " " - = ' , '. • • ,
",. c . 6 fa gill § &.~ ~~ ~ all -o:! IT
• lliir i"rli •• lr •• 'i.li •• i.l.!,!! !I!.!.~
II Q;
." TilE 'WNAMIC ASP(.Cr 0." .... w
g) J",.,diell'on
The cOOJlil"ti"" eh4'4el"" of the j"dk;,,/ d"iJi4n
Traditional juri.prudencc. " .. I.w applica'ion primarily. if nO,
"""lusi'-ely, in the decisions of civil and erio'ioalla... courtS. These
COUTt., in fact. when deciding a litig.tion or imposing. puni,h.
menl upon. criminal u",olty apply gene",1 legal norm, er,.ted
by l,gi,lalion or e"'lnm. Bu' l.w is .1", applied, a. has been said,
when gencratlegal nonns are created, when decrees are i""ed by
.dmini"... ,ive oJEi<:ial., and (as will be di""uosed lat.".) when leg.i
-,. '['I' U~,'" pUO :p"U]O"~"'" ~ 0, 'j "'., ",>J>UO, ~q, U! p"[(dd.
~ OJ w.OU I.""u~ll ~q, u.q." AIUO ,u=.ld 'j ."1 JO ~ulPU9 .q-L
·"'u.., Arou"oF"P '['1' U[ ""I )0 ,u~w,""unouOJd ~q' .. 'olPjP..
-<[mr AIUO IOU '[ UO[,'U"j "0' ~ql 'p""'rdw<» AP'["" AI'"o
_!=d u~q P"q 001'"= ;>0<1'1 01 ''1' ("'P"!lIY"H '""P :u.w
-"":) Uj) ..P""., AI'''''W lOu ~p '.Ill"," ~IU. 'p"W".... ""Wl""'OO '[
,. J:>1='q' >'O'''"I''P AI"'W ''''''1 'OU'>Up U01'1"P l"PlPll! V
""']1 P""ludp•• U!'l'!'" "! PP J~qlOn"
llUjl.[ww<n '.UO,","" P"'U"U'" ~q, "0 'U.pu""~p ~p"W ~ ohm
Uop""x, "! .. '1""""'''[ PO"Oj'[PUCO ~ ooro A'w 11 qllnoqll' '>11"
,ool'!pu",""n P""'pro Allollon '[ 'p"oq "''1'0 ''1'
"0 ',u~w'l,!"nd
"W!' U!"''''' 0 Ulql['" p""'pu.. lOU '! ~'U'W1Ojl"" '!'1' '0'1' ""!'
-lpDO, 00 .lIDO "O["U"" ''1' "'f"" pur 'lIP,,!"!d ''1' 01 ,""UO.,110j
_»<I U!"U" • ""P"'l 0, ,u"Pu~PP ~ql gJ""'U'" UllOJ Il"P 'q.L
'>I1'''''['!PUOJ 1"'''']110 Auo",n '1 UO[''''''' ~.,...,,,o, ''I'
",uuoJ ''II
....
U[ ;UO['l"P 10U["'["" pur H"P' ~,,,,,:>q !"" ~J"'J>Jl!P U['u,""
o ,,""... '['1' Ul -'''O!'1''P r"p!pn! ~q, JO ,uOj,,,,,nJ l"['u"",,, ''1'
, .. "'1'-'0 '1'1' p". tl,,~W"!"U~""=q.L 'O/JOJI'qo ul uuuu (""u,iI
''1' Aq P"Q.!l""..d "'01""''' ''1' ol>I:>"oJ "j "p'o o. '0'1 uno, ''1'
'.p"", u~q '''''1 tlU'W"!.,~ 0"', ""'1' .>;l'jV '~pol "~Ir>o"b
~q, ,. Ip." ......n! o.'.tJonb ''1' ='\i"" OJ "'I11nOJ Jq.L ',,,.
~u1 ""'j ''1' 01 "O!I>"" • 0:>'1"''''" qJ!q'" Plro" '[ W'OD l"",u,iI
• '"'I' ,"'WU!'U,,,,,, ~ql "1 "'1' 'PO[ldd":>q 01 wl011 r"-",,.iI ''II
JO'''''''''1''''~q' jO ,u'WU[O"'''" ''1' ':>puP"! '"~wUJ''''~''''' '[q.L
·O'.I:>"OJ '" 1u.... u1 OJ. uuou (""U>S'']l ul op",mq" W p;>Uj1O""
-'p UOl'Ju",. 10J ""0]l!P""" ~ql "'OJ !'w"lll • D! "''1'"4''' "IOU'''''"
1...,,1<nW lJnOJ ~ql 'UUOU llU;>",,1l'4' "'ll.np!A!pU! 0' l'f"" "r
'oo!'"'!'~=pur uo"o"lonp!,,!p"! lluj'"""""l jo ...",.d
" '1 I! ~(~'~'J<lOJ) l~np!"lput 'ql OJ ('''"'1<'10) r.. ~=21 ~q1 mO'j
'I""'xud '..,,,, 11 ... 'jl""'! iI"!,,,.u.. od,.,~ "'01 ~4' 4'['1'" ul '",
·JOuI'!'lJ. '110!""", 'q. JO ""p"»x. ''1' OJ 'I'""I puo 'uOII'»P I""
-!P"( ~'1' O. UlO,lllJ '0 u""~I.!ll'l '!A O>""P"o, '''O!,",!UUOJ ''1' JO
lU~UJll'!r'lOlI' '4' ']l!.... 'll!ll~ "'1' .....JOJd "'1' I" ~li'''l (~oo!'[lu"",
o <l"x,ud.. "'Ill"" '4' .{q nll'ou \""P1A1P"1 jO nOl'"'" '41 ''''~r
'41 JO .;}[wou.'p ~q, jO ""1.' jO .u!od ''1' mo.J p;>"rd"",.uOJ
·ID~w4"Dnd.0 "OP""X->
11'P :"O!""" "'.l>[lOJ 0 "l,04lnO 4>14." OwAO" r"-"U'~ '1(1 Aq
poDl"''''''P '1 luOlooJ 0004'" OW1OU I""P1Alpul llup'>J' Aq "'''0''
r&ll"'uoil '41 Alddo o"no, ''I' puo :~UUOj'''''''' ,Dol""'u"--"
l~. ....Yl ~o D:ld'V ""WNj<l ~Hl.
-" T"t """A><le "'PECT OF lAW
not
.una 01' LAW
M Ct. G<o<w e""n. ".0".",,10.... """ R«~''';'''''''''''I' (""0<1, '9S.\) ..... H,.,
K<lo<n. """"'m...'...... In d<r "«""w_hd'~" A'<hl. M, 1t«hr>- un<! """-I·
phllo'.pM., <I" (,g,l). ,~, I,
,
.,. nu: llyN.....'C ASPECT OF LAw
.'
nit DVNAMIC A'''''CT OF U.w
legi.dation and publiJh<d in the ofTId.al ga,.cue, Thi, exp1>ins why '"
the view i, 'OlO<'Iim.. held that customary law i. coun.made law.
l! thecouru ha"e to apply usually customary law. a' in the .phere
01 the Anglo-American commoolaw, and if they. besida, have the
authority to cuate precedents, a theory can e..ily develop in .uch
an arca that alll.w i. court·m.de law; that nO bw e:<.i<,. helou the
judge'. decision; that a nonn becomes a legal nonn only because it
i. appH<d by the roun." Such. theory can be maintain<d only by
ugarding the nom" appli<d by the coun "Kluree. 01 law," not
•• law. ",heuby ,hi. ~gure of opeech i. used a description (or all
facton that actually inRuen", the judicial deci.ion, .uch as mo",l·
political value judgments. expert opinion •. and the like. InRu·
enced by the paramount ilOportan", which the roU'ts h.." within
the '1"tem. of customary I.w and precedential juri5diction. thi,
theory ignotes the ....nti.l difference between "KlUten" of law
that >te legally binding and those that a", not. The theory ern in
nOt rttogttiling that the ·'sour<e·· o. law in the .pecific scme of the
torm (that i., the origin of law, that from which law ati.... that
which c"'.... law) can be "law" only becau.. it i. a peculiarity of
the la'" to regula.. ito own c",.,ion.
The theory that only the coum creato law.• theory grown upon
.he ooil of Anglo-American common law, i. iust as one.. ided as the
theory, grown on the Klil of Europcan-Continerllal ,,",utory I.w.
that the Coutu do not erea" law at all, but only apply already cr..
at<d law. The lat..r theory amounts to the view thal only genoral
legal norm. exist. the forme' that only individual legal no",,'
e,dst, The truth is in betWCCII. The courtl do cre"e law-usually
individual law: but within a legal order that establi,h.. a legi,la·
tive organ. or thal rc:rogni... c",tom a. I.w-creating b ... the
COUtU do this by applying general law previou.ly ..eat<d by legis-
lation or custom. The judicial deci,ion i, the continuation. not the
beginning. of the I.w..,....ting proc....
If (rom a legal·political viewpoint the difforence bet",..,n juri..
diction bound by gene..l nonm creat<d by legi1lalion or ""tom
and a juti5d.i«ion nOl bound by ,uch nonno io comidor<d to con·
stitute a principal antagoni,m between twO legal ,)'...mo, it must
~ Thh '''-'l' tl <!ndop<d tft Joh" Cbipou" _T. Th. ,'>'.,." ••d "."'" oj
t1>< I.-........ (,,..,~ Cl, ](,_ 0::.-'" Th•.., <>I Low .........., pp, ,~r.
,
", "'"" DYNAMIC .... ncr OF ....W
The con'",cl
Depending on ,he w.y in which. legal,ratllaCtion i1 performed.
that i. to ..y. whe,her i, i. consti,u,ed by the acl of one individual
or ,be .c" of '''10 or mote individu.ls. unil.teral and bilo.1C131 (or
rnuhillter.lj legal tran>ac,ion••te distinguiohed. By far the moo,
importon, legal ,ran>action of modern 1."1 is ,h. hil.teral (or
multilater.l) log.l'ransaction of ,h. cont13ct,
In • contract two Or more individuals decl.re theit agre.me"'.
,h., i. to say, they make concord.nt <kcl.ration. of will directed
tow:ord ,heir mutu.l behavior. The legal ord.. m.y, but nud nm.
ptelCribe. fonn which these decl.ra,io", 01 will have to have to
conSlitu,. • legally binding con'ract, ,hat i., <0 cte.te norms which
impose obligatio", or conrer rights upon the contracting individ·
".Is--for ex.mplc, ,he Low may prcocrihe ,h., ,he decl.ration. of
will h."" to he m.de in writing, not merely orally or by gcslUr...
."t any rate, ,h. individu.ls must "'pr... th.ir will in oome way.
,h.t is, rnak. ,heir will opJ>llrrnt. Otherwi", i, would he imp""ibl.
'0 o..en.in in. I.w-opplying procedur., especially a judici.1 pro-
cedu ... ,h. f.ct ,h., a contract w.. concluded,
"
TH~ DYNAMIC ....PECT OP .... w ·w
Between the actual will of a pafly and hi. ded.ution m.y be a
di"",epancy. bee.u... the other contracting pany or the law-apply-
ing organ m.y attribute to the ded.ration • me.ning <Iiffer..",
from that which ,he paTty hirruclf in,ended '0 ..xpr..... The come.
quence of .uch. di"",cpancy COnnO' t... dcte,-mined by ,he sci..nce
of law. bUI only by th .. leg.l order, The ICS"I order may .tipul"e
that a law-creating contract hal not heell concluded if one paTty"
abl .. to prove that ,he ,ntended meaning of hi. dc<:l.ution i.
different from tha' attributed to i, by Ihe o,he, party. But the
ICS"I order may also .tipulate that .uch a discrepancy,. of no im·
portaltC<' for the validity 01 the contractually created norm; th.,
the di!Crepanq i. legally irrelevanl; lhal what maUe," i. only lhe
meaning which. acc()Tding 10 the opinion 01 the law..1pplying
orpn, may normally he .ttributed lO lhe declaration by the Olher
pafly. The lCS"1 order may either place more weigh' upon lhe
ded.nuion lhan on the .<tu.1 will or more weight Upoll ,he .ctu,l
will ,h.n on the decl.ralion. Which of ,he... 1"10 solution! i. pul.
..rable de~nw on ,he principIa of legal policy which guide ,he
lcgi.lalOT. The weal of 5eCurity in the cour.. of bu.ine" may lead
loon.. solu'ion. the ideal of individu.l freedom to .noth.....
For a contract 10 be conduded. lhe ded.nlion of one pany i. to
he directed to the oth..... and must he a«"]>led by that other partj'.
The con,nct, 'h....cfore, oon.i.!$, a. i, i...id, 01 olf.... and .ccepl.
•nCe. By lhe .cceptance of lhe offe,-•• norm becom.. legally valid
that regulate. lhe mu,ual behavior of the contracting patrie•. If
this norm stipulate. an obEg",ion of lhe offering party, then the
offer h•• ,he character of • promi.... The differenliation t...'ween
off.... ond acceptance praupp""'" tha, the two declaration. do nO,
occur .imuhaneou,ly. The orr.... must pre.,.de th.. acceptance. The
quatio", therefore arise, Doeo lhe olfering party h"'e to m.i"'ain
,he will ""p......ed in lhe offer unlillhe momen' of ac~eptance, so
that at the moment of ~«eptan~e both wilb mull .gree and that, if
this i, not the ca... (l:>cc:o"... the olfering party h., meanwhile
ch.nged hi. mind .nd hou expres<cd lhi. ch.nge of will by,etnct·
ing hi. olfer) no oon'raet has been concluded? "TO Is•• flor the
olf.... hlU been made, the ~hang<: of will irrelevant, so that ,he offer
cannol t... re'raCledl and: If it cannot be retracted, how long i. the
offering party bound by hi< offer? Th......... ques,ions lhal can t...
an,wered only occortling 10 the J'O'ili,,,, norm, of the legal order.
...
IC the ord.. promi ..."ractiO<l of tht of£cr bd~ ~nc:t a.
:lily <.imt, llw:n 1M conch";... of a coatrxt bnw«n indiriduals
not proent in 11K lame plxc at tht _ time is . . . . dilliculL T ..
,flftO'\'( thi.o di&ul,y tht lqal ordft ..-nimft prncribn .""'. tht
of£niD:I pan)' is bound by hit olf.... uD<kr =uift cirmllUOn<:U
and f"" a cnu.iD Ii=.. Thil mans. .ha.
1M rnlItrXt it nlidtr c0n-
cluded ifthc oil.. i. """"'f'lcd wi,hin u..., .ime.....en if the of£trill&
r-"y dwlltQ hi> d,..;lam:l wiU. By ;>tt"'f'linl!: ,he oIn a nOI"<Il un
he cre,,,o<d which, in thil n .., obIip'''' oM of£tting pony nm
apin.. hi. will.
I'or • wntnel to be concluded con.conbnt Mcb",uOonI of the
w;l[ of tilt """tnc,ing pani", mu.. boo p.~n.-dl'CI.rationl ac-
cordIng to "'hieh tho p>r'i.. wanl the .. me thing. Tllcrcby. norm
is ....ca,<d whos< comtnt i. ,l.,....mincd byronrord.nl ded• .,"nn•.
Th. "ontr"". a. I no,m-crudng (M•• • nd ,h. norm .... ,cd by ,hi.
fo". nm to c.., clearly dining""hed, In tradition.l .. ,minolog)'.
h"..""...., ,h. word "contnc," i, 110M "" design.'. both. On•
•"".u of ,h. coocl".ion of • con''''''' .nd mc.n. by thl. the acts
whkh con..l,o>'<' .he n.orm-c•• ,ing 11<1 of bett. And OIIe .pn.1<.I ol
'M ""lidi., of a <l)Iltnoe. and mnm by this tb< nonn (rflllcd b,
theoc b<:ts; foronl,a norm_noc an aet-an be "nlid:· The~·
ponol .~ of nlidi" of • conlIX'Ulln, emil'" .-m "'"' be d~
,nmiM<! in ilJl contml; a CO<1tn<:1 ...., be a>ndudfd 10 be ftlid
for a ttrUin period of li....,_ TIlt """" ma,. "ip.o""e tha. <ho-
nlidity of <he (on'IXI ""',. « '...... i"""'<1 al any'ime by • un"
....nal dtda.... <ion of 0<><' of <ht pania AcconIi"l to pooilin
.... Ihis .....y« to ilio il ,!>¢ (JOIItn<:I had bftn condudfd with
....Iiditylor all undn...... intd Ii....,. If <ht period of .... I;dily is d...
' ........ in... in ,h~ COI1tn<:1Ulllly cmtlcd norm ludI. tht paiod an-
nOl be '~nni""tcd by a unila,cral docb..... ion of on~ of ,h~ pan .....
T ......... in.'i"" bcfar~ <he end of <ht .. ipula,'" time ""'1 ,~ be
bro<>gh. abou. ""Iy "y a nonn cr~.t"" by booh pllrl;eI. In other
worth. ,k con,nel may be 'ermino,'" onl, by anOlller ron,...."
condud'" by ,he .. m~ partin.
Ordinarily only obl;ll:nionoond righ" of the contracting poni.,.
(3n be nipula'''' by" (ont ..."uolly (re.'ro norm. Thil il tile w·
all"" principlc of priva,c au'onomy. Bm a Iega.l order may abo
permi, contr.o<:!S b, which individu.l, who ore nO' (omIX,ing par-
liel.,e obligated or ,«<;ve r;gh...........,...lled con'nocU u. ,be debi,
."
or in (nOT or <hird pnoons. 'llK contract...lIy """"f(! noom .....y
;"'1"* lht lOme obIipt;ont "lid bestow lht .."'" rip.. upon ,he
conlnoa;"g panitt.. Bu, i....., aIM> impooc dilferttlt oblip.;...,.
upon m.. dill"nml pa:nia or i, .... y jmP""= an obIip.ion on anly
OM puty aDd bc>low only. rifl;h''''' tbt odtn. Bu, 'his conI....
mllSl: .1.....1' be In,md<<I by all «mtraeting portia. TM COllIne-
."",11, cre>IM oona has indi..;dual chana... such ;u for cnmplt<
in .ron....,. of ale by which one pony is obligated III deli.-a- only
(IOCC 10 lbc otI= a anain object, and lbc atMr pany is obIip<td
only once to pay " <...... in sum ol "'''''''y.
Th<: cont_t, how""er, .my allo hue ' .......1ch.rxl.... tha. il.
il ""'y not obliga'" the p.ani...o" .ingle pcrfonn>ncc 0. "",fom>'
."'...ilfId-«>Un....perlorrn.ncc. bllt to ron"'" an undctcrrninf'd
numhcr of pcrformonca or pcrfo'm.nc.... nd'-;Oulllcrpuform-
.nea; .uch 0' 'he cMtraCt in which .n in,uran,c COnlp>"y bind.
;••<'If 10 compcltUlC In individual in clch cue of ,icknCSl for lh.
COlts of mc<:lkal '",s.m..,.", and .he ;DOU''''' indi"id""] bind. him-
telf to 1"'1 to the in'ur;IIf\«: compo"y • cnuin amount of money
"",,-"'-
~ imnna'ioNl trucks mIlta;n • pnwilion con«ming ac·
cellion to <he 'ru,,.. Such. pn:n-ioion 1 .. ,boriu:Ian,. ..,u or .....e
IUlCI to aor;cde '0 <he .m.,.. The >o<ttSion "",,. uke pbn: by I
un'b,,,,,d d«:Lmlt"'" or by a proposi.ion ""hidl m.... ~ ~
by w parti<s ... ,... 1m..,.. by a majority of them. or by In "'XU'
i.....'uted by tI>c lreaty. In ,... biter c:uc W a<cetJion taka pbcc
by I """" treaty; in .... fom'ItT c:uc b,. a unibttnl oubnlimon
..ndn W trC2ty. B,. act 'ion 10 .... <=aty. tI>c .real,. b<o>aw:t
..,lid for I"," att:edinS pan,..
A opccial kind of ton,rxa or ITeaue. by hu,h ~""l non<U
an: CTealctl In: u.o.. which e.tabliJb <he <n of.n _ i l l......
(in n.tionallaw) or 'he .onOli.ution of an in,erna,ion.1 Otpniza.
tion, like the Lngue of N.tion, Ot W Uniled Nltion' (in intCT-
n.,ionall...). ~ion to.n ."""i.tion or to.n jntem.tion.I.,..·
ganiza,ion mtln.......ioo to 'he contract or "e.t,. b,. ..hicb the
• ...,.i.tion or international organization i, .on"i,.. ,ctl. lI.ucb ...
<e"ion i, poooible only ..i,b ,he COn",n' of.n organ 01 the ..,odl-
dOlI or intem.>'ionll organill,ion. 'hen 'he ion ;. bued on.
con'nel "".....,." ,b. llsociation or in,.......t; l organ;.. tion on
the on. h.nd .nd ,h. acudi"ll oub)t<:1 on the o<bn band. If .be
...
acc";on <an lit KDDaIp!io/>td by a llftilat<Tlll <loeb......... of '''~
acuding .ubjCCl, then ... bm;'ioro '0 a ,.,.lid pani.al l~l order
...kts pIn". Br .he loCI of accnsion the I>OI11U of the .""";ati,,,,',
lIalu,,, or the organ;ta'ion', C<lnltiw.ion aTe put into rOT« for th"
acceding .ubje<:'; th;. [O"aOS: ,hey at. created wi.h validity for ,hi,
... bjeel.
Such aansion of. priva.e ind"'id",,]to an .""""... ion. or of •
....,,, toan intnna.iQMl orpn'''llion. is ... unila<tnllq;tl ....mac·
lion. in cuunod .... inction 10 .. conttxt or Ira",. Such ... ulliLltenol
kpll~ __ in pi.... 'e Ill', -],0 the publicly In.-need
P'""",iR cI. • rnnrd fm a pn{(lt1DHtt. In both QiCI" norm or
...........'" an"'" by 1M act of. Itlb;.a. m<oush which tbe 1(1.
perform.ing wbj«t i, (>blip'ed. Thu. ~ uni1.t<"n.ll~1 ,rIllIt-
'(I;on, ar. di"ingui.hod from log"lltivc ac.., Judicial deci""".,
and .dminiotrlli,'e decrees, all of which cr•• ,. norms ,hat oblig.te
oth..... ubjcc.. ,han thooc who perform lh.... ocu.
.) .4J",i...: 'tr.tion
Beoida IqisI.,ion and juriodictioa. Indi<ional ''-'"1 topTdt lid-
min;..",...... "" ODe of oM 1lI_ QlmtW I"nc:tiom of .be ..a.e.
Lqi~l"'" and j,"iodictiool at. IcpI functioN in tbe narroWtt
..,.,Ie of 1M <am. IN.. is, functiom by lOh"'" th~ ""1lIU or th~ ""-
lion.l legal or<!.... are ...... tod .nd .pplitd_wh....eby th< .pplica·
lion of a legal norm ton,Lm in the croati"" of ."oth.... norm or in
the nt'tutiQrl of the .... t<:iv~ at. pr...,n!>ed by the nonn." The
indiYid""l. performing the fUn<:tioo•• r. organs ot the 10"'. A•• uch
tbey 0IplI' ot the ...."'. thaI ;", their funclion is attributed to
~ t.'· (~ lqal c.-munily ((IIWiruted br the: nalional lopl
0I"&r). ThaI m<1fII thaI thne fullCl.......... referred 10 tilt pc:r-
.....i&ation ot tilt conti .,.....,. comt.itutil\( !hi< cunlUunity.
This aItKin order nalional legal that ... a mrrci.... ord...
t:OOtliluting a IUI'~ bf:<;a (I) it i....ilu"'"' for thtot 1£Sli func·
lion' organ> """ling accon:Iing '0 ,he printipk of diy"i"" of
lobor--organ. dirt'tdy or indirt'tll1 calltd to ,beir fune'i""..
thot t. 10 ...y. r~) .. iY"ly centnl organ" (.) ,hi, .""""i,.. order
is limited in ill t..-.itorial .ph.... ot ,.. lidity 10 a Rri.d1 <\t.
fined ar.... the IO<a1led te1"ritory of the lUI"': and. W il is p",.
-a.I_
.....,; fWAAMIC ASncT OF ,..w 163
nOl wan to annihilate the act whose meaning i. the nonn. 8oowe·
thing tha< acut.OJly happened anno, be ""'de to unhappen. To
annul a "otm means to deprive an a.:t, whose Illbje<;tive meanins
i•• norm, of the objedi"e meaning of. norm; and thi' me.IlS' to
"'nnin".. tbe validity of one notm by another norm. If • legal
order authori,.. the .nnulment of a norm it mU&1 Jim 'e<;og"i.e
thi.< "otm ...n ohj«tivdy valid, th.t i.. lawfnl, legal norm," tbe
following a"al),.i. will demoll""te.
Tbe question whether i". COllcrete C"e the factS are pr....n. to
which a legal norm attach... a ..netion mwt be connected wilh
the que"ion who i. authorized to amwer that lim qnes'inn. III 'he
.."'" way, tbe ques.ion whether a nonu Cte3tOO by • legal organ
confonm to the high« norm that det:«mines itS eration OJ" con·
tent, cannot be sepanted from the qUe>tion 01 who i. authorized
by the legal omer to decide the lint qu....ion. Both ques'ion' can
only be decided by the organ authoti>.ed for the purpose by 'he
legal order .nd in the procooure establilhoo by the legal omet. To
say that a judicial deci.ion or an administrative decree is unl.wlul
U1n unly me.n tha' .he procedure in which the indIvidual
nomt w" created doe. not conform to the general norm de-
termining this procedure or th.t it> content doe> not con/onn
to the generalnonn determining ,hi. Content. To .implify mauen,
let u. explore only the c.... in which it i. questioned whether the
individu.l nonn of the judicial deci<ion conform. to the general
norm which determines the individual notw·,coment.
1£ the legal order were to pennil everybody to dedde thi.< ques.
tion. a judicial decioion binding the partie. would hardly come to
pa... Hence, according to pooiti"e n..ional law, this quell ion can
only be decided by the coull itself or by a higher <onrt. If the
Court decides a ronctete U1se and a...", '0 h~ve applied 1 general
legal norm, lhen lhe question i. pooilively decidrd and temaim '"
decided nnl ... and nntil the deci.ion i> rescinded by the deci.ion
of a higher COUtl. Fot the de~i.ion of 'he fint rourt-and Ihi.
mUll. the individual norm created by thi. deci.ion_i' not null
according 10 po.i.ive I.w. even if it i, regarded .. "unl~wfnl" by
the coun .uthoti>.ed to decide the que"i"". The norm i' merely
~nnnl1able, that i., it can be invalid.tn! by • ptornlure de'er·
minrd by lhe legal omer. Only if the legal order provide. "lCh a
procedure can the deci.ion be eont..lrd by .he patd.., if they
qu..,ion 'he ..lawfuln...·· of the deci'ion. BUI if the procedure in
''''E DVNAM'C ASPOCT OP L.4,W
",...m thaI it can be void<d i1 not i.. "unlaw/oln..." (the fact that
it doe. notwnforffi '0 the gen ..,."lnonn '0 he applitd; if it did n<>t
conform it would bt null, no< mordy annullahle), but the poul·
bilily. provided by tb. leg.l ord...., 10 bring about. in a procoduTO
..ubli,hed for <hi. purp<M. ,h.. ddinil/,-. validity of ,h. oth"" .1·
'<rn.,;..." the one nOI ruli..d by ,h. COtl,,,,'e<! deei,iOtl. If ,h..
COUtH""'M individual norm COn becunlcotrd at all. it may be re_
'dndtd by ,h.. d""i'ion of a coun of bot in'la""e not only if ,h..
coon of firn inOlan"" mak.. ou of lit. alte"'at;ve to determine
provisionally iuelf ,b. <omem of th. norm it .",.,td, but abo if
the coment of 'M individual nonn .",.ted by the cour, of firs' 10_
.tance conlorm. '0 'he general norm 'hat pf'edeterrnine. II. II 3
judidal ded'ion may be come"ed 3. all. then it CaD be cont<$l.ed.
objectively in bo'h cases by 'he par,i.,. and an be ,..,puled by lhe
higher court, even if 'he partieo .ubjec'ively juo,ify 'he appeal by
the fac' lha, .he deci.ion doe. no, eonfonn to ,he pude,ermining
genen.1 norm. The partiesean coUn' On the fac;' 'ha', if a deci.ion
olla" in"'mee allain, the forte of a final judgmen" i' i. impo:o.ible
'0 f'Tevent tha' an individual nonn becomes valid who.. content i.
not prederennined by any general legal nonn. They a"ail <hem·
..Ives of .he p<>5Sibility to COn<e>t a judid.l decision only when the
<kei'ion i. prejudicial to their in<eres.... It i' irreleva'" whether
'hey con'ider lhe deci.<ion .ubjecti,'ely .. being in ron!ornlity wi'h
or con.cary to Jaw----<:Ven if 'he law prcs<.ibe, .h•• a judicial deci.
lion may be eonte"ed only for lhe rea""n ,h.. it i' "unlawful"' in
some resflCCl, which mean. 'h., it il eon.idered by 'he patti.,. a.
being eon"a". '0 law. For tLe que"ion whether a ded.ion i.< "con.
ttary to law" i. not to be dedded by the partie., bu' by lhe cour, of
appeab, and the deci.<ion of 1.1t in'tance a'tai", ,he force of a final
judgment in any ..... If 'here were any sen.., in .peaking of a
judieial deci'ion being .. per .... lawful or unlawful. lhen one would
have 10 gran, that even a lawful deci.<ion may be rescinded by. de.
ci,ion having 'he foree of a final judgment.
Thi, ,how, ,ha, 'he powbili,y of predetermining by gener.ll
nonn. 'he individual nonn••o beereated by 'he roUTt. i. ve". lim·
ited. But thi' fae' does nOl jUl'ify lhe mentioned view lhat no law
exi.<" a, all before 'he judidal deci'ion . •h.. alll.w i, judge·made
l.w, that no general leg.l norm. ex;". but only individual legal
norm•.
.'
.,.
TbI: ..... <'mCD. tkr.. a mid lU'ute io K~<uUoouJ~ ..... _elf.
OIlIItndiaiaIl; fot ........u"*' CUI be ,':II.id only ... llw bui$ 01. u..,
«lWI.i,,,tioa.. If one Iw ~ to ~ lha. :a 1UC1I,*, iI mid. the
,cason lor i.. nlidi.1' must bit tbe «lWI.i,u,ioa. Of an innlid
.....ute <NIC onnol lOy <.bat it is IlDalOSlUIII"-'aI. for an ",valid
<0'"
.....II'l' iJ DO .... at aU; il is l~lJJ nonexi>len•• and nO Iqpl
....tWltn. con therefou be made ab",,, iL If the .-rlion. UM..J1y
made by lndi,iooal theory, rna< .......'"'. is ullorO<Uli,u,ional, Ift~
'0 have a possible juristic me.nina. it cannOl be takm literally_
~ muning of ,he UIC1"lion an only be lmo. ,h. "a<u'. in quO$-
,ion Can be ,epealed nOl only in ,he otdin"y proced .. ,e :KC()ro-
lug to the corn'ilUl;on. namely according ", the rule lu (lOII.riOT
<krog41 priori, but alJO according to ... sp«i>.l pr<><:Nurc provided
for by the conotitution. UII'un,H it .. rc:.dlldcd it m..... be coo,id·
«cd at being valid; and at IOllflllJ it i. ",-lid it cannoc be .. nconn;.
'u,iomol.
SI""" the constitution rqulatn.1lt orgmoand the p....:edure 01.
Iqisl.otion aod >ODl .....,. also dctermine> to _ dC$f«' ll>e evn·
tnI. 01. I","tt ....., .,., the IqW.aWO" must .no UIIO COllU;kntioll
1M poaibili'J!hal the ncrms of the «lWI.itu<ioll (as it it l'lprosotd
in 1M WUlI war) an: no< al_,.. and I>Q( .... Uftl' obwnrfli--...<ho..
all act oubjc>::.i•.,., clai.... 10 ha.... cral.<d a oalu.., alt!lotlJ:b tbc
pr-o«dure '" which tIIi$ ace w&I ~gItl aboul ~ tho con .....1 ol:
tho sta'u'" ettat~ by tho a(1 do t>ot C<lItfona to tho CONtin,,"".
Thi$ raises tht'luCKioa .. bono tbe <x>o<tUu."" should aut/loori1c:
'0 decide whether in a concr<1C ax tht tKII'mI of.M connilu.ion
W<ff obocrvcd; "'hctbcr a lUI, "hooc subj«tivc meatlinr;' '0 M
a '''Iu'c aa:OI'ding '0 1M conotj""ion. shodld M mnlidet~ 10 to..
on~ abo in iu objec.,vc mcani"ll.
If ,hc cOnlaw.ion "erc to IO'l>orize .verybody '0 dccitlc ,hi,
qu.,..ion, a ".'U'. binding .h••ubjccu and orpnl of ,he la"
would hardly ever te. th. Iigh. of day. In order '0 avoid such a
.itu"'ion. ,be (onni.u.ion hll'o lotbor;,e one specific legal organ
'0 decide this qUC>lion. If only one central legislativ. orpn exilil.
tbc dccilion of <hi. 1.....1 qutttion by x highcT lcgUlativ~ organ i,
cxcIwI~. Only the ",inill( lcg"la.i"" OIV" i.... lf. Or • dif~t
.,. T"~ DY.~"MIC ASPECT OF lAW
organ----<uch a. th~ court which ha. <0 appl}" ,h" "a,,,t., or a ,pedal
COUn--<:all be .uthDrized to d""ide 'h" question or Ihe constit,,-
,ion.lily of a.""",e. If 'he oo,,"itution conta;Jl.I no p",,-i,ion con·
ceming ,he ques'ion who i. authorized l<} .,,,,mi,,e tI" constitu·
,la,,,,.,,
tionalil)' of ,hen ,he organ< competent <0 apply 'ta'u,e.,
that i., "'ptciall}", ,h. cour". have ,he power to perform ,hi, .xam·
ill<ltiou. Since they arc authoriztd to apply ,he lUlU''', ,hey have
to determine whe,her something who"" .ubj.e,ivc mcaning ;. to
k a .ta'ut. hal objec,;"cly ,hi. meaning; and it doc. ha,'c 'he ob-
j«';.,. meaning only if it cooform. 10 the constitution.
But the con"itu';on may au,hor;,.., organ> '0 apply UalU'.. and
exp'<ssly ."dude from thi. 30th.,ri"";"n ,he examination of the
co""itutionalilyof tile ,taW,.. to b;, applied, Con"itution' "'n,e·
tim .. comai" the "ipu1>'ion Iha, (Our!> and a<!mi"i"r.,ive au·
thori,i.. are not '0 examine Ihc con"ilutionali'y 01 'Ilc "aW'.,.
they are '0 apply. Thi' r..tfic,ion, howe'-er. i' po"iblc only '0 a
cenain degree. The law-applj'ing- orgaru canna' r""""'ably b;, au·
,horized '0 apply a, a "a'u'e ",'ery'lling 'Ilal presen" i",,1£ 'uhj",,-
'h-ely a, ,uch. A minimum of po"-er '0 ex,mine the (On"i""ion·
ali,y of Ihe ,tatu'" 'n be applied mn" be gran'ed '0 ,hem. Where
JlOIU''', '0 be binding, mu" accottling to the con"i"'tio" be pub-
li;hed in an off"'ial gaze"e by the go,'e",n"m, the limitation of
Ihe po,,'er '0 .xamine mea", only thaI 'Ile law_applying organ. eS-
pecially Ih. C(lUrtJ, merely ha"c '0 ch""k wh<lher ·,ha' "'hid' h.,
the ,ubjecti'e meaning of a "OIut. i, publi,hed in Ih. gaze"•.
Th. 1>w.applying otga'" are not autho-rized to examine whether
'hOI which i, publi<hed a. "".w.... wa, crea,ed by the (On"itu-
lional organ, in tho <onni,,,,ion,lIy pl'C5Cribed proccdlll'e. and
wi'h lhe con"itutionally determined <onten'. To ,'.,.ily th ...
points_ ,h. go"emme'" organ, not identical with ,h. kgi;bti,-e
mgan, .",n",cd by ,h. (Omtitu,ion wi'h 'he publication of .1"_
"'c., may be authori,cd. Thi. au'hori",'ion, too. can I>t limited
only '0 a cenain ,",Uent. The g<)\'emm.n, mgan authori,cd to
publi'h lhe "amle or_if official publicOlion i. not required_'he
org.n authorized to .pply "'lUtc,. mu" be emitled '0 examine at
I••" wh<lh.,. th.. which pre",n", i''''lf ,ubjec,i'ely a., "att"e w'"
e'-en decidcd upon by the orga'" au,horized by tho <omtitu'ion to
legi,late. eVen 'hough lhc otgan cntitled to .uch limited ,-erifica·
tion i. no< autlt<>rized to cx.mine whethcr 'hc procedUTO in which
TI'I< OYN~MlC /<$P&:J O~ LAw
,h., which pr...,n.. i'self ...Utu'e w" decided upon o. the Con·
."
,"", of ,hi, dedsion w"," con"',u"on.!. The organ cannot be
obliged to puhli.h a. 'la'ul. or '0 apply .. "a'u'e "'erJth,ng ,ha'
I""",nts i""U .ubjec,;,'dy a••'alU'e. Then only 'he legislati"e
oegan itself i•• u,hori>ed '0 decide wh.th.r ,h. ".lU'e pas>ed hy i,
;, constitutional; ,h.n ,he flOSilj". deci.ion of ,hi. que>tion i. im_
plied in ,he legi.lative .et. This m••ns ,h3l "'erything which ,he
legi.I.'i"e OTgan is'u•• a. a "a'u'e ha. '0 be consid..ed .. sta'lIte
within ,he m..oingof the consti'ution: and ,hat ,he norm. which
a,." the subject,ve me.ning 01 a legi,lativ. act have the ohjecti"e
m•• ning oIleg.l norm. even if ,he statute-o:ording to somebody
.lse', view_i. not in eonfoTmity with the nomu of the Cl,""itu,ion
regulating ,he legi.Ia,i.. procedure and ,h. COlU""'. of statllt..,
Th. legi,l"i,'e organ is ,hen in a si"""on an.logon,.o th., oIa
coun of la" ;nstance whose decision has att.ined ,It.lorre of •
final judgment. The meaning of ,he com,ittnion reguh,ing legi,-
b,ion i, no' that valid 'Utute. may COme in,o being only in ,lte
"'ay direc,ly stIpulated by ,he consl"""on, hu, also in a way d.·
'..mined by ,he legi.l.'i"e organ i...lf.
The provi.ion, of the constitution which TOgul",e legislation
ha>'e an ahema,i," .har.u:'cr. The con"i,u';on indud.. a diTOct
alld all indirect Tegula,ion or Icgiilation, and ,he leg-isla,i'" orgall
ha. '0 (hoo<e be,we"" ,h.-ul, Th. author oIth. consti,ution and
,he legi.lator may no, be aware, or no, fully aW're, 01 ,hi••i'ua·
,i"". Bu. 'n "hjec'ive de"Tiption of the legal .i'u.,ion created
(omdously or unc""sciou,Iy by a constitution tha, d0C3 no, conler
,he examination 01 ,he constim,ionali,y oI.tam,e. upon an organ
di!Feren, from 'he legi.lator must come to ,hi, ("ndu.ion.
The legal ,i",a,ion is .",iT.ly (hanged if the consti'u,ion con·
rcrs upon an Orgall different lrom ,he legi'!>"ve organ ,he power
'0 exam'lIe ,he conuittt,ionali,y 01 ... tut.. and authori... ,hi>
organ '0 repeal a statu'e considered as "unconsti,utional." Thi.
function ",ay be conferred upon a .peei.l court or upon ,h. 'u·
preme <;(Iurl or IIpoli all COurts. 1£ ~,·try cOllr, is au,horize<! '0 ex·
amine ,he con"i'utlonali,y 01 a .tatut. to be applied hy this rom'
in. Conetete case, ,h." the (OUr" if i, considers the law "un(onsti·
tu,ion.I," i, u,ually only au,horized '0 Telul. ,he 'pplication 01
this sta,ulC in the conCt~lC ca... ,ha,
is, '0 suspend its valid"y lor
,he conc,",. <3", hn, ,he Slat",. remain. valid for.n other cue>
." THI: ""N"",C ....PI;CT .,.- .... w
to whioh it <"fen, and ha' ,,, be ~pplitd by all COUTU in the", c....
unle.. 'bel'. in tum, ref,..., application. If the eXAmination of the
con>l:i'u'ionali,y of ....tut.. i. '''OTved for OIle .p«ial court, ,hi.
Court may k .utbm-jud not only '0 .n.pend tbe "'lUte'. validity
for a cooc""te case, but '0 ,=ind the 'la'u,c altognh~. Until
then, however, tbe .,.'Ule is valid and has to k applied by .lIlaw·
applying organo. Such a law may be valid and applitd for many
j''''''before it j. ""Kindt<! by the C{lmpelent court .. ""ncom,;,u_
,ional." BUl ,hi, mean. ,hat ,h. pmvuion. of the con.. i,u,ion ron·
urning the repeal <:>I ....'ute. ,hat do not conform to lhe norms
of the constitution dire<dy regurating legi.olation ltay. ,hi< mean·
ing: CVnl ".tute> that do nOt conlorm to the.. norm, ought to be
con,id.rei as valid until and '0 the extent that ,hey arc not TO'
",inded in the manMr prcocril>cd by the con,,-itution, The ....
called un<nmt;tut;nnal >lalUtco are comti"nional 'tatutco which,
howeveT, may be r..einded in a .pecial procedure. In ,h.,.. ca!C5
too, provi.ion. of the constitution 'CglJlating l"lli.lotioo have th.
mentioned aherna,iv. charactet. The legiilative organ h•• th.
choice between two p;>th" the one prcscrilJcd explicitly hy the
constitntion and d,. one to he decided by ,he legi.lativ. organ i,·
oelf. The difference. however, con.i.ts in du., the .tatute. crca.,ed
try the latter method may be repealed itt .peeial procedure. even
though they .re. until then. nlid.
TI,i, <hOWl ,h.. 'he con>titu'ion, while being un.ble '0 exclude
the """nd path. prcf.... ,he fi"'t. Thi. preference may .Iso be ex.
pressed by the provi.ion th .. cCttain pcrSOIU who according 10 the
cou<titu'ion par'icipate ~ide the parliamen,) in ,h. legi.la,i"e
procedure, .uch a' ,he head of .ta'e who promulg.....he .tatute>
o. the minister who coun,cnign. 'he acts of Ihe fonner, may b.
puniwed by ••peeial COurt for their part in bringing .bou, a so-
called unconstitution.1 >t.W'e. Thi. procedure may, but need not,
be connected wi'h a procedure .imed.t .be repcal of the .talute.
Th. petlODa} raponlibili,y of an org.n ror the 1.""li.y of a
nonn b. crea'ed comco leu in '1n..tion in ,be r.larion between
consti'ution and .tatu'e than in tbe cela.ion between constilUtion
and ominance, and bet",cen .ta.u,. and ominance, The con"i",.
don may au'hori,e administrative orgam, ••pecially the govern.
ment. to '''ue under certain cin:um>taue.. general legal nontU in
.he fonn of ominane... which do nOl CJt<cure aiready exii';ng st.,.
uta but r~gulate eecuin malton in lie" of ,tatute•. II the go,"ern·
."
mem u.u... w:h an mdinancc under circum,"'""". oth.r than ,h=
prelCril><d by the co,utilut;Oll, the meml><,. of the govcmmem wllo
i.. ued lh. ordi""",. may IKo c.alJ<'d '0 acco"n, and punUhed. Thi.
p...,.,.,durc may. but need not, be conn<'eIM with a procedure aim·
ing at ,h. r'p'at of the ordinance. Similarly. admioi.tr3';'" <>rgam
au<.borucd <0 issue ordinance. on lh. ba,i. of "atu'" may be ac·
countable for the i"U'"CC <>1 unlawful ordinances. without ,hi,
"unl.wlul" oromance n.c.....rily I><10g ,cpt.led. If the ordin.nce
i. ,'.Iid until it io t ••dndttl. or if it catmOl be rcocinded at all, ,hi.
mean. tll>! the administrative organ i. authori~ ". issue it; that
the au'ho, of Lhe coostilution or ,he legislator prda•. however, 00
ruov. oroin.n,•• u.ucd which confonn to ,h. cxplicit p,<>vilion> of
,h. com,i'u,ion or k~p within ,he .tatut....
In all ,h"", cuos, an act by which _.Iid legol norm. a" (,u,ro,
.inc<: i, i. the condi,ion of a ..nction, ha. the charaetor of a dolic•.
Those c.....ltow that the principle ex injuria jw non orilUr, =
gard<:d by traditional theo,y a. uni"e",ally valid, h.. ell~ptio",_
According to the lorogoing "marla, then, ,It. """mination of
the com,itu,iOllality 01 ".ltU"" by .he organs au'horized '0 puJ>.
H.1t 0' apply ,hent, can be rffiricted only in lOme dWtt but no,
emiuly eltCluded; th.,.., organ. h",. to d""id.", I.,,, the qu."ion
...·heth•• that which pre",n.. i..oIf .ubi<'cdv.ly a' a "atuto has
been enaetro by the organ .uthotilW by the comtitution. il ,hi,
qu..,ion i, decidro neg;>ti"ly by the organ-for exarnpl. for the
rea"", th., tha, which claim. to be "nlid ".tute was i..,ued not
hy the constitutionally .utho,i,ttl p..liam""t but by a u'u'I""-
tbe organ .uthoriud to ell.mine the comlitutiona!i'y of ,Ita,
which 1""0""" i,self a. statuto will refuse the p"blica,ion 0' oppli.
cation. If Ihi. i. not done, and if. ,helefore, ,h. gen=1 norm, i..
sued by the usur!"'r b<:c<>me elf"",i,'e, ,hen we are raced by a ,,_0-
lu,ionary change of ,It. <on"i,,,,ion and therefore by • cons,itu.
,ional "",uto bee.use it confonn. to ,he new con"itu,ion.
In the same way that ,h. publica,i"" or applic.tion of th.t
which pracn .. ilOelf .ubjec,ively as a ",,,,,,e can be denittl by the
corn!",,,,n, o'gan, 10 al"" ,h., which .ubjec'ively pre",n.. i..elf ...
d""i,ion of the COUt, of I." imlan.e may be rej""tro by ,lte orgon
authorized to Cltecut. couTl deci.ion•. for ,It. rU""n ,hat, accord·
ing 10 the opinion of that Olgau, ,It. deci1.ion w" no, rendered by
." THE DVNAMIC "'~ECT OF LAw
T
h~ doc!rin~ of ,he h"'''''..:toy of (he legal ord... COlnprd'endo
the Jaw in mo,i"", ill itl pcrpctually renewed procfil of ..,If·
rcgellCntion. It i. a dynamic ,hcory of law ... oppo>Kd <". 'tatk
,beO<)' which attempu '0 compuhcnd ,he law wi."ou' <o""ide,..·
.ion 01. iU"':ilian, oolf a.crulfd onl...~iu ,... lidjly.I~"" ol n·
lidi.y. aDd 10 on. In Iho: «flt" of oM prot>lemI of • djT\>lmiQ of
law is lht 'I"......... of <he dilam, mttbods 01 I... ern.ion. If
tboK lcpl norms arc .--Wkm:! thai cowti'u,c lhf: main pa" of •
~...xr ..... mdy tbcot INla"acb. ADCtioo toa cl!1Uin hu.......
bd>aviol-, aDd if i. io "'"'8'liW thaI :tIl iDdirid....J is obIip'fd lOa
«rUin bduoYicx- by ~ l.aa WI """ opp<>oite b,,"...i o.. is llIIdl: u..
ccadilioa. 01. ann......, lhnl il iI J"""ibk ... diobnguish lWO'ypa
ollepl nonru aubliobinJ ltpl obJiplioou.: tboK in w,"- era-
tioo the indiridWlI 10 be obllplCd participates. and ,m- in
whkh be doa not puticip"'c. Ttw: principle underlying this dis-
,inaion is tt.. principle of fl'ffdom in u.. _ of Ielf-de\Ml>in.>·
lion. Fmon the po;n. 01 vi.... 0( the individ..al Rlbjcctcd to nonno,
tbe dec"'vc qllCOlion i.... h.d.cr the obligation i. ntabli>llfd ..,ith
hi. COI,.."t, 0< wi,hout, or evcn .pin.. hi. COOl",m. Th,. ia the
dHl"erence ulUally dt:acribed u ,lle differm« be'W«rI aUlonomy
and heteTOTlomy. lwo prInciple. which ,he legal th"Ot"Y con.id«.
OJ e""mi.l w'lhin the .ph..e or co"'timtional law. Here llle
differen« .~afl a. lhe dilcluction belli'''''' democracy ."d au-
tocTacy Or betw""n ,..,,,,,blic and monarchy; and here it Ind. to
,1M: u.ual cl:wi6cllioon 01 ,helorm. 01 goo·emme",. Bu' ,lut which
is compreheoded OJ form of ~ment is only a Il""'ial .....llOd
."
180 LAW A1<O n ..n
of lhe creatioa 01 Low. The '(lnD of &""C"'rnmt i, .......,1, W
-.hod of ............. Low a, lhe Iti&h..... kYd of th~ ltpl onl",..
IWIXIJ .. the Ievd of tItc mnsti,uUoa.. ~ OOIIlCIpI of tItc ~'ona
of .......,,,,,••,,- chanococila tItc mnbocI. of crali"" of ~
Iep.l aormt ... rquLolell. bJ obc aIGIt;'utioa. If ~ IIMmund as
the form of p • .,,,nmt (e.m.....: SIMUI_1 ODIJ tItc .......;IU·
tioo .. tItc drtttmination of the mW>od oIlcgisLation. t~t il, lhe
....tion 01 gmttaIlcpl nonns,. aDd if ..... <hUl, idmtif, the ,.
with <h~ mnstilution as tho: dc! tiun of ,h.mnhod of ,.
illJ gmnal ~ n<>nrU, then w Iy '011_ tbe wual wa, to
co<uprchcnd 10,... It .. ulual to S« in law simply a 'y"U11I of I"nenl
nonn. without rea1iLi"l tha, tM individual''''t''''' of th~ g.n....l
nonn•• the progn:soion Iron> the g.n.... 1 10 the indi,ldu.:tl norol,
1110 must £all wi,hin ,h. f",mework of ,h. legol order, TIt. idm'i6·
ca,ion 01 the form of go".rnme"t with ,h. con"itutio" correspond.
nactl, to the prejudi« of identifying law wi<h genenl nor",,-
The prolMm of the fonu of gov.rnm.nt as ,he quct.tiort or the
method of b ..· cration ariscl, Ilow""... no< onl, "' the l.~l of .h.
ooruti'u.ioa, hn><c not only lor lcgiolation OJ <he cra,ion 01".,.,.
...J lcpl narmo, but a. a111...d. 01 Low ern, and especiall, fO'<
tho: nrious.,.... 01 ctntiQg i"di";dlUd nortIII: of *,minQ.rn-
lion, judicial dcriiions, and Icpl tranI&Cl.iDIII.
"
."
independent of any Irgal bond, un;'e, all jodi,liInal. bdQnging to
a ".'e in .uch a "-ar that ,hey can be dWlngui>hed from other in-
d;yjdual., belonging to another .tate, and united by an analogow
interaction as lWO "par."e group!. i. i. undeniable tbat no "Kb
interaction exim uoiLing all individual. I><longing '0 one "3.Ir,
and only them; and it U undeniable that individual. belonging to
different >la'eo may be COlUl«ted .piritually much d""" ,han
tbooe belonging '0 ,he same >late. For tbey klong to ,hi••tate
only legally. They ceruinly may have a psychic ,,,lotion '0 d"le
....t., •• ,h...ring goo: they may ]O\"e it. even deify it, and be pre-
pared to die lor it. But Ihey belong '0 it even if they do 1101 reel
thaI way, if they hat. it, evm betray it. or are indifferem to it, The
ques,ion whethor an [mli,'ld".1 belong>'o a ....,. I. lIot:l. P'yeho.
logical bu,:I. legal question. The uni,y of individuals COll.!,ilUling
a"'...'. popula,ion can only be seen in the fact that the same legal
order;" valid for ,h... individuals, ,h.. ,hei, behavior i, regula'ed
by the lame leg.1 order. The state population i, 'he pe"",nal
.ph..e of vo1idity of 'he national legal order.
Th. £tate ,erri,ory i,. certain delimi,ed 'pace. I, i. nO! a delim·
i,ed pi",e of ,h. earth'. ,urface, b", a three-dimensional .p.ce
which includ... the .pace below ,he ground and ,he 'pace al:>o"e
,he 'eHi'ory enclosed by ,he so-ca.lled fTOntie... of ,he ,tate. It i,
obvious ,h.. the unity of thi> 'pace i, nO, • natural, geowaphi<;
one. The same .tate territo,y may indude au... "'parated by ,he
oc,,,,,, which i. nO' ,he .erritory 01 one .tale. or by the 'erritory 01
ano,her ,tate. No natural .dence, bnt onl~ legal ct>gni,ion can .n_
.wer the que.tion wha' cri'eria d...rmin. the lTO",i.... of ,he
'pace ",·bicb;' ,ha, of one ,tate t...i,ory. ",·h., ron"itut.. its unity.
The 5O<a1led Sla'e '.rri,ory can ""ly be denned a. the .pa,i.1
'phere of validity of • na,ionallegal ord.r.'"
A ,pecial <a'" within the question of the .patial .phere of valid·
ity of ,he nonn, con"i'uting ,he national legal order i. the nature
of th""e legal entities llta. ,es"h from • terri.orial divi.ion of the
'late. Thi. i. the p,oblem of centralization and decentraliza_
tion.'" From thi, point of v;.w we ",a~ comprehend admini,_
trativ. decentrali1.alion. ",If_governing bodie" pTOvinees. ,tate
.'
1,.0'" '"IQl ITA""
fnplaI... and 01) 001. bu.. particubrlyabo the ......... 001 ....IG, _ _
..,
faltncio 001 OW... and fcdu.ol Mat.... 8c£ida, ~ ..-..:Ii.ional u..-
orr of ltal~ Oy~rlOOU lh~ bel tha. lh~ ....,t ha> nOl only JPltial bUI
~bo temponl tltillC1\Ct. tnal timt muH be con,id~,ed ... an ~I~·
rotn. or tht ,'at~ JUIl a. much as 'I"'C~, tnal th~ ~lti..enct 01 tb~
.tate i' limited in time ... mucllllJ in .~ ,;nc~ ......" can com~
;"loaiotentt and I"'" ~way, And j.... a> Ute aislence ooIlh~ ltate
in Of>&« it tht ...... i.Ll ~ of ""Iidity. 01) the mte', a ~ in
Ii"'" is Ute mnponl 'f'bn'c of ."tidily 00I1hc nalioaal J.epI OI'dtr,
And ju.Sl a> the 'I...-ion of the ~ bordtto of tbe SIIlte...
the q_ion of ito temponJ borden, dial is. the quntioD wtwa ~
....te bqins and when i. ttaXS III aist. is a!cpl 'luation and IO<M
a qunlion thaI an be ~nswe«d by a e<Jgni.ion di.«ted toWlOrd
naw",1 reality, A....~ 'nail 0«, it it gtnttal intrnulionaI 10...
whkh d~lC'nnintS the ,pa,ial and Itmpol'31 .phOfe or validity of
lhe national legal orde..... delimit> lhem againn ~h oth~r, and
lhw " .. Us it lcpUy poor.iblC' that ,tates aiot bdidc ~ OIh~r in
opac~ and Follow _h othtt in Ii"""
h is a1mosI ..,If-nident lhat tbe IOGlIed IUlt~ pow.... which ..
cxnrioocd by .ll""CfD. a ....te·. popuJal>on wit.hi.n a .... ,~
~1OrJ is D.Ol.imply tbe pow which......, indindual .,..uaIly
Ia:I O"a' aootbtt indit<id...J rnmiIIing in tbe formcr'l abiliIT 10 in-
duc~ Ute I.".... 10 belLov.- .. lh~ 6.... 0IlC' delir... Many wch x."al
pow.... ,dalion.hip" exi.. wilhou' Ihe one who na••uch pow~'
oytr Inolhtr being regarded a. an organ of Iht "a'e. Th~ ,dltion'
ship daignaled ... "at~ powtr 11 diltinguished rrom OIh.... powtr
reb'ionlhip" by.1Ie be. that iL i. lcplly rqulaled. which mean.
tlw ~ iDdiyiduab who ercilc this powC'O" in their capa.ci.y ..
m.....bnt of a mte ~m arc .u~ by. lqaI ortl.... to
...m:ioc lhis I"""'tt by ~u,. and opplJinl lopS nonm-dw Ibc
""~ pooott has ...,..",..Liv.- chorw;..... 'Ibt ao<al1ed .... te pooott it
1M ...Iidi,y of an dleaiv.- ... tiona/lopl order. "Ibo. the pC'O"n'
"'till aming tile nate powCT mU" be indtprnden. m.......hot it
roWI nOlIle bound by any oth.... tu.ionalltpl order; that the na-
tionall~gal order;1 inlerior. ir 10 any olh~r legal ord~r at an, only
to the internatio"all<'g:>1 ord~r.
In the .,,,,n,;'" of the ...., •., POW"" on~ u"'olly .... lht man ifeo-
tolion of a POW'" which OfttCOOlid....... 1IIdt a" CIIC'TItialauribute
of the Itote thaI 0Il~ opnb of .... os .. 001 "powcn." ~ if oh<ey .n:
.,.
_lOKaIled ~gra. powers. The ~.,.....CT'" of a.ule em Ibow i ..
N
The probJnn of ohc ....Ie ..... juristic ptrSOO. that i.. H an ""Li"ll
...bjta aM as the ",b;"" of obIip...... aDd riplt,. is nam,ial1,
1M sa.... problnoo ha. 01 the COtpourion ;II a jurUtic I'""""-
Tbc lUte too is p"'.'ion. !ha. il. a <:om",uni'r «NOWtut'" br
a normari.", order which in..i'utt$ orptU dio«tl,. or irtdir«<Ir
called "po<t '0 petform .heir lune.ion...cconling to 'M ptinciple
of di.llioll 01 labor. The order COnlti,uting thi, cornmuni,y i. the
legal o,der, designated u "",ional legal order in contndi..inction
to the in.crmtionallcpl oro..... Ju.. a. ,he eo.por:uioot """"it"ted
br a IUtute i, IUb;eet 10 the national ~l ordeT which irnJ'C*'
obligations aDd coofer1 tights upon i, .. a juti"ic JIe1"IO'l. au.hoe
lUte our he ~ .. hei"ll" IUbjert 10 the int,,","tionallqal
onkr wlticlt impoon oblipt..... and eonf.... ri3l" upon tlte lU,e
u • juristic prnon. ADd tltu, <:X.emal and internal obligation<
and tigllll mar he dil.illguW>ed wi.h ~t to.be ltate ... a 00f'
por:uiofl IUbjec. '0 ;n'........ion.11aw jult ... with ""pet:! to a CO<'
po""ion ,ubject to the narion.l leg.l order: extern,l "blig.rlonl
~nd ,ighu of the ....e are stip"lated by the internation.!. in'..na1
OlIes"" 'he national legal ord... In tlte following _,ion we "'ill
dUcust. fino:. only the problem of the Ita,e .. a Juril,ic penon ~
.....w .o.NO ,s.... n "9'
prdJeso ol internalional law which impooln obliplion. and con·
fcn righl' upon ,hc IlOlc.
The JIIII( ....n ..ain, Jul1iu'; 0,( ,,,,on of lhe .lalc
It the OlIlC io pramlnl as an oniDg subjca. if it ia Aid lhal IlK
lU,e h.oo don<: lhio .... that. the qucotion ari"", which io <he cri-
lerioo:t a«ording to whid> (fttI;n ;IICt> pmorm<d by ceruift i......
Yidualo arc .nritM.nnllO!hc ..... te. are qlllli6n1 '" acll or fuoxtion.
of !he ..ace. nr. whal amounlilo the some. why <emin indi"idlillo
in perfnrn,;nll' certain leU are conlidcred to be org.nl of the OIatc.
The an.w.". 1o !hi. question i' ,he some a. the one give" earlier to
lhe analagoo, 'I_ion """'eming the juriotio: J"'"OI\ ol the o;or·
pon.Uon IIlbjca to the na'ion.a1ltpl order. The Iluibutioa ol.1Ie
behavior of ... jJIIdiYidlill "" tile IU.!C OO1ly cq>r_ thaI ,h.
beh.nioo-. dnerm.iMd by !he tio<W lepl order as a ....... itiOot ....
<on>equC'n«. Sinu'M probI of tile oote as an acting penon-
I"nirullrly •• a p....on fulfilling legal oblig>lio'" and .. x.. rci,ing
legal rig)'u-i. a problem of Ittributioll. it i. n<'l:<'\SOry '0 know
th.. notur.. ol!hi' mental "P"""tion In order to comprel>end 'he
llICUling ollhe problem.
Thcqu........ whelher a <ertain behavior. panicullny whether
1 ttrnIln act, a (fttIin function u an act .... fUDeI"" of the ool~
tha' is, WM""'" it io the .....1( as a penoa that perfonns an lIC1 or
ue",i... 1 fUDCtion, is 1>01 a quuti"" directed ,....... td the UiM'
cnce of I flC' like thc qu",'ion ..·heth..... cemin hum.n being h..
performed I certa;" ""ion. II 'he qu""i"" did h.ve lhi. m... "ing.
it cooold n........ be an•.......m .Illnnatively_ For in fan il i, """"" the
.....1( bul a1wap a unain individual who is acting. Only if tile
•
no, mak~
UW AND .<TAT>:
."
u"" 01 ,h~ ~,d.tlng """"Ibility 01 .",ibu,ing 1.g;.la,ion to
,h~ 'Iat~. jult u. uOll.lly. on~ d"", not altrlbut. a d~lict. d~ler_
mined b)'lh~ I~gal otd~r, 10 Ih~ ....1•• although thi. would be poa_
.Ibl~ in th~ sam........, in which any lunction I. attribu,ed '0 ,h~
OUI•. For such .tI,Ibu,ion of a funClion to Ih~ "ato m~...,I,. m~an.
Ihallhe lunction I. d~l~rmined in Ih~ logal ord... conolitullng lh •
• tile communily.
If lbe linguistic usage io analyzed, that i•• If on. a'tomp.. 10 di.·
CO"'" under which condition. In legal I.rminology ceruin fune·
,iom determined by Ih. nallonallegal ord... ar~ atl,ibu,tt! to Ih•
..... by saying that lh ...at•. Ihrough a ""naln indiyidual a. it>
organ. ~rfo"'" a c"'lain funuion, ,h.n i. 'pp.. ro Ihal in g.n~ral
a [unction i. au,ibuled 10 ,h. Slale. i. Int~,pr.,tt! u a "ate funnion
onl)' if i' i. pctfonned by an Ir><Ilvidual calltt! upon for .hi. put·
P"'" by .h. legal ord... and funclioning according 10 ,h~ ptiocipl.
of divi.ion 01 labor; or, whal .mount> to the ...m•• Ihat an individ-
ual i. regarded a. an organ of Ih~ .. a,~ only when h. i. ""Hed upon
by • procedure d.'etmlu.d by ,h. Icgal ord.... 10 p.-rfotm ,hi,
[unction. By ,da,ing ,h. func,ion to Ih. unily of the I.gal ord..
tha. d~'ermin.. iI, and ,hu•• tI,ihu,ing i, '0 ,h , •• and "'pte-
...n.ing it ... function of the "a,~. Ihi, lcgal ord is p.""ni6ed.
Th~ "ate a•• onei.l ord... i, Ih~ abovNl~6ned na,ion.l logal
orde,. Th••ta,. a, a perJ(lll i. the p"'.IOnlfica,ion of ,ha, orMr.
But il i> '0 be noted....tated .a,li."., ,ha. be.id. thi. conc~p1 of
,h••tate a =ond conctp'. dill.,.en, from i, bu' doo.]y ...,Ia.ed '0 il
and indudtt! in i•• i. being applied. Thi, "al., i[ ",p"""nttt! ,.. an
acling penon. i. aloo only ,h. peroonl!ica,ion of a logal ord.r_no,
of the lolalltgal ord.,. ,ha, "'gula... ,h~ boh.vior of all individ.
ual. living wilhin ito lerrilorial .ph.,.~ of ....Iidi'y and thu. con"i-
'u,iog .h. "ate a. a legal community to which .11 individual. be·
long who Ii". wi.hin • cerlaln I.ITilory. bu' a parlial legal ord.r
which rrgulal" Ih. bthavior of indiyidualo who hay. ,h. chane_
,.,..- of organ. lunctioning a, "officialo" according to th~ ptlncipl. of
diyi.ion of labor. Thi. par'ial logal ord.,. co....im... a patti.1
communi,y '0 which only ,h... individuals belong. To thl. parlial
<.ommunlly ar~ attributed only Ih. function, of th... indiyidu.l>.
I, i, ,h. ,tat... th~ burr.ucratic machinery 01 official., h.aded by
,h. government.
Sine. thi. probl~m of .tlTihu.ion to a jurio,i<; penon "'"' dio.
...ill 'U101,"' Aq "Uj' Inll -"." '~I \0 ,""pU,'!>pU! AI"]IU' Supq
OIU! ""wo, ~'!~'" "'~I )0 PUPI " '! =~I ",~,-',ns '~I .1'1 ]»'"
...., "l AH"""~ lOU ]»"U "'''I '"~, UO!''''''UO' Jp~1 .0J IU'WOS
_.. u" '" "'''I AJ.""'''o, >I!, ru,wou.'l'! ,U'I'I1!P 0,., ,.r "'"I pur
""" '.~' ,.,.,.. o~'" -ll' ']»'pul '''01' 'lllio <IOjUUOj" '" p'".d
-I>IUj lOU 'j '''01' '~I 0' ]»luqjUI' IOu .] wOI"" Aq U<lJOU I""
'u>1I JO UOj'~'" ,~, ,"ql-p>Ol'q'! uo<>><I SU!"" u" '" 'w"
,~, JO
r,p[ '~I q:>!~'" <10 UOj,oq!"'" '~I->.S",u ,,,.!oSUn 1=.0, U! JI><I'
SU)'''J!urw <IOpoq!J"" '~I JO ,.OlOU ,~, ,0J 1<l""~juS!,.! II -'lOp
->.:lOId "!IOI'~'I " <I! u.s..o ,~, .1'1 UllOU I""'U'~ '~I JO UOj'"''''
''1' pur '<IO!'''I' .1'1 ucilJo ''1' JO "Ojlr,,,,, 'G' ,1<1,,,
0"" 0''') 'll~j
,,0]»;><Ud '!'I' <"l"W '~l "I ']»1"'1' ... ""rl ' 11
~'!'I'" "'I "up
...""d 'G' JO ul'<! I"j'''>= "" '! '"ofuo So[~rw''''''1 ''I' \0 "0',.",
'lll ''''q ]»A\OAU! UOjl:'.lnj 'll' ~O"""l ''I'uw '" ..of P!"' >q P\OO'
'j~' 'III'S ',u,wr!IJl'<! 'll' "'''1' "",, 'G' 1"'1' P!"' .OU 'j '! '.....rl
"lllW "." '~I '''ll' P!"' 'j '! 'll/oO'l'IV -UOj"UO}"ns" ]»11"" 10"
'j uo,,'uuJ '!'~' pu" .udIo ,,,,,, ]»1\'" 10" ,-'" ';1!J"U!pIO 'S,,!IO,'
JO ,,~S)I I"'G,llu!'j;u;lX' """W"!I'oo '~I'''I' o~,,, 'I.OP!AlpU!''I1
lua ",uop'uuJ ""'1'0 jO ."", ''I' 01 UO!,uq!Jl'" ,~, JOJ 'A!'!"P '!
G'!G-" A'j\,ob "'II ""'110<1 op "'G' "I"!"lJO '>rI'
,ou"" (,<I'W"![
.,0<1 JO t.loqw,w ''11) UO!':>U"J "'j,"[,!ll,[ ''I'
UllOjL><! 0'1'" "l"OP!'
-!PU! ,~, '''~' ]»IOU oq 0, 'j '1 'I>pIO ]&1 ''I' "q ]»q)IlSOJd ,mp
-,;><Ud ""! ]»'''1' ''''W''H'od ""q-Joq,,[ 10 UO!'!A!P JO 'Id!,u!,d
''I' 0, SUlpJO"'" "J '"~} "u,m"!1Joo • .1'[ p>w'0J-l><l " 1l0!PUUj
"GI ~U")"l '! I! '"",, '~'jO UO)}'UUj"" p.,,,d,,,u!.! "O!I"['!llo!
JI 'uo,,'UOj llu!''''l.o-.,,"! ,~, .,poPU! 00\" '1"''1'" ",u"''''P!·'' "'1' U!
'UOjlOuoJ '0 'UOj'"" Iud" M"[ pur UO!}"", ,"r[ JO ,"O!})<IO! AI.W""
.,..... ",'>\01JOU "I' <I] <UO!»u"j lo:ll'l "qll>-------<uOjuuoJ [ri.!
". :»IG' U" 'u,"0'l' '" -UO[I"1"!,uf pue ·(,U'OIUI.,OS .(l,,!pu!,
.U!) ''OJ,,,-,lIlu!wpr '<lO"'I'lll'l "'!-'OSo"" =~} Ol"! [l"J ",r" 10
,m'G' Iruo,,!!,'''' ''1' Aq ~I"" '~I 0' ]»'''Ql'"" '1ID!U"oJ ''ll
',]SOOU' ]»lj.r'ldw. >q lOuu"" I! 'M"[ WOIJ
IU:>J')j!P »U1!1'Qm 0 ,r "ou><l .",,, ''11 )0 ,d')]JOO ."OOUOU. 'G'
o,(o.""p }'lSI'U! '1'1' »UlS ""'~IA [O<lOPjP"" JO UO!'!,'" 'rq""'p!'
'U<U ~ 'I""u~ 'llu'~U''Il 'l,,!.1I1f U) '[OJ ,u""odw! ur "'Old '1~!'I'"
·UO!ll!.l><lO '1'[1 JO 'IU'OU "1' 0'''1 'p"u",,,d .... '1 ,,~S!'Uj '~I
'"~} "oJ 'G} "G ]»~!"Or oq ,,~w A''Il "tqoP!o".un ... " UOO-l><l ...
"""''11 JO W'lqo,d ''1' JO <IOj,.m""'Jd 'G} II! ...O!,!,><I,. '''Ol'l!.l
-odJOO .ql JO uou><! 'p,pof 'G' JO ')'''1''''" SUI]»".d ''1' UI P""'"
uvu o_~v ",y, <0,
....w ASO '>TAn
"
." LAW ..''0 nAn
.""rei,'. act i. ,mibuted to ,be .ta,e. If it i< .... umrd ,hat the 1><.
bovine whkh i, the conlent of the legal obligation, oom",u,ed by
the sanctio'!'- it intended by the legal on:I". httaUIt it is ". I>t
brough, about by the ,hr••, of. sanction. and if ,he intention of
,he l"!lal order i, repreoented "" the purpose of the 'lale-jn,' as
,he l<'tti'ori.l .ph •..., of V>.lidi,y of ,he na,i<Klall<g>1 ord" i, "'p-
.....,med a' the ltrritory of the ....'e-th." one can ..y ,h,t ,hi,
purJ>OOC of the Slale is reali,ed i"d;r.cl/y, because it is r••1ilM in
,h. <>bligated !>th.vi<>r of the individuals, which j. nOl attributed
to ,he , ...., •. But a 8'"'''' p;1Tt of the activity interpreted ...,al. ad·
minimallon represent. a dired realization of "he ,ule', purp""'.
II is • !>thavior .ltribmrd to the ,tate which comll,o'" ,he coo-
,"" .. of ,h. Irg:o.l oblig'lioTU. The func.ion aurlbmed '0 the Slate
i. not a law<n'ating and I''''-applying, hut x IX"'o()h~ing function.
The obligation, ",h= oMt.-ance i, attributed '0 ,he "ate (il in_
terP'eted a> • st,tte function), are obligation, of "o/&ials" (u",,-
tinning aaording to ,he prindple of ,h. divi.iOll of I.bor. S",,,,
(unctiom in ",hich the ,taU'. purpose is directly t<xlized are
p,."..nt (or: direct .,at. admitLItration is P'..."t), if. as ,he oaying
goes, th. s",te does not limit i...lf to bringing .bout a c.,.",in ,lat.
of affairs hy i..uing I.,.. by which the individuals subjected to th.
"at. a.... obligated to a bcrn.vior which brings about thi. "ate of
.ffain; and by xpplying th... Jaw. to concrete u ... and executing
the oanclinm P'.scribcd in th. laws; but if th. ",,,. i...lf h,ing.
about the intended stat. of .ffain. that is. by iu oTglm, in • man-
ner ",ltich-accotding '0 ,h. prov.iling linguistic ulage-is attrib·
utabl. '0 it: ii, for .xample the " ... operat.. nilroads, build,
scbool, .nd hoopi ..I., provides education. offers medical ca~in
brief, if th. s.. te engages in """"omic. cultu .. l. or bum.nit.rian
activi,i•• in tb. oame m.nner., priv..e individuals_ The "n..ion-
.Iintion" of .1>..., activiti .. m.an" '" to 'peak, ,heir "offici.li,..
tion," ,h., is '0 oar-their pctfonna"". b~ organs qualified .. ·'offi·
dal," .nd functioning ao:oming to ,b. P'incipl. of div;,ion of
labor, In what does thi. qualifica.ion as "olf.dals" co",i,,1
Firs', in that th."" individuals arc called to th.ir functions by xn
admini",,,tive act of th. govemment or of an autboriICd admini..
trative authority, and an: legally ,ubotdinated to ,h. go'-.mmen!.
Second. in ,hal the execution of ,h.ir function is made .h. content
of. specific obligatiOll, the o/ficial duty, who>e fulfillment is gllar-
............ STAn 197
iaic or .... ~ oItici.all: for (ample, ilS m..... ben ,rui_t toa>pm-
."
.tOoo fmm tbl: unsury. TIw chid or OP'" m tht aboolu,", alld
«J<t&tituu...aJ ........ reby iI comidnrd a .....e <><po, ........ if br iI
_ otlbj<anl. ttl nlticiaI dutia. Tl>c: chirf or >aU in a tkmocnti<
'l'JItIblie:lDd tbl: ""bintt ........ be'n in:l _reby and in:l rrpub.
lie prdurm thrit lunaiom, whidt raentially :tn' ItpI funaioo..
as nlticiaI dulin; b.1l thftr arr _ constituu:d by tht IttlnaI da-
ciplinary law. but by .ptcial ttjUbtiom wbidl aublilll • 'JIt'<iIic
mpnwibility. Th<-y,.oo. al"t op,e 0'3""'- "'" as ....,t oIicial. bu,
to br as thC'J' pnfono a fune.ion oo~ by tht lqal onkr.
aa:otding.o the pTintipl. ol dl_ilion of labor.
R.eP.e,"",IIion
Tilt all,ibution of ,h. MKribtd function '0 the ~.th;ouJ pt<lOn
of the .'ate i. not the only p<>tIibl. on._ 1n fue" liugui"i. u"'go
tnlploy. anothe" which i. cloocly connec,ed wi,h_if no< included
in-d", attribution to the penon of the ....t•. I, il,ht a"ribu,i""
in, plied m th.. """"ept 0( , .. pr.....n ...'ioo. Soontli"'t. attribu,ion '0
Iht penon of tht ....... iI identi6ed ..-iUt 'rpresen..tio". when i, u
said Wllbe ....'t "'1l"n ··,tpr ~ tbl: OP'''. Bu, in the .pteilic
~ 'M concept of ,rp, tion i. turd only '0 011"""" allribu-
lioo or a funttior> ttl the peopIt. or tttUm "'1I".....uch as ~I".
......... it is said W .. io pnf_iD& ....ir funau., thC'J' ,.".-..t
<he P""'I"k. but this does "'" _ tIw: lU:tribu,ioo 10 tht pnooo
0( tht .... ,t, tho, ia, ,br t~tion or thtte orpIII ,t
orpn.. is o:duded. To bt "'''. ant speab of ,.pt...." 'ion of
tho:: people ....wly only when the fur>c:tioo:t is.-cndtred by an orpn
.!«ted by d.e P""'I"k. But I......istic ""'ll" is _ c:oruQ>tnL Rq>-
ram.. tioo ..b" daigna"" ,he attribu,ion of a fUlK'Ooo or an
orpo DOt el""ted. and "'" only allribulion to the ptnple. but a1Jo
wanathet OlpIl. Thu. i, is altO said 0( an abtolu'e I_~h and a
dic.. tor who usurped pow.... tha, ,hey .ep.esen' " •• peop1t; and or
a judge. appointed by a monarch;n a m""archy ,nn,forn,ed from
an aboolu,e '0 a "om,i,u,ional ,nonarchy. ,hat h" .eprcscnl> the
monarch. "R.p.....n..'i"" .. n,ean••u!»'i'u,ion. W. say: an indi-
~idual who hat no "apacity '0 ."t does no' a,,' him.e1f, bu' ht aeU
through hi. I.g:1i .ubtlitu'. IS hi. representa,i,..; d,., i, 1.0 Ay. one
attribute> to the ,ndi,idual who lad.. the <;opaci,y lO It. himself
the aeu 01. h;, ,..,utory ...pr........'i'·e. bcawc the lalln- ~ to
...... AND nATlt
OTgan OT to tb. peopl•. D.d.. i,'. i, m.,..ly tb. assumption that the
function i. to be (>'rfonnod in tb. intereot or tbat individual or
tbO.!C individuals to whom th. functioo i. auributod. Th.refo..
tb. vi.w found in cenain political doctrin.. tbat an aboolut. mon-
arcb Or a dktuOT ". i. the "tru." ..p....nt<ltiv. or the peopl.,
.xp""'" an atttibution whkh i. ju,t a, fi<titiou, a. tbot a..umod
in traditional thoot')' <tcrOTding to wbkh the parliament el,,<tod by
the people rcp",.. nt, tb. peopl•. tb. ,tatut., are <r.alod by tb.
(>'opl. (wher. a parliam.nt ""iot'), "th. pcopl. a.. the oou",.
or law," or "tb. law crnanat., from the pcopl•." a. it i, said in the
ronnitution. 01 OOm. d.mocratic ..publia.
Th. only question i, und.r wh.1t condition, a ",ienti6. p....n·
tation or law may u.. tb. fiction that con.iou in the auribution of
the funetion pcrlonned by on. individual to a juriotic peroon or to
another individual; or, in other words: under whal condition, the
u.. of the concepts of "organ" (C.nnan, Organschaft). ".uboti·
tute." OT "r.presenta';v." arc ",i.ntifically legitimat., Th. answer
i;, the u.. i, legitima" provided that on. h awa.. 01 the nam", of
tb. attribution. and th.1t one wish •• to ""ptffi by attributing.
fun"ion performed by a d.finit. individual t<l a juri"i. pcoon, OT
by characterizing rhi, individual a, an "organ" 01 the community
pt"""'ted a,. juri"ic P'''lOD, nothing .1.. but th...luion.hip of
,hi. funCtion to th. unity of: the legal ord.,. constituting tb. com·
munity; and tbat on. wish", to ""p""" by attrihnting a function
pcrformed by"". individual to another individual or to otber in·
dividual,.••pecially to ,h. individu.1s forming ,h. people of "
"ate, nothing 01.. but that the individual "".",i,ing ,h. func,ion
i. legally or morally-politically bound to ""erti.. thi, function in
tb. int...., of: ,h.individu.l or individual< '0 wbom, fOT thi, r••·
son. the funcdou i, .ttribu,ed, Th. t"" of: fic,ion i. ",i.ntifically
iIlegitimat., bow....,.. in the following : (I) if byauribution
of. function to a juristk pcnon (by ning that the juristk p"'"
>On of a corporation Or ,h. ""e ... a juristk p""oon pcrforms ,hi.
funCtiou, fuI611••n obligation, "".rei,,,, ~ righl Ihl'Ough an organ)
i. meant that the juri"k pcnon (a. the performer of ,hi. Func.
lion; a. the subject of obligation ,hat i. fulfilled by the funCtiou;
as tb. ",bj.Ct of ,h. rigb, ,hal i••x.rcised by tb. function) is "
-0. It... kl""
"r.... nd>'I"'"
T""
",,~,;c.1 T"""" ., JI.~h"" .. ('!1M). P.
01 !>eroo=qo." Io!:li<a, LXVl, , (t'lMl. P,.. II. pp. 61,
~, 1M
,.. UW "''0 5TAU
-,.
of ill government--th. idea that th••taU can do Tigh" but not
proptrty for ,h" d"lict attributed to ··him." bu, ,h" <ng>.n a<;ting''''
contrary to his du,y i, liabl" with hi, penon for thi, dolict of ,h"
.... t". 1£ th" ....",'. property can be in"'fJ'T"ted a. ,h" coll""ti,·"
property of th" m"mbers of th" ''''''. th.n... will be .ho..... la'''''
tb. liability 01 th" ,tat" i. tho coll"",iv. liabili,y of its members.
,,,,..
Aoed. ~l'f"J'*'i>ing ~1Ila lilt one. ~ Iht 0IMr i<kal
ootm i, valid lor ,h. en,ire "Hitory. The unity of ,he cntiT< ten;·
lOry and the uoity of ,he IOtal legal order, <;<>mpri,ing the panial
legal orden. mw' be c",,,,i'utw at lust by ,hi, b..k nonn. The
bord.,-line cu_ of d""m,nJiza,ioo is ,h.,..,forc at the .. mc time
,h. IJo,-d..-line case of the >ide-by-side existence of .. multitude of
legal cammuni,i... The minimum amdition un&r which it u "ill
poosible 10 .peak of d=nt....liz.:"ion i. at ,he .arne time ,he mini·
mum condition fn' ,h..."umption of ,he <"",xi",n•• of • multi·
tude of l~l cornmuni,i.., But we can .peak al", of d.,.-.<:ntrali....
tiOll in a ""row", ..me only il ,h. unity of ,he entire territory i.
com,;'utrd by positive norm> and 001 m.,...ly by the pr.. uppotsd
ba,ie norm. But ,hi. i. hardly impor...n•. b<!<.use ,h. 1~1 ,..,.lily
doe1 not ",vent.p ,hi. narrow,,- limit. ei,her. The ex,reme ca.", of
d""tnltali,ation that rome. into ronoid.....tion within !""itiv. law.
the ,uWivi,ion of the int.rnational community into n3lional
,tat.. too. ronform. with thi> """""pt of d""entraliz.nion in Ihe
narrower ..,n..,.
11 the nonus of a legal order have differtnt 'ph".. of territorial
validity. thtn the p<mihility, although not the n""e$lity. i, p"""nt
that uonm of different content arc valid for the variouo 'uWivi-
.ion,_ In the theoretical bntderline ca.." where the nnity of the
territory i, r.nn"itnted merely by the pr"",ppo",d b;uic norm and
wh"e all "",itive, that i., po.ited, norm, arc ""lid for .uWi.;'ious
ouly, on. legal OTdrr exi,ts without aoy "",iti,.., legal norm hav,
ing a de6nitc material c""lcnt bcin:g valid for th••n,ire t.lTi·
tory.
The requirommt of norrm wi,h diff"en, COntcntt {or different
.uWivi,ion, may ha.e variou. rca""m: geographical, national, ro·
ligiott. difference. wi,hin ,he material ,h'l i, 10 k legally regu.
lated may rcquirc a ,errltorial .ttWivi,ion of the legal commnnity:
and thi•• 11 tlte more the larg.r i. the 'otal territory and the lorger
tlte J'C",ibility of differentiation wit bin the oneial relatioIU tbat
need to be regulated. Thi> territorial diff.ren'iatloo of ,h. legal
oro.... must be di"ingui,hcd [rom a mer.ly penonal dilfet-entia·
tion of the legal order. It i, po"ibl. '0 i"ue legal norm, of diff....·
cnt content, valid [or ,he entire territory. for individual> who
differ ",'ith ' ..pee' to their language, ,eligion, race, ""', or prof....
,ion. If, in tlti. ca.., w. 'peak of a "divi,ion" of tlte ,tate, i, i, a
UW AND .<TAT!<
" ,
"divi,ion" according to the penonaHty principle, not according 10
,ho ,orri,oriality principlo,
It foUow. from wha, has been .laid rhar the problem of cen,nli·
"lion and drccmralization i. primarlly a problem of tho lOrrito-
rial .phorr of validity of ,ho norm, of thologal ord,,£. Sorondarily,
however, to thi. >tOtic olomont of tho .pa,ial .phorr of the norm$'
validi,y, a dynamic elemen, i. added which, although entiuly
different from and independen, of th.. rorm.... i... ill used in a
muddled mixtu.... with it wh..., centralization and dec..m .... li.. tion
are being tal1ced about. Wh..roa. ftom th.. Ii"t poim of view ,ho
vaiid norm. are being looked upon mordy wi,h ""nsideration of
their difFerenl territorial .pher.. of validity, from the !auor point
of viow. the co"'id .... lion i. directed at ,he method of creating
,h= norm., th.. i. to Jay. at ,h.. act of norm crealing and lh.....·
lor.. at the norm-creaLing organs. A di"inc,ion i> n,ade whether
th.. nonm. valid for ,h.. entire territory or par.. thor..,f, arr crr·
ated by a .ingl. organ or a plurality of organs. And although.
cen,nlized .nd a decen'ralized legal commuoity (in the ILllic
sense) i. possible wbether tho norm. are cre"ed by one organ or a
number of organs. ye, One oormally a>soc;at•• Wilh "conttaliza.
tion" th.. concepl of norm. (v.lid for th.. "",ire are.) created by a
.ingl.. organ. constituting a. it were ,he c..n'", of tho community
and somehow phl"i<:.o.Jly .itting in the conter of it; wherea. one a._
....i".. with "decentrali,..'ion·· th.. conc.p' of • plurality of or·
gans. nol ..ationed in the c",,'..r. but di.pened over the en,i" t...·
ritory, each authori,ed to c".... norm. valid for one partial t..r·
ritory only.
It i. to be noted that not only ,h.. c"..ion of legal norm., but
abo ,heir appli<:.o.,ion, indoed all function...ipulated by a I..gal
ord.... may be cen,,,di,ed ur decontt.li,ed in this drn.rnk ...nse.
th.. i., to be performed by on.. organ or veral. C.ntrali...,ion in
the dyn.>mic ..n... reach", i.. high ..t dcgr wh.n all fuoctions ate
perfonned by a .ingle organ and, ...pedally. when all norms of a
legal order. the general and ,h.. individual, a" c"ared and ap-
plied by the ..me individual. Decemr-ali... tion in the dynamic
sense Itach.. i.. high.., dcgr... if all function. may be performed
by all individualJ mbject '0 tho legal order. Both c..... are only
ideal borderline case. whicll do 00' OCCur in '<lOia! rrali,y.
"
,,' lAw ANn ......n
'00
IITATE AND tNTEJt."'AT10NAL l.AW
n.Lional law. Th. ><:cond hold. that war, even a<:cording to g<n=1
;nt<rna,ionaJ kw, is permi..ible only ... a T<ac,ion again" a viol.·
Lion of inlemation.llaw. War. tile rrptjoaJ, i. ;,,,,a. deli<:l, unl...
it i. a "'nction. This i. ,h. IO-aU.d prineipl. o( bellum iw'um.
The view that ,hi. principle i. part 01 poIitiv. imernationallaw
was at lhe I>o..i. of ,b. peace ,,...u;., concluding ,he I'im Wodd
War, the Covenant of the uague of Nation., b<ing a par' of ,h...,
treati... Since then. however. ,hi. principle has l>ttoroe untquiv<>-
cally 'he Colltent of tWO important IT•• 'i........'h. Briand-Kellogg
rac, and 'be Charttt of the United l\at;ollS. The (ouner h.. been
joined by practkally.ll nation.. and the la,«r d.iml in 'hi> reo
.ta,..
'pe<:l validity for all of the world.
In view of th.", facu it i. hmlly posoible to .. y any longer today
,hat according '0 valid imem.ationallaw :my 'ta'e, unl... it ha, ob-
ligated itself otberwi"" may wage war againl( any o<b.,,- ,la'e for
any reason wilbou, ~;oIOling internat;onal law; it i. bardly poui.
ble, in other word" to deny the general validity 01 the b.Uum
in.tum principle.'" The assumption. then. thai ""r, like r<:-
pri..h, i' a lanet;on of internationall.w, i. well founded.
These ,:metion., like tbe ...nction, of nOlion.ll.w, <;o",i" in <be
forcible deprivation of me, liberty. and other good.. notably eco-
nomic valu... In a W"'. human ~ings are killed. maimed. impri,-
oned, and nation.l or private pT<>pe"y i. d..troy.d; by way of ..•
prilal. nat;on.l or private prol"'''y i. <;on6>ealed and other legal
righu are inltinged. These '"-nction. 01 internation.al l.w Ol. not
different in e<>ntent {rom <bose of national l.w, But they are '·di·
rected again" the ,tate" .. the ..ying goe•. If war and repri,.h
"'we the character of ..netion" .nd if th... "'nctions are described
.. being directed .gai"'t tbe ,tat••hhough they are directly di·
r«ted .gainst human beings, th.t i,. if tbe mffering of th nc·
tion' i••!tributed to the .... te. <ben thi. auribution ""rre, the
idea that the hum.n beings wh" ",lfer 'he ,.nction. "belong" to
the state, that is, .re .ubject to tbe legal ord" whose pet<CInific•.
tion i> the ,tate a' the "'hject of international law, and, a. such, the
subject of the imemadonal delict which i. the condition for the
laDetion•.
'"
.) /au.-liauJ U. . . . Pri",iIWe u"u arlin
Intern..;"·...! law, u a cocn:"'e order, ob<nn tbt _ dw'ann" ...
IUtioDo.Il:ow. ;4•• the bw of a aaa. wi dill..... frcm;' aDd Iboon a
(mw. oimiWitywiLh the law of primiti,..,. i.e., oatdao IOCiftJ ill
!hat iw..,......i..... ! 1:0" (:ao a ~ law that blndl.U tulCt) <loa
..... ewobllilllp..dal organ. for Ihc cratioa aM application of it>
DOI'1IIL " is otiJl ill a Ute of far.rucbiDg deunlr.l1intion. " is
only althe begin" .... of. <k>'clopmcn. wh.ich na,ion>lla. has al-
fftdy """"pkled. Gmcn.l lIonnalU created .,..,. t;ull0In or nury.
which mc:mJ: by tbt .... mMn of ,h. lcpl community IMmaclva,
not by •• peei.llcgi.l••;•• ""P". And lhe ..me i. truc lOT ,he Ip-
plial.ion of the gene",l nomll in a concrete cu... It iI the '1lI1e il·
KIf. believing iu righu h.ve b«n vioJatrd, which ha. to decide
whether the bet of a delict auu lor which Inolher "ate i. '"''p'''''
.ible. And illhi. Oilier Itat. drni .. lhc ;werle<! ddicl, and if nO
"Fer"",,,, can be reacl>ed bl:1W«n the two partie! concerned. nn
objectJ,·c."thorit, uj~ competft1t to d<cidc the con8ict in a le-
gally ~bkd "..-ocMure.. And i. is tbt .... te wI..- rip" b ..
btu. 'l'ioWtd which is IU1.horiud to f'eacl ag;linsl: 1M viola by
reptiab .. war as .... OlIrn:i~ XU provided for by intemlltional
law. TIle technique of oclf-hoolp. dul~ic of prill>iti~e low,
",""ilL
bcb>.va as I delia and prclCribcs ito ~tI.. Dolit.. arl Dtll con·
IlCCtId with the anctiorII by IYUoa: cmaizl ddicllto the one lind of
sanctions and otha ddiaJ to the: other lind of lalK'tioou: th"","
whool righ.. 11",," '-n infringed hat I cboitt bnWttrl thl two.
Besidco. .hl wrons~ te is nor obligated. but only IUthoril.cd,
acwrding '0 gmcn.1 int lonal law, 10 onet with a ..nc.ion
19aitut In infringcmettt. TIM: right of the on., sta'e ",hkh i••h.
rcllcx 01 doc obligation of the o,her state is "'luippod wi,h thllU-
,hOTi.. ti"" to .xccU<e the N.ncrionl. e".blished by ;nternadonl)
I.w, Iglin1l thI1la'" which .ioilla ito obliga,ion, Th;l COtllti,ut..,
thlsubjectiY' righ, (ill ,he Ipcci6e tlChnial ..,,,..) r>! the wrong~
>lItl.
This right i. dilfcrml from a .igh, of printe 1.0. in ,hll the
,.,
....ruo:...s ne<d DOl be <Iflkrod by a court decision and nted DO<
WC2«uted U, a op<rilI 0Ip"; lho:n:fare u..e ~ NIt bao no
lo:pl pown 10 irulilUlt a lcpl 1"""'Cd'''. din"Ctrd 10'WUd. a ......,.
lion. but bao the kpI p""""" 10 decide iudf that in lht pmt"l.
_ .. """"""'" is 10 be d;T~ :ogainot a sure, and _lAo j ... l£ 10
a«U~ lht sanctioa.
Thil <loa DO< man U if, IO<I>elima -"~I i.....-
,ional la.. doa DO< oblipu 01" a.. ~ iodi"i<h...1I. Since all b •
....."tiall'Ttt"b,.,. human bd>anor. bo<h a ltpl obliplion and a
lqaJ right can haye nothinl ebe,.. IMiT con""" bu. huD'lall ....
hayjor; aDd this cannot be an}lhlng but the 1M! ;or 01. i"di"id l
h"rnan being>. Tha. intnn,,,i()lUl b ....blip and "u.hori!..
>lain ",enly me:ln. ,hu: it docs not obliga'" and authori.. indio
vidual. dir«tly. like ,h. n.,ionll Irgal order. but only indircclly.
through ,h. mtdium of ,h. n.,ion.1 1~1 oTd.... (whooe ptrso"m-
C'a.ion i. "thella,e') The obligation and "mllari",;o" of 'lie Ilate
by in..ma.iooallo ... hu th• .arne chand.,. U 'he obligalion and
aull>ori ,ion 0( a COTJ'ORlion II a juriuic penon by .he national
'<pI onI The ....,. i•• juristic ptnoo. and ,he nonns of in~-
national law. by which lht .....es a. JUCh are obliplcd or a"thor·
ized. an iDalmplete norms. -n..c.,. determine mnely the .... lnUl •
...,....., I'C'fJ"D"I elnncJl. of II"",... bo:Juyior. whio:h"" M1Caaity is
their WlItmt. n.,. ~I"" _Iy ~"" ought I(> tot dam or
... , ....p.t f>OI I(> !w dOlW. b,,, DOl .."" (wllidl hWDan !willI)
ha$ 10 pnfonD the praaibfd aaioa .....~rn r.:..bQranu. Hil
il!m.ifi",,,ion is Irit .". in,,·ma.iaa..aI law 10 tho: national l~l
ortkT. TM bd>a...... of this indiridual commanded (10" prollibiud.
.". intC'f1l.ll.ional \.aw c_iltllina the luUiUmmt or riob.ioa 01
tIM: obligation ~blished .". int<Tn~tion.alla., and cooucqumlly
thio obligation. is attribu.ed to the .... te. u.... i. to $lIy: iJ ,cf=al
'0 the ..nioy of tbe ............1 legal on!n. 'r"ob.... 'bis !whn.....
b do:t=oined by the national lqal onkr as III<: function 01 an
lndivid ....l ""'-'ng .....peci.al org>.n of the te. TM $lInle is true
of the Mhavior 'ha' cOIlIi". in 'be n d of 'he right and
.be aUlhortz.a.ion to reae. wilh repri...I, or Wir again .. tile viola·
tion of Ihe oblig3.ion whose ten.... is .he righ., There iJ no diffi·
culty in amibuting to the .... te • b<havior prohibited by int ·
lUlionall.w, thlt i•. in I""mi"l that I ""te can commit an int ·
....tional M1ict. The national legal ani.... an ......, well lutlloriu
,d STAn ...... 'N'1'D.NATJONAL Ul.
and ~_ obIipte ...... rpn of W tate <0 a behn..... "' which ....
ternaliolYl bw au...:.bes a NJKtiDo. and wbida. lh""dOff. hai Ihf
c/u.ncte. of .... "'<cnI.a,ional deli«.
AI. """ bcaI said. <be ...."'....... tha, npriah aDd .llr :u .u.DI;-
...... of""on;llional bw an diueted ;opinsl<.he: lUte. "'"'" tha,
Lhc ...I£crio& of <he e--il CQ:lMitu'''' by lhcoc oanctiow which. in
be. is ... l£cnd by bn""'.. bciQ&$ beboging "' <he IU"'. is a,trib-
uled 10 k<be "",non of tM lOa"':' Thf: ,,;,......... CUI be dacribcd.
howe.-cr.... a """" reali$tic !albion ..-ilhou' <he aid oflhi, 1icLi-
.iDu. auribuLion. In .. far:u in'frn>b<;ll1.Oi delia<, wtoich a'f <.he:
condition< (Dr oanctiD<t.. llrf commiurd by human beilip ..·00
func.ion u Ihe gmt"",,,,en, of Lh~, ....""'.... heleu .be ... netion.
arc di,cc.c<! not again.. ,hem. bu, agairu. other human beings' ,he
",eanina of ,he ''-"'emen' ,ha' ,he ...""tion, ale dir«:,cd ·'apim'
,hf .""e" un be in\erpretfd '0 mcon; th. ",net ion. s,ipul.,... by
in'ernational Ia ... (war and rcpri... Js) con"i,u« collcctiv. liability
of ,h. mcmbera of tho ",-",.for ,he imematio"al dclicu cOII,mined
by.hoc g......nll11mt.'"
Thi. collttti", li.bili'y il an aboo!ulC liability Dr liabiJi.y wilh-
out faull. bca,...., tM behavior which <:cmIi.UIC:I <be in,erllalion>.l
ddiCl is noI the beh.lvior of the individ....l. ;opilUl w'-- the
pnaiDo is dinacd. and thcrriorc the Yiobtioa of intercmcnated
by the ddicl is neitbcr ilUctttiocoally . - nqliscntly brough.
abou. by lhcoc individuals.
This a>Ilttti", Liabili.,. allo molli,ulC:l a IimiWit, bclwun
ICf>Cnl intem3tional bw and the bw of. primiti~ communi.,.
Ao:ording", gmcnl in.........iorW law,." of W1I. OUP' <0 be
dir«ttd anl, apimt """"bert of ,he armed foruo who ..c ""Pm
of <.he: >tale. A,tributing their ... l£criDg '0 <be lUte an ~
al.. aptCSl.he ida tha, the """'of ...... lire directed agaimt orpns
of the >tate. But i, i. not ncludcd tho. in bet the ac.. ol ...... alf«l.
poople ..·ho ate nos IItfmbfn ol,1Ic arm'" forrer, at ,he prncrt,
.tag< ollcchnical ..·.nare ,hi, is no long.. noidabl •.
.. 111< 01 tbl. .. "I""'1on I, ...y <t>o rio<k i• • dril w.... The I......."
d'to<t«l >phut ,he M "", ""Iy
_'l
wl1l , Iluo, tbri< .... 'H~. ""'
>plnoo II., ortu.I'
~~ ,h" _ tb<y ."ribu" ,II< ,-ttl{ 01 tb<
..-It I"~k"" .1"'" bd"P .... '0 ,he "'l<. 8., ,he _ " _ , . .I...
_Ioldo. -.lias ... ' _ , 01 ,he ........... ~ "",100 io
- .............
dio«oo<I 0*1 . u t . - _ It io I. _ .. _«01 01 bjotao<Iloodl_
.......... 1oPo_" _ ~"'- ......... w1Q _ ,_ _
....................
Ito - - - , ........ _ 01 " ' - 01 _ ""'" ,...... --.u. ..
.\'tAn AN" lNTUNATlO>lAL LAW
'-7
The legal meaning 01 the p«uliar;,y 01 international law. ac-
cording to whkh "only .lat", are obligated and authoci,",," and
according to which "only .late' aTe ,ubjects 01 international law."
i, completdy ""pr",,~ in the .laternen" international law dele-
gat.. to the national legal orden th. ta.k of identifying the indio
viduals by "·h,,.., behavior the oblig"t;"'" .....bli"'"" by inter·
nation.llaw ace fullill"" or violal"". and th. right.< ",,,,hU,h",, hI"
international law ate execd.ro. By this ,t.lement nothing d .. i.
exp~ but the indil"e<t ohligation and authorl",tion of the in_
dividual by inteTTIalionall.w.
This indirect oblig"ti"" "nd authori...tion o! individu.ls by in·
«malionallaw. however. i' a rule "'hkh hal some imp,,".nt .,..
cepdon, both in !l""neral .nd in partieu!>r international law.
There.re a ... in whkh a nonn 01 inteTTIationallaw dic"".ly ob-
ligates." ind"·idu.I--ca.... in which internationar bw not only de-
termine> whnl ougllt to be done oromiu"". bUI .bo whkh human
being ought '0 behave in that way. Tn th= co ... individual •• p-
pear directly as .uhj"".. of Internallonallaw.
If individu.l. are dil"e<tly obligated by intemotional l.w, ouch
obi igation i. not brought about by otlaching the 'p«ific ..nction,
o! intemotion.l I.w (repri..b or war) to the beh.vior of the indi_
vidu.1. The ohligations dil"e<tly impooed upou individuals are
corutitute<! by .. nctions which are ch.rocleriOlk for n.tional law,
n.mely punl,hment .nd civil ""e<;lllion. Intern"ion.l hw m.y
l<av" the d..ennination .nd execution of th""" ..netlon. to an',
tion.1 legal order. a, in the co.. of the intemotional delict of pi.
racy. Or the sanction' moy be determined by an intern.tion.l
I"'aty.• nd their appHcation in concrete <:3... may b. cbarg"" rn
an intemadon.l court created by an intemotionalt",",y; thi, h.p-
pened. for .".mple, in th.. c.... of thel'fO'<:Cution of war crimin.l>
according to the London Tleaty of Augtlot 8, '945.
To ,h. "",.nt th.. in«mational law penetn'e> ar"" 'hat her..·
tofore bav. ne.,n tRe e""lu'iv.. domain of nation.II"!(31 ord.... it<
'endency 'ow.'" obliga'iog or au,hori,in!!: individual. directl,. in·
ae""". To the .. m. ""tent collective an~ absolute li.bilitv i......
placed by ind;vidual1iabilit,. .nd Ii'bility lx"ed on f",h. Thh de-
velopment i' paronele<! by lbe est.blisbment of cen'ral or~'" for
th. creation .nd execution of I..gal norm_ development I"", up
'0 "OW i. ohserv>bl.. unly in portk"l.r i", ..notional communities.
Thi, cen'....li""tion .pplie., in the finl place. 10 j"riodiet;on; i'
,.. STATE ANI> 1~"Tn"'ATIONAI. lAW
.•
!:iii'
l;":l:~~:l;~e.eiC-1 ~~l803''-~
2,",:; "-;;::;.,
.r'i~;~,!:.;l
• • ~.Q:=:
li ii;;: .;',
.. ~g. :t... "l"'~H!,.pJ
""'_~ . ' . '
JilES'
·01 [I ~dl
_ '1 . ""
U.
>!;'~ ~ ;;. .. ..!o
>:T, _ ~
.. 0. . . . . . - _ ::.. ·rnH
11'l~"i~ ,
"$;;",,,. .. ~.5-
~.~ ~ ~ ;;·~~if=:i'"!.fs.;:· [~s.~~ii·,,;;o:! l~. ~:
& ,,_;;'_ ";;l t ~ I ,H q ,
~. 5" 5: s,:ICI i';, " l;6 S' 5' ;..Ii ..2. ~ I 0 ~ ~ ;; -a ;;- D. •r">
.. "_ 1-' a... -lie-- lIiHr~~!
'!.~ iH ~·hi!l! ·1, ih, i<!~ iE ~f I hn
,",0"; .. ; ; : "
- •. """ :!."a t --i r: i
tP I" ";:I_ -::r~ l'l 2.-
lhWJ.
!!d.1l
gii5~.~I~~s~~T.:.Jr~rl·~~~~~~f
~_. o· " .
~=~. ~ ~ -~,,_.~
uim ouch a provWon. ~ m;t!piUon of intnnaUonaI law by
Ihc i...uvidualltate iI ..... a oondi.ioa of i.. ,-al.idity foe thillta'c
Kipulato;!. by in..,.....a'ioo.1 law i...1f. A nlid DOrm of international
Law QIIDOt .....blisb oudt a condicioa. beg",,", the Yalitli.y of ohio
........ iurif anooc dcpmd 01:> oucb a condition- Bu, JOOthi.., ""'_
•..".. law courts and oobcr Iaw"'pp1rini orpw.o reprd. intnna·
UonaIlaw ... nlitl for their OWII .... te oaJy if thal .... te bas 'CClJI-
ni.rctl it ... biodirtg. ~ mull of IIICh a Yicw iI thaI in,erna,ional
Law iI not binding for a ....te which bas.- rewgniud. it. Tbc vicw
thaI imcmation<d law 4 not ""lid. 100- a .... te. tha' the .... lC·. reb-
'0
Uono other .... ,es arc not ""bj«< to in,crna,"""'1 bw. i. qui,c
poosib!c.
Internali""",1 la ..., accor<ling to iu own imclllion, i. applicable
'0 <hc 'cla,ion of a t. '0 anothcr community al a ...... only
u"dcr .h. condi.ion II ,hi. wm",uni,y has been recagni••d by
lh. "a'c ... a ·•.... ,C.. in .h. ICnle of illl.rLUllionalla.... Thi. recog·
nition of a communi.y ... a ••....t.;' l"C<juired by i",ema'ional bw,
it _ to be confoondcd with 'hc rocognilion of in'cn\lltionallaw
by a ..... 'e. If, in >JlJwcring.be q ;"" I.,.. ..... rca>Ort of lbc valid·
I,yof inlCrrUtional law, OPe from the validity of nne'. OWII
na'iowollcp.l ord...._if one tub .. hy in.........tionallaw i. valid I.,..
.he lUte already conccjvcd of:as a Icpf order, the only pwoiblc ...·
.w.... is: InternationaJ bw h:u to be ~ by this ltate in
onlcr to be valid I.,.. it. The fonnula'ion of the qUol:llion contain.
already the assumption ""'. the rc:utlIlI fO< the nlidi.,. of in........
"
".
e) The St><alled Melh<><lJ of bHerp'el"I;O~
Joree 01 a final judgment. It iI well known that much ne,,' law iI '"
created by way of .uch amhen,ic inte'pretation, especially by courU
011.... resorL
Tbe inte,preta,ion by a law.applying OIgan i, different fTOm
any other interpretation-;oJ] other intttpreu,ioru are no< outhen·
tic, ,hat i., theydo not create law.
Jf an individual wi.be. to obey a leg.1 nOfm that rogulates bil
behavior, tba, ii, iJ he wi.hes to Jul/ill a leg.1 ohliga,ion by behav·
ing in a woy to whooe oppo>ite the legal order a'taCh .. a ...nction,
then thi, individual too, must moLe 0 choice be,weon dillerent
poosihilities if hi, beh.vior i, not unombiguou.ly determined by
the norm. Dut ,hi, i,not on authentic choice. Jt does not bind the
organ who applies ,bi. nOTm and tberefore always run. ,be ,ilk 01
being rega,ded 0' ermneou. by that organ, so thot the individuol',
beh"'ior moy be judgod to be a delict.
"
", ',;'UPUTATlON