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Nonlinear Effects in Optical Fibers

Govind P. Agrawal
Institute of Optics
University of Rochester
Rochester, NY 14627

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2006
c G. P. Agrawal Back
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Outline
• Introduction 2/100

• Stimulated Raman Scattering

• Stimulated Brillouin Scattering
• Self-Phase Modulation
• Cross-Phase Modulation
• Four-Wave Mixing
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• Supercontinuum Generation II
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• Concluding Remarks I
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Introduction
Fiber nonlinearities 3/100

• Studied during the 1970s.

• Ignored during the 1980s.
• Feared during the 1990s.
• May be conquered in this decade.

Objective: JJ
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• Review of Nonlinear Effects in Optical Fibers. J
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Major Nonlinear Effects
• Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS) 4/100

• Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS)

• Self-Phase Modulation (SPM)
• Cross-Phase Modulation (XPM)
• Four-Wave Mixing (FWM)

Origin of Nonlinear Effects in Optical Fibers

• Ultrafast third-order susceptibility χ (3).
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• Real part leads to SPM, XPM, and FWM. II
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• Imaginary part leads to SBS and SRS. I
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Stimulated Raman Scattering
• Scattering of light from vibrating silica molecules.
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• Amorphous nature of silica turns vibrational state into a band.
• Raman gain spectrum extends over 40 THz or so.

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• Raman gain is maximum near 13 THz. J
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• Scattered light red-shifted by 100 nm in the 1.5 µm region.
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SRS Dynamics
• SRS process is governed by two coupled equations:
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dIp dIs
= −gRIpIs − α pIp, = gRIpIs − αsIs.
dz dz
• If we neglect pump depletion (Is  Ip), pump power decays
exponentially, and the Stokes beam satisfies
dIs
= gRI0e−α pzIs − αsIs.
dz
• This equation has the solution
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Is(L) = Is(0) exp(gRI0Leff − αsL), Leff = [1 − exp(−α pL)]/α p. II
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• SRS acts as an amplifier if pump wavelength is chosen suitably. I
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Raman Threshold
• Even in the absence of an input, Stokes beam can buildup if pump
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power is large enough.
• Spontaneous Raman scattering acts as the seed for this buildup.
• Mathematically, the growth process is equivalent to injecting
one photon per mode into the fiber:
Z ∞
Ps(L) = h̄ω exp[gR(ω p − ω)I0Leff − αsL] dω.
−∞

• Approximate solution (using the method of steepest descent):

Ps(L) = Ps0eff exp[gR(ΩR)I0Leff − αsL].
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• Effective input power is given by II
 1/2  2 −1/2 J
2π  ∂ gR 
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Ps0eff = h̄ωsBeff, Beff =  
 ∂ ω2  .
I0Leff ω=ωs Back
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Raman Threshold
• Raman threshold is defined as the input pump power at which
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Stokes power becomes equal to the pump power at the fiber output:

Ps(L) = Pp(L) ≡ P0 exp(−α pL).

• P0 = I0Aeff is the input pump power.

• For αs ≈ α p, threshold condition becomes

Ps0eff exp(gRP0Leff/Aeff) = P0,

• Assuming a Lorentzian shape for the Raman-gain spectrum, Raman

threshold is reached when (Smith, Appl. Opt. 11, 2489, 1972) JJ
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gRPthLeff 16Aeff J
≈ 16 → Pth ≈ .
Aeff gRLeff I
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Estimates of Raman Threshold
Telecommunication Fibers
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• For long fibers, Leff = [1 − exp(−αL)]/α ≈ 1/α ≈ 20 km for
α = 0.2 dB/km at 1.55 µm.
• For telecom fibers, Aeff = 50–75 µm2.
• Threshold power Pth ∼1 W is too large to be of concern.
• Interchannel crosstalk in WDM systems because of Raman gain.
Yb-doped Fiber Lasers and Amplifiers
• For short fibers (L < 100 m), Leff = L.
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• For fibers with a large core, Aeff ∼ 500 µm2.
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• Pth can exceed 100 kW depending on fiber length. J
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• SRS may limit fiber lasers and amplifiers if L  10 m. Back
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SRS: Good or Bad?
• Raman gain introduces interchannel crosstalk in WDM systems.
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• Crosstalk can be reduced by lowering channel powers but it limits
the number of channels.

On the other hand . . .

• Raman amplifiers are a boon for WDM systems.
• Can be used in the entire 1300–1650 nm range.
• Erbium-doped fiber amplifiers limited to ∼40 nm.
• Distributed nature of amplification lowers noise. JJ
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• Likely to open new transmission bands. J
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Raman Amplifiers
• Pumped in backward direction using diode lasers.
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• Multiple pumps used to produce wide bandwidth with a relatively
flat gain spectrum.
• Help to realize longer transmission distances compared with erbium-
doped fiber amplifiers.

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Stimulated Brillouin Scattering
• Scattering of light from acoustic waves.
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• Becomes a stimulated process when input power exceeds a
threshold level.
• Low threshold power for long fibers (∼5 mW).

Reflected

Transmitted

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• Most of the power reflected backward after SBS threshold is reached. Back
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Brillouin Shift
• Pump produces density variations through electrostriction, resulting
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in an index grating which generates Stokes wave through Bragg
diffraction.
• Energy and momentum conservation require:
ΩB = ω p − ωs, ~kA =~k p −~ks.

• Acoustic waves satisfy the dispersion relation:

ΩB = vA|~kA| ≈ 2vA|~k p| sin(θ /2).

• In a single-mode fiber θ = 180◦, resulting in JJ

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νB = ΩB/2π = 2n pvA/λ p ≈ 11 GHz, J
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if we use vA = 5.96 km/s, n p = 1.45, and λ p = 1.55 µm.
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Brillouin Gain Spectrum
• Decay of acoustic waves as exp(−ΓBt) leads to a Lorentzian gain
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spectrum of the form
(ΓB/2)2
gB(Ω) = g p .
(Ω − ΩB)2 + (ΓB/2)2
• Peak gain depends on the material parameters as
8π 2γe2
g p ≡ gB(ΩB) = .
n pλ p2ρ0cvAΓB

• Electrostrictive constant γe = ρ0(dε/dρ)ρ=ρ0 ≈ 0.902 for silica.

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• Gain bandwidth ΓB scales with λ p as λ p−2. II
• For silica fibers g p ≈ 5 × 10−11 m/W, TB = Γ−1 J
B ≈ 5 ns, and
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gain bandwidth < 50 MHz.
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Brillouin Gain Spectrum
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• Measured spectra for (a) silica-core (b) depressed-cladding, and

(c) dispersion-shifted fibers.
• Brillouin gain spectrum is quite narrow (∼50 MHz).
• Brillouin shift depends on GeO2 doping within the core.
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• Multiple peaks are due to the excitation of different acoustic modes.
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• Each acoustic mode propagates at a different velocity vA and thus J
leads to a different Brillouin shift (νB = 2n pvA/λ p). I
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Brillouin Threshold
• Pump and Stokes evolve along the fiber as
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dIs dIp
− = gBIpIs − αIs, = −gBIpIs − αIp.
dz dz
• Ignoring pump depletion, Ip(z) = I0 exp(−αz).
• Solution of the Stokes equation:
Is(L) = Is(0) exp(gBI0Leff − αL).

• Brillouin threshold is obtained from

gBPthLeff 21Aeff
≈ 21 → Pth ≈ . JJ
Aeff gBLeff II
• Brillouin gain gB ≈ 5 × 10−11 m/W is nearly independent of the J
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pump wavelength. Back
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Estimates of Brillouin Threshold
Telecommunication Fibers
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• For long fibers, Leff = [1 − exp(−αL)]/α ≈ 1/α ≈ 20 km for
α = 0.2 dB/km at 1.55 µm.
• For telecom fibers, Aeff = 50–75 µm2.
• Threshold power Pth ∼1 mW is relatively small.
Yb-doped Fiber Lasers and Amplifiers
• For short fibers (L < 100 m), Leff = L.
• Pth exceeds 20 W for a 1-m-long fiber.
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• Further increase occurs for large-core fibers; Pth ∼ 200 W when II
Aeff ∼ 500 µm2. J
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• SBS is the dominant limiting factor at power levels P0 > 1 kW. Back
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Techniques for Controlling SBS
• Pump-Phase modulation: Sinusoidal modulation at several frequen-
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cies >0.1 GHz or with a pseudorandom bit pattern.
• Cross-phase modulation by launching a pseudorandom pulse train
at a different wavelength.
• Temperature gradient along the fiber: Changes in νB = 2n pvA/λ p
through temperature dependence of n p.
• Built-in strain along the fiber: Changes in νB through n p.
• Nonuniform core radius and dopant density: mode index n p also
depends on fiber design parameters (a and ∆).
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• Control of overlap between the optical and acoustic modes. II
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• Use of Large-core fibers: Wider core reduces SBS threshold by en- I
hancing Aeff. Back
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Fiber Gratings for Controlling SBS
• Fiber Bragg gratings can be employed for SBS suppression [Lee and
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Agrawal, Opt. Exp. 11, 3467 (2003)].
• One or more fiber grating are placed along the fiber, depending on
the fiber length.
• Grating is designed such that it is transparent to the pump beam,
but Stokes spectrum falls entirely within its stop band.
• Stokes is reflected by the grating and it begins to propagate in the
forward direction with the pump.
• A new Stokes wave can still buildup, but its power is reduced be-
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cause of the exponential nature of the SBS gain. II
• Multiple gratings may need to be used for long fibers. J
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• For short fibers, a long grating can be made all along its length. Back
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Grating-Induced SBS Suppression
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[Lee and Agrawal, Opt. Exp. 11, 3467 (2003)] II
• (a) 15-ns pulses, 2-kW peak power, 1-m-long grating with κL = 35 J
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• (b) Fraction of pulse energy transmitted versus grating strength.
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Self-Phase Modulation
• Refractive index depends on optical intensity as
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n(ω, I) = n0(ω) + n2I(t).

• Leads to nonlinear Phase shift

φNL(t) = (2π/λ )n2I(t)L.

• An optical field modifies its own phase (SPM).

• Phase shift varies with time for pulses.
• Each optical pulse becomes chirped. JJ
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• As a pulse propagates along the fiber, its spectrum changes because J
of SPM. I
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Nonlinear Phase Shift
• Pulse propagation governed by Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation
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∂ A β2 ∂ 2A
i − 2
+ γ|A|2A = 0.
∂z 2 ∂t
• Dispersive effects within the fiber included through β2.
• Nonlinear effects included through γ = 2πn2/(λ Aeff).
• If we ignore dispersive effects, solution can be written as

A(L,t) = A(0,t) exp(iφNL), where φNL(t) = γL|A(0,t)|2.

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• Nonlinear phase shift depends on the pulse shape through its II
power profile P(t) = |A(0,t)|2. J
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SPM-Induced Chirp
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Nonlinear phase shift Experimental Spectra II
Pulse width = 90 ps, Fiber length = 100 m. J
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SPM: Good or Bad?
• SPM-induced spectral broadening can degrade performance of a
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lightwave system.
• Modulation instability often enhances system noise.

On the positive side . . .

• Modulation instability can be used to produce ultrashort pulses at
high repetition rates.
• SPM can be used for fast optical switching.
• It has been used for passive mode locking.
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• Responsible for the formation of optical solitons. II
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Modulation Instability
Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation
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∂ A β2 ∂ 2A
i − 2
+ γ|A|2A = 0.
∂z 2 ∂t

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• CW solution unstable for anomalous dispersion (β2 < 0). II
• Useful for producing ultrashort pulse trains. J
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Modulation Instability
• A CW beam can be converted into a pulse train.
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• A weak modulation helps to reduce the power level and makes the
repetition rate tunable.
• Two CW beams at slightly different wavelengths can initiate
modulation instability.
• Repetition rate governed by the wavelength difference.
• Repetition rates ∼100 GHz realized using DFB lasers.

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Nonlinear Fiber-Loop Mirror
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• An example of the Sagnac interferometer.

• Transmission through the fiber loop:

T = 1 − 4 f (1 − f ) cos2[( f − 12 )γP0L].

• f = fraction of power in the CCW direction.

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• T = 0 for a 3-dB coupler (loop acts as a perfect mirror) II
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• Power-dependent transmission for f 6= 0.5. I
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Passive Mode Locking
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• Figure-8 fiber laser can produce pulses ∼100 fs.

• Amplifier located asymmetrically inside the NFLM.
• SPM-induced phase shift larger in clockwise direction.
• Low-power light reflected by the loop.
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• Central part of the pulse transmitted. II
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• Transmitted pulses become narrower. I
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Cross-Phase Modulation
• Consider two optical fields propagating simultaneously.
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• Nonlinear refractive index seen by one wave depends on the inten-
sity of the other wave as

∆nNL = n2(|A1|2 + b|A2|2).

• Nonlinear phase shift:

φNL = (2πL/λ )n2[I1(t) + bI2(t)].

• An optical beam modifies not only its own phase but also of other
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copropagating beams (XPM). II
• XPM induces nonlinear coupling among overlapping optical pulses. J
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XPM-Induced Chirp
• Fiber dispersion affects the XPM considerably.
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• Pulses belonging to different WDM channels travel at
different speeds.
• XPM occurs only when pulses overlap.
• Asymmetric XPM-induced chirp and spectral broadening.

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XPM: Good or Bad?
• XPM leads to interchannel crosstalk in WDM systems.
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• It can produce amplitude and timing jitter.

On the other hand . . .

XPM can be used beneficially for
• Nonlinear Pulse Compression
• Passive mode locking
• Ultrafast optical switching
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• Demultiplexing of OTDM channels II
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• Wavelength conversion of WDM channels I
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XPM-Induced Mode Locking
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• Different nonlinear phase shifts for the two polarization components:

nonlinear polarization rotation.

φx − φy = (2πL/λ )n2[(Ix + bIy) − (Iy + bIx )].

• Pulse center and wings develop different polarizations. JJ

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• Polarizing isolator clips the wings and shortens the pulse.
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• Can produce ∼100 fs pulses. I
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Synchronous Mode Locking
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• Laser cavity contains the XPM fiber (few km long).

• Pump pulses produce XPM-induced chirp periodically.
• Pulse repetition rate set to a multiple of cavity mode spacing.
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• Situation equivalent to the FM mode-locking technique.
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• 2-ps pulses generated for 100-ps pump pulses (Noske et al., J
Electron. Lett, 1993). I
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XPM-Induced Switching
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• A Mach–Zehnder or Sagnac interferometer can be used.

• Output switched to a different port using a control signal that shifts
the phase through XPM.
• If control signal is in the form of a pulse train, a CW signal can be
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converted into a pulse train. II
• Ultrafast switching time (<1 ps). J
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Four-Wave Mixing (FWM)
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• FWM is a nonlinear process that transfers energy of pumps

to signal and idler waves.
• FWM requires conservation of (notation: E = Re[A exp(iβ z−iωt)])
? Energy ω1 + ω2 = ω3 + ω4 JJ
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? Momentum β1 + β2 = β3 + β4 J
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• Degenerate FWM: Single pump (ω1 = ω2).
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FWM: Good or Bad?
• FWM leads to interchannel crosstalk in WDM systems.
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• It generates additional noise and degrades system performance.

On the other hand . . .

FWM can be used beneficially for

• Parametric amplification
• Optical phase conjugation
• Demultiplexing of OTDM channels JJ
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• Wavelength conversion of WDM channels
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• Supercontinuum generation I
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Parametric Amplification
• FWM can be used to amplify a weak signal.
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• Pump power is transferred to signal through FWM.
• Peak gain G p = 14 exp(2γP0L) can exceed 20 dB for
P0 ∼ 0.5 W and L ∼ 1 km.

• Parametric amplifiers can provide gain at any wavelength using

suitable pumps.
• Two pumps can be used to obtain 30–40 dB gain over
a large bandwidth (>40 nm).
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• Such amplifiers are also useful for ultrafast signal processing. II
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Single- and Dual-Pump
Four-Wave FOPAs
MixingFour-Wave
(FWM) Mixing (FW
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Pump

Pump 1 Pump 2

Signal Idler
Signal Idler

λ3 λ1 λ4 λ1 λ3 λ0 λ4 λ2

• Pump close to fiber’s • Pumps at opposite ends

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ZDWL • Much more uniform gain II
• Wide but nonuniform gain J
• Lower pump powers (∼0.5 W) I
spectrum with a dip
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Optical Phase Conjugation
• FWM generates an idler wave during parametric amplification.
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• Its phase is complex conjugate of the signal field (A4 ∝ A∗3) because
of spectral inversion.
• Phase conjugation can be used for dispersion compensation by plac-
ing a parametric amplifier midway.
• It can also reduce timing jitter in lightwave systems.

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Wavelength Conversion
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• FWM can transfer data to a different wavelength.

• A CW pump beam is launched into the fiber together with the signal
channel.
• Its wavelength is chosen half way from the desired shift. JJ
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• FWM transfers the data from signal to the idler beam at the new J
wavelength. I
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Highly Nonlinear Fibers
• Silica nonlinearity is relatively weak (n2 = 2.6 × 10−20 m2/W).
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• Applications of nonlinear effects require high input powers in com-
bination with long fiber lengths (> 1 km).
• Parameter γ = 2πn2/(λ Aeff) can be increased by reducing Aeff.
• Such fibers are called highly nonlinear fibers. Examples include
photonic-crystal, tapered, and other microstructure fibers.

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Supercontinuum Generation
• FWM in combination with SPM, XPM, and SRS can generate su-
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perbroad spectrum extending over >200 nm.
• Produced by launching short optical pulses into dispersion-
and nonlinearity-controlled fibers.

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Photonic-crystal fiber Tapered fiber II
Coen et al., JOSA B, Apr. 2002 Birk et al., OL, Oct. 2000 J
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Supercontinuum Applications
• Potential applications include optical coherence tomography, carrier-
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envelope phase locking, telecommunications, etc.
• Spectral slicing can be used to produce 1000 or more channels
(Takara et al., EL, 2000).

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Concluding Remarks
• Optical fibers exhibit a variety of nonlinear effects.
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• Fiber nonlinearities are feared by telecom system designers because
they can affect system performance adversely.

• Fiber nonlinearities can be managed thorough proper system design.

• Nonlinear effects are useful for many device and system applica-
tions: optical switching, soliton formation, wavelength conversion,
broadband amplification, demultiplexing, etc.

• New kinds of fibers have been developed for enhancing nonlinear

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effects. II
• Supercontinuum generation in such fibers is likely to found new J
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applications.
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