Introduction to Genetic Algorithms

Theory and Applications

The Seventh Oklahoma Symposium on Artificial

Intelligence

November 19, 1993

Roger L. Wainwright

Dept. of Mathematical and Computer Sciences

The University of Tulsa

600 South College Avenue

Tulsa, OK 74104-3189

(918) 631-3143

rogerw@penguin.mcs.utulsa.edu
C Copyright RLW 1993

Tutorial Outline
1
Part I Introduction and Concepts of Genetic Algorithms

_ Bibliography
_ GA Definitions
_ Overview of GAs
_ When to Use GAs
_ GA vs Traditional Algorithms
_ GA vs SA
_ Applications of GA
_ The Standard GA (Algorithm)
_ Population Representation
_ Reproduction
_ Example GA Fitness Function
_ Roulette Wheel
_ Crossover
_ Mutation
_ Schema Theory
_ Fundamental Theorem of GA
_ Deception
_ Genetic Programming

Tutorial Outline
2
Part II Example Applications of Genetic Algorithms

_ Order Based GAs

_ PMX Crossover
_ TSP GA
_ Additional Applications using GAs
_ Three Dimensional Bin Packing
_ Set Covering Problem
_ Multiple Vehicle Routing
_ Neural Network GA
_ Parallel GA Issues
_ Genetic Algorithm Packages
_ GATutor
_ GA Newsletter and How to Join

3
Primary GA Bibliography (1993)

1.Proceedings of the First International Conference on Genetic Algorithms,

John Grefenstette, Editor, Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc., 1985.

2.Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Genetic Algorithms,

John Grefenstette, Editor, Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc., 1987.

3.Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Genetic Algorithms, J.

David Schaffer, Editor, Morgan Kaufmann, 1989.

4.Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Genetic Algorithms,

Richard Beler, Editor, Morgan Kaufmann, 1991.

5.Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Genetic Algorithms,

Stephanie Forrest, Editor, Morgan Kaufmann, 1993

6.Genetic Algorithms and Simulated Annealing, Lawrence Davis, Editor,

Pitman Publishing, 1987.

7.Handbook of Genetic Algorithms, Lawrence Davis, Editor, Van Nostrand

Reinhold, 1991.

8.Genetic Algorithms in Optimization, Search and Machine Learning, David

Goldberg, Addison Wesley, 1989.

9.Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems, John H. Holland, The University

of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, MI, 1975.

10.Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems, John H. Holland, MIT Press,

1992.

11.Genetic Programming, John R. Koza, MIT Press, 1992.

12.Parallel Problem Solving from Nature 2, Reinhard Manner and Bernard

4
 Manderick, Editors, Noth-Holland, 1992.

13.Foundations of Genetic Algorithms, Gregory Rawlins, Editor, Morgan

Kaufmann, 1991.

14.Foundations of Genetic Algorithms 2, Darrell Whitley, Editor, Morgan

Kaufmann, 1993.

15.Nicol N. Schraudolph, "Genetic Algorithm Software Survey", available by

anonymous ftp from cs.ucsd.edu as /pub/GAucsd/GAsoft.txt, August, 1992.

Other GA References (1993)

16.J. Grefenstette, GENESIS, Navy Center for Applied Research in Artificial

Intelligence, Navy research Lab., Wash. D.C. 20375-5000.

17.J. Grefenstette, "Optimization of Control Parameters for Genetic Algorithms",

IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, pp. 122-128, 1986.

18.H. Muehlenbein, "Parallel Genetic Algorithms, Population Genetics and

Combinatorial Optimization", Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference
on Genetic Algorithms, Morgan Kaufmann, 1989.

19.R. Tanese, "Distributed Genetic Algorithms, Proceedings of the Third

International Conference on Genetic Algorithms, ed. J.D. Schaffer, Morgan
Kaufmann, pp. 434-439, 1989.

20.T. Starkweather, S. McDaniel, K. Mathias, D. Whitley and C. Whitley, "A

Comparison of Genetic Sequencing Operators", Proceedings of the Fourth
International Conference on Genetic Algorithms, June, 1991.

21.T. Starkweather, D. Whitley, and K. Mathias, "Optimization Using

Distributed Genetic Algorithms," in Parallel Problem Solving from Nature, ed.
H. Schwefel and R. Maenner, Springer Verlag, Berlin, Germany, 1991.

22.D. Whitley, T. Starkweather, and C. Bogart, "Genetic Algorithm and Neural

Networks: Optimizing Connections and Connectivity", Parallel Computing,
5
 14:347-361.

23.D. Whitley and J. Kauth, GENITOR: A Different Genetic Algorithm,

Proceedings of the Rocky Mountain Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Denver,
Co., 1988, pp. 118-130.

24.D. Whitley, T. Starkweather, and D. Fuquat, "Scheduling Problems and

Traveling Salesman: The Genetic Edge Recombination Operator", Proceedings of
the Third International Conference on Genetic Algorithms, June, 1989.

25.D. Whitley and T. Starkweather, "GENITOR II: A Distributed Genetic

Algorithm", Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence,
2(1990) 189-214.

University of Tulsa GA References (1993)

26.Abuali, F. N., Schoenefeld, D. A. and Wainwright, R. L. "The Design of a

Multipoint Line Topology for a Communication Network Using Genetic
Algorithms", Seventh Oklahoma Conference on Artificial Intelligence, November,
1993.

27.Abuali, F.N., Schoenefeld, D.A. and Wainwright, R.L., "Terminal Assignment

in a Communication Network Using Genetic Algorithms", to appear in the 22nd
Annual ACM Computer Science Conference - CSC'94, March, 1994.

28.Blanton, J.L. and Wainwright, R.L. "Multiple Vehicle Routing with Time
and Capacity Constraints using Genetic Algorithms", Proceedings of the Fifth
International Conference on Genetic Algorithms (ICGA-93), Stephanie
Forrest, Editor, Morgan Kaufmann Publisher, 1993, pp. 452-459.

29.Corcoran, A. L. and Wainwright, R. L. "A Genetic Algorithm for Packing in

Three Dimensions", Proceedings of the 1992 ACM Symposium on Applied
Computing, March 1-3, 1992, pp. 1021-1030, ACM Press.

30.Corcoran, A. L. and Wainwright, R. L., "LibGA: A User-Friendly Workbench

for Order-Based Genetic Algorithm Research", Proceedings of the 1993
ACM/SIGAPP Symposium on Applied Computing, February, 14-16, 1993, pp.
6
 111-117, ACM Press.

31.Corcoran, A.L. and Wainwright, R.L. "The Performance of a Genetic Algorithm

on a Chaotic Objective Function", Seventh Oklahoma Conference on Artificial
Intelligence, November, 1993.

32.Knight, L. R. and Wainwright, R. L. "HYPERGEN - A Distributed Genetic

Algorithm on a Hypercube", Proceedings of the 1992 IEEE Scalable High
Performance Computing Conference, Williamsburg, VA., April 26-29, 1992, pp.
232-235, IEEE Press.

33.Mutalik, P. M., Knight, L. R., Blanton, J. L. and Wainwright, R. L.

"Solving Combinatorial Optimization Problems Using Parallel Simulated
Annealing and Parallel Genetic Algorithms", Proceedings of the 1992
ACM/SIGAPP Symposium on Applied Computing, March 1-3, 1992. pp. 1031-
1038, ACM Press.

34.Prince, C., Wainwright, R.L., Schoenefeld, D.A. and Tull, T., "GATutor: A
Graphical Tutorial System for Genetic Algorithms" to appear in the 25th ACM
SIGCSE Technical Symposium - SIGCSE'94, March, 1994.

35.Sekharan, D. Ansa and Wainwright, R. L., "Manipulating Subpopulations of

Feasible and Infeasible Solutions in Genetic Algorithms", Proceedings of the
1993 ACM/SIGAPP Symposium on Applied Computing, February, 14-16, 1993,
pp. 118-125, ACM Press.

36.Sekharan, D. Ansa and Wainwright, R. L., "Manipulating Subpopulations in

Genetic Algorithms for Solving the k-way Graph Partitioning Problem", Seventh
Oklahoma Conference on Artificial Intelligence, November, 1993.

37.Wu, Yu and Wainwright, R. L., "Near-Optimal Triangulation of a Point Set

using Genetic Algorithm", Seventh Oklahoma Conference on Artificial
Intelligence, November, 1993.

Genetic Algorithm Definitions

7
Grefenstette [16]

"A genetic Algorithm is an iterative procedure maintaining a

population of structures that are candidate solutions to specific
domain challenges. During each temporal increment (called a
generation), the structures in the current population are rated for
their effectiveness as domain solutions, and on the basis of these
evaluations, a new population of candidate solutions is formed using
specific genetic operators such as reproduction, crossover, and
mutation."

Goldberg [8]

"They combine survival of the fittest among string structures with

a structured yet randomized information exchange to form a search
algorithm with some of the innovative flair of human search. In
every generation, a new set of artificial creatures (strings) is created
using bits and pieces of the fittest of the old; an occasional new part
is tried for good measure. While randomized, genetic algorithms
are no simple random walk. They efficiently exploit historical
information to speculate on new search points with expected
improved performance."

Genetic Algorithms Overview

8
 _ Developed by John Holland in 1975 [9].

_ Genetic Algorithms (GAs) are search

algorithms based on the mechanics of the natural
selection process (biological evolution). The most
basic concept is that the strong tend to adapt and
survive while the weak tend to die out. That is,
optimization is based on evolution, and the "Survival
of the fittest" concept.

_ GAs have the ability to create an initial

population of feasible solutions, and then recombine
them in a way to guide their search to only the most
promising areas of the state space.

_ Each feasible solution is encoded as a

chromosome (string) also called a genotype, and each
chromosome is given a measure of fitness via a
fitness (evaluation or objective) function.

_ The fitness of a chromosome determines its

ability to survive and produce offspring.

_ A finite population of chromosomes is

maintained.

Genetic Algorithms Overview Continued

9
 _ GAs use probabilistic rules to evolve a
population from one generation to the next. The
generations of the new solutions are developed by
genetic recombination operators:

_ Biased Reproduction: selecting the fittest to

reproduce)
_ Crossover: combining parent chromosomes to
produce children chromosomes
_ Mutation: altering some genes in a
chromosome.

_ Crossover combines the "fittest" chromosomes

and passes superior genes to the next generation.

_ Mutation ensures the entire state-space will

be searched, (given enough time) and can lead the
population out of a local minima.

_ Most Important Parameters in GAs:

_ Population Size
_ Evaluation Function
_ Crossover Method
_ Mutation Rate

Genetic Algorithms Overview Continued

10
_ Determining the size of the population is a
crucial factor
_ Choosing a population size too small
increases the risk of converging prematurely to a
local minima, since the population does not have
enough genetic material to sufficiently cover the
problem space.

_ A larger population has a greater chance of

finding the global optimum at the expense of
more CPU time.

_ The population size remains constant from

generation to generation.

11
Genetic Algorithms Overview Continued

_ A robust search technique

_ GAs will produce "close" to optimal results in a

"reasonable" amount of time

_ Suitable for parallel processing

_ Some problems are deceptive

_ Can use a noisy fitness function

_ Fairly simple to develop

_ Makes no assumptions about the problem space

_ GAs are blind without the fitness function. The

Fitness Function Drives the Population Toward Better
Solutions and is the most important part of the
algorithm.

_Probability and randomness are essential parts of GA

Use Genetic Algorithms

12
_ When an acceptable solution representation is available

_ When a good fitness function is available

_ When it is feasible to evaluate each potential solution

_ When a near-optimal, but not optimal solution is

acceptable.

_ When the state-space is too large for other methods

13
Genetic Algorithms vs Traditional Algorithm

Goldberg [8]

1. The GA works with a coding of the parameter rather

than the actual parameter.

2. The GA works from a population of strings instead of

a single point.

3. Application of GA operators causes information from

the previous generation to be carried over to the next.

4. The GA uses probabilistic transition rules, not

deterministic rules.

14
Genetic Algorithms vs. Simulated Annealing

SA

_ 1 Feasible Solution

_ Perturbation Function

_ Acceptance Function

_ Temperature Parameter

GA

_ Population of Feasible Solutions

_ Evaluation Function

_ Selection Bias

_ Reproduction

_ Mutation

15
Applications of Genetic Algorithms
_ Scheduling:
Facility, Production, Job, and Transportation Scheduling

_ Design:
Circuit board layout, Communication Network design,
keyboard layout, Parametric design in aircraft

_ Control:
Missile evasion, Gas pipeline control, Pole balancing

_ Machine Learning:
Designing Neural Networks, Classifier Systems, Learning rules

_ Robotics:
Trajectory Planning, Path planning

_ Combinatorial Optimization:
TSP, Bin Packing, Set Covering, Graph Bisection, Routing,

_ Signal Processing:
Filter Design

_ Image Processing:
Pattern recognition

_ Business:
Economic Forecasting; Evaluating credit risks
Detecting stolen credit cards before customer reports it is stolen

_ Medical:
Studying health risks for a population exposed to toxins
16
The Standard Genetic Algorithm

>>>> Use the flowchart I created

>>>> Replace this page with flowchart page

17
GENETIC ALGORITHMS
Preliminary Considerations

1. Determine how a feasible solution should be represented

a) Choice of Alphabet. This should be the smallest alphabet
that permits a natural expression of the problem.
b) The String Length. A string is a chromosome and each
symbol in the string is a gene.

2. Determine the Population Size.

This will remain constant throughout the algorithm.
Choosing a population size too small increases the risk of
converging prematurely to a local optimum, since the population
does not sufficiently cover the problem space. A larger
population has a greater chance of finding the global optimum
at the expense of more CPU time.

3. Determine the Objective Function to be used in the algorithm.

18
A Genetic Algorithm

1. Determine an Initial Population.

a) Random or
b) by some Heuristic

2. REPEAT
A. Determine the fitness of each member of the population.
(Perform the objective function on each population member)
Fitness Scaling can be applied at this point. Fitness
Scaling adjusts down the fitness values of the super-
performers and adjusts up the lower performers, promoting
competition among the strings. As the population matures,
the really bad strings will drop out. Linear Scaling is
an example.

B. Reproduction (Selection)
Determine which strings are "copied" or "selected" for the
mating pool and how many times a string will be "selected"
for the mating pool. Higher performers will be copied more
often than lower performers. Example: the probability of
selecting a string with a fitness value of f is f/ft, where
ft is the sum of all of the fitness values in the population.

19
Genetic Algorithm Continued

C. Crossover
1. Mate each string randomly using some crossover technique
2. For each mating, randomly select the crossover position(s).
(Note one mating of two strings produces two strings.
Thus the population size is preserved.)

D. Mutation
Mutation is performed randomly on a gene of a chromosome.
Mutation is rare, but extremely important. As an example,
perform a mutation on a gene with probability .005.
If the population has g total genes (g = string length *
population size) the probability of a mutation on any one
gene is 0.005g, for example. This step is a no-op most of
the time. Mutation insures that every region of the problem
space can be reached. When a gene is mutated it is randomly
selected and randomly replaced with another symbol from the
alphabet.

UNTIL Maximum number of generation is reached.

20
Various Population Representations

_ Chromosomes can be represented as

_ Bit Strings (1011 ... 0100)

_ Reals (19.3, 45.1, -12.9, ... 6.2)

_ Integers (1,4,2,7,5,9,3,6,8) Usually Permutations of 1..n

_ Characters (A, G, Q, ... F) Usually Permutations

_ List of rules (R1, R2, ... R20)

_ Chromosomes are all of the same type (Bit Strings)

_ Chromosomes are all the same length

_ The population size remains constant from generation to generation

21
Reproduction (Survival of the fittest)

Parents are SELECTED for REPRODUCTION biased

on the fitness function

Consider the fitness function

f(x) = 4 * cos(x) + x + 2.5

0 <= x >= 31

>>> Graph of P0 data points <<<

22
Initial Population P0

                                          No. Times
   No.  Chromosome   x     f(x)    P(x)   Selected *

   1     1001 1     19    25.459   .185     2

   2     01 010     10     9.144   .066     1

   3     1 1001     25    31.465   .229     2
 
   4     00110       6    12.341   .090     0

   5     0 1011     11    13.518   .098     1

   6     1011 1     23    23.369   .170     1

   7     00100       4     3.885   .028     0

   8     10 001     17    18.399   .134     1

   SUM             115   137.580  1.000     8

   AVE              14    17.198   .125     1

   MAX              25    31.465   .229     2

f(Pop)= sum f(x)/n = 137.58 / 8 = 17.198

P(x) = f(x) / sum f(x)

= the Probability of Selection

* Based on Selection Roulette Wheel

23
The Selection Roulette Wheel

Roulette: the classical selection operator for generational

GA as described by Goldberg. Each member of the pool
is assigned space on a roulette wheel proportional to its
fitness. The members with the greatest fitness have the
highest probability of selection. This selection technique
works only for a GA which maximizes its objective
function.

<< wheel >>

24
 Crossover
_ Causes an exchange of genetic material between
two parents

_ Crossover point(s) is determined stochastically

_ The Crossover Operator is the most important feature

in a GA

Single Point Crossover Example

Parent 1 100 1001010

Parent 2 001 0110111

Child 1 100 0110111

Child 2 001 1001010

Double Point Crossover Example

Parent 1 110100 1001 011

Parent 2 010110 0010 101

Child 1 110100 0010 011

Child 2 010110 1001 101

25
 Mutation

_ The Mutation operator guarantees the entire state-space

will be searched, given enough time.

_ Restores lost information or adds information to the population.

_ Performed on a child after crossover.

_ Performed infrequently (For example, 0.005 probability of

altering a gene in a chromosome)

Child 1 1101 0 00010011

after mutation 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1

_ Special Mutation operators may be application dependent (TSP)

_ Adaptive Mutation:
_ Monitor the hamming distance between two parents.
_ The more similar the parents, the more likely mutation
is applied. Whitley, Starkweather [25]

26
 Continuation of the fitness function

f(x) = 4 * cos(x) + x + 2.5

0 <= x >= 31
Population  P1
(After Crossover.  Assume no Mutation)
    
No.    New        Parents    Crossover   x    f(x)
    Chromosome   (from P0)     Point

1         01   001                 (2,8)                 2                 9
7.8552
2    10 010        (2,8)        2       18   23.141

3    1001 1        (1,6)        4       19   25.459
4    1011 1        (1,6)        4       23   23.369

5    1 1011        (3,5)        1       27   28.331
6    0 1001        (3,5)        1        9    7.855

7    100 01        (1,3)        3       17   18.399
8    110 11        (1,3)        3       27   28.331

SUM                                    149  162.740
AVE                                     18   20.343
MAX                                     27   28.331

f(Pop0) =  17.198     
f(Pop1) =  20.343 
27
>>> plot of the function showing
the 8 initial points
of Pop0 and the 8 points of Pop1

28
Schema Theory (John Holland)

_ An abstract way to view the complexities of crossover.

_ Consider 6-bit representations where * indicates don't care

0***** represents a subset of 32 strings

1**00* represents a subset of 8 strings

_ Let H represent a schema such as 1**1**

_ Order: o(H)

The number of fixed positions in the schema, H.

o(1*****) = 1,
o(1**1*1) = 3

_ Length: delta(H)

The distance between sentinel fixed positions in H.

delta(1**1**) = (4-1) = 3
delta(1*****) = 0
delta(***1**) = 0

29
Fundamental Theorem of Genetic
Algorithms

(The Schema Theorem)

The expected number of copies, m, of schema H is bounded by:

>>>> Slide from GATUTOR 91

Where
m - number of schemata
H - schema
t - time or generation
f - fitness function
fave - average fitness value
pc - crossover probability
delta - length
l - string length
pm - mutation probability
o - order

30
 Consider H = 1**** in the above problem:

The Schema Theorem states that

m(H,P1) >= m(H,P0) f(H)/fave

6 >= 4 * 25.753 / 17.198

6 >= 6

(Note in this case o(1****) = 1 and delta(1****) = 0

and pm = 0 greatly reducing the formula)

In Other Words:

Theorem: The number of representatives of any schema, S,

increases in proportion to the observed relative performance of S.

31
Deception

What Problems are Difficult for GAs

Example: an order-3 deception [25]

"information represented by the schemata in the search space leads

the search away from the global optimum, and instead directs the
search toward the binary string that is the complement of the global
optimum. The search space is order-3 deceptive .. if the following
relationships hold for the [three-bit] schemata:"

0** > 1** and 00* > 11*, 01*, 10*

*0* > *1* and 0*0 > 1*1, 0*1, 1*0
**0 > **1 and *00 > *11, *01, *10

but, 111 > 000, 001, 010, 100, 110, 101, 011

Example: f(000) = 28 f(100) = 14

f(001) = 26 f(101) = 10
f(010) = 22 f(110) = 5
f(011) = 20 f(111) = 30

Chaotic, noisy and "needle in a haystack" functions

GA-easy, GA-hard problems

32
Overview of Genetic Programming
Koza [11]
Manipulate strings of instructions rather than strings of data.

Goal: Allow computers to develop their own software

(Survival of the fittest computer programs)

Crossover and mutation manipulate branches of the program tree.

"Genetic Programming starts with an initial population of randomly generated

computer programs composed of functions and terminals appropriate to the
problem domain. The functions may be standard arithmetic operations, standard
programming operations, standard mathematical functions, logical functions,
or domain-specific functions. Depending on the particular problem, the
computer program may be Boolean-valued, integer-valued, real-valued,
complex-valued, vector-valued, symbolic valued, or multiple-valued. The
creation of this initial random population is, in effect, a blind random search of
the search space of the problem. Each individual computer program in the
population is measured in terms of how well it performs in the particular problem
environment. This measure is called the fitness measure. The nature of the fitness
measure varies with the problem" [11].

Koza's initial problem: Given a set of initial predicates and possible actions,
develop (evolve) a computer program (in Lisp) to control the movement of an ant
searching for food. The chromosome is a variable sized Lisp program where the
leaf nodes are actions (left, right, move, etc.), and the internal nodes are predicates
or logic controls (if found food), etc. Each chromosome (program) is used to
control the actions of a simulated ant in searching for food. The evaluation
function for a given chromosome is the amount of food gathered by an ant in a
fixed amount of time.

33
Consider the following two parent computer
programs given as LISP S-expressions.

<<<<Fig 6.5 page 101>>>>>

These two parents are equivalently represented as:

(OR (NOT D1) (AND D0 D1)) and

(OR (OR D1 (NOT D0)) (AND (NOT D0) (NOT D1))).

The first parent has 6 nodes (points) in its S-expression, and the second
parent has 10 points in its S-expression as shown above.

Randomly select any one of the 6 points in parent 1 as its

crossover point, say node "NOT".

Randomly select any one of the 10 points in parent 2 as its

crossover point, say node "AND".

The Selected S-expressions are shown below.

34
 <<< Fig 6.6 page 102 >>

The above crossover fragments are exchanged at node "NOT" in the first
parent, and node "AND" in the second parent to produce the following
two children S-expressions [11].

<<<< Fig 6.7 page 102 >>>

35
Part II

Example Applications of Genetic Algorithms

Order-Based Genetic Algorithms

_An order-based GA is where all chromosomes are a

permutation of the list.

_Order-based GAs greatly reduce the size of the search

space by pruning solutions that we do not want to consider.

_Order-based GAs can be applied to a number of

classic combinatorial optimization problems such as:
TSP, Bin Packing, Package Placement, Job
Scheduling, Network Routing, Vehicle Routing, various
layout problems, etc.

_Crossover functions for order-based GAs include

Edge Recombination, Order Crossover #1, Order
Crossover #2, PMX, Cycle Crossover, Position
Crossover, etc. Whitley and Starkweather [20,25].

PMX (Partially Matched Crossover)

36
 Parent 1 3719 | 645 | 28

Parent 2 4785 | 392 | 16

( 6 <--> 3 ) ( 4 <--> 9 ) ( 5 <--> 2 )

Child 1 6714 | 392 | 58

Child 2 9782 | 645 | 13

Mutation functions for order-based GAs include

Swap two elements

     *         *                *         *
   9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1    ==>   9 3 7 6 5 4 8 2 1

Move one element

       *                                  *
   9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1    ==>   9 8 6 5 4 3 7 2 1

Reorder a sublist

98 | 76543 | 21 ==> 9 8 | 5 3 4 6 7 | 2 1

Traveling Salesman Problem

37
Example TSP GA executions adjusting pool size:

                    TSP 1024 Cities.  

PoolSize       500             250             125
Length_String  1024 
Trials         100000
Bias           1.9      
RandomSeed           15394157               <same>
<same>
MutateRate     0.15     
NodeFile       cities1024
StatusInterval 5000

RESULT   =               116987                     88436

90906

38
TSP 320 Cities.

PoolSize       2000          1000       500        250        125

Length_String  320

Trials         100000a           

Bias           1.9      

RandomSeed     15394157      <same>    <same>     <same>     <same>
MutateRate     0.15              

NodeFile       cities320

StatusInterval 1000               

RESULTS:

Best:          30,761b       25,708     21,366     18,676c    23,760d    

Worst:         35,102        28,366     23,235     18,676     23,760

Average:       34,209        27,863     22,880     18,676     23,760

a   A poolsize of 2000 for 205,000 trials yielded best of 22,777

b   CPU time on a SPARC 1+ was approximately 100 minutes.

c   Converged after 72,000 trials                                

d   Converged prematurely after 33,000 trials

39
TSP 105 Cities.

PoolSize       750          500         250        125
Length_String  105
Trials         70000
Bias           1.9      
RandomSeed     15394157    <same>      <same>      <same>
MutateRate     0.15    
NodeFile       cities105
StatusInterval 1000

RESULTS:
Trials at
Convergence:   109,000      61,000     32,000      9,000

Best:          16,503       17,193     24,079     32,370
Worst:         16,503       17,193     24,079     32,370
Average:       16,503       17,193     24,079     32,370

40
Additional Applications Using GAs

Three Dimensional Bin Packing Using GAs [29]

Set Covering Problem Using GAs [35]

Multiple Vehicle Routing with Time and Capacity

Constraints Using GAs [28]

Genetic Algorithms and Neural Networks Fixed Architecture

Genetic Algorithms and Neural Networks Unknown

Architecture

Parallel Genetic Algorithms [32]

k-way Graph Partitioning Algorithm Using GAs [36]

Graph Bisectioning Problem Using GAs [36]

Triangulation of a Point Set Using GAs [37]

The Package Placement Problem Using GAs [33]

Three Dimensional Bin Packing Using GAs [29]

Encoding: String of integers representing a permutation of the

41
packages

Evaluation: Height returned by the Next Fit of First Fit Heuristic

Crossover: Order2, Cycle, PMX, and Random Swap

Mutation: Adaptive, swap 2 packages and rotate on one axis.

RESULTS (in % Fill)

                                                Rotated 
                                                Presorted
                     Without GA    Using a GA   Using a GA

Next Fit Random        31­35%       41­55%        57­66%

Next Fit Contrived     48­50%       56­71%        60­71% 

First Fit Random       36%          41­49%        53­63% 

First Fit Contrived    41­53%       56­59%        67­77% 

42
               Tables from ART page 12 and 14

43
Set Covering Problem Using GAs [35]

Page 6 and FIG 1 of D. Ansa's Slides

44
Multiple Vehicle Routing with Time

and Capacity Constraints Using GAs [28]

45
Genetic Algorithms and Neural Networks

Fixed Architecture

Given: A Fixed Connection Topology

Goal: Optimize Connection Weights in a Forward-feed Neural

Network [22]

Example Representation:
Each weight ranges -127 to +127 (8-bits)
Each Chromosome is the concatenated binary weights of the net.

Example Evaluation Function:

Run the Network in a feed-forward fashion for each training
pattern just as if one were going to use back propagation.
Accumulate the sum of the squared error as the fitness value

Crossover results in new weight values to try

46
Genetic Algorithms and Neural Networks

Unknown Architecture

Use GAs to determine a network architecture

Each Chromosome Depicts a Possible Connection

Topology

Evaluate each architecture

47
Parallel Genetic Algorithms
Parallel Issues [32]
Migration Interval
1. After 5,10,20,50,100 Generations
2. ADAPTIVE

Migration Rate
1. 10%, 20%, 50% of the population
2. ADAPTIVE

How to pick the migrants

1. uniformly
2. skewed towards the more fit
3. Generate "an over population" during migration
generations so nothing is lost from the sending
population, only new comers are analyzed as they come in
4. Perform an "exchange" of genetic material
5. ADAPTIVE

Topology
1. Ring
2. Hypercube dimensions alternation through the dimensions

Crossover and Mutation

1. The same strategy on all processors
2. Different crossover operators and mutation rates on
different processors
3. ADAPTIVE

48
Genetic Algorithm Packages (1993)

_Generational GA: the offspring are saved in a separate

pool until the pool size is reached. Then the children pool
replaces the parent pool for the next generation.

_Steady-State GA: the offspring and parents occupy the

same pool. Each time an offspring is generated it is placed
into the pool, and the weakest chromosome is "dropped off"
the pool.

_GENITOR [23] -- A Steady-state GA Package

_GENESIS [16] -- A Generational GA Package

_LibGA [30] -- This package was developed at The

University of Tulsa and offers the best of GENESIS and
GENITOR including the ability to use several additional
features including the ability to use either a steady-state or
generational, or a combination (generation gap).

_HYPERGEN [32] -- This package was developed at

The University of Tulsa. This GA package runs on a
hypercube topology multiprocessor system.

_GATutor [34] -- This package was developed at The

University of Tulsa. It is a self study GA Tutorial Package
that allows the user to grasp the fundamental concepts of
genetic algorithms.

49