A Comparative Investigation of Electromechanical

Stresses on Transformers Caused by Inrush and

Short-Circuit Currents
Neves W., Fernandes Jr. D. Baltar F. J. A.
Electrical Engineering Department Electrical Operation Studies Department
Federal University of Campina Grande CHESF – Hydroelectric Company of San Francisco
Campina Grande-PB, Brazil Recife-PE, Brazil
waneves@dee.ufcg.edu.br, damasio@dee.ufcg.edu.br fbaltar@chesf.gov.br

Rosentino Jr. A. J. P., Saraiva E., Delaiba A. C., Guimarães R., Lynce M., De Oliveira J. C.
Faculty of Electrical Engineering
Federal University of Uberlândia
Uberlândia-MG, Brazil
arnaldo@ieee.org, elise.saraiva@yahoo.com.br, delaiba@ufu.br, ronaldoguimaraes@yahoo.com.br, lynce@ufu.br,
jcoliveira@ufu.br

Abstract— This paper presents the mechanical effect on
transformers when subjected to one of the power quality
indicators, i.e., the electromagnetic transients. A common reason
for internal faults in transformers windings is the weak
insulation. This effect can be caused and accelerated by the
electromechanical efforts produced by the inrush and short-
circuit currents. Even though the transformer energizing is
considered a normal operation, it produces high currents and this
phenomenon significantly reduces the transformer life
expectancy and may even lead to its instantaneous or timing
destruction. Moreover, taking into account the same magnitude
of current, the inrush currents can produce greater forces than
those caused by short-circuit currents. Therefore, this papers
aims to present and compare the electromechanical effects
produced by the inrush and short-circuit currents in the
transformers windings. To conduct this research, FLUX software
in its 3D version, based on the finite element method (FEM) will
be used. To highlight the overall model and the software
performance, a laboratory 15 kVA transformer is utilized. It has
been built with concentric double-layer windings and
ferromagnetic core with three columns.
Keywords- Power quality, Inrush currents, Short-circuit
currents, Three-phase transformers, Electromechanical efforts,
Finite element method.
I. INTRODUCTION
It is known that high magnitude currents that occur during
transformers energizing are caused by saturation of its
ferromagnetic core. These high currents, called by inrush
currents, can cause a variety of adverse effects on the
electrical system supplier, as well as in the transformers, such
as momentary voltage sags, harmonics, electromechanical
stress in the winding transformers, insulation deterioration of
conductors, incorrect operation of differential and overcurrent
relays, etc. Thus, this situation can affect the power quality
supplied by the power system and thus reduce the transformer
life.
In general, it is very difficult to note an electromechanical
defect in the transformers windings, since even with the
winding deformed, equipment can operate normally. However,
the transformer winding with some defect becomes less
robust, reducing the equipment life expectancy. Moreover, it is
noteworthy that the frequent action of forces in the windings
results in a cumulative phenomenon, reducing even more the
mechanical supportability of the conductors.
The electromechanical stresses characteristics in the
windings caused by inrush and short-circuit current are
different. While the short-circuit current causes forces
involving the various windings of the transformer, the inrush
current involves only it’s energizing. The high inrush currents
cause the core saturation as well its effective permeability
reduction. Thus, the components produced by the leakage flux
can be neglected, as well as, if existent, the currents in the
secondary. Then, in the forces analysis under inrush
conditions, only the field components produced by the
currents in the conductors of the primary winding are
considered [1].
The inrush currents, even with peaks 30% lower than those
caused by short circuit currents can produce forces with
amplitudes similar to those caused by short circuit. This is due
to the exposure time of the inrush currents being considerably
higher than the short-circuit current. Another fact to consider
is that the presence of inrush current is much more frequent as
this can be considered as normal service operation [2].
This paper will make an electromechanical stresses
analysis that occur in transformers windings when they are
subjected to the inrush and short circuit current. Subsequently,

978-1-4673-0378-1/11/$26.00 ©2011 IEEE

a laboratory 15 kVA transformer made of traditional winding, because in this case the winding will be under tensile
ferromagnetic core with three columns and two concentric forces. Fig. 2 shows typical deformations in the inner winding
double layered windings will be modeled in flux 3D software due to radial compressive forces that occur in the inner
package, based on finite element methods and it is a very well- winding under short-circuit current [5, 6].
known product offered by CEDRAT – France. Two conditions
will be analyzed, i.e., inrush and short-circuit situation. Thus,
electromechanical forces produced by these transient currents
will be confronted.
II. ANALYSIS OF ELECTROMECHANICAL EFFECTS IN
TRANSFORMERS DUE TO INRUSH AND SHORT-CIRCUIT
CURRENTS

The occurrence of electromechanical forces in the

transformers windings can be explained as shown in (1),
which is based on the Lorentz force [3]. Figure 2. Typical deformations in the inner winding caused by radial forces.

F = J ×B (1) B. Axial Force

The axial forces produced by the short-circuit and inrush
Where: J is the current density in A/m2 and B is the current are similar, i.e., both compress the windings. The
magnetic leakage flux density in T. difference is that in the presence of short-circuit, both
The main strengths are associated with the direction of windings will be under this compressive force, while in
leakage flux, that is, the flux density in axial and radial transformer energizing only one. Fig. 3 shows this effect.
direction produces forces, respectively, in the radial and axial
direction.
A. Radial Force
The radial forces produced by the inrush currents stretch
the energized winding [3]. On the other hand, in short-circuit
condition, the radial forces compress the inner winding and
stretch the other one [4].
Fig. 1 illustrates the radial forces direction resulting from
the inrush and short-circuit current.

Figure 3. Axial force direction in a transformer winding under inrush (a)

and short-circuit current (b).

Figure 1. Radial force direction in a transformer winding under inrush (a)
and short-circuit (b) current.
The occurrence of some radial defect in the inner winding
is more common than in the outer winding [3], since the
compressive forces on the inner winding can experience a
force from the core and axial supports in the opposite
direction. As only the short-circuit current causes this effect,
transformer energizing does not cause such damage for the
This work was sponsored by CHESF - Hydroelectric Company of San
Francisco.
The axial force caused by the radial flux at the ends of the
coils is directed toward the winding midpoint.
The axial forces due to inrush current are higher than those
produced by short-circuit current (both effects at the same
current). Note that the magnetic flux during transformer
energizing is higher than that produced by short-circuit
current, under the same induction [3].
However, in general, the inrush currents are much smaller
than the short-circuit current. Thus, the forces due to inrush
current, which are proportional to the square of current, will
also be smaller. However, the major problem of axial forces
caused by inrush current is due to the fact that the transformers
are connected to the electrical system more frequently than the
short-circuit occurs. Then, the repeated action of axial forces
may result in the accumulation of residual deformations
(cumulative phenomenon) [1, 3]. Fig. 4 illustrates typical
deformations in the winding due the axial force [7].

Figure 4. Typical deformations in the winding caused by axial forces.

III. COMPUTATIONAL SIMULATIONS

This section presents the results of electromechanical
efforts produced in the windings of a laboratory transformer,
through a computer simulation based on finite element method
(FEM). The transformer will be submitted to the inrush and a
three-phase short circuit current. The objective is to show that
the inrush current can cause electromechanical forces higher
than those due to short-circuit current when both effects are of
the same current magnitude.
A. Transformer constructive characteristics
The equipment used for the analysis was a three-phase
transformer, star connection, 15 kVA, with two double-layer
windings per phase, each with a rated voltage of 127 V. Each
winding has two layers with 33 turns which leads to a total of
66 turns per coil [8]. Fig. 5 presents an actual photo of the
equipment without the tank. Fig. 6 shows some physical and
geometrical characteristics of the modeled transformer.
Figure 6. Geometrical and physical characteristics of the transformer
analysed (dimensions in (mm)).

This transformer was chosen because all data were

Figure 5. Picture of the transformer without the tank.
available to researchers, by direct access to the equipment as
well as its complete project.
B. Transformer modeling using 3D finite element method
Computer simulations were performed using the software
FLUX in its 3D version. This program has pioneered the
development of formulations based on FEM. The FLUX basic
modules include the preprocessing (geometry, definition of
physical properties, and meshes), the processing (problem
solving) and post processing to results analysis.
In this way, the model implemented in software is
presented in Fig. 7. It can be noted that only a quarter of the
transformer was considered. This technique is widely used in
applications based on finite element method because it reduces
the processing time of the simulation.
 Figure 7. The transformer implemented in the FLUX3D.
Based on the geometrical and physical characteristics of
the transformer, two conditions were simulated. The first one
considers the transformer energizing, while the second one
considers a balanced three-phase short-circuit condition.
C. Case 1: Transformer energizing simulation
In this case, the simulation was performed by the outer
winding energizing. Fig. 8 presents the inrush current
waveform obtained by the software. The peak occurred for the
phase B equal to 514.63 A. So, all the results refer to this
phase.
Figure 8. Inrush current waveform obtained by the FLUX3D.
Fig. 9 shows the leakage flux distribution for phase B for
this condition. It can be seen that the highest intensity of the
magnetic induction is found in a layer of the outer winding
and in all inner winding (yellow intensity). It occurs because
of the magnetic flux directed toward the iron core.
Figure 9. Leakage flux distribution in phase B by energizing the transformer
outer winding.
Fig. 10 shows the forces direction in the outer winding of
the phase B. Note that, as expected the forces tend to stretch
the winding. Although there is a high intensity of magnetic
flux in the inner winding, the current is almost zero, therefore
the forces can be neglected.
Figure 10. Forces direction in the outer winding of the phase B for
transformer energizing condition.
Table I summarizes some results of electrical, magnetic
and mechanical parameters obtained in the phase B outer
winding for transformer energizing condition. These values
will be compared with the next case, i.e., the short-circuit
condition.
 TABLE I. ELECTRICAL, MAGNETIC AND MECHANICAL VALUES IN THE
PHASE B OUTER WINDING FOR TRANSFORMER ENERGIZING CONDITION.

Variable Value
Inrush current 514.63 A
Axial magnetic field in the midpoint 119.76 x 10-3 T
Radial force in the midpoint 33.49 N
Mean radial force 523.0 N
Radial magnetic field at the end 96.03 x 10-3 T
Axial force at the end 36.35 N
Total axial force 155.56 N

D. Case 2: Transformer under a balanced three-phase short-

circuit
In this case a balanced three-phase short-circuit in the
model was applied. However, the transformer was submitted
to a short-circuit, where the peak in the phase B is the similar
the inrush current. It was made in order to obtain results at the
same reference. Fig. 11 presents the short-circuit current
waveform obtained by the software. The peak value was equal
to 514.67 A in the phase B. Similarly to the previous case, all
Figure 12. Leakage flux distribution in phase B in the outer winding for
results are referred to the outer winding in phase B. transformer under three-phase short-circuit condition.

Fig. 13 shows the forces direction in both windings of the

phase B. Note that, as expected that the forces compress the
inner winding and stretch the other one.

Figure 11. Short-circuit current waveform obtained by the FLUX3D.

Fig. 12 illustrates the leakage flux distribution in phase B

for the short-circuit condition. It can be seen that now the
highest intensity for the magnetic induction is found between Figure 13. Forces direction in both windings of the phase B for the
transformer under a balanced three-phase short-circuit.
the windings (yellow intensity). This is the place where the
greatest forces and electromechanical stresses are detected. Table II summarizes some results of electrical, magnetic
and mechanical parameters obtained in the phase B outer
winding for this analysis. Although, there are great forces in
the inner winding, only the results in outer winding will be
shown, in order to compare with those in previous case.

TABLE II. ELECTRICAL, MAGNETIC AND MECHANICAL VALUES IN THE

PHASE B OUTER WINDING FOR TRANSFORMER UNDER A BALANCED THREE-
PHASE SHORT-CIRCUIT.

Variable Value
Short-circuit current 514.67 A
Axial magnetic field in the midpoint 125.89 x 10-3 T
Radial force in the midpoint 35.77 N
Mean radial force 534.13 N
Radial magnetic field at the end 71.53 x 10-3 T
Axial force at the end 28.4 N
Total axial force 68.6 N
 Table III shows the variation of the parameters between the
both analyzed cases. Positive and negative results mean,
respectively, an increase and a decrease of the variables,
according to the difference between the inrush and short-
circuit values.
TABLE III. PERCENTUAL DIFFERENCE OF THE VARIABLES BETWEEN THE
TRANSFORMER ENERGIZING AND SHORT-CIRCUIT CONDITION.
Variable Percentual difference [%]
Current -0.0078
Axial magnetic field in the midpoint -4.87
Radial force in the midpoint -6.37
Mean radial force -2.08
Radial magnetic field at the end +34.25
Axial force at the end +27.99
Total axial force +126.76
Note that the difference between the currents in the two
cases is small. In this way all results will have the same
reference. Note that the radial forces due to inrush current
experienced a slight reduction compared to those produced by
short-circuit current. For example, at the midpoint of the
winding, where the greatest radial forces are produced, a
reduction of 6.37% was obtained. This small change was due
to little change in the magnetic field in the axial direction,
which at this point was 4.87%. Considering the mean radial
force, the variation is even smaller, i.e., 2.08%. However,
analyzing the results for axial forces, there is an increase in
strength of approximately 28% at the end of the coil, where
axial forces are the highest. This high variation was due to a
great change in the magnetic field in the radial direction,
which at the winding end was 34.25%. The variation is even
more pronounced when comparing the axial forces directed to
the midpoint of the winding. There is an increase of over
100% at this point. It is noteworthy that the total force for
short-circuit condition, taking both windings, has been
obtained in simulation with a value of 173.29 N. However,
only 40% of this force (68.6 N) is concentrated in the outer
winding. Consequently, a high variation in relation to the
transformer energizing condition was obtained, as in this case,
besides the radial component of magnetic field is exceeding
the one in short-circuit condition, all the force is concentrated
just in one winding.
IV. CONCLUSION
This paper presented the differences between the
electromagnetic forces imposed on the transformer windings
due to one of the power quality indicators, i.e., the
electromagnetic transients.
The following steps were analyzed:
• Characterization of the electromechanical effects that
occur in the transformers windings when submitted to
energizing and short-circuit current;
• Computational modeling based on 3D finite element
method. The equipment used was a laboratory
transformer of the Federal University of Uberlândia;
• Analyses of the radial and axial forces in the
transformer windings caused by inrush and short-
circuit current, through computer simulations.
It has been confirmed that the axial mechanical forces
caused by the inrush currents, at the same peak current, are
higher than those caused by short-circuit current. It is
noteworthy that transformers are frequently connected to the
electrical power system, and the exposure time of the inrush
currents is considerably higher than the short-circuit current. In
this way, the importance of knowing the physical conditions of
a given transformer arises, to prevent it from causing supply
interruption of black-outs.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This paper is a partial result of a Research and
Development project titled: "Electromechanical stress in
transformer caused by the high inrush and short-circuit
currents", managed by the Hydroelectric Company of San
Francisco - CHESF, with support from the Federal University
of Uberlandia - UFU and the Federal University of Campina
Grande – UFCG. Thus, the authors gratefully appreciate the
Hydroelectric Company of San Francisco - CHESF for the
financial support.
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