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MICROWAVE DEVICES
MICROWAVE TRANSISTOR
1. Microwave Bipolar Junction Transistors
BJT Modes of Operation
There are two junctions in bipolar junction transistor. Each junction can be forward or reverse biased
independently. Thus there are four modes of operations:
1. Forward Active
2. Cut off
3. Saturation
4. Reverse active
FORWARD ACTIVE
In this mode of operation, emitter-base junction is forward biased and collector base junction is reverse
biased. Transistor behaves as a source. With controlled source characteristics the BJT can be used as an
amplifier and in analog circuits.
CUTT OFF
When both junctions are reverse biased it is called cut off mode. In this situation there is nearly zero current
and transistor behaves as an open switch.
SATURATION
In saturation mode both junctions are forward biased large collector current flows with a small voltage
across collector base junction. Transistor behaves as an closed switch.
REVERSE ACTIVE
It is opposite to forward active mode because in this emitter base junction is reverse biased and
collector base junction is forward biased. It is called inverted mode. It is no suitable for
amplification.
However the reverse active mode has application in digital circuits and certain analog switching
circuits.
Applications:
Analog or mixed signal ICs
Bipolar Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor (BiCMOS)
2. Heterojunction Bipolar Transistor
Operation:
The operation of an HBT is fundamentally the same as that of a BJT. An HBT has the same npn
structure as a BJT, although its implementation is very different. An HBT uses a BE
heterojunction instead of a simple pn junction. The heterojunction employs dissimilar
semiconductor materials to provide a barrier between the emitter and base, allowing heavy base
doping, which minimizes base resistance and maximizes cutoff frequency. Advanced fabrication
techniques used for HBTs, which would make no economic sense for conventional BJTs,
contribute to improved performance as well. Unlike BJTs, HBTs are rarely available as discrete
devices; almost all are used in IC technologies. While conventional BJTs are invariably silicon
devices, HBTs are realized in many III-V technologies. Silicon HBTs are also possible; silicongermanium HBTs provide high performance at lower cost than III-V devices.
In contrast to the planar BJT, its mesa structure is decidedly nonplanar. Although more
complicated (and, of course, more expensive) to fabricate than the planar BJT, the structure
provides better definition of the emitter,
lower parasitic resistances, and lower fringing capacitance. As with BJTs, power HBTs can be
fabricated by paralleling a number of devices having long, narrow emitters.
Applications:
It is commonly used in modern ultrafast circuits, mostly radio-frequency (RF) systems, and in
applications requiring a high power efficiency, such as RF power amplifiers in cellular phones.
3. Tunnel Diode
Operation:
Forward bias operation
Under normal forward bias operation, as voltage begins to increase, electrons at first tunnel
through the p-n junction barrier because electron states in the conduction band on the n-side
become aligned with valence band hole states on the p-side of the pn junction. As voltage
increases further these states become more misaligned and the current drops this is called
negative resistance, because current decreases with increasing voltage. As voltage increases yet
further, the diode begins to operate as a normal diode, where electrons travel by conduction
across the pn junction, and no longer by tunneling through the pn junction barrier. Thus the most
important operating region for a tunnel diode is the negative resistance region.
Reverse bias operation
When used in the reverse direction they are called back diodes and can act as fast rectifiers with
zero offset voltage and extreme linearity for power signals. (That is, they have an accurate square
law characteristic in the reverse direction.)
Under reverse bias at sufficiently high reverse voltage, electrons flow in the opposite direction, as
now different electron states on each side of the pn junction become increasingly aligned and
tunnel through the pn junction barrier in reverse direction this is the Zener effect that also
occurs in zener diodes.
Applications:
local oscillators for UHF television
Oscillator circuits :Tunnel diodes can be used as high frequency oscillators as the transition
between the high electrical conductivity is very rapid. They can be used to create oscillation as
high as 5Gz. Even they are capable of creativity oscillation up to 100 GHz in a appropriate digital
circuits.
Used in microwave circuits: Normal diode transistors do not perform well in microwave
operation. So, for microwave generators and amplifiers tunnel diode are. In microwave waves and
satellite communication equipments they were used widely, but now a days their uses is
decreasing rapidly as transistor for working in wave frequency area available in market.
Resistant to nuclear radiation :Tunnel diodes are resistant to the effects of magnetic fields, high
temperature and radioactivity. Thats why these can be used in modern military equipment. These
are used in nuclear magnetic resource machine also. But the most important field of its use
satellite communication equipments.
FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS
4. Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)
Operation:
In the N channel device, the N channel is sandwiched between two P type regions (the gate and
the substrate) that are connected together electrically to form the gate. The N type channel is
connected to the source and drain terminals via more heavily doped N+ type regions. The drain ic
connected to a positive supply, and the source to zero volts. N+ type silicon has a lower resistivity
than N type. This gives it a lower resistance, increasing conduction and reducing the effect of
placing standard N type silicon next to the aluminium connector, which because aluminium is a
trivalent material, having three valence electrons whilst silicon has four, would tend to create an
unwanted junction, similar in effect to a PN junction at this point.
The P type gate is at 0V and is therefore negatively biased compared to the channel, which has a
potential gradient on it, as one end is connected to 0 volts (the source), and the other end to a
positive voltage (the drain). Any point on the channel (apart from the extreme end near the source
terminal) must therefore be more positive than the gate. Therefore the two PN junctions formed
between the N type channel and the P type areas of the gate and the substrate are both reverse
biased, and so have a depletion layer that extends into the channel.
The shape of the depletion layer is not symmetrical. It is generally thicker towards the drain end
of the channel, because the voltage on the drain is more positive than that on the source due to
voltage gradient that exists along the channel. This causes a larger potential across the junctions
nearer the drain, and so a thickening of the depletion layer. The effect becomes more marked
when the voltage between drain and source is greater than about 1volt or so.
When a voltage is applied between drain and source (VDS) current flows and the silicon channel
acts rather like a conventional resistor. Now if VDS is increased (with VGS held at zero volts)
towards what is called the pinch off value VP, the drain current ID also at first, increases. The
transistor is working in the "ohmic region".
Applications:
JFET are used in:
RF amplifiers in FM tuners and communication equipment for the low noise lever.
mixer circuits in FM and TV receivers, and communication dquipment because inter
modulation distortion is low.
5. Metal-Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MESFET)
Operation:
Like other forms of field effect transistor the GaAs Fet or MESFET has two forms that can be
used:
Depletion mode MESFET: If the depletion region does not extend all the way to the p-type
substrate, the MESFET is a depletion-mode MESFET. A depletion-mode MESFET is
conductive or "ON" when no gate-to-source voltage is applied and is turned "OFF" upon the
application of a negative gate-to-source voltage, which increases the width of the depletion
region such that it "pinches off" the channel.
Application:
military communications
As front end low noise amplifier of microwave receivers in both military radar devices
and communication
commercial optoelectronics
satellite communications
As power amplifier for output stage of microwave links.
As a power oscillator.
6. MetalOxideSemiconductor Field-Effect Transistor (MOSFET)
Operation:
MOSFET transistors have metal gates which are insulated from the semiconductor by a layer of
SiO2 or other dielectric. In enhancement type MOSFETs, the application of a gate voltage
activates the channel (by inducing a layer of carriers between source and drain under the gate. In
depletion type MOSFETs, there is a small strip of semiconductor of the same type as that of the
source and drain, and the gate voltage can either reduce (by depleting carriers) or increase (by
increasing carriers) the channel current. In an n channel MOSFET, the conducting channel exists
in a p type substrate.
Application:
MOSFETs in motor control applications
Motor control is another application where power MOSFETs find use and where the most
important selection criteria might again differ. A motor-control circuit doesnt switch at the high
frequencies found in modern switching power supplies. A typical half-bridge control circuit
employs two MOSFETs (a full bridge uses four). But both of the MOSFETs spend a fair amount
of time switched off dead time.
Reverse Recovery Time (trr) becomes very important in such applications. When a control circuit
switches a MOSFET in a bridge circuit to the off state when controlling an inductive load such as
a motor winding, the other switch in the bridge conducts current in the reverse direction
temporarily, via the body diode in the MOSFET--hence recirculating the current to continue to
supply the motor. When the first MOSFET turns on again, the stored charge in the other
MOSFET diode must be removed and discharged through the first, and that is a loss of energy, a
short trr period minimizes such losses.
TRANSFERRED ELECTRON DEVICES
7. Gunn Diode
Operation:
At microwave frequencies, it is found that the dynamic action of the diode incorporates elements
resulting from the thickness of the active region. When the voltage across the active region
reaches a certain point a current is initiated and travels across the active region. During the time
when the current pulse is moving across the active region the potential gradient falls preventing
any further pulses from forming. Only when the pulse has reached the far side of the active region
will the potential gradient rise, allowing the next pulse to be created.
It can be seen that the time taken for the current pulse to traverse the active region largely
determines the rate at which current pulses are generated, and hence it determines the frequency
of operation.
To see how this occurs, it is necessary to look at the electron concentration across the active
region. Under normal conditions the concentration of free electrons would be the same regardless
of the distance across the active diode region. However a small perturbation may occur resulting
from noise from the current flow, or even external noise - this form of noise will always be
present and acts as the seed for the oscillation. This grows as it passes across the active region of
the Gunn diode.
Applications:
Because of their high frequency capability, Gunn diodes are mainly used at microwave
frequencies and above. They can produce some of the highest output power of any semiconductor
devices at these frequencies. Their most common use is in oscillators, but they are also used in
microwave amplifiers to amplify signals. Because the diode is a one-port (two terminal) device,
an amplifier circuit must separate the outgoing amplified signal from the incoming input signal to
prevent coupling. One common circuit is a reflection amplifier which uses a circulator to separate
the signals. A bias tee is needed to isolate the bias current from the high frequency oscillations.
The RF output from the traveling wave tube consists of a second directional coupler. Again this
may either be an electromagnetic coil of a waveguide. This is positioned near the collector and it
receives the amplified version of the signal from the far end of the helix from the electron gun or
emitter.
An attenuator is included on the helix, usually between the input and output sections of the TWT
helix. This is essential to prevent the reflected wave from travelling back to the cathode of the
electron gun.
The collector finally collects and absorbs the electron beam. It is in this area that high levels of
power may be dissipated and therefore this section of the travelling wave tube can become very
hot and will require cooling.
Applications:
There are many areas in which TWT amplifiers are used. They are an ideal form of RF amplifier
for satellites and as a result they are extensively used for satellite transponders where low levels
signals are received and need to be retransmitted at much higher levels. In addition to this TWT
amplifiers are used in microwave radar systems where they are able to produce the high levels of
power required. Traveling wave tube, TWT technology is also used for electronic warfare
applications. In these applications the grid on the travelling wave tube may be used to pulse the
transmission.