First Edition - 2009 Electrical Measurements and Instrumentation Technical Publications Pune’Table ‘of Contents a Chapter-1 Measurement and instrumentation Theory (1-1) to(t -46) Chapter-2 Indicating Instruments and Theory of Valtmetors - Ammetors (2-1) to (2-48) Chapter-3 Digital Meters @-1) to (3-20) Chapter-4 Measurement of Resistance (4-1) 10 (4-48) Chapter-5 A.C. Bridges 5-1) to (5-48) Chapter-6 _ Wattmeter Theory and Measurement of Power (6-1) to(6 -52) Chapter-7 Special Purpose Measuring Instruments (7-1) to(7 -40) Chapter-8 _ Energy Meier Theory (@- 1) to (8-26) Chpater-9 Instrument Transformers (@-1)to(9-44) Chapter-10 Oscilloscope (AC - 1) to (10-44) Chapter-11 Transducers (41-1) to (11-64) Chapter - 12 _ Measurement of Non-electrical Quantities (12- 1) to (12-48) Features of Book ‘te Use of clear, plain and lucid language making the understanding very easy. H | Use of informative, self explanatory diagrams, plots and graphs. ! \# Excellent theory well supported with the practical examples and illustrations. | {4 Important concepts are highlighted using Key Points throughout the book. ' {# Large number of solved examples. ‘ ' Approach of the book resembles class room teaching. ' %# Book provides detailed insight into the subject. Best of Technical Publications As per Revised Syllabus of UoP University - 2008 Course S.E. [Electrical Engineering] Semester-I Analog and Digital Electronics -& Electrical Measurements and Instrumentation @as Electrical Measurements and Instrumentation ISBN 9788184316605 All rights reserved with Technical Publications. No port of this bock should be reproduced in ony form, Electronic, Mechorical, Photocopy or any information storage and {etriaval system without prior permission in writing, from Technical Publications, Pune. Published by : ‘Technical Publications Pune® #1, Amit Residency, 412, Shaniwar Peth, Pune - 411.030, India. Printer = Alert DTPiters ‘Sune. 10/3 Sihagad Road, Pe 411 044The importance of Electrical Measurements and Instrumentation is well known in various engineering fields. Overwhelming response to our books on various subjects inspired us to write this book. The book is structured to cover the key aspects of the subject Electrical Measurements and Instrumentation. * The book uses plain, lucid language to explain fundamentals of this subject. The book provides logical method of explaining various complicated concepts and stepwise methods to explain the important topics. Each chapter is well supported with necessary illustrations, practical examples and solved problems. All the chapters in the book are arranged in a Proper sequence that permits each topic to build upon earlier studies. All care has been taken to make students comfortable in understanding the basic concepts of the subject. The book not only covers the entire scope of the subject but explains the philosophy of the subject. This makes the understanding of this subject more clear and makes it more interesting. The book will be very useful not only to the students but also to the subject teachers. The students have to omit nothing and possibly have to cover nothing more. We wish to express my profound thanks to all those who helped in making this book a reality. Much needed moral support and encouragement is provided on numerous occasions by our whole family. We wish to thank the Publisher and the entire team of Technical Publications who have taken immense pain to get this book in time with quality printing. Any suggestion for the improvement of the book will be acknowledged and well appreciated. Authors UL A. Bakshi A.V. Bakshi KA Bakshi Dedicated to Guonsay1.1 Introduction 1.1.1 Advantages of Electrical and Electronic Measurement ... 1.2 Performance Characteristics... 1.2.1 Calibration... 4.3 Static Characteristics 1.3.1 Accuracy. .. 1.3.2 Precision. .. no le leo Ia FS Kio Is lem len len 1.3.2.2 Significant Figures... 1.3.3 Error. 1.3.4 Sensitivity 1.3.5 Resolution... 1.3.6 Threshold... 43.7 Linearity .. 1.3.8 Zero Drift.. 4.3.9 Reproducibility 1.3.10 Stability... F211 Telrenee ss sianinisiiwievss abies 1.3.12 Range or Span O90 Olt eae esa eens oes eeEraTE ETE 1.3.14 Hysteresis. 4.3.15 Dead Space or Dead Zone. 4.3.16 Span Drift or Sensitivity Drift. 1.4 Dynamic Characteristics ... 4.4.1 Speed of Response B i =1.42 Fidelity . 1-16 4.43 Lag.... 21248 1.4.4 Dynamic Error. . 1-16 1.5 Calibration. 1-17 1.6 Calibration Methodology 447 1.6.1 Direct Comparison Calibration Methodology . . 21-17 1.6.2 Indirect Comparison Calibration Methodology 1-48 1.7 Block Diagram of Generalized Instrumentation System 1-19 4.7.1 Primary Sensing Element..............0.0.......0, . 1-20 1.7.2 Variable Conversion Element. ......0.:.2.:c:cesseeeesceeseseesesseeieees 1°20 1.7.3 Variable Manipulation Element. - 1-20 1.7.4 Data Transmission Element. . 21-21 1.7.5 Data Presentation Element..............:sssesssseesesetensesteeeeseeee 1-2) 1.8 Standard .... 1-21 1.8.1 Intemational Standards . 1-22 LOZ Pinay COMA i isi si ves vaitored Klis see Mees ve SANS - 1-22 ABS SOCOMAY SENAAE i iii is ciasae nos Lana aisacecbiews es stieee 18h 1.84 Working Standards 1-23 1.9 Standards for Mass and Length 1-23 1.40 Time Standards... 1-24 1.11 Frequency Standards. 1-25 1.44.1 Primary Standards .. . 24-25 1.11.2 Secondary Standards. = 1-25 1.12 Voltage Standards 4-26 1.13 Resistance Standard: 41-26 1.14 Current Standards...... 1-30 1.15 Methods of Measurement 41-30 1.15.1 Direct Method of Measurement ...........0.cscservecessecncres eens era eee 1-30 1.15.2 Indirect Method of Measurement . 1.16.1 Acthe/Passive Insinaments .. ........00. sso sees see esses seen ess seese ners 1-31 4.16.2 NullDefiection Type Instruments ...1.16.3 Monitoring/Control Instruments . 1.16.4 Analog/Digital Instruments... . 1.16.4.4 Comparison of Analog and Digital Instruments... 1.16.5 Absolute/Secondary Instruments 4.165.1 Types of Secondary Instruments 1.17 Types of Errors .. 1.17.4 Gross Errors. 1.17.2 Systematic Errors 1.17.2.1 Instrumental Errors. 1.17.2.2 Environmental Errors. . 1.17.2.3 Observational Errors... 1.17.3 Random Errors... . Examples with Solutions Review Question: els is lela & Is ls lols le 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Essential Requirements of an Istruments . 2.3 Deflecting System 2.4 Controlling System. 2.4.1 Gravity Control. 2.4.2 Spring Control 2.4.3 Comparison of Controlling Systems . 2.5 Damping System. 25.1 Air Friction Damping 2.5.2 Fluid Friction Damping. 2.5.3 Eddy Current Damping 2.6 Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instruments (PMMC) . 2.6.1 Torque Equation 2.6.4 Taut Band Instrument _ 2.6.5 Temperature Compensation ..........ssssseeesseveseeeneees2.6.6 Errorsin PMMC Instrument . 2.7 Moving fron Instruments . 2.7. Moving [ron Attraction Type Instruments... see 2.7.2 Moving Iron Repulsion Type Instrument . .. . 2.7.2.4 Radial Vane Repulsion Type instrument... 2.2.2.2 Concentiis Vane Repulsion Type Instrument te ea a 2.7.3 Torque Equation of Moving Iron Instruments ..........s0sseseseseseeeeeeeseee 2-19 2.7.4 Advantages . 2.7.5 Disadvantages. 2.7.6 Errors in Moving lton Instruments ........s660seseeessseeeeeetteeeeeeseas 2-24 2.8 Basic D.C. Ammeter 2.9 Multirange Ammeters. 2.10 The Ayrton Shunt or Universal Shunt....... 2.10.1 Precautions to be Taken while using an Ammeter 2.11 Requirements of a Shunt 2.12 Basic D.C. Voltmeter. 2.13 Multirange Voltmeters 2.13.1 Universal Multiplier .. . 2.14 Sensitivity of Voltmeters. 2.14.1 Loading Effect 2.14.2 Precautions to be Taken while using a Voltmeter.............sceeceseaes red 2.14.3 Requirements of a Multiplier Examples with Solutions Review Questions .... 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Advantages of Digital Voltmeters... 3.3 Performance Parameters of Digital Voltmeters.. 3.4 Basic Block Diagram of DVM.. 3.5 Ramp Type DVM 3.5.1 Linear Ramp Technique 915.2 Staircase Ramp Technique........ecsesesseseeseeeeseeseeeaeeeeveseeees 13-53.6 Dual Slope Integrating Type DVM ... 3.7 Voltage to Frequency Converter Type Integrating DVM 3.7.4 Interpolating Integrating DVM. 3.8 Successive Approximation Type DVM. 3.10 Resolution and Sensitivity. 3.11 General Specifications of DVM Review Questions . 4.1 Introduction .. 4.2 Classification of Resistances 4.3 Voltmeter-Ammeter Metho« 4.4 Series Type Ohmmeter.. 4.5 Shunt Type Ohmmeter 4.6 Wheatstone Bridge 4.8.1 Balance Condition 4.6.2 Industrial Form of Wheatstone Biige 4.7 Sensitivity of Wheatstone Bridge . 4.8 Wheatstone Bridge Under Small Unbalance . 4.8.1 Thevenin’s Equivalent and Galvanometer Current. 4.8.2 Galvanometer Current Under Unbalanced Condition . 4.8.3 S, Interms of Current Sensitivity of Gatvanometer. 4.9 Measurement Errors ... 4.10 Advantages and Limitations of Wheatstone Bridge 4.10.1 Limitations of Wheatstone Bridge 4.11 Applications of Wheatstone Bridge... 4.12 Kelvin Bridge - Measurement of Low Resistance 4.13 Kelvin's Double Bridge Method for Low Resistance Measurement 4 - 20 4.13.1 Practical Kelvin's Double Bridge .........0:ceceseeeen eee ceereesentaeeeee 4-224.14 Measurement of High Resistance. 4.14.1 Use of Guard Circuits 4.15 Megger.. 4.45.1 Principle of Operation 4.15.2 Construction 4.15.3 Working... 4.15.4 Applications... 4.16.1 Methods of Measurement of Earth Resistance 4,16.1.1 Fall of Potential Method . . 4,161.2 Use of Megger Earth Tester . . 4.17 Methods for Measurement of High Resistances 4.17.4 Direct Deflection Method .. 4.17.2 Loss of Charge Method . 4.17.3 Megohm Bridge Examples with Solutions Review Question: 5.1 Introduction ... 5.1.1 Advantages of Bridge Circuit 5.2 Types of Bridges. 5.3 A.C. Bridges. 5.3.1 Sources and Detectors . 5.3.2 Bridge Balance Equation ....... 5.4 Capacitance Comparison Bridge 5.5 Inductance Comparison Bridge. 5.6 Maxwell's Bridge 5.6.1 Maxwell's Inductance Bridge 5.6.2 Maxwell's Inductance Capacitance Bridge..........0:ccsseseeseeeseeeeeenere 5-11 5.6.3 Advantages of Maxwell Bridge . 5.6.4 Disadvantages of Maxwell Bridge - 5.7 Anderson Bridge .5.7.1 Advantages of Anderson Bridge, ...........sccseeereeseeseeerneeeusenneeee 5.7.2 Disadvantages of Anderson Bridge 5.8 Schering Bridge ..... 5.8.1 Power Factor and Loss Angle . 5.9 High Voltage Schering Bridge 5.10 Shielding and Grounding of Bridges .. Examples with Solutions Review Questions... 6.1 Introduction to Power Measurement. 6.1.1 Necessity of Waitmeter 6.1.2 AC. Power 6.2 Electrodynamometer Type Instruments . Gi toiquebistlon csi icnmle albloccanenteeensan 6.2.3 Advantages of Electrodynamic Instruments... 6.2.4 Disadvantages of Electrodynamic Instruments 6.2.5 Errors in Electrodynamomeler instruments... oe. 000.202 eseseesseeseessnenes 6.3 Single Phase Dynamometer Wattmeter.. 6.3.1 Torque Equation. 6.3.2 Reading on Watimeter ........0cscscecteeeeeereesenseeseeneeoeeseentenes 6.3.3 Shape of Scale of Dynamometer Wattmeter . §.4 Errors in Wattmeter. 6.4.1 Error due to Pressure Coil Inductance 6.4.2 Error due to Pressure Coil Capacitance 6.4.3 Error due to Method of Connection .. 6.4.4 Eddy Current Errors 6.5 Low Power Factor Electrodynamic Type Wattmeter 6.6 Power in Three Phase System 6.7 Examples of Wattmeter Connections and Corresponding Readings. 6 - 24 6.8 Single or One Wattmeter Method 6-266.8.1 Star Connected Load .. 6.8.2 Delta Connected Load . 6.8.3 Disadvantages 6.9 Three Wattmeter Method 6.10 Blondel's Theorem...... 6.11 Two Wattmeter Method..... 6.11.1 Proof of Two Wattmeter Method. 6.12 Power Factor Calculation by Two Wattmeter Methor 6.13 Effect of P.F. on Wattmeter Readings . 6.14 Reactive Volt-Amperes by Two Wattmeter Method 6.15 Advantages of Two Wattmeter Method..... 6.16 Disadvantages of Two Wattmeter Method... 6.17 Modified Version of 2 Wattmeter Method as Single Wattmeter Method .... 6.18 One Wattmeter Method for Reactive Voltamperes Measurement . 6.19 Three Phase Wattmeter... Examples with Solutions Review Questions... 7.1 Introduction 7.1.4 Vibrating Reed Type Frequency Meter 7.1.2 Electrical Resonance Type Frequency MEL ...........ccseeseeeeeseeseeenees 7-3 7.1.3 Weston Frequency Meter . 7.2 Frequency Counter .. 7.2.4 Analog Frequency Meter 7.3 Principle of Digital Frequency Counter 7.4 Digital Frequency Counter... 7.5 Period Measurement... 7.5.1 Multiple Period Averaging 7.6 Time Interval Measurement... 7.7 Frequency Ratio Measurement.. 7.8 Universal Counter...7.9 Power Factor Meters..... 7.10 Single Phase Electrodynamometer Type Power Factor Meter 7.40.1 Working of Meter 7.11 Moving Iron Power Factor Meter.. 7.11.1 Rotating Field Type Moving Iron Power Factor Meter. 7.11.2 Altemating Field Type Moving Iron Power Factor Meter 7.12 Phase Meters 7.12.4 Digital Phase Meter 7.12.2 Comparison of Analog and Digital Phase Meter. 7.13 Power Analyzer. 7.13.1 Block Schematic of Power Analyzer 7.43.2 Important Features of Power Analyzet..........0-sseeseseeeeseesssseeeeees 7-28 7.13.3 Applications of Power Analyzer 7-29 7.13.4 Source and Load Problems and Sources of Problem: 7.14 Trivector Meter... 7.15 TOD Meter ... 7.16 Electronic Multimeter .. 7.16.1 Use of Multimeter for D.C. Voltage Measurement....................2:sssseee 7.16.2 Use of Multimeter as an Ammeter .. . see 7.16.3 Use of Multimeter for Measurement of A.C. Voltage . 7.16.4 Use pf Multimeter for Resistance Measurement ..........66eseeerenrerrenee 7.16.5 Advantages. . . 7.16.6 Disadvantages 7.17 Digital Multimeter 7.18 Specifications of Digital Multimeter Review Questions... 8.1 Introduction .. 8.2 Single Phase Energymeter .. 8.2.1 Construction... 8.3 Theory of Single Phase Induction Type Energymeter .. : B34 Torque Equation... . 26... cee cece cece cree eee eee eens esas eeeeener tees eres,8.4 Errors and Compensations ... i 8.4.4 Lag Adjustment or Power Factor is: 8.422 Light Load Adjustment or Friction Adjustment . 8.4.3 Creeping Adjustment 8.4.4 Overload Compensation, 8.4.5 Voltage Compensation... 8.4.6 Temperature Compensation 8.4.7 Main Speed Adjustment. . 8.5 Advantages of Induction Type Energymeter.. 8.6 Disadvantages of Induction Type Energymeter 8.7 Three Phase Energymeter..... 8.7.1 Three Element Energymeter .............. aeugnanemacnamane crete 8.7.2 Two Element Energymeter. .. . . 8.8 Calibration of an Energymete: 8.9 Phantom Loading...... 8.10 Electronic Energymeter. SE IGUAI ANAC citi tell aadibenaard aes ted ib ahinante nal bee Examples with Solutions Review Questions .... 9.1 Introduction... 9.2 Current Transformers (C.T.) ..... 9.2.1 Working Principle . . . 9.3 Construction of Current ‘Transformers 9.3.1 Wound Type Current Transformer... ...ssssseeeseeseeee essere eseensneenens 9.3.2 Bar Type Current Transformer. 9.4 Why Secondary of C.T. should not be Open 9.5 Potential Transformers (P.T.). 9.5.1 Construction 9.6 Comparison of C.T. and P.T. 9.7 Ratios of Instrument Transformers 9.7.4 Ratio Correction Factor (RCF).9.8 Burden of an Instrument Transformet 9.9 Theory of Current Transformers .... 9.9.1 Derivation of Actual Ratio ..... 0... esse tee tee ee ee reese ee ee een ee en ee seve 9-10 9.9.2 Derivation of Phase Angle () of Transformer . 9.9.3 Errors in Current Transformer 9.9.3.1 Rafio Error 9.9.3.2Phase Angle Enor.. . . . 9.9.4 Characteristics of Curent Transformer. 9.10 Theory of Potential Transformers .... 9.10.1 Derivation of Actual Ratio. 9.10.2 Derivation of Phase Angle 9.10.3 Characteristics of Potential Transformers . . 9.11 Reduction of Errors in Instrument Transformers... 9.12 Advantages and Disadvantages of Instrument Transformers 9.13 Difference between instrument and Power Transformers .. uf 9.14 Extension of Range of Wattmeter using Instrument ‘Transformers. 9-30 9.14.1 Phasor Diagrams and Correction Factors 9.15 Use of C.T. and P.T. in Energy Measurement.. Examples with Solutions. Review Questions... 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). 10.2.1 Electron Gun ‘ 10.2.2 Deflection Sytem. 0... .ssescssecsseneessdeceneegeneneesesanseaeesens 10.2.3 Fluorescent Screen . 10.2.4 Glass Tube. 10.2.5 Base . 40.3 Basic Principle of Signal Display.. 10.4 Block Diagram of Simple Oscilloscope IOAT ORT. .cs sas sierarpnce aati aes eee, eee ey 10.4.2 Vertical Amplifier. ...... 00.0... cce cece eee eeeae esse ree eeeeeeeeeseneeee 10-910.4.3 Delay Line. 2... SNS RRS 10.4.3.1 Lumped Parameter Delay Line... . . 10.4.3.2 Distributed Parameter Delay Line . . 410.44 Trigger Circuit. 10.4.5 Time Base Generator... sess eseee eee een ee eee eens een ee eteenen erences 10-12 10.4.6 Horizontal Amplifier oo... 00... ccce cee ece eset ee ee esse ee eenenenee eens 10-12 10.4.7 Power Supply 10.5 Front Panel Controls of Simple C.R.O. 10.5.1 Basic Controls ...... 6. cesses ects ee scee ee ent senses eeeeneeseweaeues 10.5.2 Vertical Section. . 10.5.3 Horizontal Section . 10.5.4 Z-Avis Intensity Contol .......0ccccccseceeeceecceeceeeeeeseeseeteees 10.6 Time Base Generator..... 10.6.1 Why Sweep Generator is Called Time Base Generator ? . . 10.6.2 Requirements of Time BaS@..... 6... see seeeeecee tenet e reece teen ene nene 10.6.3 Basic Principle of Time Base Generator. 10.6.4 Time Base Block Diagram 10.6.5 Trigger Generators... # O68 Sect Nodes Se acrsccxsamemernrrerrneantgayerneninannes 10.6.7 TTL Trigger Mode. 10.7 Intensity and Velocity Modulation . 10.8 Bandwidth... 10.9 Dual Trace Oscilloscope 10.9.1 Altemate Mode. oc (098 Chop Mode od vesvernommerseerscuyeommercsoumenmer ae eeaTeaeNN 10.9.3 Electronic Switch 10.9.4 Front Panel Controls of Dual Trace Oscilloscope. 10.9.5 Multiple Trace Oscilloscopes 10.10 Dual Beam Oscilloscope. 10.10.1 Muliple Beam Oscilloscopes . . 10.10.2 Comparison of Dual Trace and Dual Beam Oscilloscopes. .........6ssseeeeee 10-34 10.11 C.R.O. Measurements ...10.111 Voltage Measurement ....... 22.60 6c cece eee cc eee eec eee eeeeeeaeeeee 10.11.2 Current Measurement........... 10.11.3 Period and Frequency Measurement. 10.11.4 Need of C.R.O. in Electronic Practical 10.12 Lissajous Figures... 10.12.1 Measurement of Phase Difference . 0.12.2 Measurement of Frequency... . 10.13 Applications of C.R.O.. Examples with Solutions Review Questions... 11.1. Introduction 11.2 Classification of Transducers... 11.2.1 Active and Passive Transducer . . 11.2.1.1 Active Transducers. . 11.2.2 Passive Transducers. € ve "12 2hcorieg Taran Pc. 2 14 11.22.1 Capacitive Transduction oe 4 11.222 Eleeoagnae Transduction oe oe 11-5 11.2.2.3 inductive Transduction... . . we 1-5 11.22.4 Piezoelectric Transduction . . . +e 11-6 11.22.5 Photovoltaic Transduction. . . . oe 16 11.22.6 Photoconductive Transduction. . . 1-6 11.2.3 Analog and Digital Transducers 1-6 1.2.3.1 Analog Transducers +. 1-6 11.23.2 Digital Transducers . + 1-6 11.2.4 Primary or Secondary. 11.2.5 Transducer and Inverse Transducer 11.3 Characteristics of Transducers .. 11.4 Transducer Selection Factors 11.5 Passive Transducers . 11.6 Resistive Transducers .... 11.7 Potentiometric Resistance Transducers .. 11.7.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Resistance Potentiometers ................ 11-1111.8 Strain Gauge Transducers... aii 11.8.1 Principle of Operation and Construction of Strain Gauges..................06 11-13 11.8.2 Derivation of Gauge Factor 14.8.3 Types of Strain Gauges 11.8.4 Basic Forms of Resistance Wire Strain Gauges 11.8.5 Desirable Characteristics of Resistance Wire Strain Gauge ................5 14-19 11.8.6 Semiconductor Strain Gauge 11.8.7 Comparison of Metal Gauge with Semiconductor Strain Gauge . 11.8.8 Rosette Strain Gauges... 2... .ecee eee ne ee et eee ene ee nee ee een ene 11.8.9 Applications of Strain Gauges 11.9 Load Cells... 11.10 Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) 11.10.1 Construction of RTD... 1110.2 Advantages of RTD 11.10.3 Disadvantages of RTD 11.11 Thermistors..... 14.11.4 Construction of Thermistor 11.1.2. Resistance Temperature Characteristics 11.113 Voltage Current Characteristics... .ccesceeseseeceeeeeneeeraeee 11.11.4 Current Time Characteristics. 11.415 Advantages . 11.1.6 Limitations . 11.11.8 Comparison between Resistance Thermometer and Thermistor . . ¥ . 1-34 44.1.9 Signal Conditioning Circuit 11.12 Inductive Transducers... 11.12.1 Transducer based on Principle of Change in Self Inductance with Numberof Tums ..........sscseeseeeeeeerenere ree 1-33 11.122 Variable Permeability Inductive Transducer .........66¢eeceeeeeeeeeree = 11-33 11.123 Variable Reluctance Inductive Transducer. 11.12.4 Eddy Current Type Inductive Transducer. .11.13 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) ... 11.13.1 Construction and Working of LVDT .... 11,13.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of LVDT . 11.14 Rotary Variable Differential Transformer (RVDT) 11.15 Capacitive Transducers |... 11.5.1 Variation in Capacitance 11.15.2 Capacitance Type Level Meter 11,15.3 Capacitive Pressure Transducer . 11.15.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Capacitive Transducers ............. 11.16 Active Transducers .... 11.17 Thermoelectric Transducers - Thermocouple 11.17.1 Thermoelectric Phenomena . 11.17.2 Construction of Thermocouple . 11.17.2.1 Materials used for Thermocouples: 11.17.3 Thermoelectric Laws, 11.17.4 Thermopiles .... 11.17.5 Advantages and Limitations of Thermocouple 11.17.6 Desirable Characteristics of Thermocouple 11.18 Piezoelectric Transducers. 11.18.1. Basic Piezoelectric Pressure Transducer . 11.48.4.4 Advantages and Limitations of Piezoelectric Pressure Transducer 14.18.2 Applications of Piezoclectic Transducer 11.19 Photoelectric Transducers 11.19.1 Photoemissive Transducers . 11.19.1.4 Vacuum Phototube . aug 2 14.19.1.2Gas-Filed Phototubes 6... 1. 14.19.1.3 Photomuttiplier Tube... . 11.19.2 Photoconductive Transducers . . . 11.19.2.1 Photoconductive Cell, ee 11.19.2.2 Photodiodes . . 11.19.3 Photovoltaic Transducers. 11.19.3.1 Photovoltaic cell, 11.19.3.2 Phototransistors Review Questions...12.1 Introduction 12.2 Pressure Measurement. 12.3 Classification of Pressure ... 12.4 Manometer... 12.5 Mechanical Pressure Measuring Elements Pressure Sensors .. 12.5.1 Diaphragms .... 12.5.2 Capsule ..... 12.5.3 Bourdon Tube. ....... ree 2 12-6 12.5.4 Bellows 12.6 Electric Pressure Transducers. 12.7 High Pressure Measurement .. 12.7.4 Principle of Operation....... 12.7.2 Construction of Bulk Modulus Resistance Pressure Gauge. 12.7.3 Derivation... 12.8 Vacuum Gauges 12.8.1 McLeod Gauge 42.8.2 Thermal Conductivity Gauge 12.8.2.4 Pirani Gauge . 12.8.2.2 Thermocouple Vacuum oe 12.9 Temperature Measurement ... 12.9.1 Absolute Thermodynamic Scale or Kelvin Scale 12.9.2 Thermal Expansion Methods ................... 12.9.3 Optical Pyrometer. 12.9.3.1 Disappearing Filament Type Optical Pyrometer 12.9.4 Radiation Pyrometer . 12.9.4.1 Total Radiation Pyromter - 4% 12.10 Flow Measurement .... 12.101 Mass Flow Rate 12.10.2 Volume Flow Rate 12.10.2.1 Head Type Flow Meters (Based cn Differential Pressure Measurement)... . 12-25 12.10.2.2 Variable Area Meter (Rotameter) 12-28 12.10.23 Mechanical FlowMeler. ee 12-29 12.10.24 Electromagnetic Flow Meters 12-2912.10.2.5 Anemometers (Hot Wire Anemometer) 2 2... ee win 12-31 12.11 Ultrasonic Detectors... 12.11.1 Flow Measurement... 12.12 Level Measurement 12.13 Mechanical Method... 12.14 Hydraulic Method. 12.15 Electrical Methods. 12.1.1 Resistive Method . 12.15.2 Inductive Method . 0.2... ceececeseeeeeseeeeesssessesseeneseeeaeens 12.15.3 Capacitive Method 12.16 Pneumatic Method 12.17 Nucleonic Method 12.18 Ultrasonic Method Review Questions...Measurement and Instrumentation Theory 1.1 Introduction The measurement of any quantity plays very important role not only in science but in all branches of engineering, medicine and in almost all the human day to day activities. The technology of measurement is the base of advancement of science. The role of science and engineering is to discover the new phenomena, new relationships, the laws of nature and to apply these discoveries to human as well as other scientific needs. The science and engineering is also responsible for the design of new equipments. The operation, control and the maintenance of such equipments and the processes is also one of the important functions of the science and engineering branches. All these activities are based on the proper measurement and recording of physical, chemical, mechanical, optical and many other types of parameters. ‘The measurement means, to monitor a process or a operation and using an instrument, express the parameter, quantity or a variable in terms of meaningful numbers. Such a measurement gives in depth knowledge of the process and the parameter and helps in further modifications, if required. Thus the measurement provides us with a means of expressing a natural phenomena or the various processes, in quantitative terms. The feedback information is possible with the help of measurement techniques, which helps in achieving goals and objectives of various engineering processes and systems. ‘The measurement of a’ given parameter or quantity is the act or result of a quantitative comparison between a predefined standard and an unknown quantity to be measured. For the result to be meaningful, there are two basic requirements ;- 1, The comparison standard is accurately defined and commonly accepted, and 2. The procedure and the instrument used for obtaining the comparison must be provable. (-4)EMandI 1-2 Measurement and Instrumentation Theory The major problem with any measuring instrument is the error. Hence, it is necessary to select the appropriate measuring instrument and measurement procedure which minimises the error. The measuring instrument should not affect the quantity to be measured. Key Point: The measuring instrument may be defined as a device for determining the value or magnitude of a quantity or variable. An electronic instrument is the one which is based on electronic or electrical principles for its measurement function. The measurement of any electronic or electrical quantity or variable is termed as an electronic measurement. 1.1.1 Advantages of Electrical and Electronic Measurement The advantages of an electrical and electronic measurement are :- 1. Most of the quantities can be converted by transducers into the electrical or electronic signals. 2. An electrical or electronic signal can be amplified, filtered, multiplexed, sampled and measured. 3. The measurement can easily be obtained in or converted into digital form for automatic analysis and recording. 4, The measured signals can be transmitted over long distances with the help of cables or radio links, without any loss of information. 5. Many measurements can be carried either simultaneously or in rapid succession. 6. Electronic circuits can detect and amplify very weak signals and can measure the events of very short duration as well. 7. Electronic measurement makes possible to build analog and digital signals. The digital signals are very much required in computers. The moder development in science and technology are totally based on computers. 8. Higher sensitivity, low power consumption and a higher degree of reliability are the important features of electronic instruments and measurements. But, for any measurement, a well defined set of standards and calibration units is essential. This chapter provides an introduction to different types of errors in measurement, the characteristics of an instrument and different calibration standards. Key Point : The physical, chemical, electrical quantity, property, process, variable or a condition to be measured is referred as measurand. The various physical measurands are pressure, level, force, strain, velocity, etc. while the important electrical measurands are voltage, current, power and frequency. 1.2 Performance Characteristics The performance characteristics of an instrument are mainly divided in two categories:-EM and! 1-3 Measurement and Instrumentation Theory i) Static characteristics and —_ ii) Dynamic characteristics Some applications involve measurands which are either constant or varying very slowly with time. Key Point: The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which are used to measure the quantities which are slowly varying with time or mostly constant, i.e, do not vary with time, is called static characteristics. While, when the quantity under measurement changes rapidly with time, it is necessary to study the dynamic relations existing between input and output. These relations are generally expressed with the help of differential equations. Key Point: The set of criteria defined based on such dynamic differential equations is called dynamic characteristics. ‘The various performance characteristics are obtained in one form or another by a process called calibration. 1.2.1 Calibration Key Point: Calibration is the process of making an adjustment or marking a scale so that the readings of an instrument agree with the accepted and the certified standard. In other words, it is the procedure for determining the correct values of measurand by comparison with the measured or standard ones. The particular instrument is compared with either a primary standard, secondary standard with higher accuracy or an instrument with known accuracy. The calibration offers a guarantee to the device or instrument that it is operating with required accuracy, under the stipulated environmental conditions. It creates the confidence of using the properly calibrated instrument, in user's mind. The periodic calibration of an instrument is very much necessary. The calibration procedure involves the steps like visual inspection for various defects, installation according to the specifications, zero adjustment etc. The calibration characteristics can be determined by applying known values of quantities to be measured and recording the corresponding output of the instrument. Such output values are then compared with the input, to determine the error. Such a record obtained from calibration is called calibration record. It is generally recorded in the tabular form. If it is represented in the graphical form, it is called calibration curve. Such a calibration record or calibration curve is useful to obtain the performance characteristics of an instrument. The performance of the instrument is not guaranteed by the calibration. It only indicates whether the performance of the instrument is meeting the accuracy and range specification or not. If the device has been repaired, aged, adjusted or modified, then recalibration is carried out.EMandI 1-4 Measurement and Instrumentation Theory 1.3 Static Characteristics As mentioned earlier, the static characteristics are defined for the instruments which measure the quantities which do not vary with time. The various static characteristics are accuracy, precision, resolution, error, sensitivity, threshold, reproducibility, zero drift, stability and linearity. 1.3.1 Accuracy It is the degree of closeness with which the instrument reading approaches the true value of the quantity to be measured. It denotes the extent to which we approach the actual value of the quantity. It indicates the ability of an instrument to indicate the true value of the quantity. The accuracy can be expressed in the following ways = 1) Accuracy as ‘Percentage of Full Scale Reading’ : - In case of instruments having uniform scale, the accuracy can be expressed as percentage of full scale reading. For example, the accuracy of an instrument having full scale reading of 50 units may be expressed as + 0.1 % of full seale reading. From this accuracy indication, practically accuracy is expressed in terms of limits of error. So for the accuracy limits specified above, there will be + 0.05 units error in any measurement. So for a reading of 50 units, there will be error of + 0.05 units ie 0.1 % while for a reading of 25 units, there will be error of + 0.05 units in the reading ie. + 0.2 %. Thus as reading decreases, error in measurement is + 0,05 units but net percentage error is more. Hence, specification of accuracy in this manner is highly misleading. 2) Accuracy as ‘Percentage of True Value’ :- This is the best method of specifying the accuracy. It is to be specified in terms of the true value of quantity being measured. For example, it can be specified as + 0.1 % of true value. This indicates that in such cases, as readings get smaller, error also gets reduced. Hence accuracy of the instrument is better than the instrument for which it is specified as percent of full scale reading. 3) Accuracy as ‘Percentage of Scale Span’ : - For an instrument, if aj,, is the maximum point for which scale is calibrated, ie. fulll scale reading and a,,, is the lowest reading on scale. Then (@max — Amin) 8 called scale span or span of the instrument. Accuracy of the instrument can be specified as percent of such scale span. Thus for an instrument having range from 25 units to 225 units, it can be specified as + 0.2 % of the span i.e. + [(0.2/100) x (225 - 25) which is + 0.4 units error in any measurement. 4) Point Accuracy : Such an accuracy is specified at only one particular point of scale. It does not give any information about the accuracy at any other point on the scale. The general accuracy of an instrument cannot be specified, in this manner. But the general accuracy can be specified by providing a table of the point accuracy values calculated at various points throughout the entire range of the instrument. Thus the accuracy, in whatever way it may be specified, gives the equipment accuracy with a particular set up and other conditions and does not include any personal accuracy.EM and! 1-5 Measurement and Instrumentation Theory 1.3.2 Precision It is the measure of consistency or repeatability of measurements. Key Polnt : It denotes the closeness with which individual measurements are departed or distributed about the average of number of measured values. Let us see the basic difference between accuracy and precision. Consider an instrument on which, readings upto zjyath of unit can be measured. But the instrument has large zero adjustment error. Now every time reading is taken, it can be taken down upto z-iath of unit So as the readings agree with each other, we say that the instrument is highly precise. But, though the readings are precise upto ao of unit, the readings are inaccurate due to large zero adjustment error. Every reading will be inaccurate, due to such error, Thus a precise instrument may not be accurate. Thus the precision means sharply or clearly defined and the readings agree among themselves. But there is no guarantee that readings are accurate. An instrument having zero error, if calibrated properly, can give accurate readings but in that case still, the readings can be obtained down upto zanth of unit only. Thus accuracy can be improved by calibration but not the precision of the instrument. Consider another example. A known weight of 100 grams is measured by an instrument. Five times, the weight has been recorded. The readings obtained are 103, 104, 105, 103, 105. The average indicated value is 104 grams. Hence the maximum deviation from the average reading is +1 gram in 100 grams actual value. Thus, the scale of the instrument can be calibrated to read +1 gram. But what about the accuracy ? The readings are not accurate. The accuracy of the instrument is only (105 - 100/100)% ie. 5 % . Thus there is a precision of + 1 % but the accuracy is only 5 %. Key Point: This confirms the fact, that high degree of precision does not guarantee the accuracy. It is the accurate calibration’ that makes the accurate measurement possible. The precision is composed of two characteristics + © Conformity and © Number of significant figures. 1.3.2.1 Conformity Consider a resistor having true value as 2385692 0, which is being measured by an ohmmeter. Now, the meter is consistently measuring the true value of the resistor. But the reader, can read consistently, a value as 2.4 MQ due to nonavailability of proper scale. The value 24 MQ is estimated by the reader from the available scale. There are no deviations from the observed value. The error created due to the limitation of the scale reading is a precision error. The example illustrates that the conformity is a necessary, but not sufficient condition for precision. Similarly, precision is necessary but not the sufficient condition for accuracy.EM and! 1-6 Measurement and Instrumentation Theory Key Point: An accurate instrument should be precise but a precise instrument may not be accurate. 4.3.2.2 Significant Figures The precision of the measurement is obtained from the number of significant figures, in which the reading is expressed. The significant figures convey the actual information about the magnitude and the measurement precision of the quantity. For example, a resistance of 110 2, specified by an instrument may be closer to 109 @ or 111 Q. Thus there are 3 icant figures. While if it is specified as 110.0 © then it may be closer to 110.1 Q or 109.9 ©. Thus there are now 4 significant figures. Key Point: Thus more the significant figures, the greater is the precision of measurement. Number of times, the large numbers with zeros before a decimal point are used to approximate populations or the amounts of money. For example, the price of a vehicle is reported as Rs. 450,000. This means the true value of the vehicle lies between Rs. 449,999 and Rs. 450,001. Thus, there are six significant figures. But what is the meaning of the reported price is, it is closer to Rs. 450,000 rather than Rs. 440,000 or Rs. 460,000. In this case, there are only two significant figures. To avoid this confusion, the large numbers are expressed in a scientific notation using the powers of ten. For example, the price of Rs. 450,000 must be expressed as 4.5 x 10°. Thus now, there are only two significant figures. The uncertainty due to the zeros to the left of the decimal point is usually resolved by such scientific notation. The precision can be mathematically expressed as = P where P = Precision X, = Value of n™ measurement Xn = Average of the set of measured values hump Example 1.1: The table shows the set of 5 measurements recorded in a laboratory. Calculate the precision of the 34 measurement. Measurement Number Value of Measurement 1 49 51 62 alatesEM andi 1-7 Measurement and Instrumentation Theory = 0.964 ie. 96.4 % _ | 52-50. 50.2 This is the precision of the 3" measurement. 4.3.3 Error The most important static characteristics of an instrument is its accuracy, which is generally expressed in terms of the error called static error. Key Point: The algebraic difference between the indicated value and the true value of the quantity to be measured is called an error. Mathematically it can be expressed as, A> Am where e = Error A, = Measured value of the quantity = True value of the quantity In this expression, the error denoted as e is also called absolute error. The absolute error does not indicate precisely the accuracy of the measurements. For example, absolute error of +1 V is negligible when the voltage to be measured is of the order of 1000 V but the same error of +1 V becomes significant when the voltage under measurement is 5 V or so. Hence, generally instead of specifying absolute error, the relative or percentage error is specified. Mathematically, the relative error can be expressed as, Absolute error _ True value - Measured value ey = Abseluteoror True value True value thee A, The percentage relative error is expressed as,Cu 4 Measurement and Instrumentation Theory From the relative percentage error, the accuracy can be mathematically expressed as, where A= and as where a = Percentage accuracy The error can also be expressed as a percentage of full scale reading as, Error as a percentage of full scale reading where fs.d. = Full scale deflection. wep Example 1.2: The expected value of the voltage to be measured is 150 V. However, the measurement gives a value of 149 V. Calculate i) absolute error; ii) percentage error; ifi) relative accuracy; io) percentage accuracy and v) error expressed as percentage of full scale reading, if the scale range is 0-200 V. Solution: The expected value means true value, Ay = 150V The measured value is given as 149 V. A, = 49V i) @ = Absolute error = Ay Ag =150-149=41V ii) ee, = itt) A iv) %a = Ax 100 = 0.9933 x 100 = 99.33 %EM and! 1-9 Measurement and instrumentation Theory v) % error expressed as percentage of full scale reading is, ApmAg fs.d. x 100 sah. = 39% 100 As fs.d. is 200 V = 05% 1.3.4 Sensitivity The sensitivity denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to which the instrument responds. It is defined as the ratio of the changes in the output of an instrument to a change in the value of the quantity to be measured. Mathematically it is expressed as, ___ Infinitesimal change in output ‘Tafinitesimal change in input Thus, if the calibration curve is linear, as shown in the Fig. 1.1 (a), the sensitivity of the instrument is the slope of the calibration curve. Fig. 1.1 Sensitivity If the calibration curve is not linear as shown in the Fig. 1.1 (b), then the sensitivity varies with the input. The sensitivity is always expressed by the manufacturers as the ratio of the magnitude of quantity being measured to the magnitude of the response. Actually, this definition is the reciprocal of the sensitivity is called inverse sensitivity or deflection factor. But manufacturers call this inverse sensitivity as a sensitivity. Inverse sensitivity = Deflection factoraa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EM and! 1-12 Measurement and Instrumentation Theory 1.3.8 Zero Drift The drift is the gradual shift of the instrument indication, over an extended period during which the value of the input variable does not change. The zero drift is defined as the deviation in the instrument output with time, from its zero value, when the variable to be measured is constant. The whole instrument calibration may gradually shift by the same amount. There are many environmental factors which affect the drift. These factors are stray electric field, stray magnetic field, temperature changes, contamination of metal, changes in the atomic structure, mechanical vibrations, wear and tear, corrosion, etc. The drift is undesirable and cannot be easily compensated for. It must be carefully guarded against by continuous inspection. 1.3.9 Reproducibility Output - It is the degree of closeness with which a given + Repeatability value may be repeatedly measured. It may be specified in terms of units for a given period of time. The perfect reproducibility indicates no drift in the instrument. The repeatability is defined as variation of scale reading and is random in nature. Both reproducbility and the repeatability are a measure of the closeness with Fig. 1.3 which a given input may be measured again and again. mo The Fig. 1.3 shows the input and output relationship with positive and negative repeatability. 1.3.10 Stability The ability of an instrument to retain its performance throughout its specified operating life and the storage life is defined as its stability. 1.3.11 Tolerance The maximum allowable error in the measurement is specified interms of some value which is called tolerance. This is closely related to the accuracy. Actually tolerance is not the static characteristics of measuring instrument but it is mentioned because in some instruments the accuracy is specified interms of tolerance values. Key Point : The tolerance indicates the maximum allowable deviation of a manufactured component from a specified value.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EM and! 1-16 Measurement and Instrumentation Theory Fe) = a ... Laplace of sinusoidal input From the dynamic behaviour of the measuring system, the various dynamic characteristics of the system can be obtained. The various dynamic characteristics of an instrument are speed of response, fidelity, log and the dynamic error. 1.41 Speed of Response It is the rapidity with which the system responds to the changes in the quantity to be measured. It gives the information about how fast the system reacts to the changes in the input. It indicates activeness of the system. Key Point; The system should respond very quickly to the changes in the input. 1.4.2 Fidelity It indicates how much faithfully the system reproduces the changes in the input. It is the ability of an instrument to produce a wave shape identical to wave shape of input with respect to time. Key Point: It is defined as the degree to which an instrument indicates the changes in the measured variable without dynamic error. 1.4.3 Lag Every system takes some time, whatever small it may be, to respond to the changes in the measured variable. This retardation or delay in the response of a system is called lag. This is also called measuring lag. The lags are of two types :- 1. Retardation Lag : In this case, the response of the system begins immediately after a change in the variable has occurred. 2. Time Delay : In this case, response begins after some time called dead time, after the application of input. Such a delay shifts the response along time axis and hence causes the dynamic error. 1.4.4 Dynamic Error It is the difference between the true value of the variable to be measured, changing with time and the value indicated by the measurement system, aseuming zero static error.EM and! 1-17 Measurement and Instrumentation Theory The Fig. 1.11 shows the dead time, ie. time delay and the dynamic error. Input Quantity to be measured and time Fig. 1.11 Dynamic characteristics 1.5 Calibration The calibration is the procedure for determining the correct values of messurand by comparison with the standard ones. The standard of device with which comparison is made is called a standard instrument. The instrument which is unknown and is to be calibrated is called test instrument. Thus in calibration, test instrument is compared with the standard instrument. 1.6 Calibration Methodology ‘There are two fundamental methodologies for obtaining the comparison between test instrument and standard instrument. These methodologies are, 1. Direct comparisons 2. Indirect comparisons 1.6.1 Direct Comparison Calibration Methodology In a direct comparison, a source or Standard instrument generator applies a known input to the meter A under test. The ratio of what meter is indicating and the known generator values calibrated co. gives the meter’s error. In such a case meter is ‘ test instrument while generator is the standard instrument. The deviation of meter from the Fig. 1.12(a) Meter calibration standard value is compared with the allowable mance limit. If meter deviation exceeds the allowance, then the meter is considered to be out of tolerance. This is shown in the Fig. 1.12 (a). Test instrument 1 *EM and! 1-18 Measurement and Instrumentation Theory Test instrument With the help of direct comparison a generator or source also can be calibrated. In such calibration, the meter acts as a standard instrument while the generator acts as a test Fig. 1.12(b) Generator calibration instrument. This is shown in the Fig. 1.12 (b). ‘The transducer converts the signal from one form to another. Hence if transducer is to be calibrated using direct comparison then both generator as well as meters are the standard instruments while the transducer acts as a test instrument. The transducer characteristics are then expressed as a ratio between the device's output fo its input, in the appropriate input and output measurement units. This is shown in the Fig. 1.12 (c). ‘Standard instrument Standard instrument Test instrument Standard instrument Fig. 1.12 (c) Transducer calibration 1.6.2 Indirect Comparison Calibration Methodology In the indirect comparison, the test instrument is compared with the response of standard instrument of same type i.e. if test instrument is meter, standard instrument is also meter, if test instrument is generator, standard instrument is also generator and so on. Test instrument If the test instrument is a meter then the same input is applied to the test meter as well as a standard meter. Thus the indication of test : meter is compared with the indication of the standard meter for the same stimulus or input. Care must be taken that during the comparison process, the source supplying input to both Standard instrument Fig. 1.13 (a) Meter calibration must have the required level of stability. The magnitude of input is not important. This is Test instrument shown in the Fig. 1.13 (a). In case of generator calibration, the output of both the generators, test as well as standard, are set to same nominal levels. Then a transfer meter is used which measures the outputs of both standard and test generators. From the linearity and the resolution of the transfer meter, the generator is calibrated. The set up for the generator calibration is shown in the Fig. 1.13 (b). Fig. 1.13 (b) Generator calibration ¥ .aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EM and 1 1-20 Measurement and Instrumentation Theory Each element is made up of number of distinct components which perform a particular function in the measurement procedure. In the block diagram, the function of each element is important rather than the construction of the element. 41.7.1 Primary Sensing Element An element of an instrument which makes first, the contact with the quantity to be measured is called primary sensing element. Thus first detection of the measurand is done by the primary sensing element. In ammeter, coil carrying current to be measured is a primary sensing element. In most of the cases, a transducer follows primary sensing element which converts the measurand into a corresponding electrical signal. Key Point: In general, a transducer converts a physical quantity from one form to other but in case of electrical and electronic measurements, it converts physical quantity to be measured into an analogous electrical signal. 1.7.2 Variable Conversion Element The output of the primary sensing element is in electrical form such as voltage, frequency or any other electrical parameter. Such an output may not be suitable for the actual measurement system. For example if the measurement system is digital then the analog signal obtained from the primary sensing element is not suitable for the digital system. Thus analog to digital converter is required which is nothing but variable conversion element. Key Point: Some instruments do not need variable conversion element while some need more than one. The original information about the measurand must be retained as it is while doing such conversion. 1.7.3 Variable Manipulation Element The level of the output from the previous stage may not be enough to drive the next stage. Thus variable manipulation element manipulates the signal, preserving the original nature of the signal. Key Point: The manipulation involves the change in numerical value of the signal. For example an amplifier which just amplifies the magnitude of the input, at its output, retaining the original nature of the signal. It is not necessary that variable manipulation element must be always after variable conversion element. It may be before variable conversion element. In some cases, the levels of the output of the previous stage are high and required to be lowered. In such case atenuators are used as the variable manipulation elements. Sometimes the output of the transducer may get affected due to unwanted signals like noise. Thus such signals are required to be processed with some processes like modulation, dipping, clamping etc, to obtain the signal in pure and acceptable form from highly