Prof. Dr. Michael Minja Djordjevic: Projecting Electroacoustic Composition

prof. dr Mihajlo L.
Îor∂evi†
PROJE KTOVAÊ
PROJE KTOVAÊ
ELEKTROAK
ELEKTROAK UU SS TT II ÇÇ KK EE
KOMPOZICIJE
KOMPOZICIJE
/kompoziciona metoda za dizajnere zvuka/
____________
Beograd
2002
4 ____________ M. Îor∂evi†: Metoda projektova~a elektroakustiçke kompozicije ____________
SADRÆAJ:
M iihh aa jjll oo L
prof. dr sci. M L.. Î
Îoo rr∂∂ eevv ii ††
Projektivna metoda kao tehnika stvara~a i realizacije
elektroakustiçke kompozicije 66
1. METODA PROJEKTOVAÂ ELEKTROAKUSTIÇKE KOMPOZICIJE
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E 1.1. Zvuçno/muziçko delo kao projekt
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1.1.1. Povod i ra∂a~e namere za stvara~e zvuçno-muziçkog dela
/ Semiotika i estetika elektroakustiçke kompozicije / (elektroakustiçke kompozicije)
1.1.2. Ideja i kreativna maßta spojene sa izborom osnovnih

izraΩajnih sredstava
1.1.3. Grub i deta¬an grafiçki kompozicioni plan
1.1.4. Zvuçno-muziçka realizacija grafiçkog kompozicionog plana
1.1.5. Korekcija deta¬a i celine elektroakustiçke kompozicije
2. IZRADA GRAFIÇKOG KOMPOZICIONOG PLANA
3. Savremena KOMPOZICIONA TEHNIKA
4. Savremeni GRAFIÇKI ZAPIS - Partitura (Score)
5. ANALIZA ELEKTROAKUSTIÇKE KOMPOZICIJE

Oktobar, 2002.
6. ESTETIKA ELEKTROAKUSTIÇKE KOMPOZICIJE
Beograd
Prilog: POJMOVNIK MUZIÇKIH TERMINA, INSTRUMENATA,

UREÎAJA, i PROCEDURA u SAVREMENOJ
ELEKTROAKUSTIÇKOJ PRAKSI (english)
Summary - Projecting Musical Composition

by prof. dr Ctirad Kohoutek
Literatura
Metoda
PROJEKTOVAÂ
ELEKTROAKUSTIÇKE
KOMPOZICIJE
specijalna stvaralaçka metoda name~ena dizajnerima

zvuka/muzike
sa principima grafiçkog zapisa, estetike i analize
zvuçno-muziçkog dela
6 ____________ M. Îor∂evi†: Metoda projektova~a elektroakustiçke kompozicije ____________ ___________________________________ Metoda projektova~a _____________________________________ 7
Pr
P ro o jjee k
kttii vvnn aa m
m eettoo dd aa Íiroka paleta i podloga koja omogu†ava ovoj metodi uvo∂e~e
kaaoo tt eehhnn ii k
k kaa ss ttvv aarr aa~~ aa ii rr ee aall ii zz aacc ii jj ee raznovrsnih sadrΩaja zvuçno-muziçkog miß¬e~a, nije a priori elimina-
ee l
l eek
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k ee k
koo m
m pp oo zz ii cc ii jj ee torskog karaktera, ne isk¬uçuje, i ne negira pojave u okviru kreativnog
kompozitorskog miß¬e~a. Naprotiv, integralan, i ßiroko otvoren
dijapazon za sve mogu†e vrste zvuçno-muziçkih pojava i naçine ~ihovog
P
Prr oo jj eek
k ttoo vv aa~
~ ee m
muu zz ii çç k
kee k
k oo m
mpp oo zz ii cc ii jj ee (Projektova hudebni kompozice, 1967) registrova~a, obezbe∂uje kvalitetno beleΩe~e i evidentira~e, kao i
kao originalna i univerzalna kompoziciona metoda, rezultat je stvar- tektonsko konstruisa~e, od elementarnih delova zvuçno-muziçke misli
alaçkog opusa i teorijskog rada çeßkog kompozitora dr Ctirada do najsloΩenijih i kompaktno izgra∂enih celina - blokova zvuçno-muz-
Kohouteka, profesora kompozicije na Akademiji u Pragu i Janaçekovoj içkog miß¬e~a, ßto sve upu†uje na çi~enicu, da se zavrßen kompozi-
Akademiji u Brnu tokom druge polovine 20. veka, çije je delo Tehnika torski rad i ~egova zvuçno-muziçka realizacija manifestuju u smislu
komponova~a u muzici 20. veka , u prevodu akademika Dejana Despi†a sa artefakta - umetniçkog dela.
verzije na ruskom jeziku, ve† znaçajno obogatilo naßu skromnu muziçko- Insistira~e na “umetniçkom” pristupu, posebno je vaΩna odlika pro-
teorijsku literaturu. jektivne metode, jer se posebno obra†a paΩ~a na kvalitet i istorijsko-
estetski aspekt stvara~a elektroakustiçkog dela, na ~egovu filososf-
Projektova~e elektroakustiçke kompozicije predstav¬a modifiko- sko-stilsku koncepciju, kao i socioloßku aksiologiju - vrednova~e od
vanu varijantu projektivne metode Ct. Kohouteka, u sußtini teorijsko- strane struç~aka, kritike i publike. Tako projektivna metoda
praktiçno uputstvo studentima Katedre za snima~e i obradu zvuka , isk¬uçuje svaku nameru stvara~a u smislu lárt pour lárt (tzv. purlarti-
Akademije umetnosti BK , u pogledu ~ihovog samostalnog stvaralaçkog zam - umetnost radi umetnosti ), jer se stvaralac - kompozitor, od poçet-
rada - dizajnira~a zvuka/muzike za razliçite medije. Iako preteΩno ka rada koncentriße na delo kao celinu, na ~egovvu finalnu formu koja
oslo~ena na izvornu metodu projektova~a pomenutog autora, ova studija, je u direktnoj vezi sa idejom, tj. osnovnom zamisli.
sadrΩi prilago∂en pristup specifiçnostima postupka stvara~a elek- Savremena, pa i literatura uopßte, oduvek postav¬a pita~a iz sfere
troakustiçkog dela i naglaßenu semiotiçko-estetsku osnovu tog pristu- kompozitorske aktivnosti i navodi razliçite postupke i metode kojima
pa. Osim toga, radi bo¬eg razumeva~a i praktiçne primene projektivne su kompozitori - stvraoci zvuçno-muziçkih formi pribegavali tokom
metode , ovaj tekst oboga†en je razmatra~em analitiçke i estetske kom- vekova. U tom smislu je stvaralaçka kompozitorska aktivnost defin-
ponente elektroakustiçke kompozicije, u svetlu do sada poznatih i rel- isana kao izuzetno ßiroko podruçje interesova~a sa veoma razliçitim
evatnih estetskih kriterijuma i sudova. oblicima zvuçno-muziçkog miß¬e~a, od kraj~e jednostavnih, pa sve do
Metoda projektova~a muziçke kompozicije nije sasvim nova (1967) i vrlo sloΩenih i komplikovanih formi umetniçkog izraza i kompozi-
potpuno originalna, jer se mnoga sliçna razmatra~a sre†u kod eminent- cione tehnike. Zbog toga je veliki broj, naroçito savremenih autora,
nih autora, kompozitora i teoretiçara 20. veka, me∂utim, ona je ipak çesto prinu∂en da semantiçkim, taçnije literarnim putem, objaß~ava
jedinstvena u naßoj muziçko-teorijskoj literaturi. Zauzvrat, metoda je svoje delo, kroz duge, komplikovane, ponekad i teßko razum¬ive
proverena u okviru niza generacija studenata tako da se ~ena aktuelnost prikaze, umesto da zvuçno-muziçko delo “govori samo o sebi”.
do danas nije ukazala kao regresivna, ve† naprotiv, ima tendenciju Jedno od osnovnih naçela projektivne metode sadrΩano je u nameri
stalnog uspona i sve ve†eg znaçaja. To je pre svega zato, ßto je metoda dosledne simplifikacije , taçnije postupka pojednostav¬iva~a svih
projektova~a muziçke kompozicije metoda ßirokog spektra, ili moΩe se aspekata gde je nagomilava~e, ili “gustina”, uzrok niza loßih efekata,
slobodno re†i, metoda univerzalnog pristupa problematici zvuçno-muz- usled çega se jav¬a ve†a ili ma~a mera nerazum¬ivosti - nerazumeva~a
içkog koncepta, kada je u pita~u stvara~e i realizacija zvuçno-muz- sußtine i ideje umetniçkog dela. Jednom reçju, svi nepotrebni elementi,
içkog dela. parametri, suvißni znaci, ili neadekvatna, necelishodna, nepotpuna, i
U tom smislu, metoda je apsolutno otvorena za bilo koji vid nefunkcionalna reße~a, automatski su eliminisana primenom ove
kreativnog zvuçno-muziçkog postupka, tako da ~enu primenu isk¬uçivo metode. U tom smislu, projektivna metoda sadrΩi preporuke u pogledu
treba razumeti i tumaçiti u smislu adekvatnog pomo†nog sredstva, od razliçitih principa beleΩe~a zvuçno-muziçke misli, tj. notacije , pre
nemer¬ivog znaçaja za autora tokom ~egovog stvaralaçkog rada. Ni po svega radi izbegava~a ispisiva~a dugih ponav¬a~a, tj. doslovnih
koju cenu, ne sme metoda projektova~a postati sama sebi ci¬, jer sama repeticija, zatim razliçitih simbola i oznaka, ßto se sve kompleksno
metoda nije ci¬, ve† realizacija kvalitetnog zvuçno-muziçkog dela. tretira u odnosu na ideju dela i relevantne tehniçko-izvo∂açke zahteve
Dakle, projektivna metoda je specifiçan stvaralaçki pristup i pos- koje podrazumeva realizacija zvuçno-muziçkog dela. Ve†ina zahteva je
tupak koji svim svojim aspektima omogu†ava stvaraocu da sagleda delo u donekle a priori definisana, pri çemu su postupci sinteze i kombina-
celini, i da ga potom praktiçno, relativno lako, realizuje. Metoda torike razliçitih postupaka uvek dobrodoßli, poßto se raznovrsnost
podrazumeva niz neophodnih rad~i koje se moraju sistematski sprovesti, zvuçno-muziçkog miß¬e~a, uz tehniçke aspekte realizacije elek-
da bi se osigurala efektivnost i kvalitet rada, samim tim i kvalitet troakustiçke kompozicije, ne moΩe samo, ili uvek, izraziti jednosmern-
novonastalog originalnog elektroakustiçkog dela. im i jednostranim stvaralaçkim postupkom.
8 ____________ M. Îor∂evi†: Metoda projektova~a elektroakustiçke kompozicije ____________ _____________________________ Zvuçno-muziçko delo kao projekt _______________________________ 9
Konkretna procedura prema naçelima metode projektova~a elek- 11.. M

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koje su uzajamno povezane:
I. Stimulacija i namera za ra∂a~e elektroakustiçke kompozicije ; 11.. 11.. Z
Zvvuu çç nn oo // m
muu zzii çç k
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II. Ideja i kreativna maßta kombinovane sa selekcijom osnovnih
izraΩajnih sredstava ; Metoda Projektova~a elektroakustiçke kompozicije (u da¬em tekstu
III. Grub i deta¬an grafiçki kompozicioni plan ; PEAK ) zasnovana je uglavnom na slede†im karakteristikama:
IV. Gruba izrada grafiçkog kompozicionog plana ;
V. Korekcija deta¬a i elektroakustiçke kompozicije u celini ; 1. kao objektivna, i u opßtem smislu dostupna metoda, PEAK (ili
PEAC - Projecting Electroacoustical Composition ) mora ispu~avati osnovne
Metoda projektova~a elektroakustiçke kompozicije razlikuje se od kriterijume preko kojih †e se ~ena upotrebna vrednost maksimalno
sliçnih metoda, posebno zbog faze koja predvi∂a izradu grubog i ispo¬iti, posebno tako da moΩe da obuhvati celokupnost razliçitih i
deta¬nog grafiçkog kompozicionog plana , ßto je od izuzetnog znaçaja za ekstremno diferenciranih individualnih sposobnosti, sklonosti i
dizajnere zvuka, jer grafiçki kompozicioni planovi predstav¬aju svo- pristupa u pogledu realizacije specifiçnog zvuçno-muziçkog miß¬e~a;
jevrsnu “k~igu” audio-snima~a, tj. deta¬no uputstvo o svim parametrima
stvara~a i nastanka zvuçno-muziçkog dela. Tako je dizajner zvuka u sta~u 2. stvaralac - kompozitor, dizajner zvuka, orijentiße se od poçetka
da kompletno sagleda svoje delo, deta¬e, a posebno celinu, i ßto je joß stvara~a na celinu, na izvornu zamisao i sußtinu elektroakustiçkog
znaçajnije, uvek moΩe da interveniße u pogledu promene i izvrßi korek- dela, tako da se poçetno vi∂e~e grubih kontura dela, kasnije postepeno
ciju i deta¬a i celine. konkretizuje;
Odre∂ena koliçina zvuçno-muziçkih stimulativnih sredstava sa
najraznovrsnijim kombinacijama, koja narasta sa svih strana, teßko se 3. svako zvuçno ili muziçko delo, tj. jednim imenom elektroakustiçko,
moΩe kontrolisati. Kvalitet nadolaze†e izraΩajnosti i selektiranih smatra se sa aspekta PEAK za stvaralaçki projekt . Realizacija projek-
zvuçno-muziçkih stimulusa stvara osnovne pretpostavke o znaçaju i ta odvija se prema zamiß¬enom osnovnom radnom planu. To je u skladu sa
vaΩnosti pojedinog oblika zvuçno-muziçkog miß¬e~a, odnosno o ukup- çovekovom namerom pri çinu kreacije, tako da takvu orijentaciju ne
noj uspeßnosti kreativnog rada. treba shvatiti grubo i neelastiçno. Racionalan odnos samo je jedan
Kada se umetniçki uobliçava - dizajnira zvuk/muzika (u najßirem aspekt, poßto je u projektivnu metodu uk¬uçen (ßto je sasvim prirodno)
smislu) mogu†e je preplita~e, meßa~e dve kreativne pojave: jedne sub- i drugi aspekt: intuitivni ili nevo¬ni deo psiholoßke zvuçno-muziçke
jektivno-meditativne , i druge objektivno-umetniçke . Pod prvom pojavom opservacije autora;
se podrazumeva pronalaΩe~e i provera svih mogu†ih problema kompozi-
cione tehnike koji se mogu odraziti na elektroakustiçko delo, dok se 4. projekt kao celina nije izraΩen, ili definisan, atributima
pod drugom pojavom, podrazumeva ~ena superstruktura posle primene improvizacije, ali se tokom ~egovih delova ili odre∂enih odseka
tehniçkih sredstava u odre∂enom umetniçko-izraΩajnom vidu koji (ma~ih i ve†ih) mogu javiti i elementi takvog vida muziçkog miß¬e~a.
uk¬uçuje i obaveznu semiotiçku dimenziju. Izra∂en projekt ne predstav¬a gotovu i nepromen¬ivu celinu, ve†
Projektova~e zvuçno-muziçkog dela - elektroakustiçke kompozicije, naprotiv, stvaralac je suoçen sa vrlo deta¬nim korekcijama celine ili
odnosno sama projektivna metoda , nije nikakva dogma, jer je uvek mnogo pojedinih delova - odseka;
jednostavnije zvuçno-muziçki materijal urediti i popraviti iako izgle-
da nedovrßen i nesavrßen, nego zapoçeti na definitivan naçin jedan 5. osnovni kriterijum vrednosti projekta dat je konaçnim zvuça~em
oblik i zvuçno-muziçku strukturu, sa nemogu†noß†u da¬eg predvi∂a~a elektroakustiçkog dela, a nikako ne vrednoß†u konstrukcije, ili pis-
delova ili celina, i spoznaje samog zavrßetka. menog, tj. grafiçkog prikaza dela - izraza;
U tom smislu, projektivna metoda ( PEAK ) predstav¬a kompleksnu
analitiçko-sintetiçku metodu, koja odmah suoçava autora sa nizom rad- 6. metoda PEAK nije zasnovana na jednostranosti pojedinih zvuçno-
nih procedura i tektonskom strukturom elektroakustiçkog dela. muziçkih delova. Osnovni projekt elektroakustiçke kompozicije real-
Metoda ne prejudicira ni stil, ni konkretnu selekciju izraΩajnih izuje se u svim elementima zvuçno-muziçkog toka, i odnosi se na sve
zvuçno-muziçkih sredstava, ve† predstav¬a pokußaj sinteze bogatog upotreb¬ene parametre u smislu tempa , artikulacije , dinamike , metro-
nasle∂a zvuçno-muziçkog miß¬e~a. ên finalni domet (ci¬) je stvar- ritmiçke strukture , fakture , soniçnosti , zvuçno-prostorne organizaci-
alaçki i izvo∂açki perfektno promiß¬eno i konstruisano zvuçno-muz- je , itd. Ovakav aspekt ne treba meßati sa serijalizmom ili struktural-
içko delo, ispu~eno snaΩnim emotivnim nabojem koji treba da ostavi izmom (organizacija svih parametara zvuka). Sve pojave i tokove zvuçno-
znaçajan - snaΩan utisak na slußaoca, odnosno makropubliku. muziçke misli u inspirativno-intuitivnom i racionalno-fantastiçnom
manifestova~u, metoda PEAK usmerava u razliçite vrste kombinacija.
10 ___________ M. Îor∂evi†: Metoda projektova~a elektroakustiçke kompozicije ___________ _____________________________ Zvuçno-muziçko delo kao projekt _______________________________ 11
Pri tom usmerava~u eliminißu se svi elementi koji nisu relevantni Íta komponovati? Izbor je zaista beskonaçan - bezgraniçan, ali dove-
za odgovaraju†u sußtinu elektroakustiçkog dela, odnosno ~egovu ideju den u konkretne okolnosti - situaciju realnosti, moΩe izazvati niz
ili pojedinaçnu zvuçno-muziçku (za)misao. U tom smisli, metoda PEAK ozbi¬nih promena i redukcija u autorskoj zamisli. Sa druge strane, dati
je viße sintetiçka nego analitiçka, mada nesporno, poseduje i takve izbor, odnosno samo postoja~e ~egove mogu†nosti, moΩe uputiti
pristupe. stvaraoca u neoçekivanom, ali veoma Ωe¬enom, ili opravdanom, stvar-
alaçkom smeru.
7. znaçajan moment u procesu stvara~a elektroakustiçkog dela pred-
stav¬a rad bez pomo†i muziçkog instrumenta. Muziçki instrument, ili (v) prerasta~e povoda u nameru (za stvara~e dela) - najzad, brzo dovo-
ure∂aj, je limitiraju†i faktor zvuçno-muziçkog miß¬e~a!!! di autora do sazna~a o mogu†nostima realizacije ~egove namere, tj. o
stepenu objektivne ostvar¬ivosti takve namere. Tada je, istovremeno,
8. postupak metode PEAK sadrΩi 5 delova ili faza, taçnije radnih autor - stvaralac, upu†en na mnoge druge odgovore koji su uslov¬eni
procedura: ~egovim individualnim sklonostima, potrebama i pita~ima sopstvenog
i) povod i ra∂a~e namere za stvara~e zvuçno-muziçkog dela stvaralaçkog zvuçno-muziçkog miß¬e~a i ~egovog razvoja, kao i
ii) ideja i kreativna maßta spojene sa izborom osnovnih izraΩajnih
osnovnog - opßteg stava autora u odnosu na pita~e umetnosti, ili
odre∂enu umetniçku vrstu - sferu zvuka i muzike - Ωanr, subΩanr, itd.
sredstava
iii) grub i deta¬an grafiçki kompozicioni plan
iv) zvuçno-muziçka realizacija grafiçkog kompozicionog plana 11 ..11 ..22 .. I
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m oo ssnn oo vvnn ii hh
v) korekcija deta¬a i celine zvuçno-muziçkog dela ii zzrr aa Ω
Ω aajj n
n ii hh ss rr ee ddss ttaa vvaa
Druga faza projektivne metode - Projektova~e elektroakustiçke kom-

11 ..11 ..11 .. P
Poo vv oo dd ii rr aa∂∂ aa ~ ~ee nn aam m eerr ee zz aa ss ttvv aarr aa ~
~ee zzvv uuçç nn oo -- m
muu zzii çç k
k oo gg dd eell aa pozicije ( PEAK ) zapoçi~e ustanov¬ava~em, tj. izborom ideje koju je
(( ee ll eek
ktt r
r oo aak
k uuss ttii çç k
k ee k koo mm pp oo zzii cc ii jjee )) potrebno realizovati u zvuçno-muziçkom smislu. Tokom ove faze -
procesa, interaktivno se prepli†u dva osnovna tipa - vida autorskog
Poçetni impuls, ili moment, u kojem se stvaralac odluçuje za kreati- zvuçno-muziçkog miß¬e~a, tako da obiçno jedan prevagne u odnosu na
van rad i pristupa projektova~u zvuçno-muziçkog dela, poseduje tri drugi, mada u sußtini ne nastaju nepoΩe¬ni i regresivni elementi koji
k¬uçna aspekta: se loße odraΩavaju na projekt kao celinu. U ovom sluçaju moΩe se pre
a) promiß¬eni proces geneze dela govoriti o dijalektici takvog procesa, o nuΩnosti konstantne provere,
b) raznovrsnost i mnoßtvo povoda za stvara~e ili o kontinuiranom promiß¬a~u zvuçno-muziçkog dela. Te dve struje,
v) prerasta~e povoda u nameru ili tipa, mogu se oznaçiti kao:
Prve dve faze projekcione kompozicione metode - PEAK (pod i i ii)

a) subjektivno - studijsko promiß¬a~e elektroakustiçkog dela
b) objektivno - umetniçko promiß¬a~e elektroakustiçkog dela
tesno su povezane, poßto su definisane kao povod i namera za stvara~e
elektroakustiçke kompozicije, odnosno, poçetna ideja se potom dovodi u
(a) Subjektivno - umetniçko promiß¬a~e elektroakustiçkog dela
vezu sa izborom osnovnih sredstava umetniçkog izraza.
podrazumeva usmerenost autorskog miß¬e~a ka reße~u zadataka, ili
problema, koje postav¬a - uslov¬ava sama ideja dela, u tesnoj relaciji sa
(a) promiß¬eni proces geneze dela - predstav¬a poçetnu aktivnost
zvuçno-muziçkim i tehniçkim problemima, tj. organizaacijom muziçkog
stvaraoca koja je definisana razliçitim povodima orijentisanim ka
materijala, da¬im promiß¬a~em tektonike dela, ostvare~u novih
stvara~u ili kreaciji umetniçkog, tj. zvuçno-muziçkog dela. Istorija
zvuçnih odnosa, mogu†nostima instrumentacije i orkestracije, zatim
tih povoda pokazuje bezgraniçnu ßarolikost, raznovrsnost motiva i
aspektima reprodukcije i percepcije , kao i ispu~ava~u odre∂enih
pobuda. Tako∂e, izrada delova, ili celina, razliçito je motivisana, pa
izvo∂açko-organizacionih instrukcija, ili takvih uslova.
se doga∂a da se pojedini odseci izra∂uju tokom duΩeg vremena (çak neko-
liko godina, pa i viße, npr. St. Hristi† je komponovao balet Ohridska
(b) Objektivno - studijsko promiß¬a~e elektroakustiçkog dela -
legenda skoro 15 godina), dok se nasuprot tome drugi delovi ili celine
podrazumeva da¬i nastavak subjektivno-studijske opservacije elek-
izraduju tokom nekoliko nede¬a ili meseci, ßto sve govori o
troakustiçkog dela, i obiçno je ispu~eno ¬udskim i umetniçkim pogled-
razliçitim aspektima promiß¬a~a zvuçno-muziçkog dela, tj. procesu
ima stvaraoca - kompozitora na razliçite stup~eve kompoziciono-
~egove geneze.
tehniçke nauke, tehnomuzikologije, i procesa komponova~a.
(b) raznovrsnost i mnoßtvo povoda za stvara~e - ukazuju na pita~e:
12 ___________ M. Îor∂evi†: Metoda projektova~a elektroakustiçke kompozicije ___________ ______________________________ Zvuçno-muziçko delo kao projekt ______________________________ 13
U okviru objektivno-umetniçke komponente, pre svega se razmatraju v) kombinovana reprodukcija - tj. istovremena direktna i indirektna
limitiraju†i faktori u pogledu elemenata stila i tektonike - principa reprodukcija, u okviru koje postoji deo bez posrednika ili sred-
izgrad~e zvuçno-muziçkog dela, ili se uopßte razmatra aplikacija stva, uz simultano postoja~e i dela sa posrednikom ili sredstvom
odre∂enih postupaka znaçajnih za objektivnu manifestaciju elek- (npr. simultano peva~e bez mikrofona uz reprodukciju prat~e sa
troakustiçke kompozicije, tj. muziçkog ili umetniçkog dela. U svakom magnetofona);
sluçaju, to je proces objektivnog odmerava~a ideje muziçkog dela, u odno-
su na nivo do tada dostignutog napretka u oblasti nauke o zvuku/muzici u Sa aspekta broja izvo∂aça ili uçesnika u reproduktivnom procesu,
drußtvu kao celini, kao i nivoa akulturacije samog stvaraoca (sazna~a mogu†e su raznovrsne kombinacije, ali se one sve u sußtini zasnivaju na
i obuçenosti) u kreativnom pogledu, ßto se odnosi na skup glavnih çetiri osnovna tipa:
ci¬eva i ideju dela sa aspekta stvaraoca, uz neminovne refleksije objek- a) pojedinaçna (individualna)
tivne drußtvene stvarnosti. b) mala (kamerna, kamerno-scenska)
Da¬a epizoda je stvara~e kreativne predstave o konkretnim zahtevi- v) sred~a (kamerno-orkestarska, kamerno-orkestarsko-scenska)
ma muzike, u skladu sa definisanom idejom. Ovo razmatra~e odnosi se na g) velika (orkestarska, orkestarsko-scenska)
slede†a çetiri aspekta:
Reprodukcija se moΩe zatim, klasifikovati i u odnosu na dimenziju
A) ideja i kreativna predstava spojene sa osnovnim sredstvima zvuçno- prostora, taçnije poloΩaj emitera - zvuçnog izvora u prostoru:
muziçkog izraza; a) sa jednog mesta
B) mogu†nosti i osobenosti procesa reprodukcije zvuçno-muziçkog b) sa viße mesta
dela;
V) konkretna sredstva potrebna za realizaciju zvuçno-muziçkog dela U tom sluçaju kod posredne, ili tzv. indirektne reprodukcije , mogu†i
G) neophodnost i karakteristike grafiçkog zapisa zvuçno-muziçkog su i slede†i tipovi:
dela; a) monofona reprodukcija
b) stereofona
(A) U danaß~e vreme postoje tri osnovne vrste, ili sredstva zvuçno- v) kvadrofona
muziçkog izraza elektroakustiçkog dela: d) multifona (okruΩuju†a - surround system - 5.1, 7.1, ili 9.1)
a) tradicionalno zvuçno predstav¬a~e, tj. upotreba tradicionalnih
muziçkih instrumenata i ¬udskog glasa; Sa aspekta primene vißekanalne reproduktivne tehnike, mogu†a je i
b) tehniçko zvuçno predstav¬a~e koje podrazumeva koriß†e~e sred- slede†a klasifikacija:
stava tehniçke muzike ( elektroakustiçke ), taçnije konkretne , elek- a) jednokanalna reprodukcija (po jednom kanalu)
tronske , i kompjuterske , ßto bi se u sublimiranom vidu moglo defin- b) dvokanalna reprodukcija (po dva kanala)
isati u smislu “uΩeg” pojma elektroakustiçkog predstavla~a ; v) vißekanalna reprodukcija (simultano po viße kanala)
v) kombinovano, tradicionalno-tehniçko predstav¬a~e zvuçno-muz-
içkog dela, tj. koriß†e~e tradicionalnih instrumenata i ¬udskog glasa (V) Pod konkretnim sredstvima potrebnim za realizaciju zvuçno-muz-
u kombinaciji sa elektroakustiçkim instrumentima i ure∂ajima tzv. içkog dela, podrazumevaju se svi relevantni momenti reprodukcije datog
tehniçke muzike , kao npr. music for tape, ßto se moΩe definisati kao dela, tj. kompleks parametara koji se odnose na vrstu i broj izvo∂aça,
elektroakustiçko predstav¬a~e u “ßirem” smislu tog pojma; instrumenata, grupa, ansambala, specifiçnih tehniçkih ure∂aja i
instrumenata, do vokalnih solista, grupa, horova, jednom reçju,
(B) Pita~e mogu†nosti i osobenosti reprodukcije zvuçno-muziçkog celokupnog izvo∂açkog aparata i tehniçkih sredstava neophodnih za
dela, odnosi se na mnoge soniçno-reproduktivne odlike samog dela - realizaciju konkretnog elektroakustiçkog dela.
elektroakustiçke kompozicije, kao i na karakteristike i uslove
akustiçke prostorije u kojoj se delo izvodi - u kojoj †e zazvuçati. (G) Problematika neophodnosti grafiçkog zapisa elektroakustiçkog
U okviru ove problematike postoji nekoliko razliçitih aspekata, dela moΩe biti izraΩena, pre svega, u okviru zamisli samog stvaraoca,
ali se kao osnovno izdvaja pita~e tzv. mogu†nosti reprodukcije, tj. to je jer se çesto jav¬aju dela bez osmiß¬enog grafiçkog prikaza - partiture,
polazni nivo reßava~a ovog vida problematike: tako da je beleΩe~e ideje svedeno na skice i naznake, uglavnom
a) direktna reprodukcija - bez posrednika ili sredstva (npr. peva~e razum¬ive ~ihovom stvaraocu. Metoda projektova~a elektroakustiçke
na koncertu bez upotrebe mikrofona); kompozicije ne uzima takve sluçajeve za relevantne, ve† naglaßava
b) indirektna reprodukcija - sa posrednikom ili sredstvom (peva~e neophodnost razum¬ivog grafiçkog prikaza elektroakustiçkog dela i
sa koriß†e~em mikrofona, ili reprodukcija sa magnetofona); insistira i na grubom, i na deta¬nom grafiçkom planu kompozicije.
Dakle, metoda PEAK ne ulazi u analizu ili estetsku aksiologiju dela 11 ..11.. 33.. G
Grr uu bb ii ddeett aa¬
¬ aann gg rr aaf
f ii çç k
kii k
k oo m
mpp oo zz ii cc ii oo nn ii pp ll aa nn
bez grafiçkog zapisa, jer je osla~a~e isk¬uçivo na slußnu percepciju,
nedovo¬no za kvalitetno utvr∂iva~e vrednosti elektroakustiçkog dela, Tre†a faza projektivne metode ( PEAK ) sadrΩi dve da¬e epizode:
pri çemu se polazi od pretpostavke da je svako, u pristupu, ozbi¬no
elektroakustiçko delo koje pretenduje na epitet “umetniçko”, uvek A) grub grafiçki kompozicioni plan
rezultat dobro osmiß¬ene ideje i funkcionalnog grafiçkog zapisa B) deta¬an grafiçki kompozicioni plan
zvuçno-muziçkog doga∂a~a.
U tom smislu, problematika grafiçkog zapisa - notacije , ili nekog Smisao i karakteristika oba vida grafiçkog plana ima za ci¬
drugaçijeg ili sliçnog vida zapisa elektroakustiçke kompozicije, postavku i pra†e~e toka zvyçno-muziçkog miß¬e~a autora, odnosno
uglavnom polazi od slede†ih mogu†nosti: zvuçno-muziçkih parametara elektroakustiçke kompozicije od poçetka
a) elektroakustiçka dela bez grafiçkog zapisa (ili drugaçijeg vida), do ~enog zavrßetka. Grafiçki planovi, tj. grafiçke operacije rezultat
tj. uslovno reçeno partiture; su unetih znakova: ikona , indeksa ili simbola , tzv. semiotiçkih kodov a,
b) tradicionalni notni zapis (petolinijski sistem sa k¬uçevima i tj. grafiçko-geometrijskih elemenata çije se tumaçe~e i funkcija mora
menzuralnom notacijom); upoznati i savladati. Ovi grafiçki znaci izrastaju neposredno iz dve
v) grafiçki zapis (sve mogu†e vrste grafiçkog prikaza uk¬uçuju†i i prethodno obrazloΩene faze projektova~a elektroakustiçke kompozi-
ekstremne tipove avangardnih partitura grafiçke muzike ); cije, i to bez upotrebe muziçkog instrumenta, ure∂aja, ili notnog sis-
g) elektroakustiçka dela sa kombinovanim grafiçkim zapisom kon- tema. U suprotnom, primena grubog i deta¬nog grafiçkog plana ne bi
vencionalnog i eksperimentalnog tipa, ili posebnom metodom imala smisla.
grafiçkog prikaza i legendom simbola koju predlaΩe autor; Grafiçki planovi predstav¬aju naznaçene racionalno-intuitivne
zvuçno-muziçke pretpostavke, kao i konstrukcije formalno-tektonskog
U najßirem tumaçe~u pojma “grafika” (gr. γραφϕκε = grafika, veßti- toka na kojima se zasniva dato elektroakustiçko delo, tj. grubo, ili do
na pisa~a), tj. “grafiçki prikaz”, podrazumeva se obiçno veßtina najsuptilnijih deta¬a, odraΩavaju ~egovu celokupnu dramaturgiju,
pisa~a, crta~a ili slika~a, taçnije grafiçkog beleΩe~a zvuçno-muz- reΩiju, odnosno arhitekturu.
içkog miß¬e~a autora - stvaraoca, ßto omogu†ava umnoΩava~e ili
reprodukciju pismenim putem beleΩene Ωe¬ene muziçke misli, odnosno (A) Grub grafiçki kompozicioni plan kao konkretan poçetni moment
konkretnog elektroakustiçkog (umetniçkog) dela. Tako je i konven- bilo kog grafiçkog prikaza toka zvuçno-muziçkog miß¬e~a stvaraoca,
cionalno notno pismo grafika , ali specifiçnog tipa, kao ßto postoji i poseduje sasvim definisane i odre∂ene postupke:
mogu†nost alfanumeriçkog zapisa koji podrazumeva zapisiva~e a) grubo proporcionalno vremensko raspore∂iva~e kompozicionih
celokupnog zvuçno-muziçkog miß¬e~a putem brojeva i slova. delova;
Znaçajno je da metoda PEAK poseduje i sopstvenu viziju aksiologije b) izradu spo¬aß~e forme - tektonske obrise elektroakustiçkog dela
(estetskog vrednova~a) zvuçno-muziçkog dela koja je definisana preko v) osnovni izraz kreta~a tempa - dramaturgiju tempa;
deta¬nih postupaka prisutnih u okviru filosofsko-estetskih postavki g) okvirni izraz dinamiçke sloΩenosti - dramaturgiju piano - forte;
projektivne metode. MUZIKA je SVESTAN PROCES ÒUDSKE d) izbor sredstava za realizaciju ne samo muziçkih celina, ve† i
AKTIVNOSTI I ÊN STVARALAC, odnosno IZVOÎAÇ TREBA DA pojedinih delova;
POSEDUJE PUNU ODGOVORNOST ZA Û!
(a) Grubo proporcionalno vremensko raspore∂iva~e pojedinih kom-
Zato se u odnosu na reçeno, za muziçku umetnost ne mogu smatrati pozicionih delova, definisano je promiß¬enim i projektovanim opti-
slede†e pojave: malnim rasporedom vremena potrebnim za razvija~e pojedinih delova
a) neorganizovan zvuçni mi¬e; zvuçno-muziçkog toka, ili toka celine elektroakustiçkog dela. Uopßte,
b) zvuçne formacije takve varijabilnosti, gde sluçajnost i nedostatak danaß~e poima~e vremena, vremenskog toka kompozicije, dosta se razli-
kontrole konstantno preovla∂uje (velika aleatorika, aleatorika uje od ranijih istorijsko-stilskih perioda muziçke kulture, tako da su
spo¬aß~e forme); danas u okviru zvuçno-muziçkog dela viße u upotrebi suptilnije
v) ekspresije - izraΩajna sredstva koja ne insistiraju na atributima jedinice metroritmiçke strukture, tj. preciznija odre∂e~a vremenskog
muzike, tj. ~enog zvuka - zvuça~a (grafiçka muzika); intervala. Sa druge strane, ßto je atipiçno za stare stilske pravce, pos-
g) sve akustiçko-optiçke atrakcije, estradni nastupi, gde optiçko- toji simetrija vremenskih celina iako je mnoßtvo razliçitih metrorit-
kinetiçka komponenta preovla∂uje i jasno nadilazi atraktivno- miçkih struktura, vremenska podela je ekvivalentna, ograniçena tak-
umetniçku, i zbog tih razloga poseduje vanmuziçku, tj. socijalnu tovima i predvidiva, za razliku od tzv. ametriçne muzike , bez podele na
funkciju; taktove, i sl.
Vremenski interval obiçno je izraΩen astronomskim jedinicama za U odnosu na navedene varijante izgrad~e vremensko-tektonskog obrisa
vreme: satima, ali tipiçno u minutama i sekundama. Zato nije çudno, da elektroakustiçke kompozicije u skladu sa idejama zvuçno-muziçkog toka,
stvaraoci zvuçno-muziçkih dela obiçno koriste mehaniçke i elek- postoji veliki broj mogu†nosti. Reç je o mogu†nostima slaga~a dve ili
tronske (u okviru softvera) metronome i ßtoperice . viße zvuçno-muziçkih, strukturalnih misli, ili kinetiçko-tektonskih
elemenata, istovremeno zavisnih od dimenzije vremena , kao ßto takva
(b) Spo¬aß~a forma, tj. tektonski obris dela, uglavnom definiße mogu†nost postoji i u suprotnom vidu: slaga~e ve†ih delova ili celina
elektroakustiçku kompoziciju kao jednodelnu ili vißedelnu. U tom zvuçno-muziçkog toka, taçnije miß¬e~a.
smislu, i ovaj moment je u vezi sa prethodnim, tj. vremenskom proporci- Mogu†e je razlikovati osnovne vrste, ili principe:
jom delova. Iako se savremeno shvata~e i tumaçe~e forme zvuçno-muz-
içkog dela priliçno razlikuje od tradicionalnog shvata~a formalnog b 1 ) monoformalni princip
plana muziçkog dela, mogu†e je ustanoviti çetiri osnovna formalno- b 2 ) biformalni princip
tektonska principa - vremensko-proporcionalna obrisa elek- b 3 ) poliformalni princip
troakustiçkog dela. U tom smislu mogu†e je predstaviti osnovne vari-
jante spo¬aß~e forme i tektonike u odnosu na grubu proporcionalno- (v) Osnovni izraz dramaturgije tempa, obiçno je dat na jedan od
vremensku inklinaciju elektroakustiçke kompozicije: slede†a tri naçina:
b 1 ) vremenska zavisnost zvuçno-muziçkog toka - kontinuiranost v 1 ) opßtom naznakom tempa (npr. Andante)
(jednodelnost) v 2 ) odre∂enom naznakom tempa (npr. Andante m.m. = 69)
v 3 ) agogiçkom naznakom (npr. “recitativo”)
(g) Okvirni izraz dinamiçke sloΩenosti moΩe biti predstav¬en

direktna zavisnost zvuçno-muziçkog miß¬e~a i formalno-tektonske uglavnom na slede†e naçine:
evolutivnosti (jednodelnost)
g 1 ) stalna ili nepromen¬iva dinamika ( konstantna )
b 2 ) vremenska nezavisnost zvuçno-muziçkog toka (vißedelnost)
g 2 ) promen¬iva dinamika ( varijabilna ):
- postupna (cresc. e descresc.)
- stup~evita (terasasta, subito, echo)
Dinamiçka razliçitost ( diferenciranost ) moΩe biti izraΩena

direktna zavisnost zvuçno-muziçkog miß¬e~a i formalno-tektonske
uglavnom kroz tri osnovna vida:
evolutivnosti (jednodelnost)
g 1 ) petoçlani, tzv. “klasiçni tip”: pp, p, mf, f, ff;
b 3 ) vremenska zavisnost zvuçno-muziçkog toka (jednodelnost) g 2 ) ßestoçlani tip: pp, p, mp, mf, f, ff;
g 3 ) osmoçlani tip: ppp, pp, p, mp, mf, f, ff, fff;
(d) Izbor sredstava za realizaciju, moΩe imati liçni pristup nastao

razliçitim postupcima odabira~a ( selekcije ) ili ukla~a~a ( elimi-
spaja~e: 1) attacca 1) 2) 2) me∂ustavaçno
nacije ) instrumentalnih, odnosno vokalnih elemenata date elek-
troakustiçke kompozicije, pri çemu se sa najßireg aspekta moΩe gov-
indirektna zavisnost - ekspozicioni moment (vißedelnost) oriti o tzv. soniçnoj (zvuçnoj) manifestaciji pojedinih delova kompozi-
cije, ili celine zvuçno-muziçkog toka.
b 4 ) vremenska nezavisnost (vißedelnost)
(B) Deta¬an grafiçki kompozicioni plan moΩe posedovati dva pris-
tupa, odnosno moΩe biti realizovan na dva naçina:
a) na bazi grubog grafiçkog kompozicionog plana

b) kao poseban (deta¬an) grafiçki kompozicioni plan
indirektna zavisnost - ekspozicioni moment (vißedelnost)
(a) Projektivna metoda ( PEAK ) daje prednost prvom pristupu, tj. 11 ..11 ..44.. Z
Zvv uuçç nn oo -- m
muuzz ii çç k
k aa rr eeaa ll ii zz aacc ii jj aa gg rr aaf
f ii çç k
k oo gg k
koo m
mpp oo zz ii cc ii oo nn oo gg pp ll aann aa
izradi deta¬nog grafiçkog kompozicionog plana na osnovu ve† prethod-
no izra∂enog grubog grafiçkog kompozicionog plana. Ovakav pristup Zvuçno muziçka realizacija grafiçkog kompozicionog plana , pred-
uslov¬en je pre svega tezom, da bi u suprotnom , izrada grubog grafiçkog stav¬a çetvrtu fazu metode projektova~a elektroakustiçke kompozici-
kompozicionog plana bila nepotrebna, ukoliko bi se odmah realizovao je ( PEAK ), ustvari to je trenutak kada zapoçi~e finalna, “prava”
nezavisni deta¬ni grafiçki kompozicioni plan, koji nije oslo~en, ili grafiçka notacija celine, ili delova, zvuçno-muziçkog toka elek-
ne predstav¬a da¬u razradu grubog grafiçkog kompozicionog plana. troakustiçke kompozicije.
Me∂utim, kada su u pita~u kompozicije sa ve†im brojem stavova, osno- Kao ßto je iz oblasti muziçke teorije poznato, razvoj evropskog
va je grubo-deta¬ni kompozicioni plan, tj. odre∂ena vrsta meßavine dva melodijsko-harmonijskog miß¬e~a predstav¬en je kompleksom pojava
grafiçka kompoziciona plana: grubog i deta¬nog , da bi se stekla realna koje se mogu oznaçiti kao istorijske kategorije zvuçno-muziçko
i kompleksna slika o kompletnoj formalno-tektonskoj manifestaciji miß¬e~a. Kategorije melodijsko-harmonijskog vida muziçkog miß¬e~a
zvuçno-muziçkog miß¬e~a stvaraoca. bile su uglavnom zasnovane na polustepenom ravnomerno temperovanom
tonskom sistemu, koji se sa danaß~eg aspekta oznaçava kao dvanaestton-
(b) U tom sluçaju, mogu†a je epizoda pod b), tj. izrada posebnih ski polustepeni sistem u okviru periodicita intervala oktave , tzv. sis-
deta¬nih grafiçkih kompozicionih planova, ali ne u smislu “nezavis- tem temperovane hromatike (c-c # -d-d # -e-f- f # -g-g # -a-a # -h).
nosti” od grubog grafiçkog kompozicionog plana, ve† jedino na osnovu Generalno uzevßi, prilikom realizacije grafiçkog kompozicionog
~ega. To da¬e, podrazumeva unoße~e i deta¬no beleΩe~e svih relevant- plana, postoji kompleks, od autora nezavisnih i limitiranih, zvuçno-
nih zvuçno-muziçkih parametara, koji na najbo¬i mogu†i naçin muziçkih parametara koji su rezultat dosadaß~eg muziçko-istorijskog
odraΩavaju zvuçno-muziçki tok elektroakustiçke kompozicije, nasle∂a, ili novina savremene muziçko-stilske epohe, a me∂u kojima,
uslov¬en intuitivno-racionalnim zvuçno-muziçkim miß¬e~em stvarao- svakako, prvenstveno treba navesti oblast tonskih visina i ~ihovih
ca. relacija . U tom smislu, i zvuçno-muziçki izraz tako∂e je limitiran u
sklopu pomenutih parametara, tako da poseduje odre∂ena ograniçe~a i to
Neki od osnovnih grafiçkih znakova ( ikona , simbola , i indeksa ) pred- u razliçitim smerovima.
stav¬eni su na jedan od uobiçajenih naçina kao:
i = impuls Kompleks zvuçno-muziçkih postavki savremene muzike, obuhvata danas
m = model, motiv raznovrsne mogu†nosti koje stoje na raspolaga~u stvaraocu elek-
v = vrsta troakustiçke kompozicije:
s = sloj
p = pasaΩ a) postoje†i (teku†i) zvuk - tonovi pojedinih muziçkih instrumenata i
r = region, i sl. ¬udskog glasa;
b) u ma~oj meri obiçan, ali viße “nov” zvuk, tj. tonovi proizvedeni
Mogu†e je da svaki autor poseduje sopstveni izraΩajni grafiçki tradicionalnim i netradicionalnim muziçkim instrumentima,
znakovni jezik, u kom sluçaju mora u okviru grafiçkog prikaza elek- odnosno ¬udskim glasom;
troakustiçke kompozicije - partiture, pojasniti i taçno definisati v) zvukovi i tonovi ostvareni elektronskim putem;
svaki znak, da bi dati grafiçki kompozicioni plan mogao, u ovom smis- g) zvukovi i tonovi oznaçeni kao “konkretni”, tj. skup svih zvuçnih
lu, razumeti svaki proseçno edukovan korisnik. elemenata u naßem okruΩe~u;
Proces razvija~a grubog grafiçkog kompozicionog plana u deta¬an Tako∂e, i skup datih i praktiçno upotreb¬ivih tonskih visina, odnos-
grafiçki kompozicioni plan, odvija se uglavnom prema slede†im no za çoveka çujnih frekvencija, kre†e se u teorijskom opsegu od 16 do
smerovima: 20.000 Hz, çime je oblast tonskih visina i ~ihovih relacija znatno
proßirena u odnosu na tradicionalne, kroz istoriju ekspanzije i reduk-
a 1 ) izrada deta¬ne fakture zvuçno-muziçkog sadrΩaja (tkiva, mi¬ea); cije oblasti tonskih visina, razliçito limitirane granice.
a 2 ) izrada deta¬no razra∂enog postupka muziçkog miß¬e~a kao for- U okviru ove oblasti postoje sasvim nova shvata~a i tumaçe~a, kao i
malno-tektonskog i proporcionalnog vremensko-prostornog teorijsko-praktiçni i eksperimentalni radovi, a sa pojavom digitalne
obrisa zvuçno-muziçkog toka; raçunarske tehnologije i ere tzv. kompjutera krajem 20. veka, prob-
a 3 ) izrada deta¬ne agogike i dinamike zvuçno-muziçkog toka; lematika tonskih visina i ~ihovih relacija apsolutno je ukinuta i jedi-
no je limitirana psihofiziologijom percepcije koja je zasnovana na
a 4 ) izrada deta¬ne orkestracije - instrumentacije i instrumentalne
mogu†nostima organa çula sluha kod çoveka.
artikulacije kompletnog zvuçno-muziçkog toka;
Uzimaju†i u obzir navedene çi~enice, na osnovu metode PEAK mogu†e Sve pomenute muziçko-stilske i umetniçko izraΩajne mogu†nosti koje
je konstatovati dve sußtinske praktiçne posledice: stoje na raspolaga~e savremenom stvaraocu elektroakystiçkog dela,
a) ravnomerno temperova~e oktavnog polustepenog sistema fiksiran- mogu se ostvariti na jedan od slede†ih naçina, odnosno preko jedne od
im kamer-tonom a 1 = 440 Hz, sa mogu†im varijacijama do 444 Hz poznatih faktura zvuçno-muziçkog dela:
(uobiçajeno); a) monofona - jedna, nezavisna melodijska linija
b) ravnomerno i neravnomerno temperova~e izvan i u okviru period- b) heterofona - dve ili viße sliçnih i zavisnih melodijskih linija
iciteta intervala oktave, kao i izvan polustepenog tonskog sis- v) homofona - tema (melodijska linija) sa prat~om
tema; g) polifona - nezavisne melodijske linije u odnosu sazvuçja
d) stratofona ( polistratofona ) - kombinacija viße vrsta faktura
Skup svih muziçkih pojava u savremenoj muziçkoj praksi, tako∂e je
proßiren na: V. Sa gledißta osnove i principa razliçitog stilskog izraza, postoji
a) upotreb¬ive vrednosti traja~a zvuka/tona, u okviru odre∂enog rel- odre∂eno istorijsko nasle∂e zvuçno-muziçkog miß¬e~a, koje je
ativnog tempa, uglavnom od 1/64, do 1/1, tj. do traja~a cele note; oboga†eno savremenim pristupima, ßto sve zajedno pruΩa slede†e
b) minimalan vremenski interval potreban za realizaciju zvuka, tj. mogu†nosti:
tona u odre∂enom tempu, kao i maksimalan vremenski interval, tj. a) muzika preistorije , starog veka , sred~eg veka - evropskih i
vrednost traja~a koju moΩe posedovati kontinuiran zvuk/ton; vanevropskih, tzv. egzotiçnih , kultura:
b) muzika baroka i rokokoa , tako∂e i neobaroka ;
U okviru skupa zvuçno-muziçkih pojava u oblasti dinamike, mogu†e je, v) muzika klasiçnog perioda, uk¬uçuju†i i neoklasicizam ;
tako∂e, konstatovati dva osnovna tipa primene dinamike u realizaciji g) muzika romantizma , neoromantizma i ekspresionizma ;
grafiçkog kompozicionog plana, ili zvuçnog-muziçkog materijala d) muzika impresionizma i tzv. soniçna muzika;
uopßte: ∂) akademsko-konstruktivistiçka muzika ( eksperimentalna )
a) kulminacija tradicionalnog dinamiçkog zvuçno-muziçkog miß¬e~a
manifestovana od ppp do fff; G. Sa gledißta namene i reprodukcije zvuçno-muziçkog sadrΩaja, tj.
b) poçetni mogu†i nivo glasnosti zvuka u okviru opsega çujnosti, tzv. ~gove relizacije, date su uglavnom slede†e mogu†nosti:
prag çujnosti = 0 Ph (fon - jedinica subjektivne glasnosti zvuka, a) tradicionalna instrumentalna i vokalna muzika:
ekvivalentna decibelu na frekvenciji od 1000 Hz), pa sve do - obiçna
kraj~eg nivoa glasnosti zvuka definisanog kao prag bola - oboga†ena - proßirena u smislu neobiçne upotrebe zvuka
(oko 130 Ph); ili vokalno-instrumentalne artikulacije;
Savremeni stvaralac - kompozitor, tokom stvara~a svog dela, u pogle- b) tehniçka muzika - upotreba elektroakustiçkih instrumenata,
du izbora izraΩajnih sredstava i zvuçno-muziçkih parametara obiçno se ure∂aja, ili sredstava stvara~a i reprodukcije;
oprede¬uje u okviru dole navedenih mogu†nosti: v) kombinovana muzika - tradicionalno-tehniçka, kombinacija
tradicionalnog vokalno-instrument alnog pristupa i elektro-
A. Sa gledißta egzistencije i razvoja zvuçno-muziçkog miß¬e~a, za: akustiçkih sredstava;
a) tematsko elektroakustiçko delo
b) atematsko elektroakustiçko delo Sve navedene mogu†nosti, koje stoje na raspolaga~u savremenom
stvaraocu elktroakustiçkog dela, mogu†e jer ostvariti u tzv. direktnoj,
B. Sa gledißta tektonske relacije zvuçno-muziçkog materijala, za: ili indirektnoj produkciji/reprodukciji. Taçnije, i prilikom stvara~a
a) centriçan tip muzike (muzika koja poseduje tonalni centar) zvuka, kao i tokom ~egove reprodukcije, mogu†e je zvuçne izvore organi-
b) acentriçan tip muzike (muzika bez tonalnog centra) zovati tako da zvuk zraçi sa jednog ili viße razliçitih mesta u okviru
date akustiçke prostorije, prema ve† poznatim reproduktivnim odredni-
Deta¬niji pristup: mogu†i aspekti savremene muzike: cama u smislu: mono , stereo , kvadro , ili kroz vißekanalnu, tzv.
a) proßirena tonalnost , b) tonalna modalnost , v) atonalnost okruΩuju†u reprodukciju - surround system (5.1, 7.1, ili 9.1) koja se
g) modalna atonalnost , d) preddodekafonijska serijska tehnika , kao uslovno moΩe oznaçiti kao polifoni vid reprodukcije.
i dodekafonijska , tj. postdodekafonijska , ∂) serijalna tehnika i Tokom çetvrte faze projektivne metode PEAK , postav¬a se u real-
strukturalizam , e) punktualizam , Ω) tembr muzika - muzika zvuçnih izaciji grafiçkog kompozicionog plana vaΩno pita~e koje se odnosi na
boja, z) aleatorika , i) stohastiçka i algoritamska muzika, j) fakturu zvuçno-muziçke kompozicije, odnosno elektroakustiçkog dela.
grafiçka muzika, k) akustiçko-optiçke atrakcije , l) sva mogu†a Da bi se jasnije definisalo pita~e z vuçno-muziçke fakture sa aspek-
avangardna i ekstremno eksperimentalna zvuçno-muziçka praksa; ta PEAK , potrebno je definisati i razumeti ovaj pojam ( faktura ).
Faktura zvuçno-muziçkog dela predstav¬a naçin na koji je organizo- Tako∂e su, u smislu polifone fakture, mogu†e slobodne kombinacije
van zvuçno-muziçki mi¬e u okviru elektroakustiçke kompozicije, tako dve ili viße punktualnih i tembralnih linija muziçkog miß¬e~a:
da se uvek moΩe predstaviti shema te organizacije sa glavnim tipovima soniçna faktura , vißetaçkasta - polipunktualna , ili vißezvuçna -
fakture, kao i odre∂enim podtipovima. Osnovni tipovi fakture koji su politembralna faktura .
do sada poznati u okvirima muziçke nauke, mogli bi se opisati kao Dok se kod jednoglasa i ~egovih varijanti ( monofona i heterofona
slede†i: faktura ) moΩe uslovno govoriti o latentnoj harmonijskoj (vertikalnoj)
komponenti, tip vertikalnog muziçkog miß¬e~a podrazumeva bar dve
a) monofona faktura - podrazumeva jednu, u slußnom smislu samostal- nezavisne melodijske linije koje prirodno grade sazvuçje, ßto pred-
nu i kompleksno shva†enu liniju zvuçno-muziçkog miß¬e~a, koja, u smis- stav¬a kod polifonog tipa fakture izuzetno znaçajan moment. U tom
lu toka muziçkog miß¬e~a, poseduje vertikalnu i horizontalnu kompak- smislu, slußaoci ne mogu apstrahovati ili zanemariti ulogu vertikalne
tnost. MoΩe se javiti kao prosta (ritmiçko-melodijska), odnosno soniç- zvuçno-muziçke komponente, jer ona povremeno ostvaruje ve†i slußni
na (sa karakteristiçnom zvuçnom bojom) jednoglasna celina. Ukoliko je utisak - uçinak. Istovremena izraΩajnost horizontalnog i vertikalnog
jednoglas dat unisono , tj. ista melodijska linija dode¬ena drugom toka zvuçno-muziçkog miß¬e~a çini da polifona faktura predstav¬a
instrumentu ili izvo∂açu, moΩe se govoriti o podtipu fakture, tzv. jedinstvenu zvuçno-muziçku celinu, a ne dve relativno odvojene nezav-
unisonoj fakturi , dok se u sluçaju oktavnog , ili udvaja~a melodijske isne komponente, ßto je sluçaj uglavnom kod pedagoßko-teorijskih raz-
linije u nekom drugom intervalu, moΩe govoriti o podtipu tzv. mik- matra~a razliçitih polifonih struktura.
sturne (meßovite) fakture . Sa aspekta savremene muzike, slobodne
forme tonskih visina, ili pojedini razdvojeni zvuci prostih tonskih d) stratofona (polistratofona) faktura - moΩe se oznaçiti i kao
boja klasifikuju se u smislu jednoglasa u okviru podtipa punktualne vißeslojna faktura , pripada najvißem tipu polifone fakture. Umesto
fakture , dok se sloΩene kombinacije tonskih boja - tembra , tonski klas- pojedinih samostalnih linija ili tokova zvuçno-muziçke misli, strato-
teri , ili razliçiti ßumovi , klasifikuju u okviru podtipa tzv. tembr- fonu fakturu ispu~avaju nezavisni kompleksi zvuçno-muziçkih
fakture . doga∂a~a razliçite vrste, u smislu relativno, ili apsolutno, nezavis-
nih zvuçnih slojeva koji su ostvareni kombinova~em razliçitih tipova
b) heterofona faktura ( monofonovarijantna ) - tako∂e se definiße i podtipova zvuçno-muziçkih faktura.
kao jedinstvena, samostalna, i kompleksno shva†ena linija muziçkog Projektivna metoda ( PEAK ) ukazuje na ßiroki izbor mogu†nosti koje
miß¬e~a, koja je povremeno (trenutno) u pojedinim odsecima izme~ena pruΩaju stratofoni ili polistratofoni tipovi fakture, uk¬uçuju†i
u horizontalnom (melodijskom) smislu, tako da predstav¬a varijantu svu mogu†u razliçitost i kontraste, kao i simultanu egzistenciju i
odre∂enog toka melodijskog miß¬e~a, ili tzv. nesamostalni vißeglas , korespondenciju svih slojeva koji mogu biti organizovani u smislu svih
kao varijanta jednoglasa u smislu podtipova unisone , miksturne , punktu- postoje†ih tipova i podtipova fakture. Danaß~e, savremeno muziçko
alne , i tembr fakture . miß¬e~e, daje prednost novim i razliçitim tipovima fakture, ma~e
eksploatisanim tokom duge muziçke istorije, çesto nekonvencionalnim
v) homofona faktura - pripada najvißem stup~u jedinstvene, slußno ili eksperimentalnim, ali u odre∂enim segmentima kvalitativno novim
samostalne i kompleksno shva†ene linije muziçkog miß¬e~a. Takva lin- u ve†oj ili ma~oj meri, kao i svim mogu†im oblicima sinteze i kombi-
ija je unutar sebe izdiferencirana i zavisna od sopstvenih delova - nacija razliçitih vidova zvuçno-muziçke fakture.
vißeglasa , odnosno “prat~e”, kao nepotpuna, nesavrßena, polusamostal-
na, ßto je sve u funkciji jedne jedinstvene ritmiçko-melodijsko-har- Realizacija grafiçkog kompozicionog plana, kao çetvrta praktiçna
monijske celine. Razlike izme∂u prostog homofonog (ritmiçko-melodi- etapa Projektova~a elektroakustiçke kompozicije , uk¬uçuje primenu
jsko-harmonijskog), homofono-punktualnog , odnosno homofonog-tembr raznovrsnih grafiçkih naznaka stvaralaçkog postupka kojim rezultira
tipa fakture, ogledaju se u tome ßto dva posled~a podtipa predstav¬aju odre∂eno zvuçno-muziçko miß¬e~e i koji su obiçno navedeni kao:
soniçno spojene raznorodne zvuçne pojave - elemente: pojedine tonove impulsi , modeli , vrste , podloge , slojevi , delovi , kao i ~ihove trans-
ili zvukove, odnosno skupove ( sazvuçja , ßumove , itd.). formacije i modificije konkretnih zvuçno-muziçkih pojava i doga∂a~a.
g) polifona faktura - predstav¬a kvalitativno nov tip fakture, tip Znaçajan deo zavrßne faze realizacije grafiçkog kompozicionog
nezavisnih linija muziçkog miß¬e~a, u okviru kojeg dolazi, u slußnom plana svakako predstav¬a zvuçno-muziçka konkretizacija i naznaçe~e
pogledu, do maksimalne samostalnosti dve ili viße melodijskih linija. tektonike odre∂ene kompozicione celine kroz razliçite postupke
Pri tome je mera ~ihove melodijske nezavisnosti razliçitog stup~a, jer spaja~a ( montaΩe ) i meßa~a ( miksaΩe ) zvuçno-muziçkih delova - odseka.
je upu†ena na harmonijske odnose zavisnosti pojedinih glasova: prosta To sve, konaçno rezultira grafiçkom formom zvuçno-muziçkog dela,
faktura , ritmiçko-melodijsko-harmonijska faktura . koja se obiçno definiße i oznaçava kao partitura .
Jedan od vaΩnih aspekata jeste realizacija kompozicionih, tj. zvuçno- Sve naznake autora, koje su predvi∂ene za realizaciju, treba da budu
muziçkih impuls a i modela koji su jasno naznaçeni u okviru grafiçkog sadrΩane u okviru grafiçkog kompozicionog plana, i pri tome se mora
kompozicionog plana. respektovati odre∂ena hijerarhija , tj. odre∂en princip oznaçava~a ili
Kompozicionim impulsom “i” oznaçava se kratka zvuçno-muziçka misao evidentira~a zvuçno-muziçkih doga∂a~a, princip prioriteta , odnosno
koja svojom pojavom uslov¬ava, tj. inicira, da¬i tok zvuçno-muziçkog sazna~e o viße ili ma~e znaçajnim elementima zvuçno-muziçkog toka
miß¬e~a. To je poçetni impuls , odnosno podsticaj za da¬i razvoj elektroakustiçke kompozicije, itd.
zvuçno-muziçkog toka.
U tom smislu, moΩe se da¬e govoriti o razliçitim kompozicionim U tom smislu, projektivna metoda ( PEAK ) ne postav¬a stroge i krute
impulsima: horizontalno-vertikalnim , dinamiçkim , tembralnim , tek- principe i obavezuju†a pravila, ve† je viße usmerena na istica~e
tonsko-fakturnim , agogiçkim , itd. odre∂enih preporuka autoru u pogledu tehnike i mogu†ih naçina ost-
U odnosu na interval vremena, u kojem se jedan ili viße impulsa (koji vare~a ~egove zvuçno-muziçke zamisli. Tako∂e, mogu†i su i sasvim dru-
uzajamno teku i razvijaju se) mogu ostvariti, mogu†e je govoriti o tzv. gaciji vidovi oznaçava~a i grafiçkog predstav¬a~a odre∂enog zvuçno-
mikroimpulsu = “i” - veoma kratkom podsticajnom delu zvuçno-muziçkog muziçkog miß¬e~a, ßto, u principu, ne utiçe na kvalitet projektivne
miß¬e~a, i tzv. makroimpuls u = ”I” - tj. duΩem toku zvuçno-muziçkog metode, ve† jedino me~a stvar pristupa i slobode izbora, tako da se
miß¬e~a. metoda PEAK ne sme tretirati kao svrha samoj sebi.
Izradu grafiçkog kompozicionog plana potrebno je razumeti jedino u
Sliçan impulsu je i tzv. kompozicioni model “m” koji ima funkciju smislu kvalitetnog pomo†nog sredstva - çesto nezaobilaznog elementa u
transformacije i da¬eg razvija~a zvuçno-muziçkog materijala elekt- radu autora - kompozitora.
troakustiçke kompozicije, koji se obiçno prime~uje u sluçajevima Tako se u upotrebi u okviru grafiçkog kompozicionog plana, tj. pri-
doslovne repeticije (ponav¬a~a) da bi se izbeglo ponovno ispisiva~e likom postupka ~egove realizacije, mogu prona†i razliçite grafiçke
istih delova. Kompozicioni model moΩe biti oznaçen i slovima, odnos- naznake, odnosno semiotiçki sistem znakova izraΩen kroz ikone , sim-
no brojevima ( alfanumeriçki ), tako da se stvaralac i tokom da¬eg bole i indekse , koji uvek moraju posedovati jasne razloge i opravda~e za
grafiçkog prikaza kompozicionog plana moΩe pozvati na ~ega. primenu, u odnosu na kompletan tok zvuçno-muziçkog miß¬e~a.
Ukoliko grafiçki kompozicioni plan sdrΩi viße impulsa , modela ,
Kompozicioni impulsi i modeli nisu, i ne treba da budu statiçnog ili drugih kompoziciono izraΩajnih grafiçkih elemenata, potrebno ih
tipa. To znaçi, da su oni promen¬ivi - varijabilni , i da treba da se je razlikovati i odvojiti, odnosno drugaçije oznaçiti, npr. sa “i 1 ”, “i 2 ”,
me~aju i transformißu tokom razvoja zvuçno-muziçkog toka, odnosno itd. Ukoliko su u pita~u mikro-impulsi . ispred slova “i” moΩe biti
svih odseka elektroakustiçke kompozicije. Pomenute transformacije dodata npr. jedna taçka (ili neki druga oznaka prema logici autora),
podrazumevaju principe da¬ih operacija, kao ßto su repeticije ,
raznovrsne varijacije , de¬e~a ili skra†iva~a , tako∂e i produΩe~a - npr.: “ . i 1 ”, “ . i 2 ”itd., dok su kod makro-impulsa oznake date obiçno
proßire~a kompozicionih impulsa , tj. modela . Osim toga, mogu†e su sve velikim slovom: “I”, tj. u smislu “I 1 ”, “I 2 ”, “I 3 ”, itd.
vrste permutacija , rotacija , kontrarotacija , interpolacija , selekcija , Modeli se tako∂e oznaçavaju sa “m 1 ”, “m 2 ”, “m 3 ”, itd.
raçijih/krebs transformacija , doslovne ili slobodne augmentacije , U pogledu jezika odre∂enih naznaka, ve†ina naziva potiçe iz uni-
odnosno diminucije , itd. verzalnog struçno-muziçkog jezika, ili razliçitih evropeizama, poseb-
no romanske, i anglosaksonske jeziçke osnove, koji su najviße i
Transformacije se zatim odnose i na sve vrste zvuçno-muziçkih para- prime~eni u savremenoj muziçkoj praksi, mada je mogu† i sasvim slobo-
metara, kao i na razliçite postupke drugaçijih formi izraΩava~a, dan izbor jezika, prema nameri i Ωe¬i autora, ponekad i u odnosu na
izvan tradicionalnog pristupa, kao recimo u oblasti elektroaustiçke potencijalne korisnike - çitaoce datog grafiçkog kompozicionog
muzike ( konkretne , elektronske , kompjuterske ) gde su opet znaçajne plana. U tom smislu, i oznake na srpskom jeziku sasvim su prihvat¬ive,
transformacije opada~a ili narasta~a naboja zvuçno-muziçkog toka. tako da se pojedine skra†enice - akronimi uglavnom prime~uju prema
Taçnije, postoji kompleks razliçitih postupaka filtracije , kao i poçetnim slovima - inicijalima . Tako datom terminu “model” odgovara
primene efekata na dati elektriçno-akustiçki tip audio signala (npr. skra†enica “ m ”, odnosno terminu sloj “ s ”, ili delu “ D ”, pri çemu se
echo), odnosno propußta~a odre∂enog frekvencijskog spektra audio sig- odre∂eni deo, tj. odsek zvuçno-muziçkog miß¬e~a moΩe oznaçiti sa:
nala kroz specifiçne elektroakustiçke instrumente i ure∂aje, kao i “ D 1 ”, odnosno “ D 2 ”, “ D 3 ”, itd.
koriß†e~e specifiçnih digitalnih veza me∂u muziçkim instrumentima
U tom smislu npr., çetvrta transformacija impulsa 2, moΩe se oznaçi-
i audio ure∂ajima, npr. MIDI, odnosno sprovo∂e~e niza sloΩenih
ti kao: “i2 4 ”, ili tre†a transformacija mikroimpulsa 1, moΩe biti
operacija u smislu obrade digitalnog audio signala (DSP - Digital Signal
Processing), itd. oznaçena kao: “ . i 1 3 ”, itd.
Kod odre∂enih transformacija, mogu†e su, tako∂e, i oznake u smislu Tako∂e, jedan od veoma znaçajnih momenata çetvrte faze metode
skra†e~a ili produΩe~a zvuçno-muziçkih impulsa, çime se i analogni Projektova~a elektroakustiçke kompozicije ( PEAK ), odnosi se na
znak moΩe pridruΩiti ve† postoje†oj opßtoj ßifri, npr.: “++”, tj. “-
- ”, ortografiju i notaciju, posebno sa aspekta savremene zvuçno-muziçke,
odnosno kao: “ i 4 -- ”.
2
odnosno kompozitorske prakse.
S obzirom na vaΩnost ove tematike, nije mogu†e u okviru ove studije
Kada se govori o modifikaciji kompozicionih zvuçno-muziçkih mod-
deta¬no izloΩiti sve relevatne aspekte, ali je potrebno bar delimiçno
ela i impulsa , mogu se upotrebiti i indeksi pismenog tipa, tj. kao do~i
ukazati na najznaçajnije principe koji se ukazuju kao osnovni pravci u
indeksi: “i2 a ”, “i2 b ”, tj. u sluçaju naznake kompozicionog modela : “m3 c ”,
postupcima beleΩe~a zvuçno-muziçke misli stvaraoca, i koji se grubo
“m3 d ”, itd. mogu saΩeti u slede†e:
Ovakav naçin, ili princip, oznaçava~a elemenata - delova kompozi-
cione zvuçno-muziçke misli autora, sluΩi kao izvrstan orijentir ne a) partitura zvuçno-muziçkog dela, ili elektroakustiçke kompozici-
samo za stvara~e grafiçkih planova, ve† naroçito kod realizacije tih je, obiçno se notira “in Do (C)”, tj. radi poßtova~a opßteg principa
planova u zvuçno-muziçkom smislu. Tako je autor uvek u sta~u da simplifikacije, svesno se izbegava transpozicija , izuzimaju†i sluçajeve
pravovremeno bude informisan o mestu, delu - odseku elektroakustiçke oktavne transpozicije radi postiza~a Ωe¬enog zvuçnog (tonskog)
kompozicije na kojoj radi, koji model ili impuls obra∂uje, odnosno na opsega;
koju se zvuçno-muziçku celinu ili deo poziva, i sl. b) upotreba notnih k¬uçeva je limitirana, tj. svedena samo na dva
tipa: violinski i bas k¬uç ;
Sa aspekta projektivne metode ( PEAK ), termini kao ßto su motiv , v) konstantno se sprovodi eliminacija nepotrebnih taktova (celina),
tema , motivska ili tematska gra∂a , i sl., nisu ukinuti, ve† naprotiv odseka, ili delova, i oni se zame~uju belinom; notni sistem ukoliko nije
oboga†eni aplikacijom - uvo∂e~em novih termina kompoziciono - ispu~en, tako∂e se zame~uje belinom;
tehniçkog postupka: kompozicioni impuls ( model ), mikroimpuls , mikro- v) svo∂e~e i usredsre∂e~e svih grafiçkih znakova i prikaza u jedan
model , makroimpuls , makromodel , transformacija , transformaciona tok, relevantan za datu partituru;
praksa , modifikacija , itd. g) kvalitativno uproß†ava~e oznaka vrste takta, u smislu krupnih i
Takozvani termini: kompozicioni sloj = “s” ( vrsta = “v”), zatim kom- jasnih naznaka kao i redukcije znakova;
poziciona ravan = “r” (ili podloga = “p”), kompozicioni deo = “D”, ili d) upotreba relavantnih znakova za definisa~e agogike - naçina
kompociciona celina u smislu formalne i zaokruΩene zvuçno-muziçke interpretacije, posebno onih iz dirigentske prakse;
reçenice = “R”, predstav¬aju znaçajne elemente za strukturu i delove ∂) proßire~e, i obra†a~e paΩ~e na metriçki deo zvuçno-muziçkog
zvuçno-muziçkog miß¬e~a koje poznaje savremena stvaralaçka elek- zapisa, odnosno akcentova~e/veziva~e;
troakustiçka praksa. e) eliminacija nepotrebnih i razliçitih oznaka u smislu ukla~a~a i
Tako kompozicioni sloj = “s” (ili vrsta = “v”), moΩe biti predstav¬en izbegava~a enharmonijskih ekvivalenata tonova hromatske lestvice,
na dva naçina i to kao: itd.;
a) horizontalni zvuçno-muziçki sloj, oznaçen sa “_ _ s”, ili __s1, _ _s2, __ s3; Ω) uvo∂e~e, po potrebi, razliçitih grafiçkih naznaka za pojedine
b) vertikalni zvuçno-muziçki sloj, oznaçen sa “||s”, ili ||s1, ||s2, ||s3, itd. aleatorijsko-aproksimativne sa zvuçno-muziçkim materijalom:
Inaçe, karakteristike zvuçno-muziçke ravni , “mi¬ea”, tj. “podloge” i) pribliΩno odre∂e~e trenutka nastupa zvuka/tona i ~egovog traja~a
ili “osnove”, u smislu sußtine samog zvuçno-muziçkog materijala i ii) naznaçava~e pribliΩnog razvoja melodijskog toka adekvatnom
~egove organizacije - fakture , kao i karakteristika kompozicionih, krivom;
formalno-tektonskih delova, uzajamno su povezane funkcije i razlikuju iii) oznaçava~e vertikalnom linijom aleatorijske izmene zvuka/tona u
se u zavisnosti od duΩine relativnog zvuçno-muziçkog toka, odnos tipa istom ili razliçitim glasovima;
zvuçno-muziçkog miß¬e~a. Formalna, ili tektonska strana, tj. aspekt iv) oznaçava~e traja~a zvuka/tona, ili tonske grupe, pravom ili
elektroakustiçke kompozicije, kao sußtina izraΩena kroz sadrΩaj krivom/kosom do mesta zzavrßetka nastupa, ili prelaska u neki
zvuçno-muziçkog miß¬e~a uk¬uçuju†i i datu formu, predstav¬a speci- drugi zvuçni sloj;
fiçnu kombinaciju koja nastaje tokom procese stvara~a ( geneze ) elek- v) oznaçava~e zavrßetka nekoliko kompozicionih delova aleatori-
troakustiçkog dela i to uglavnom na dva naçina: jskog tipa u odnosu na dati vremenski tok;
a) spaja~e (Ωarg. - montaΩa ) - postupno horizontalno i sukcesivno vi) naznake za dinamiku potrebno je uneti u odnosu na celinu kompozi-
kombinova~e delova zvuçno-muziçkog doga∂a~a; cije u okviru jednog izrazitog zvuçno-muziçkog toka, dok je promene
b) meßa~e (Ω. - miksaΩa ) - vertikalna kombinacija elemenata zvuçno u odre∂enom glasu potrebno naznaçiti samo za taj glas;
- muziçkog doga∂a~a, delova, ili odseka, u okviru celine;
Postoji joß dosta relevantnih aspekata, od kojih su mnogi izneti Jednom reçju, finalna faza projektivne metode je svojevrsna
tokom da¬eg izlaga~a ovog teksta, posebno u okviru analitiçkog dela autoredakcija - autorevizija , svakako i posled~a mogu†nost intervenci-
gde su prikazani raznovrsni oblici ortografije i notacije , tako∂e sim- je autora na ~egovom elektroakustiçkom delu, pre nego ßto ono bude
plifikacije i drugih novina koje odlikuju savremeno grafiçko emitovano za publiku.
beleΩe~e zvuçno-muziçkog miß¬e~a.
Znaçajno je pomenuti da metoda projektova~a apsolutno uvaΩava sve Poßto je elektroakustiçko delo u celosti zavrßeno, mogu se tokom
principe ortografije i notacije , posebno ukoliko postoji potreba za pete faze deta¬no uporediti svi gradivni elementi i to sa aspekta
primenom raznovrsnih grafiçkih znakova, uglavnom uz napomenu, da celine zvuçno-muziçkog dela.
uvo∂e~e novih, ili zame~iva~e konvencionalnih znakova, mora biti Ovaj aspekt je neobiçno vaΩan, jer predstav¬a kraj~i efekt, odnosno
opravdano sa aspekta funkcionalne primen¬ivosti, i doprinositi doΩiv¬aj koji elektroakustiçko delo ostvaruje na slußaoca, ßto moΩe
kvalitetnijem zapisiva~u i razumeva~u zvuçno-muziçkog miß¬e~a auto- rezultirati razliçitim reakcijama publike. U tom smislu, autor sam
ra, tako da se izbegne nepotrebno stvara~e “savremenih hijeroglifa”. proverava i konstatuje npr. da su odre∂eni delovi - odseci predugi ili
prekratki, previße ili slabo dinamiçki nijansirani, nedovo¬no
izraΩajni, itd., tako da ukoliko se ne bi izmenili, mogli bi postepeno
11.. 11..55 .. K
K oo rr eek
k cc ii jj aa ddee ttaa ¬
¬aa ii cc ee ll ii nn ee ee ll eek
ktt rr oo aak
k uuss ttii çç k
k ee k
koo m
m pp oo zz ii cc ii jj ee dovesti do ykida~a paΩ~e kod slußaoca, itd.
Peta, finalna faza Projektova~a elektroakustiçke kompozicije U tom smislu, neophodna je u zavrßnoj fazi projektivne metode inter-
( PEAK ), predstav¬a joß uvek radnu fazu u kojoj se, neretko, u ve†oj ili vencija autora, da bi se prema ~egovom ose†aju i zamisli uspostavila
ma~oj meri me~a sadrΩaj zvuçno-muziçkog toka i odlaΩe finalizacija optimalna hijerhija delova i elemenata zvuçno-muziçkog miß¬e~a, ßto
elektroakustiçkog dela. Me∂utim, ova faza ipak predstav¬a zavrßni bi se automatski odrazilo u okviru date elektroakustiçke kompozicije.
moment u stvara~u elektroakustiçke kompozicije, uz nuΩne izmene i
korecije deta¬a ili celine zvuçno-muziçkog toka, naravno, ukoliko je Pojam hijerarhije zvuçno-muziçkog dela, odnosno svih strukturnih,
to potrebno. Promene koje su mogu†e u zavrßnoj fazi projektova~a, mogu sußtinskih i formalnih elemenata koji ga çine, podrazumeva odre∂enu
ponekad, biti i fundamentalnog karaktera, od ma~ih izmena deta¬a ili zakonitost (ili ne) sme~iva~a principa kontrasta i principa iden-
celine, posebno u pogledu traja~a pojedinih delova ili odseka, do sasvim titeta koji predstav¬aju pokretaçku snagu svakog zvuçno-muziçkog dela
kvalitativnih izmena zvuçno-muziçkog miß¬e~a, koje je çesto rezultat - mogu†nost da se ono razvija u prostoru i vremenu, pri çemu ne dolazi do
kasne spoznaje i semiotiçkih sazna~a pravog karaktera elek- urußava~a paΩ~e slußaoca.
troakustiçke kompozicije, i dovodi do iznenadne izmene pristupa u
pogledu ideje dela. Ovakva vrsta promene nije çesta, ali je mogu†a, Aspekt celine zvuçno-muziçkog dela, daje zatim i dobar uvid u
poßto autor traΩi uvek najbo¬a reße~a. vaΩnost zvuçno-muziçkog miß¬e~a, tj. opet u oblast hijerarhije , taçni-
Tokom posled~e faze projektivne metode, autor, tj. kompozitor, je u je periodicitet (zakonitost, pravilnost) sme~iva~a vaΩnog ili ma~e
nezahvalnoj ulozi analize sopstvenog dela, odnosno autocenzure , kont- vaΩnog oblika (vida) zvuçno-muziçkog miß¬e~a. Ukoliko je vaΩno muz-
role i pregleda~a svih elemenata i celine, eliminisa~a greßaka, kao i içko miß¬e~e kontinuiranog, tj. duΩeg traja~a, ono tako∂e moΩe
svih drugih nepoΩe¬nih pojava. Nijedno delo, pa ni muziçko, ne moΩe dovesti do zamora i opada~a perceptivnih sposobnosti slußaoca.
biti savrßeno, tako da je prisustvo greßke uvek potrebno svesti na min- Tako∂e, i nagli prekid, kao i kaß~e~e poçetka, ili izostanak
imum, zbog çega i postoji potreba ponovnog pregleda~a i korekcije. “oçekivanog” nastupa tona/zvuka, ili zavrßetaka - kraja kompozicije,
Çesto se doga∂a da su greßke sasvim rutinske prirode, obiçno “previ- dovode do zaustav¬a~a zvuçno-muziçkog toka elektroakustiçke kompozi-
di”, ßto se doga∂a i kod ßtampa~a ve† gotovih dela, k~iga, broßura, cije, ßto da¬e rezultira naglim padom paΩ~e slußaoca i drugim nega-
odnosno partitura. U takvim sluçajevima, metoda projektova~a PEAK tivnim efektima, odnosno, dolazi do konfuzije i zabune jer zavrßetak
ukazuje na nuΩnost dosledne i uporne kontrole svih elemenata i struk- kompozicije nije jasno definisan muziçko-formalnim sredstvima.
ture zvuçno-muziçkog sadrΩaja, tako da omogu†ava stvaraocu konstantnu
reviziju i ukla~a~e eventualnih nedostataka. Mogu†e je zak¬uçiti da je aspekt projektova~a elektroakystiçke kom-
pozicije, koji se odvija tokom ~ene zavrßne faze, u smislu mogu†nosti
Jedan od kvaliteta projektivne metode sadrΩan je baß u finalnoj pregleda, kontrole, i korekcije deta¬a i celine zvuçno-muziçkog toka,
fazi korekcije deta¬a i celine elektroakustiçke kompozicije, u oviru izuzetno znaçajan za finalni ishod i uçinak koji zvuçno-muziçko delo
koje je mogu†e sprovesti deta¬ne ispravke impulsa ili modela , ~ihovog ostvaruje na slußaoce.
traja~a i tempa, zatim korekcije tog tempa u odnosu na traja~e ili vre-
menski interval kompletnog dela, ~egovih pojedinih odseka, itd.
30 ___________ M. Îor∂evi†: Metoda projektova~a elektroakustiçke kompozicije ___________ _________________________ Izrada grafiçkog kompozicionog plana ____________________________ 31
22 .. I
IZZR
RAAD
DAAG
GRRA
AFFI
IÇÇK
KO
OGGK
KOOM
MPPO
OZZI
ICCI
IOON
NOOG
GPPL
LAAN
NAA
2 Shema beleΩe~a osnovnih formalnih elemenata
grubog kompozicionog grafiçkog plana
Izrada grafiçkog kompozicionog plana, naravno, ukoliko postoji (autor): (naziv dela): (traja~e):
jasna predstava i konkretizovana ideja samog dela, ne predstav¬a znaça-
jan problem, ve† se preteΩno zasniva na klvalitetnoj vizuelnoj stavovi I II III
napomene
prezentaciji i organizaciji parametara elektroakustiçkog dela, odosno AUDIO 1 (tekst)
uk¬uçuje sve faze i postupke promene i evolucije parametara zvuka koji kanali 2
3
definißu ~egova svojstva. U izradi grafiçkog kompozicionog plana, 4
postoje uglavnom dva znaçajna momenta: 5...
a) izrada formalno-tektonskog grafiçkog plana elektroakustiçkog 1
MIDI
dela; 2
kanali
3
b) grafiçko predstav¬a~e konkretnog zvuçno-muziçkog sadrΩaja; 4
5...
Oba momenta, mogu se u okviru projektivne metode realizovati kao: vreme .
min, sec
a) tzv. gg r
r uubb grafiçki kompozicioni plan, i dinamika
b) tzv. ddee ttaa¬
¬ aan
n grafiçki kompozicioni plan. dB
Ponekad su oba plana predstavlena kao jedinstven grafiçki kompozi-

cioni plan, koji sadrΩi i grube formalno-tektonske obrise dela, kao i Grubi kompozicioni grafiçki plan podrazumeva slede†e osnovne
detale garfiçki predstvlenog zvucno-muziçkog zadrΩaja. grafiçke elemente:
1) navode imena autora, naziva kompozicije, naznaku ukupnog traja~a;
2) podelu osnovne pravougaone forme na delove - prema broju stavova i
obeleΩene stavove rimskim rednim brojevima;
22 ..11.. G
Grr uubb gg rr aaf
f ii çç k
kii k
koo m
m pp oo zz ii cc ii oo nn ii pp ll aann
3) naznaku broja AUDIO kanala potrebnih za prikaziva~e audio
U izradi grubog grafiçkog kompozicionog plana u okviru datog plana, doga∂a~a;
pre svega se, u zavisnosti od formata (obiçno A4, ili A3), prvo nacrta 4) naznaku broja MIDI kanala potrebnih za prikaz MIDI doga∂a~a;
5) grube naznake traja~a (u astronomskim jedinicama za vreme, obiçno
pravougaonik koji u odnosu na stranice papira (landscape - pejzaΩ) sa
strane sadrΩi prazan (blanko) prostor Ωe¬enih dimenzija koji sluΩi za minutama i sekundama):
upisiva~e razliçitih podataka i znaçajnih informacija o delu: a) vreme traja~a pojedinaçnog stava - obeleΩeno tankom linijom;
b) vreme traja~a kompletnog dela - obeleΩeno punom linijom;
6) prostor za naznaku generalne dinamike u dB ( decibelima) u odnosu
1 Poçetna grafika grubog grafiçkog kompozicionog plana na 100% modulaciju = 0 dB;
7) prostor za generalne napomene u vezi potencijalnog teksta, naznaka
papir i objaß~e~a sadrΩaja pojedinih Audio i MIDI kanala, koriß†e~a
formata instrumenata, rasporeda orkestra ili instrumentalnih grupa u
A4, A3 prostoru, organizaciju dinamike, i svih drugih relevantnih mome-
u nata koje treba da sadrΩi kompletan grafiçki kompozicioni plan;
poziciji
“pejzaΩ”
(landscape) 22.. 22.. D
D eettaa ¬
¬ aann gg rr aaf
f ii çç k
kii k
koo m
m pp oo zz ii cc ii oo nn ii pp ll aann
sa Grubi grafiçki kompozicioni plan , ßto je pomenuto, predstav¬a

izradu formalnih aspekata, koji su neophodan uvodni deo projektovane
iscrtanim elektroakustiçke kompozicije, tj. elektroakustiçkog dela.
okvirom Deta¬an grafiçki kompozicioni plan , treba da predstav¬a da¬i
grafiçkog logiçan nastavak grubog grafiçkog kompozicionog plana, uz naznaku
plana novih elemenata koji viße nisu formalne, ve† sußtinske prirode, kao
zapis konkretnog zvuçno/muziçkog sadrΩaja i svih neophodnih deta¬a.
Deta¬an grafiçki kompoziconi plan moΩe biti dat kao jedinstven i Ve†ina dela u savremenoj elektroakustiçkoj kompozicionoj praksi
celovit, u okviru jednog formata, me∂utim, obiçno je to deta¬an plan nije realizovana na osnovu partiture , tj. ne postoji niakakav vid
pojedinog stava ili odseka kompozicije, ukoliko postoje razliçiti grafiçkog zapisa osim pukih naznaka i konfuznih skica autora, ßto
delovi ili celine, ili je kompozicija projektovana da sadrΩi razliçite oteΩava mogu†nost estetskog i svakog drugog uvida i vrednova~a od
i delimiçno razdvojene formalne strukture. Deta¬an grafiçki plan strane drugih struçnih subjekata, a ßto sve uma~uje vrednost i znaçaj
pojedinog stava mogu† je i kada se stavovi izvode bez prekida, tzv. attaca, samog dela. Da bi ßiri auditorijum mogao koristiti plodove duhovnog i
odnosno odredeni elementin jednog stava projektuju u drugi, tj. prekla- drugog stvaralaßtva, neophodan je uvek odre∂eni vid grafiçkog zapisa,
paju, ßto se jednostavno moΩe obeleΩiti i naznaçiti. tj. partuiture dela.
Osnovni pristup u izradi deta¬nog grafiçkog kompozicionog plana Grafiçki kompozicioni plan predstav¬a ustvari, svojevrsnu k~igu
predstav¬a prikaz konkretnog zvuçno-muziçkog sadrΩaja u vremenskom snima~a: tako da bilo koji dizajner zvuka, kompozitor, snimate¬, ili
toku, tako da se jasno moΩe uoçiti kontinuitet zvuçnih i muziçkih neko koji se bavi zvukom i muzikom, moΩe uvek na osnovu grafiçkog kom-
doga∂a~a po principu tzv. “dirigentskog glasa”! Da bi se to ostvarilo, pozicionog plana da realizuje ideju autora.
obavezno se svaka sukscesija zvuçnog ili muziçkog doga∂a~a beleΩi
iznad pravougaone forme, arapskim brojem u krugu na koji se nadovezuje 4 Ctirad Kohoutek: Preludijum za kamerni orkestar
strelica, koja se potom isprekidanom linijom vodi precizno do mesta
/grubi grafiçki kompozicioni plan/
pocertka - nastupa odre∂enog zvuka ili tona, i da¬e produΩava, tj. pro-
jektuje na linije za oznaku vremena, pojedinaçnog i ukupnog.
3 Shema beleΩe~a osnovnih elemenata kod deta¬nog grafiçkog

kompozicionog plana
1
1 22
I stav
i1 = impuls jedan
Audio 8 i1 (odre∂eni efekt)
(mf = mezzo forte) m1 = motiv jedan

poco cresc. (odre∂ena muzika)
MIDI 5 (model traje)

m1
(mp= mezzo piano)

cresc.
5' 3' pojedinaçno vreme

ukupno proteklo
0" 1.5 ' vreme
0dB (100%)
-5
-10
-15
Tek poßto je izra∂en deta¬an grafiçki kompozicioni plan, mogu†e je

pristupiti realizaciji partiture , tj. grafiçkog zapisa date elek-
troakustiçke kompozicije, naravno, ukoliko je partitura potrebna.
5 Ctirad Kohoutek: Preludijum za kamerni orkestar 7 Ctirad Kohoutek: Preludijum za kamerni orkestar, IV stav
deo grubog grafiçkog kompozicionog plana /deta¬an grafiçki kompozicioni plan/
Deo grubog grafiçkog

plana prikazuje tri
znaçajna segmenta kom-
pozicije Preludijum za
kamerni orketar Ct,
Kohouteka
8 Ct. Kohoutek: Ciklus deçjih horova (Hudebni orisky)

- grubi grafiçki kompozicioni plan
6 Ctirad Kohoutek: Preludijum za kamerni orkestar, I stav

/deta¬an grafiçki kompozicioni plan/
9 Ct. Kohoutek: Ciklus deçjih horova (Hudebni orisky) - I stav 11 Ctirad Kohoutek: Ciklus deçjih horova (Hudebni orisky) - III stav
/deta¬an grafiçki plan/ /deta¬an grafiçki plan/
12 Mihajlo Îor∂evi†: Nove relacije 1 - grubi grafiçki plan (1990)

10 Ct. Kohoutek: Ciklus deçjih horova (Hudebni orisky) - IV stav
/deta¬an grafiçki kompozicioni plan/
13 M. Îor∂evi†: Nove relacije 1 - I stav - deta¬an grafiçki plan

15 M. Îor∂evi†: Nove relacije 1 - III stav - deta¬an grafiçki plan
14 M. Îor∂evi†: Nove relacije 1 - II stav - deta¬an grafiçki plan

16 M. Îor∂evi†: Nove relacije 1 - IV stav - deta¬an grafiçki plan
17 M. Îor∂evi†: Nove relacije 1 - deta¬i grafiçkih planova (a) 18 M. Îor∂evi†: Nove relacije 1 - deta¬i grafiçkih planova (b)
20 M. Îor∂evi†: Cosmic divertimento - for string orchestra & synthesizer (1988)

22.. 33.. I
Izz r r aadd aa pp aarr tt ii ttuu rr ee (( score)) ee ll eekk ttrr oo aakk uuss ttii çç kk oo gg dd eell aa nn aa
/insert deta¬nog grafiçkog kompozicionog plana
oo ss nn oo vvuu dd eett aa¬
¬ nn oo gg gg rr aa f
fii çç k
k oo gg k
k oo m
mpp oo zz ii cc ii oo nn oo gg pp ll aann aa
sa prikazom osnovne teme:/
Po zavrßetku deta¬nog grafiçkog kompozicionog plana, prema faza-
ma izrade u okviru projektivne metode, sledi izrada partiture (score), tj.
muziçko-grafiçkog zapisa kompletnog elektroakustiçkog dela.
Ova faza zasniva se na deta¬nom grafiçkom kompozicionom planu i
podrazumeva beleΩe~e svih sukcesivnih i simultanih zvuçno-muziçkih
doga∂a~a u prostoru i vremenu, kao i beleΩe~e svih predvi∂enih postu-
paka i naçina izvo∂e~a, odnosno realizacije zvuçno-muziçkog dela.
19 Ct. Kohoutek: Ciklus deçjih horova (Hudebni orisky)
- delovi realizovane partiture (score) izra∂eni na osnovu

deta¬nih grafiçkih kompozicionih planova:
a)
b)
Muziçka realizacija dela grafiçkog plana sa osnovnom temom:
primena Íenbergovog sistema dodekafonije /12-tonska tema obrazuje
kvaternion : P(rimus), R(etrogradus), I(nversus) i R(etrogradus) I(nversus)/
P
v)
a) deçji hor, taktovi 1 - 3, impuls 1 (i1);

b) grupa od tri soliste - recitatora, impuls 1 (i1) sloΩen iz tri
mikroimpulsa (*i1); RI
v) deçji hor, impuls 1 (i1) taktovi 4 - 11;
21 M. Îor∂evi†: The Bridges of Prague - orchestration for strings (1996)

23 M. Îor∂evi†: The Bridges of Prague - for violin & tape (1989)
realizacija partiture: prikaz elemenata - dva mikroimpulsa
- znaçaj uvodnih napomena (remarks) za razumeva~e notnog
zapisa - partiture - score

- realizacija partiture: prikaz jednog ili viße makroimpulsa

- uvodne napomene o sastavu orkestra i broju izvo∂aça,
poloΩaju orkestra i dirigenta u koncertnom prostoru,
traja~u, partituri, itd.
25 M. Îor∂evi†: The Bridges of Prague - orchestration for strings (1996) 26 Tektonski tipovi “ montaΩ e” i “ miksaΩe ” (prema Kohouteku)
a) realizacija partiture: modeli A i B
a) osnovna tektonika “ montaΩe” kompozicionih delova
1) jednaki delovi, bliski u zvuçnom pros-

toru;
2) nejednaki delovi, bliski u zvuçnom pros-
toru;
3) jednaki delovi uda¬eni u zvuçnom
prostru;
4) nejednaki delovi uda¬eni u zvuçnom
prostru;
5) preklapa~e jednakih delova bliskih u
zvuçnom prostoru;
6) preklapa~e nejednakih delova bliskih u
zvuçnom prostoru;
7) preklapa~e jednakih delova uda¬enih u
zvuçnom prostoru;
8) preklapa~e nejednakih delova uda¬enih u

b) realizacije partiture: muziçka organizacija modela zvuçnom prostoru;
bez potrebe ispisiva~a ~ihovog sadrΩaja (notira~a) 9) “miksaΩa” delova istog unutraß~eg
poßto je ve† prethodno naveden zvuçnog doga∂a~a, sa preklapa~em;
b) osnovna tektonika “ miksaΩe” kompozicionih delova

10) jednaki delovi, bliski u zvuçnom prostoru;
11) jednaki delovi, uda¬eni u zvuçnom protoru;
12) nejednaki delovi bliski u zvuçnom prostru;
13) nejednaki delovi uda¬eni u zvuçnom

prostru;
Tokom faze izrade partiture (score) na osnovu deta¬nog grafiçkog 14) preklapa~e jednakih delova bliskih u
kompozicionog plana, prof. Kohoutek napomi~e znaçaj procesa, kako ih zvuçnom prostoru;
15) preklapa~e jednakih delova uda¬enih u
naziva: “ montaΩe” i “ miksaΩe”, taçnije sekventnog organizova~a zvuçno zvuçnom prostoru;
muziçkih struktura, odnosno ~ihovog simultanog naslojava~a, tzv.
superpozicije . Svakako, horizontalno-vertikalni aspekt zvuçno-muz- 16) preklapa~e nejednakih delova bliskih u
içke partiture, podrazumeva da †e tokom izvo∂e~a (realizacije) date zvuçnom prostoru;
kompozicije, do†i do me∂usobnog meßa~a razliçitih slojeva odnosno 17) preklapa~e nejednakih delova uda¬enih u
zvuçnom prostoru;
~ihovih nezavisnih tembralnih struktura, ßto †e rezultirati sasvim
drugaçijim koloritom i zvuçnim bojama i presudno uticati na kompletan 18) “montaΩa” delova razliçitih zvuçnih doga-
aspekt kolorita elektroakustiçkog dela i finalni auralni efekt. ∂a~a sa nejednakim preklapa~em;
Osnovne karakteristike procesa montaΩe i miksaΩe sadrΩane su u
definicijama: montaΩa se odvija kao postupan proces slaga~a kompozi-
cionih delova u vremenu; miksaΩa se zasniva na istovremenom zvuçnom
doga∂a~u, odnosno trenutnom proΩima~u kompozicionih delova. 48 ___________ M. Îor∂evi†: Metoda projektova~a elektroakustiçke kompozicije ___________
33.. S
SAAV
VRRE
EMME
ENNA
AKKO
OMMP
POOZ
ZIIC
CIIO
ONNA
ATTE
EHHN
NIIK
KAA Me∂utim, pravu vrednost nekog zvuçno-muziçkog dela çini ~egova
transparentnost u odnosu na jedinku i drußtvo u celini, znaçaj ili
Muzika i zvuk nisu svet za sebe, ve† kao i u sluçaju drugih umetnosti, znaçe~e za çoveka i çoveçanstvo, u onoj meri u kojoj jedinka ili drußt-
rezultat çovekove maßte i kreativne prirode. Savremeno doba donosi i vo moΩe neßto saopßtiti, ili ima potrebu za odre∂enim zvukom, tj.
novu umetnost muzike, i zvuka uopßte, tako da se grade novi mostovi muzkom.vrste
prema publici. Kao ßto je reçeno: “ nova muzika zahteva i nove Prioriteti ranijeg kompozicionog muziçkog miß¬e~a ra∂ali su se iz
slußaoce”, me∂utim, novi slußaoci imaju i nove muziçke potrebe! okvira samog zvuçno-muziçkog materijala. Danaß~a situacija je
Problematika savremene umetnosti zvuka i muzike ogleda se u razliçitija, i kako naglaßava Hans Ajsler (Hanns Eisler) savremeno kom-
teßko†ama ostvare~a Ωe¬ene komunikacije: od ideje autora do percep- poziciono miß¬e~e nije viße konsekvenca datog zvuçno-muziçkog
cije masovne publike. Fenomeni su formulisani u stilu: od producenta materijala. Naprotiv, svaki zvuçni materijal mogu†e je podvesti pod
do konzumenta , ili u teoriji informacije u smislu poßi¬alac - posred- odre∂eni tip muziçkog miß¬e~a, tj. postupak muziçke organizacije
nik - primalac , tj. stvaralac - emiter - slußalac , itd. Uoç¬iv je tipiçan zvuka, ßto posebno potvr∂uje ideja i praksa tzv. konkretne muzike .
dualizam odnosa: objekt (zvuk, muzika) i subjekt (slußalac), ili U delu Harmonielehre, Íenberg (A. Schönberg) navodi da je nov zvuçni
poßi¬alac - primalac , odnosno kompozitor - slußalac . materijal viße nalik na mogu†nosti koje pruΩa kompoziciona tehnika,
Svi ovi aspekti uk¬uçuju nove momente; govor , dijalog , razumeva~e , tako da novi zvuk predstav¬a simbol novog çovekovog ume†a. To su i
organizaciju i formu , ne samo od strane kompozitora ve† i slußalaca, dokazali kompozitori Ejmerta (H. Eimert) u delu Epitaph, Cimerman (B. A.
kao i razum kombinovan sa intuicijom - spontanim emocijama , ßto sve Zimmermann) u delu Requiem, ili Ítokhauzen (K. Stockhausen) u delu
otkriva nove plodove stvaralaçke umetniçke misli. Zvuk i muzika Mantra, svi sa aspekta jedne nove kalkulacije zvuka.
podrazumevaju pita~e maßtovite kreacije kompozitora i odgovor koji
krije fantazija slußaoca. Slußalac “komponuje do kraja”, odnosno, 33 ..22 .. I
Iss ttoo rr ii jjss k
kii rr aa zz vvoo jj k
koo m
mpp oo zzii cc ii oo nn oo gg m
m uuzz ii çç k
koo gg m mii ß
ß¬¬ee ~
~aa
vo∂en je sopstvenom imaginacijom tokom slußa~a. ii ttee hhnn ii k
kee k koo mmpp oo nn oo vvaa~
~ aa oo dd 119900 00.. gg oo dd ii nn ee
Emancipacija slußalaca, publike, odvija se neprekidno tokom muz-
içke istorije, tako da je glavno pita~e muziçke sociologije zapravo, Krajem 19. veka (pribliΩno oko 1900. godine) bila je na zavrßetku
ßta slußalac oçekuje od zvuka/muzike? jedna duga epoha kompozicionog muziçkog miß¬e~a i pripadaju†e kom-
Isto pita~e postav¬a sebi i savremeni kompozitor, poßto je muzika pozicione tehnike , koja je zapoçela joß poçetkom 17. veka (pribliΩno
zapravo autorovo razmiß¬a~e “u tonovima”, ili razliçitim zvuçnim oko 1600. godine), od vremena tzv. generalbasa i komponova~a na osnova-
strukturama i zvuçnim bojama, koje su tako organizovane da odraΩavaju ma funkcionalne harmonije i principa tonaliteta, ßto je vaΩilo za
sußtinu ~egove ideje i takav oblik finalne percepcije kakav on obiçno kompletnu muziku te epohe. Naravno, ovaj dug period çinilo je nekoliko
name~uje (ne mora uvek biti) publici. muziçko-stilskih epoha, poçevßi od baroka (od 1550 -1750), rokokoa
(1730-1760), klasicizma (druga polovina 18. veka), romantizma (prva
33.. 11.. K
K oo m
mpp oo zzii cc ii jjaa ii k
k oo m
mpp oo zz ii cc ii oo nn aa tteehh nn ii k
kaa polovina 19. veka), odnosno rane sinteze ovih stilova (druga polovina
19. veka).
Pod terminom “ kompozicija ” obiçno se podrazumeva zvuçno-muziçko Princip tonaliteta ili jednog tonalnog centra kome gravitiraju svi
delo koje je stvorio kompozitor uz pomo† (ili ne) tradicionalnog ili tonovi, dugo je predstav¬ao viße od puke organizacije oblasti tonskih
savremenog vida notacije - muziçkog pisma, ili zvuçno-muziçkog zapisa. visina, specifiçan vid muziçko-teorijske i kompozicione filosofije.
Znaçajna je napomena, da komponova~e muzike nije samo tzv. kompozi- Moric Hauptman (Moritz Hauptmann) je joß 1853. ustanovio da su oktava ,
ciona tehnika , ve† mnogo viße od toga. Ono ßto kompozitor uspeva da kvinta i velika terca u okviru aliktvotnog niza tonova, ustvari jedan-
ostvari u kompoziciji, uglavnom postiΩe uz pomo† tehnike kompono- dva-tri i viße intervala, delovi preuzeti iz kategorije vremena, dok je
va~a. Do 19. veka tehnika komponova~a, u tonskom smislu, bila je zasno- redosled tonaliteta (ne samo jedan za drugim ili prema tonskim visina-
vana na sistemu dur - mol . Kompozicija i kompoziciona tehnika tokom ma) odre∂enim poretkom i sistemom metra i takta, ustvari zastupnik
20. veka, kao i danaß~a, podrazumevaju nove strukture i novu dispozici- klasiçne forme.
ju zvuçno-muziçkog materijala. Od dodekafonijskih i serijalnih struk- Revolucija “ tonalnog sveta ” koju je izveo A. Íenberg, çesto nazivan
tura prema elektroakustiçkim , taçnije stvaralaçkim tehnikama “ocem nove muzike”, sa tzv. quartfanfaren ( kvartnim fanfarama ) u delu
konkretne , elektronske i kompjuterske muzike. OsveΩena su i starija Kammersymphonie, op. 9 (1906), ukazala je na postoja~e i drugih
pita~a o funkciji i angaΩovanosti nove muzike. mogu†nosti.
Osnovno pita~e kompozicije u savremenoj muzici jeste, pita~e muz- Kompletno razdob¬e kompozicionog miß¬e~a tonalne harmonije kre-
içke organizacije razliçitog zvuçnog materijala uz pomo† kompozicione talo se u okvirima sukcesivnog ili simultanog poretka organizacije
tehnike. Ítimung, karakter, sa korektnim tretira~em deta¬a i celine, tonskih visina: izme∂u linije i sazvuçja , taçnije melodijske (horizon-
çini svakako muziçki materijal vrednijim. talne) i harmonijske (vertikalne) postavke zvuka.
_________________________ Izrada grafiçkog kompozicionog plana ____________________________ 49 50 ___________ M. Îor∂evi†: Metoda projektova~a elektroakustiçke kompozicije ___________
Tako su i nastale discipline kontrapunkt i harmonija , koje su ust- Povremeno nalik na Bramsa, ili sasvim arhaiçnog prizvuka, kao na
vari, ßto se zaborav¬a, rezultat razliçitih kompozicionih postupaka. poçetku 3. stava sa uçvrß†iva~em odnosa tonika-dominata, pri çemu sve
Kompozicioni postupak koji je to savrßeno potvrdio, predstav¬en je podse†a na drugu temu laganog stava Betovenove 9. Simfonije . Posled~i,
kompozicionim miß¬e~em u stilu slobodnog kontrapunkta uz istovre- 4. stav, donosi uz deonicu solo soprana, “çudesan” zvuk horni sa paralel-
meno jav¬a~e naglaßenog harmonijskog elementa, kao npr. u delu J. S. nim akordskim kreta~em i arahiçnim prizvukom, dok je jednostavna
Baha (J. S. Bach) Umetnost fuge (Kunst der Fuge). kadenca izgra∂ena na tradicionalno - funkcionalan naçin.
U periodu dominacije tonaliteta i tonalnih funkcionalnih odnosa, U ranijem Íenbergovom radu, gudaçkom sekstetu Verklärte Nacht, op. 4
poretka tonika-subdominanta-dominanta (T-S-D-T), nisu bili od znaçaja (1899), zapaΩa se zajedniçki tok i istovremeni uticaj Vagnerovog i
tonalna harmonija ili slobodna melodija poput gregorijanskog korala , Bramsovog kompozicionog miß¬e~a i tehnike. Vagnerov uticaj vir-
kao ni kompoziciona umetnost holandske ßkole , sve dok teoretiçari tuozne orkestracije ogleda se u blistavoj instrumentaciji, iako je u
nisu jasno uspostavili i formulisali jedan funkcionalan sistem izme∂u pita~u delo kamerene muzike, uz neobiçne alterovane akordske spojeve,
tonike i ~enih paralela , koji je sa aspekta muziçkog zvuka i novih ten- ßto je sa druge strane podrΩano Bramsovim pristupom rada sa
dencija poçeo lagano da nestaje krajem 19. veka, sa posled~im velikim motivskom gra∂om, kao da uvodi u kasniji teΩi i sofisticiraniji
teoretiçarem Hugom Rimanom (Hugo Riemann, 1890). romantiçarski stil.
Sa aspekta sistematizacije Bahovo delo Dobro temperovani klavir Sasvim drugaçiju sliku pruΩa francuska muzika kompletne epohe.
(Das Wohltemperiertes Klavier), koje po prvi put u istoriji muziçkog kom- posebno muzika Kloda debisija (Claude Debussy), nasuprot Vagnerovom
pozicionog miß¬e~a predstav¬a mogu†nosti jednake temperacije - veß- umetniçko-kompozicionom pristupu, kao i tokovima Betovenovog kom-
taçkog podeßava~a 12 hromatskih tonskih visina u okviru oktave - ßti- poizicoinog miß¬e~a, ukazuje na tradiciju Ramovoog i Kuprenovog tipa
mova~a , procesa koji se odvijao skoro dva veka, kao i Vagnerovo delo (R. kompizicionog miß¬e~a proßirenog joß viße novim pristupom koji je
Wagner), Tristan i Izolda (Tristan und Isolde), muziçka drama, prema ako- oboga†en i uçvrß†en stranim uticakima (ßpanski, antiçko-grçki, gre-
rdskim formama i kompozicionom postupku, predstav¬aju dve znaçajne gorijanski, dalekoistoçni)
taçke na kojima se zadrΩava nauçno kompoziciono muziçko miß¬e~e i
bez kojih ne bi bio mogu† revolucionaran çin A. Íenberga. Alterovana
harmonija tokom 19. veka, hromatizovane melodijske i akordke struk-
ture, ne predstav¬aju nißta drugo do traΩe~e novih muziçkih
izraΩajnih sredstava.
U Nemaçkoj i Austriji, uzor kompozicionog miß¬e~a i tehnike pred-
stav¬ali su List (F. Liszt), Brukner (A. Bruckner), Brams (J. Brahms) i
Vagner, dok je, opet, ~ihov uzor bio Betoven (L. van Beethoven), za 33 ..33 .. A
Akk uuss ttii çç k
k ee oo ss oo bb eenn oo ss tt ii zz vv uuçç nn oo -- m
muu zzii çç k
k oo gg m
m aatt eerr ii jj aall aa
Vagnera i Brukneraa posebno Betovenova 9. simfonija . Maks Regerova
(Max Reger) Fantazija i fuga na temu B-A-C-H, za orgu¬e, op. 46 (Phantasie 33.. 44.. M
M uuzz ii çç k
kaa oo rr ggaa nn ii zz aacc ii jj aa zz vvuu k
kaa
und Fuge über B-A-C-H), predstavila je po prvi put neobiçan akordski sled
b-a-c-h, ili pojavu akorda c-moll posle akorda E-dur, çime se gubio tonal- 33.. 55.. S
S tt rr uuk
ktt uurr aa ll nn aa zz vvuu çç nn oo --m
m uuzz ii çç k
kaa oo rr ggaa nn ii zz aacc ii jj aa
ni centar B b , i u principu sve viße postajao fikcija, tako da je joß jed-
inu vezu sa tradicionalnom harmonijom predstav¬alo ime Bach. 33 ..66 .. Z
Zvv uuçç nn oo -- m
muuzz ii çç k
k aa f
foo rr m
maa -- oo bb ll ii k
k
Problematika nove akordske strukture joß je viße marginalizovana u
delu Til Ojlenßpigel (Till Eulenspiegel) Riharda Ítrausa (R. Strauss, 33.. 77.. N
N oo ttaa cc ii jj aa,, rr ee aall ii zz aacc ii jjaa ii pp rr eezz eenn tt aacc ii jj aa
1895), dok je Gustav Maler (G. Mahler) u 4. Simfoniji , G-dur (1900) instru-
mentalne boje uçinio joß “oßtrijim”, “svetlijim” i izraΩajnijim,
postav¬aju†i solo violinu na poçetku 2. stava za ton viße u odnosu na
normalan ßtim. Prigußen ton horne markiran zajedno sa bub~em i
“pokretom” gudaça, predstav¬a sasvim nov formalno-kompozicioni
deta¬, kao i prosta melodija lendlera (Ländler) koju izvode horne i solo-
çela, kontrastira bitonalno sa violinama i solo-flautama. Harmonija
povremeno ima obeleΩja funkcionalnosti, ali je viße usmerena u smis-
lu zvuçne boje, i to je ono ßto inetresuje Malera: instrumentacija koja
je uslov¬ena pokretom sadrzanim u motivskoj gra∂i. Posebno je intere-
santna rafiniran i delikatan tretman fakture narodne igre - fok-
lornog elementa.
_________________________ Izrada grafiçkog kompozicionog plana ____________________________ 51
44.. 55.. Z
Zvvuu çç nn oo --m
m uuzz ii çç k
kaa ggrr aa f
fii k
k aa
44.. 66.. N
N oo ttaacc ii jjaa eell eek
k ttrr oo aa k
kuuss tt ii çç k
kee m
m uuzz ii k
kee
44 .. G
GR
RAAF
FIIÇ
ÇKKI
IZZA
APPI
IS Paa rr ttii ttuu rr aa (( Score))
S -- P
44 ..11 .. O
Orr gg aann ii zzaa cc ii jj aa pp aarr tt ii ttuu rr ee ii ttee m
mpp ee rr oo vvaann aa nn oo ttaa cc ii jj aa
44.. 22.. P
P rr eecc ii zz nn aa nn oo tt aacc ii jj aa
44 ..33.. N
Neepp rr eecc ii zz nn aa -- uu pp uutt nn aa nn oo ttaa cc ii jj aa
44..44 .. O
Okk vvii rr nn aa nn oo ttaacc ii jjaa
5. A NALI ZA ELEK TR OAK U STI ÇK E KO MPO ZIC IJ E
5. A NAL I ZA E L E K TR OAK U S TI ÇK E KO MPO ZIC IJ E
“Exact measurement and notation of durations is in reality mental: imaginary

exactitude”
John Cage
Dakle, jasno je da je Kej∆ova napomena o taçnom vremenskom traja~u

delova i celine, kao delu mentalnog procesa, ustvari ve† poznata
çi~enica da je procena traja~a i metroritmiçke podele elek-
troakustiçke kompozicije od strane kompozitora, apsolutno u sferi
subjektivnog, tako da je prirodno da svaki pojedinac poseduje sopstvenu i
od drugog subjekta razliçitu predstavu.
Franzoaz Barijer (Françoise Barriére) napomi~e nekoliko znaçajanih
analitiçkih aspekata:
- zaßto je uvek potrebno, tokom slußa~a elektroakustiçke kompozi-
cije, pozivati se na memoriju? - Da bi se saΩelo muziçko vreme, ono ßto
neko çuje i poredi sa onim ßto trenutno slußa, da prona∂e reference,
da sagleda celinu muziçkog dela? Kako funkcioniße taj princip “ref-
erence”?
- zar svako elektroakustiçko delo ne poseduje inicijalni put (stazu),
koja ukazuje i otkriva odre∂eno estetsko zadovo¬stvo prilikom svakog
slußa~a?
Ve†ina autora smatra da je analiza elektroakustiçke kompozicije

postupak od znaçaja jedino za kompozitora, koji na taj naçin pronalazi
izraΩajna sredstva i put razumeva~a sopstvenog dela, sa svim posledica-
ma koje nije u sta~u da trenutno sagleda, i na koje se stalno vra†a pre
izrade konaçne verzije dela. Ve† dugo vremena u okviru elek-
troakustiçke muzike stvoreno je mnoßtvo dela specifiçnih tipova i
formi koja se znatno razlikuju od klasiçnog muziçkog repertoara. Iako
je ve†ina autora u poçetku razmiß¬ala o elektroakustiçkoj muzici kao
o tipu instrumentalne muzike, savremena epoha znaçajno uvodi i vokalnu
stvaralaçku praksu.
Zvuk, napomi~e F. Barijer, moΩe trajati dugo i evoluirati postepeno,

me~ati obvojnicu boje i dinamike, kao i formu - strukturu - oblik, bez
toga da se opaΩa u smislu posebne i jedinstvene celine, pri çemu
slußalac zapaΩa razvija~e i metamorfozu zvuka i nema doΩiv¬aj
de¬e~a zvuka na ma~e celine. Konvencija homogenog zvuka nekog instru-
menta, na çemu je zasnovano opaΩa~e u sluçaju tzv. klasiçne muzike , viße
ne postoji. Tako je bila ostvarena muzika za pojedine instrumente (za
klavir, harfu, ili gudaçki kvartet, i sl.). Osnovni element savremene
analize elektroakustiçke kompozicije je memorisa~e sukcesije zvuçnih
elemenata u vremenu i prostoru. Svaki zvuk je dizajniran - modelovan od
strane kompozitora na jedinstven i originalan naçin, kao ßto skulptor
pokußava da naçini jedinstvenu formu.
__________________________ Analiza elektroakustiçke kompozicije ____________________________ 31
Ukinuta je i “taktna crta” ( ametriçna muzika), tako da se razvija~e

kompozicije u vremenu i prostoru doga∂a preko sleda razliçito
Tako je u okviru elektroakustiçke kompozicije ( EAK ) uspostav¬en sprovodi prilikom analize elektroakustiçke kompozicije na preda-
tzv. spacijalni kvalitet , koji se razume kao vaΩna veza izme∂u traja~a , va~ima na Univerzitetu u Buenos Airesu:
zvuçne boje ( tembra ) i intenziteta zvuka. Pozicija zvuka u prostoru: 1. strukturalna kategorija A. - odnosi se na ose†aj orijentacije (ili
blizu , u sredini , daleko , tako∂e predstav¬a jedan od kriterijuma zvuçno- ne) muziçkog toka, i navodi tri orijentaciona tipa: a) teoloßka ori-
muziçke analize, kao i u sluçaju panorame od kraj~e leve do kraj~e desne jentacija koja je sastavni deo tonalne muzike, gde je ocekivana tonika
pozicije uz niz suptilnih me∂upozicija sa centrom kao centralnom dostignuta ili neostvarena, zatim b) motivska orijentacija kao rezultat
taçkom. Tako, pozicija zvuka u prostoru odraΩava u elektroakustiçkoj slußa~a i pra†e~a motivskog rada sa svih promenama, i najzad v) for-
muzici znaçaj ekspresivnih momenata i vaΩnosti jednog ili viße malno-agogiçki tip orijentacije kao pravac razvija~a oblika i agogiçk-
zvuçnih doga∂a~a u odnosu na masu zvukova. Pri tome g-∂a Barijer kon- ih zakonomernosti, u snmislu cresc. - decresc., acc. - rit., i sl;
statuje da “... bez ose†aja prostornosti, muzika nema dußu...”. 2. strukturalna kategorija B. - uk¬uçuje obrata~e paΩ~e na punktual-
Kompozitor moΩe voditi slußaoca prema slußnom zadovo¬stvu, nu organizaciju tonskih visina i ritma u odnosu n celinu zvuka, prema
bogatstvu i orginalnosti zvuka, ßto çini ve†ina kompozitora. zvuku koji nije viße osnova - nosaç (carier) struktura tonske visine i
Ítaviße, joß bo¬e, kompozotor moΩe koncentrisati paΩ~u na opßtu ritma, ve† poseduje glavnu strukturalnu funkciju, kao npr. zvuçni
formu, ili vremensku i polifonu strukturu, pa cak i tre†i nivo koji objket, ßto vodi ka novoj zvuçnoj poetici i tzv. “novoj plastiçnoj umet-
sugeriße bogatstvo i inventvivnost konmpozicionog koncepta, ~egovu nosti” (pored elektroakustiçke muzike ovde ubraja i instrumentalna
ekspresivnost i estetiku, emotivnu i ideoloßku snagu koja predstavla dela kao npr. Atmosphères Î. Ligetija). Izme∂u punktualistiçke organi-
sußtinu umetniçkog dela. Elektroakustiçka muzika zahteva mnogo viße zacije tonskih visina i ritma, i manipulacije, tj. “modulacije” kon-
“vremena” u odnosu nakobvencionalnu muziku, posebno zbog prisustva tiuiranog zvucnog materijala, postoji ßiroka oblast opservacije peri-
velike koliçine zvuçnog materijala razliçitih svojstava, ßto zavisi od odiciteta, simetrije, procesa pulsacije i sintakse stiha ili proze,
kompozitora i ~egovog stila - pristupa, kao i vrste muzike koju stvara: slicno Íenbergovim nazorima;
konvencionalne muzike, muzike za instrumente i traku, programske strukturalna kategorija C. - predstav¬a kontroverznu i originalnu
muzike, muziçke instalacije, ambijentalne muzike, kao i od okruΩe~a u kategoriju zvuka koji poseduje metonimiçnu vezu sa zvuçnim doga∂ajima
smislu nacionalne kulture koja je od uticaja na stvaralaßtvo kompozi- çiji deo predstav¬a, pri çemu ova kategorija predstavla fundamentalnu
tora. Tako se npr. moΩe porediti proseçno traja~e dela elek- problematiku u odnosu na prirodu zvuka i ~egovu organizaciju, ßto
troakustiçke muzike autora iz Argentine ( 8 - 10 min) sa traja~em dela otvara sasvim novu oblast savremen umetnosti.
autora iz Francuske (14 - 16 min), pri çemu se moΩe razumeti pret-
postavka da nacionalne kulture imaju odre∂enog uticaja na vremensko-
formalni aspekt stvaralaßtva kompozitora.
U zavisnosti od strukture, tembra, prostornosti i razvoja muzike u
vremenu, dela elektroakustiçke muzike mogu se klasifikovati kao Elementi anlize”
razliçiti tipovi, çiji se broj moΩe povetavati u zavisnosti od speci-
fiçnih zahteva, koncepcije, ili potrebno slußalaçkog ambijenta/pros- - liçnost kompozitora - stvaraoca
tora. Neke od osnovnih kategorija mogu se predstaviti kao slede†e” - koncepcija elektroakustiçkog dela
- “intimna” muzika (monofona) - pozicija zvuçnih elemenata
- simfonijska muzika (polifona) - brzina izvo∂e~a - sukcesije zvuçnih doga∂aja (speed) element vir-
- “masivna” muzika (“zvuçni zidovi”, blokovi) tuoznosti
- opera - plasticnost akuzmatiçke muzike (slußa~e muzike sa trake)
- muziçki kolaΩ
- muzika za radio, film, i sl. Napomene o kompozitorima elektroakustiçke muzike çiji su analitiçki i
- muzika za poeziju estetski sudovi i opservacije izloΩeni u okviru ovog teksta:
- programska muzika
- “politiçka” muzika Clarence Barlow (Kalkuta, 1945) kompozitor koji se ve† dugo bavi raçunari-
- ma, kompjutersko-mehaniçkim klavirima, itd. Preselio se u Keln 1968., i od
tada stalno boravi u Evropi.
Françoise Barriére (Pariz, 1944) kompozitor, direktor i jedan od osnivaça

Internacionalnog instituta za elektroakustiçku muziku u BurΩu (GMEB), kao
i internacionalnog takmiçarskog festivala Synthèse.
Francisko Krepfl navodi tri strukturalne kategorije koje uvek

analize elektroaliustiçke kompozicije je memorisa~e sukcesije
zvuçnih elemenata u vremenu i prostoru. Svaki zvuk je dizajniran - mod-
elovan od strane kompozitora na jedinstven i originalan naçin, kao ßto
skulptor pokußava da naçini jedinstvenu formu.
Ukinuta je i “taktna crta”, tako da se razvija~e kompozicije u vremenu

i prostoru doga∂a preko sleda razliçito aranΩiranih zvukova u odnosu
na ~ihovo relativno traja~e.
Tako je u okviru elektroakustiçke kompozicije ( EAK ) uspostav¬en
“Exact measurement and notation of durations is in reality mental: imaginary
tzv. spacijalni kvalitet , koji se razume kao vaΩna veza izme∂u traja~a ,
exactitude”
zvuçne boje ( tembra ) i intenziteta zvuka. Pozicija zvuka u prostoru:
John Cage
blizu , u sredini , daleko , tako∂e predstav¬a jedan od kriterijuma zvuçno-
muziçke analize. Tako, pozicija zvuka u prostoru odraΩava u elek-
troakustiçkoj muzici znaçaj ekspresivnih momenata i vaΩnosti jednog
ili viße zvuçnih doga∂a~a u odnosu na masu zvukova. Pri tome g-∂a
Dakle, jasno je da je Kej∆ova napomena o taçnom vremenskom traja~u
Barijer konstatuje da “... bez ose†aja prostornosti, muzika nema dußu...”.
delova i celine, kao delu mentalnog procesa, ustvari ve† poznata
Kompozitor moΩe voditi slußaoca prema slußnom zadovo¬stvu,
çi~enica da je procena traja~a i metroritmiçke podele elek-
bogatstvu i orginalnosti zvuka, ßto çini ve†ina kompozitora. Ítaviße,
troakustiçke kompozicije od strane kompozitora, apsolutno u sferi
joß bo¬e, kompozotor moΩe koncentrisati paΩ~u na opßtu formu, ili
subjektivnog, tako da je prirodno da svaki sybjekt poseduje sopstvenu i od
vremensku i polifonu strukturu, pa cak i tre†i nivo koji sugeriße
drugog subjekta razliçitu predstavu.
bogatstvo i inventvivnost konmpozicionog koncepta, ~egovu ekspre-
Franzoaz Barijer (Françoise Barriére) napomi~e nekoliko znaçajanih
sivnost i estetiku, emotivnu i ideoloßku snagu koja predstavla sußtinu
analitiçkih aspekata:
umetniçkog dela. Elektroakustiçka muzika zahteva mnogo viße “vreme-
- zaßto je uvek potrebno, tokom slußa~a elektroakustiçke kompozi-
na” u odnosu nakobvencionalnu muziku, posebno zbog prisustva velike
cije, pozivati se na memoriju? - Da bi se saΩelo muziçko vreme, ono ßto
koliçine zvuçnog materijala razliçitih svojstava, ßto zavisi od kom-
neko çuje i poredi sa onim ßto trenutno slußa, da prona∂e reference,
pozitora i ~egovog stila - pristupa, kao i vrste muzike koju stvara: kon-
da sagleda celinu muziçkog dela? Kako funkcioniße taj princip “ref-
vencionalne muzike, muzike za instrumente i traku, programske muzike,
erence”?
muziçke instalacije, ambijentalne muzike, kao i od okruΩe~a u smislu
- zar svako elektroakustiçko delo ne poseduje inicijalni put (stazu),
nacionalne kulture koja je od uticaja na stvaralaßtvo kompozitora.
koja ukazuje i otkriva odre∂eno estetsko zadovo¬stvo prilikom svakog
Tako se npr. moΩe porediti proseçno traja~e dela elektroakustiçke
slußa~a?
muzike autora iz Argentine ( 8 - 10 min) sa traja~em dela autora iz
Francuske (14 - 16 min), pri çemu se moΩe razumeti pretpostavka da
Ve†ina autora smatra da je analiza elektroakustiçke kompozicije
nacionalne kulture imaju odre∂enog uticaja na vremensko-formalni
postupak od znaçaja jedino za kompozitora, koji na taj naçin pronalazi
aspekt stvaralaßtva kompozitora.
izraΩajna sredstva i put razumeva~a sopstvenog dela, sa svim posledica-
U zavisnosti od strukture, tembra, prostornosti i razvoja muzike u
ma koje nije u sta~u da trenutno sagleda, i na koje se stalno vra†a pre
vremenu, dela elektroakustiçke muzike mogu se klasifikovati kao
izrade konaçne verzije dela. Ve† dugo vremena u okviru elek-
razliçiti tipovi, çiji se broj moΩe povetavati u zavisnosti od speci-
troakustiçke muzike stvoreno je mnoßtvo dela specifiçnih tipova i
fiçnih zahteva, koncepcije, ili potrebno slußalaçkog ambijenta/pros-
formi koja se znatno razlikuju od klasiçnog muziçkog repertoara. Iako
tora. Neke od osnovnih kategorija mogu se predstaviti kao slede†e”
je ve†ina autora u poçetku razmiß¬ala o elektroakustiçkoj muzici kao
- “intimna” muzika (monofona)
o tipu instrumentalne muzike, savremena epoha znaçajno uvodi i vokalnu
- simfonijska muzika (polifona)
stvaralaçku praksu.
- “masivna” muzika (“zvuçni zidovi”, blokovi)
- opera
Zvuk, napomi~e F. Barijer, moΩe trajati dugo i evoluirati postepeno,
- muziçki kolaΩ
me~ati obvojnicu boje i dinamike, kao i formu - strukturu - oblik, bez
- muzika za radio, film, i sl.
toga da se opaΩa u smislu posebne i jedinstvene celine, pri çemu
- muzika za poeziju
slußalac zapaΩa razvija~e i metamorfozu zvuka i nema doΩiv¬aj
- programska muzika
de¬e~a zvuka na ma~e celine. Konvencija homogenog zvuka nekog instru-
- politiçka muzika
menta, na çemu je zasnovano opaΩa~e u sluçaju tzv. klasiçne muzike , viße
- teku†a muzika
ne postoji. Tako je bila ostvarena muzika za pojedine instrumente (za
- umetnost zvuka
klavir, harfu, ili gudaçki kvartet, i sl.). Osnovni element savremene
- ambijentalna muzika
- “ekoloßka” muzika
50 ___________ M. Îor∂evi†: Metoda projektova~a elektroakustiçke kompozicije ___________
66 .. E
ESST
TEET
TIIK
KAAE
ELLE
EKKT
TRRO
OAAK
KUUS
STTI
IÇÇK
KEEK
KOOM
MPPO
OZZI
ICCI
IJJ E
E
22.. 11 EE ss tteett i
ikkaa ii aa kkss ii oo ll oo gg ii jj aa m
mee ttoo dd ee
P rr oo jj eek
P ktt oo vvaa ~
~aa eell ee kkttrr oo aa k
kuu sstt ii çç kkee k k oo m
mpp oo zz ii cc ii jj ee
Mogu†nosti individualnog pristupa elektroakustiçkoj kompoziciji i

~enim metodama, svakako su nebrojene. Postoja~e razliçitih kompozi-
cionih pristypa i metoda ne uzdiΩe, niti uma~uje vrednost elek-
troakustiçkog dela, kao ni same metode kojom je to delo ostvareno. Çak,
ßta viße, svaka metoda, samo oboga†uje opßti pristup ovoj problemati-
ci. Savremeno doba donosi novo analitiçko i sintetiçko promiß¬a~e
zvuçno-muziçke kompozitorske prakse. To razmiß¬a~e odlikuje, pre
svega, kritiçki stav u odnosu na ideju dela, na otvara~e novog prostora
za umetniçko zvuçno-muziçko delova~e, i uvaΩava~e sve razliçitijih i
raznovrsnijih tendencija koje kompozitorska teorija i praksa name†u.
Novo vreme u sferi zvuçno-muziçke prakse odlikuju tendencije ka
egzaktnosti, racionalizaciji transcendentalnog - postmodernistiçkog
tipa, kao i teΩ~e ka konstruktivistiçkom pristupu elektroakustiçkom
projektu, minijaturne i interesantne forme, koje stoje nasuprot
dosadaß~im nemaßtovitim elementima zvuçno-muziçkog dela, itd.
Osnovni kvalitet projektivne metode ( PEAK ) sadrΩan je u çi~enici
da ona ne propisuje nißta od gore navedenog, jer je u celosti metodiçkog
tipa, tj. analitiçko-sintetiçka , u dijalektiçkom kreta~u od celine
zvuçno-muziçkog dela ka ~egovim deta¬ima, i obrnuto, opet nakon
konkretnog provo∂e~a kompletnog zvuçno-muziçkog miß¬e~a, ka ~egov-
oj definitivnoj realizaciji.
Taj planirani i racionalno-intuitivni put ove metode, svojstven je
kreativnoj prirodi samog çoveka. U okviru metode PEAK , takav pristup
ne predstav¬a autonegaciju, ve† specifiçnu transcedenciju ka
racionalno-intuitivnoj sferi çoveka - çulnom svetu zvuçno-muziçkih
pojava, koje su u sta~u da ostave dubok trag u svesti slußaoca...
Profesor Kohoutek smatra da kompozitor Ωivi svoj Ωivot kao i
svaki drugi obiçan çovek, ali da se u pita~ima umetnosti - muziçke
umetnosti, manifestacije zvuka i muzike, postav¬a u relacije umet-
niçkog i nauçnog pristupa, u pred~e linije drußtvenog fronta,
ukla~a~a nedostataka, i borbe za bo¬i, pravedniji, i humaniji svet...
22..11 ..11 .. R
R eef
f ll eek
k ssii jjee oo rr aa nn ii jj oo jj ii dd aann aa ß
ß~~ oo jj ee ll eek
k ttrr oo aa k
kuuss ttii çç k
koo jj m
muuzz ii cc ii
Pre zapoçi~a~a estetskog razmatra~a i analize elektroakustiçke

kompozicije, neophodno je odrediti istorijsko-drußtveni kontekst ove
muziçke vrste i ~en poloΩaj u odnosu na tzv. “klasiçnu” evropsku muziku
- uvek sa aspekta precizno definisanog istorijsko-stilskog trenutka.
Elektroakustiçka muzika predstav¬a svakako odre∂enu mutaciju
evropske umetniçke muzike, ali tako∂e, sasvim nov i originalan stvar-
alaçki pristup, odnosno postupak, skoro uvek, podrΩan najsavremenijim
tehnoloßkim okruΩe~em.
_________________________ Estetika elektroakustiçke kompozicije ____________________________ 51 52 ___________ M. Îor∂evi†: Metoda projektova~a elektroakustiçke kompozicije ___________
Tokom 50-tih i 60-tih godina 20. veka, ve†ina kompozitora tzv. elek- Tako je iskustvo fokusirano na umetnost dizajnira~a zvuka/muzike.
tronske muzike nije se trudila da uspostavi specifiçan muziçki prist- Novi napori rezultirali su i novim estetsko-muziçkim orijentacijama
up - koncept , posebno iz razloga ranije slabo izraΩenog i nedovo¬no u smislu dimenzija tembra , dinamike , spacijalizacije , kao i eksperime-
definisanog muziçkog nasle∂a, obrazova~a, a çesto i karijerizma. nata u pogledu “ montaΩe ” i “ miksaΩe ” zvuka, odnosno soniçne arhitek-
U tom smislu, u ve†ini sluçajeva, bila je propußtena prilika da se ture , ßto je drastiçno izmenilo koncept parametara vremena i forme -
istraΩe novi estetsko-kreativni putevi i naçini eksploatacije elek- tektonike elektroakustiçke kompozicije.
troakustiçkih muziçkih instrumenata i ure∂aja, pri çemu su kompozi- Na taj naçin je stvaralaçka tehnika elektroakustiçke kompozicije
tori rane faze koristili elektroakustiçki medijum kao “alat” za real- oboga†ena novim, liçnim, muziçki stilovima, pri çemu je elek-
izaciju sopstvenih partitura sa preciznoß†u koja ranije nije bila dos- troakustiçki muziçki studio i ~egovo okruΩe~e - konfiguracija ,
tupna zbog nepostoja~a pomenutih elektronskih instrumenata i ure∂aja. specijalno dizajnirana za potrebe realizacije posebnih i specifiçnih
Obiçno su se takvi kompozitori pojav¬ivali kao “supervizori” u muziçkih projekata. Tako se period od 70-tih do sredine 80-tih godina 20.
studijima, najçeß†e nacionalnih radija koja su otvarala elektronska veka, moΩe oznaçiti kao “zlatno doba” analogne elektroakustiçke
studija , da bi posmatrali ili sugerisali odre∂ene ideje u pogledu muzike.
snima~a i manipulacije zvuka, dok su realizciju sprovodili audio
inΩe~eri, ili priuçeni - novopeçeni “ton-majstori”. Zbog “kratkog Tokom 80-tih godina 20. veka, raçunari sve viße zauzimaju mesto cen-
daha” i neposedova~a istraΩivaçko-eksperimentalnog duha u pogledu tralnog radnog ure∂aja (central workstation) i digitalna tehnologija, u
novih tehnologija, okrenuta ka utilitarnoj stvaralaçkoj praksi i real- procesu stvara~a elektroakustiçke kompozicije, prevla∂uje nad analog-
izaciji sopstvenih dela, ve†ina kompozitora nije nastavila da se da¬e nom . U tom pogledu, svaki stvaralac koji je posedovao kompjuter , smatrao
bavi stvara~em elektroakustiçkih kompozicija i istraΩiva~em je da poseduje vrhunski instrument u smislu “k¬uça” za realizaciju uni-
mogu†nosti novog medija. verzalnog estetsko-muziçkog koda. NaΩalost, masovna ali pogreßna pri-
Pjer Íefer, tako∂e, nije bio izuzetak. I pored istorijsko-pionirske mena raçunara je u dobroj meri unißtila kreativnost i stvaralaçku
uloge u stvara~u konkretne muzike , odnosno psihoakustiçke analize maßtu, tako ßto je autora u stvaralaçkom procesu zamenila maßina...
zvuka, on je ostao u ube∂e~u da je napredak elektroakustiçke muzike Tako∂e, ni pojava prvih digitalnih sintisajzera, poput modela Yamaha
uslov¬en principima sistema notacije, ßto ga je odvelo u diskretnu DX7, nije osveΩila estetsko-muziçko miß¬e~e, ve† naprotiv uvela stan-
hijerarhiju parametara zvuka, sliçno kao u sluçaju tzv. “klasiçne” dardizovane zvuçne boje (preset sounds) u okvire razliçitih muziçko-
muzike. Posle neuspelih pokußaja, kao i ve†ina, on je napustio svoju stilskih koncepcija, ßto se odrazilo kao svojevrsno pomodarstvo koje je
ideju i proglasio je za jalovu. rezultiralo uniformnim instrumentalnim tembrom. Pored toga
Krajem 60-tih, i tokom 70-tih godina 20. veka, zapaΩa se znaçajan povratak na standardizovani tip klavijature, tj. 12 -tonski temperovani
napredak u razvoju elektroakustiçkih instrumenata i tehnike. Napredak hromatski sistem, nije otvarao da¬e perspektive, ve† naprotiv regre-
koji je ostvaren zahva¬uju†i audio inΩe~erima, istraΩivaçima i muz- sivno, upu†ivao na konvencionalan tip harmonijskih odnosa i ve† davno
içarima, viße je bio rezultat preokupacije novim tehnologijama a ma~e poznat i priliçno dezavuisan sistem melodijsko-tonskih odnosa i
samom muzikom. Posebno se to odnosi na SAD gde se pojavio ve†i broj sazvuçja. Bilo jepotrebno mnogo stvaralaçke maßte, kreativnosti i
elektronskih instrumenata i ure∂aja, naroçito povodom pronalaska sin- umeta da bi se iskazali novi soniçno-tonski kvaliteti.
tisajzera (synthesizer), ili eksperimenata sa zvukom, odnosno ansamblima Najzad, posled~e decenije 20. veka, tj. poçetkom 90-tih godina, otkriv-
koji su izvodili tzv. “Ωivu” elektronsku muziku (live electronic music). en je nov tretman u manipulaciji uzoraka digitalnog zapisa zvuka (sound
sample) u smislu posebne tehnike digitalnog stvara~a i obrade (Digital
Nakon ove, nastupila je faza neprikosnovenih, uz pomo† raçunara, Signal Processing - DSP). Suptilna kontrola parametara, poput kontrole
veßtaçki stvorenih zvukova - audio samples, koja se, sve do danas, moΩe morfoloßke i temporalne mikrostrukture digitalnog uzorka zvuka ,
opisati u smislu odußev¬e~a maßinama koje stvaraju zvuk, a ßto je predstav¬ala je novo fascinantno podruçje istraΩiva~a, koje je ukaza-
çesto rezultat automatike procesa elektronske geneze zvuka, uz odsust- lo na svu mogu†u kompleksnost zvuka bogatog u tembru i formi, çime je
vo svake estetske promisli kompozitora, i neminovnu trΩißno dikti- akustiçko-audioloßki i muziçki pristup nanovo osveΩen i potenciran.
ranu preokupaciju orijentalistiçkim trendovima, odnosno produkciju Novi tehnoloßki postupak stvorio je kompozitorima mogu†nost da
glomaznih elektroakustiçkih dela. direktno uçestvuju, ne samo kao “skulptori” zvuka u pogledu ~egove
Naravno, i ovaj trend je istorijski prevazi∂en, i ne predstav¬a viße forme, ve† posebno kao dizajneri unutraß~eg sadrΩaja - esencije - suß-
glavnu liniju (mainstream) ovog muziçkog Ωanra. Ve†ina kompozitora tine zvuka, ßto je maksimiziralo proces kontrole nad zvukom. Ve†inu
koja je stvarala u elektroakustiçkim centrima - studijima , razvila je kompozitora fascinirala je spoznaja elementarne mikrostrukture uzor-
princip rada na “studijskom instrumentu”, kao i osnovne tehnike real- ka digitalnog zapisa kompleksnog zvuka, prema tembralnoj makrostruk-
izacije elektroakustiçke kompozicije. turi digitalnog zapisa kompletne elektroakustiçke kompozicije.
NaΩalost, danas zbog sveopßte prisutnosti muzike u svakodnevnom Danas je imi∆ elektroakustiçke muzike povezan sa naukom i
Ωivotu, poput nameßtaja i dekora, muziçke zavese, na muziku se retko tehnologijom, tako da se iz komercijalnih razloga kao pristupaçniji
obra†a paΩ~a, pa su tako malobrojni i oni koji zaista sa namerom pris- mla∂oj publici, viße dopadaju subΩanrovi popularne zabavne muzike
tupaju slußa~u muzike radi sopstvene potrebe. Sa socioloßko-psi- koji koriste istovetnu tehnologiju, poput dance, techno, house, industrial,
holoßkog aspekta, ovakvo tumaçe~e svodi se na objaß~e~e da je hip-hop, i sl.
opßteprisutna muzika (omnipresent) ustvari lek protiv pojava
usam¬enosti i otu∂enosti koje su tipiçne za savremeni svet, kao sredst- Ô eer
Ô r aal
l dd B
B eenn eett (Gerald Bennett) iz ßvajcarskog Centra za kompjutersku
vo opußta~a - relaksacije , odnosno pobo¬ßa~a uçinka i kreativnosti u muziku napomi~e da elektroakustiçka muzika ne poseduje partituru u
radu, ßto sve daje za pravo odre∂enim teoretiçarima i estetiçarima da tradicionalnom smislu, tako da je bez dokumentacije nemogute sagledati
konstatuju kako je muzika ponovo postala ”funkcionalna”. na koji je naçin odredeno delo kretirano. U tom smislu sva ranija muz-
Sa druge strane, u savremenom drußtvu, koje je prevashodno kon- içka praksa predstavla u izvesnom smislu literarni tip kulture, pri
formistiçke orijentacije, muzika egzistira kao zona rezistencije, cemu je ~ena budutnost osigurana ne putem interpretacije, ve† kroz
sußtinsko po¬e slobodnog izraza çiji koreni seΩu u najdub¬e slojeve pisanu prezentaciju onoga ßto †e zazvuçati. Nasuprot tome, elek-
psihofizioloßkog, u joß nedovo¬no poznate i prouçene oblasti percep- troakustiçka muzika pripada preteΩno oralnom tipu kulture, tako da u
tivne imaginacije, ßto stvara poseban i autentiçan svet intra- i inter- tom pogledu postoje evidentne çi~enice koje se grubo mogu navesti:
subjektivnih odnosa i snaga u svetu u kojem Ωivi çovek. 1. joß uvek ne postoji izrazito analitiçko sredstvo kao ni formiran
Savremena elektroakustiçka muzika zahteva, u svakom sluçaju, slobod- analitiçki reçnik u okviru elektroakustiçke muzike, tako da ne egzis-
no i nesputano miß¬e~e, znaçajan nivo psihofizioloßke oset¬ivosti, tira vid apstraktnog predstav¬a~a u smislu notnog zapisa ili parti-
a posebno aktivnu slußalaçku paΩ~u, pri çemu ne preti opasnost da se ture;
publici uçini kao “slatka”, ve† bi se pre moglo re†i “zabri~avaju†a”. 2. zbog nedostatka va¬anog i izgra∂enog analitiçkog jezika - reçnika,
teßko je zamisliti odre∂eni kompozicioni zvuçno-muziçki model koji
poseduje vrednost u okviru neçijeg liçnog stvaralaçkog iskustva;
22 ..22.. R
Raa zz m
maatt rr aa~~ aa ss aavv rr eem
m eenn ii hh aa uutt oo rr aa oo eess ttee ttii cc ii 3. nedostatak apstraktnog predstav¬a~a, u smislu preuzima~a uloge
eell ee k
kt r oo aa k
tr kuu sstt ii çç k
kee m m uuzz ii kkee medijatora izme∂u stvaraoca i ~egovog dela, tj. zvuka/muzike, tako∂e
povlaçi i drugu negativnu konsekvencu koja se ogleda u fokusira~u na
Fr
F r aan
n ss o
o aazz B
B aa rr ii jj ee rr (Françoise Barrière), direktor Centra za elek- zvuk i ~egove strukturne elemente, sintezu, itd., a premalo na opaΩa~e
troakustiçku muziku u BurΩu , napomi~e da raçunar u ku†i, svakako, i slußa~e zvuka/muzike, ßto kako u stvarnosti izgleda predstav¬a
postaje demokratski instrument za igre i muziçke kreacije na individu- osnovno zadobo¬stvo kod slußaoca;
alnom nivou, pri çemu vreme inteligentnih kompjuterskih muziçkih 4. poßto elektroaustiçka muzika egzistira samo kao çujni zvuk, a ne
igara tek dolazi, tako da †e svaki pojedinac biti u sta~u da otkrije na neki viße apstraktan naçin, poput partiture, ona postoji samo u
sklonosti i talent sopstvene inventivne prirode. U tom smislu, i sadaß~osti, tako da ne poseduje proßlost. Zato, kada se pojedina dela
amaterska praksa u elektroakustiçkoj muzici moΩe biti znaçajna i slusaju izgledaju podjednako uda¬ena, i izme∂u ~ih ne postoji odre∂ena
dovesti do razvoja pojedinaçne inteligencije i oset¬ivosti, jer ne kompozitorska referenca me∂usobnog odnosa i komunikacije prema
zahteva nebrojene çasove manuelne prakse u manipulaciji zvuçnog mater- unutar~em istorijskom aspektu, iako se jedna dopadaju viße od drugih,
ijala. Pri tome se treba nadati da †e ve†ina, zaintersovanih za elek- ili se mogu identifikovati pojedinaçne stilske orijentacije, itd.;
troakustiçku muziku, poΩeleti neßto viße i bo¬e od trenytnog prof- 5. tako∂e, i oblast pedagogije, odnosno edukacije koju bi zahtevala
iterstva. Danas neko slußa Betovena ili Ravela dok sprema sudove, elektroakustiçka muzika, izrazito je hendikepirana nedostatkom
priça sa prijate¬ima, ili çita, dok je sa druge strane elektroakustiçka apstraktne przentacije kao i nwedostatka analitickih sredstava. Iako,
muzika jedino tesno asocirana sa kosmosom, ili nekim bliskim susretom kao i ve†ina mojih kolega mislim o sebi kao o kompozitoru, ve†i deo
tre†e vrste. Ovom muziçkom Ωanru nedostaje ohrabre~e i uvere~e koje Ωivota provodim kao pedagog, a ne kompozitor;
poseduje tzv. klasiçna muzika , kao i energetsko prekli~e~e tipiçno za
rock muziku. Elektroakustiçka muzika nije u opasnosti da izgubi svoju Bez odre∂ene paΩ~e i respektibilnosti kritiçara, muzikologa ili
novinu i intersova~e publike, jer su Muzakove verzije Bahovih dela, kompozitora, odnosno odre∂ene drußtvene i od strane publike izraΩene
daleko jednostavnije, ali je ona tako∂e i izvor razmiß¬a~a koja obuzi- brige, elektroakustiçka muzika ne†e imati znaçajaniji upliv i uticaj na
maju publiku u stilu “treba da si specijalista”, ili “umoran sam da bi socijalno-politiçku i kulrturnu sferu drußtva i çovekovog dela~a, a
slußao”, itd. Mla∂e generacije su pozdravile radikalne esteske promene sami tim ne†e ostvariti ni sopstveno bi†e po sebi, tj. kreaciju,
u vizuelnoj umetnosti i muzici, i çesti su posetioci koncerata elek- izvo∂e~e i difuziju koju zasluΩuje.
troakustiçke muzike, me∂utim evolucija drußtva donela je i podele u
publici i uçinila je da¬om.
No, problem partiture, ili nekog drugog vida zapisa elek- Kr

K ri
isst
tiij
jaan
n K
Kl
looz
ziij
jee (Christian Clozier) tako∂e razmatra definiciju elek-
troakustiçke muzike svakako je mogu†e prevazi†i, posebno kada se kom- trokustiçke muzike, navode†i da je ona prevashodno rezultat estetske i
pozitori bave metodom Projektova~a elektroakustiçke kompozicije , tehnoloßke opservacije, tako da se pre ~enog izvo∂e~a moraju raz-
ili sliçnom, ßto omogu†ava kvalitetniju i iscrpniju analizu, odnosno motriti sve mogu†e razliçitosti. Dok je konvencionalna muzika i ~ena
ukoliko postoji odredeni vid zapissa iz kojeg se moΩe rekonstruisati devinicija zavisna od istorijskih stilskih epoha (sred~ovekova,
kreativni postupak stvaraoca. Skoro uvek, insistiram na bilo kakvom barokna, klasicna savremena), odnosno funkcije (tradicionalna, popu-
pogodnom vidu zapisa elektroakustiçke muzike, pri cemu smatram da je larna, ili crkvena, simfonijska, itd.). Tokom vekova funkcija i forme
bar grubi grafiçki kompozicioni plan najminimalniji oblik pisane m uziçke umetnosti su se razvijale u odnosu na prime~eni instrumentar-
forme dela koje †e zazvuçati i posedovati sopstvenu “istoriju”, za raz- ijum, publiku, stvaralaçkeuslove, i status kompozitorta. Ukoliko se
liku od dela koja ne poseduju nikakav pisani trag, ve† su pretezno posmatra odnos prema instrumentarijumu moΩe se zapaziti sldete:
oralnog ili auralnog tipa - name~ena jedino za slußa~e. Iz tih razlo- - tip (glas, udara¬ke, duvaçi, gudaçi)
ga, sasvim je razum¬ivo zapaΩa~e i konstatacija koju iznosi g. Benet, da - tehniçke karakteristike(monofona, polifona, ekvitemperovana)
je pedagoßki pristup u pogledu predavaà o kompjuterskoj muzici daleko - akustiçka snaga (bliska ili udalena muzika)
proizvo¬niji i subjektivniji, u odno na predava~a o instrumentalnoj - grupisa~e (ansambl, solista)
muzici ili kompozitorskoj praksi koja se osla~a na ogromnu literarnu - izvo∂e~e (virtuoznost, jednostavnost)
baßtinu i veliki broj zapisanih dela u celosti i do najsitnijih detala.
Kod razmatra~a kategorizacije koja se odnosi na upotrebu i kulturu
U pogledu apstraktnog predstav¬a~a i pogodnog alata za analizu (seriozna, popularna), odnosno na geografsku distribuciju (evropska,
EAM, mogu†e je osvrnuti se na istorijske aspekte i tehnologiju svetska), mogute je zapaziti dva osnovna modela transmisije:
koriß†enu za stvara~e, realizaciju i reprodukciju elektroakustiçke - pisa~e partiture: seroizna muzika, kulturalistiçki prepoznatliva,
muzke, posebno na razvijenije forme spektralne analize, koja moΩe sa konverzijom nota-zvuk ;
posluziti kao jedan od analitickih pristupa - “alata”, dok bi drugi fak- - oralna tradicija: popularna muzika, socijalno prepoznat¬iva, sa
tori mogli biti psihoakustiçke osnove, itd. konverzijom memorija-izvo∂e~e ;
pri cemu su instrumenti elektroakustiçki, elektronski i digitalni,
Kompozitor H Ho
osse
e M
Maan
nuue
ell B
Beer
reen
ngge
err (Jose Manuel Berenguer) smatra da pa je muzika rezultat ~ihove imeplementacije.
pita~e etike (ethos) u elektroakustiçkoj muzici kasniji stadijum
bioloßke evolucije çoveka, napomi~u†i da pod tterminom “nervni Elektroakustiçka muzika predstavla revolucionarni tip u okviru
sistyem” ppodrazumeva najkompleksniju strukturu informacija poznatu muziçke umetnosti, pri çemu je ~ena produkcija i transmisija viße
çoveku, koja omogu†ava relativnu kontrolu mehanizma evolucije. Iz tih elektronskog nego akustiçkog odre∂e~a:
razloga pita~a koja se postavlaju pred savremenu elektroakustiçku a) zvuk viße ne poseduje dve vrednosti: ton i boju instrumenta
muziku ne mogu biti definisana izvan etiçke perspektive. Berenger b) zvuk se moΩe opisati kao relacija ~egove akustiçke vrednosti i
naglaßava da termin “elektroakustiçka” muzika ne odraΩava komplek- elektriçne energije
snost i sveukupnost novih muziçkih dela çija produkcija zavisi od sred-
stava elektronskog izraza, tako da se termin moΩe primeniti u smislu Prema Klozijeu, nuΩno je razmotriti i slede†a dva aspekta:
podvlaçe~a estetske razliçitosti u okviru muziçke produkcije, a ßto se a) vrednost akustiçke muzike rezultira iz vrednosti kompozicionog
razlikuje od starijeg termina “elektronska” iz epohe Kelnske ßkole. procesa (napisane partiture) i lepote/konfiguracije zvuka koji
Pored termina “elektroakustiçka” çesto je prisutan i termin “akuz- odrazava partituru;
matiçka” (akuzma = zavesa; originalno Pitagorina predava~a uçenicima b) vrednost elektroakustiçke muzike proizilazi iz ~ene izrazajnos
iza zavese), za koji Berenger smatra da se odnosi na muziku koja se repro- ti, tako da je kompozicija u relaciji sa stvarnom kreacijom zvuka,
dukuje preko zvuçnika i koji moΩe biti prihva†en do mere u kojoj se ova ßto se slusa i çega smo svesni;
dva termina ne suprtotstavlaju sa saspekata etike, estetike, ekonomije,
politike, sociologije ili tehnologije. Pokußavaju†i da definiße Revolucionarni aspekt elektroakustiçke muzike svakako jke povezan
“elektroakustiçku muziku”, ovaj autor predlaΩe slede†u definiciju: sa naprtretkom elektro-tehnologije. Istorija elektronskih instrume-
izvan svakog tipa klasifikacije kome moΩe pripasti, umetniçki nata koji su prime~eni u elektroakustiçkoj muzici je kratka ali sa jako
proizvod koji zadovo¬ava propisani estetski sadrΩaj i zahteva odgo- izraΩenim napretkom, poçevßi joß od 1898. godine od Kejhilovog “tel-
varaju†i zvuk kao svoj osnovni medijum, moΩe se nazvati “elek- harmonijuma” (Cahill`s Telharmonium) sa kontinuitetom do 1946. kao
troakustiçkom muzikom” do sada kao vid elektronske operacije neza- Ôenine “ondoline” (Jenny`s Ondoline). Grubo uzevsi mogu se izdvojiti dva
men¬ive od svoje realizacije”. perioda:
- od 1948. do 1975. - elektronski instrumenti sa mogu†noß†u kontrole, - usporen je, ili ukinut, proces ravoja novih formi/prakse komu-
manipulisani od strane kompozitora; nikacije sa publikom (socijhalne, teorijske, tehniçke)
- od 1975. do 1995. - instrumenti virtuelnog tipa na bazi raçunara, 7. tehniçko-ekonomski uslovi produkcije i distribucije muzike sve
dvostruke zavisnosti: zatvorene hardverske strukture i softverskih viße su izraz izolovanih individualaca koji stvaraju za sebe ili “tamo
aplikacija; neku” komisiju
Proces razvoja instrumenata, zak¬uçuje Klozije, tesno je povezan sa 8. odabira~e dela je u ve†ini sluçajeva determinisano potrebom
dva faktora: lagane asimilacijeu okvire tradicionalnih muziçkih krugova, ßto
- ekonomski: nastavak industrijalizacije zahteva napor u smislu ponovne orijentacije u pogledu produkcije
- kulturalni: zem¬e sa slobodnim modelom kulture 9. masa novih kompozitora i standardizacija metoda stvbara~a odnos-
(netotalitarni tip); no fabrikova~e, industrija, i konfekcija muziçkih dela, u suprotnosti
je ssa naporima starije generacije kompozitora koji su çinili greßke,
Posebno su znacajani momenti: edukacija kompozitora i distribucija ali ipak ostali verni autenticno-utopistiçkim idelima kakav je elek-
muzike, odnosno intregracija i prepoznava~e u okvirima globalne kul- troakustiçka muzika, iako je sa danaß~eg aspekta autentiçnost elek-
turne, ßto rezlutira slede†im: troakustiçke muzike prepoznatliva daleko ve†em krugu publike
a) nejednak razvoj me∂u razliçitim zem¬ama (tehniçki i kompozi- 10. da bi se joß viße razvila pomenuta autentiçnost i nove
cioni) mogiu†nost, prema Klozijeu, potrebno je:
b) izolovanost i nedostatak informacija, cirkulacije ideja, i sl., - nanovo se, individualno, preorijentisati i reorganizovati u pogle-
ßto specava podjednak interaktivni istorijski razvoj, i vrata~e na du produkcije i distribucije
“pomnovno” otkriva~e ve† postoje†eg; - naçiniti ßto ma~i mogu†i kompromis oko komunikacije dela i pub-
Kontradikcije su ispolene u nemogu†nosti profitiraà elek- like
troakustiçke muzike na globalnom nivou zbog razlicitosti nacionalnih - razviti tehnike i praksu komunikacije
kultura i ~ihovih usmere~a, umesto konstatne internacionalne evalu- 11. iako nam eksperiment pomaΩe u kreaaciji treba jasno staviti do
acije i anlaize dela ovog zanra. elektroakustiçka muzika je kulturalis- zna~a da muzika koja je ostvarena nije vise eksperiment, vet eksperivni
tiçki prepoznatliva umnogi zemlama, i ona postoji, me∂utim èna avna- i komunikativno delo koje †e publika konzumirati i razumeti taj
gardna funcija je odbacena od strane ve†ine jer se ne uklapa u komeci- eksperimentalni pristup muzici
jalno juzicko trΩißte. Ipak. EAM je jedini pravac u savremenoj muz- 12. osobenosti distribucije moraju omogu†iti aspekt eksperimen-
içkoj umertnosati kojinposeduje fundamentalnu autentiçnost, zato ßto talnog pristupa
je usko vezana za ravoj tehnoiligije i ~en stalni napredak. Stoga je u 13. jedan on potrebnih preduslova budu†eg razvoja mora biti uporteba
definiciji ovog zanra, prema Klozijeru, potrebno razmotriti slede†e: novih formi komunikacije oja je namew~ena masovnoj distribuciji i
1. viße ne lideri u smislu “mesije” konzumaciji, pri cemu kmercijalni moment ne sme restruiktivno delo-
2. ne mnogo teorije, ve† viße novih formula vati na prirodu kreativne produkcije;
3. masa mladih kompozitotra koji ponav¬aju poznate zablude i Tako∂e su interesantne i ostele napomene koje navodi K. Klozije:
nemogu†nost stvarnog delova~a a) elektroakustiçka muzika nije komplikovana, ona je tesno povezana
4. nestandardizovana edukacija muziçko-teorijska i istorijska - kakva sa izrazom, ose†ajnim izvo∂e~em, itd.
je uopßte edukacija mogu†a? Me∂utim, ono ßto stvarno utiçe na ovakvo odre∂e~e EAM (ponekad je
5. tehnoloßka sredstva su jako razvijena zahvaluju†i digitalnoj takvo odre∂e~e i taçno) ustvari su tehnika i produkcija zvuka, a çesto i
tehnologiji, ali se to odrazava na: same napomene kompoizitora o sopstvenom delu koje koro uvek poseduju
- edukaciju koja je preteΩno bez ikakve povezanosti sa analognim sofisticiranu eksplanaciju.
aspektima koji postoje u relaciji sa zvukom, izrazom i eksperimentom b) EAM se ne moΩe podvesti pod katalog normi, tako da se ne moΩe
- opremom koja se proizvodi fabricki prema specifikacijama ili traΩiti u teroijama oragnizaacije i prametara zvuka ili “miksa~a”,
programima postprodukcije, ßto dovodi do gubitka profesionalnog i kao ßto se ne moΩe redukovati ni bogatstvo irazliçitost multifonije
akumuliranog zna~a i perceptivnih sposobnosti oslo~enih na zna~a (prema Kohouteku, stratofonije ) zvuçnnih boja;
standardne tehnologije v) originalna greßka je autorsko samopotvr∂iva~e dela u smislu
6. stalno se uve†avaju teßko†e oko stvara~a i izvo∂e~a neçije muzike: ranije nauke kao nasle∂a starogrçke idealistiçke filosofije i nedo-
- malo je vremena ostalo za kreaciju muzickog dela vo¬ne diferencijacije i specijalizaacije nauçnih oblasti, koje su
- tipiçno je normira~e senzualistiçke prakse u smilsu “dobrog prema navodnoj sliçnosti formirale odre∂ene nauçne grupe, npr.
ukusa” quadrivium: aritmetika , geometrija , astronomija , i muzika , odnosno trivi-
- odnos sa publikom postaje sve teΩi teΩi um: (slobodno-umetniçka oblast sa matematiçkim predznakom) gramati-
ka , retorika , i dijalektika ;
Muzika je sluΩila kao dodata vrednost aritmetici, dok je danas obr- Uobiçajena su çetiri naçina primene “Ωive” elektronske modulacije.
nuta situacija sasvim uobiçajena; Prva dva su u domenu funkcije çistog okruΩe~a”:
g) elktroakustiçka muzika je specifican sistem simbola, komu- a) mimetiçki naçin - direktna imitacija drugog zvuçnog kvaliteta, a
nikacije i razmene koja se odvija u vremenu; ukoliko je uk¬ucen i tekst, mogu†a je onomatopeja;
d) najznacajniji moment, istovremeno i problem, predstavla slusa~e b) impresionistiçki naçin - literarna zvuçna imitacija otvara put
EAM, jer je to jedini aspekt ~ene realne egzistencije, poßto ne postoji ka viße uopßtenoj metaforiçnoj impresiji;
pisana partitura, ili graficko-simbolistiçko predstav¬a~e; Druga dva pristupa odnose se na pita~e percepcije i ~enog odvija~a:
∂) gde se moΩe çuti EAM? kao i svaka druga muziçka vrsta, obiçno kod v) sinestetiçki naçin - evokacija boje i fiziçke teksture, dok osete
ku†e ili na koncertu, tako da se automatski uspostavla posebna i direk- ukusa i mirisa kompozitori tretiraju uglavnom metaforiçno;
tna relacija izme∂u muziçkog dela i slußaoca. Za kompozitora je ovaj g) ekspresionistiçki naçin - poviße~e emocionalnog sta~a ili
moment od presudne vaΩnosti, jer ukoliko se ne usp[ostavi veza ose†aja;
slusalac-delo, elektroakustiçka kompozicija ne postoji;
S tt een
S n H
Haa nn ssoo nn (Sten Hanson) svoje estetsko razmatra~e fenomena elek-
K. Klozije navodi relacije znaçajne za proces slußa~a i napomi~e da troakustiçke muzike zapoçi~e sentencijom: da Ωivimo u eri ne-umetnos-
je na jednoj CD ploçi sa ~egovom muzikom ßtampao na omotu slede†e: ti !, koju su u zad~ih 50-tak godina ponovili nebrojeno puta mnogi umet-
TO THOSE WHO WISH TO HEAR! nici i filosofi. Umetnost je skinuta sa svog trona u okviru hijerahije
kulturalistiçkog tipa, totalno ignorisana od onih u çijim je rukama
Pojedini autori elektroakustiçke muzike, kao Çarls Do∆ (Charles stvarna mo†! Istovremeno, iz laΩnih razloga a pod patronatom konzerv-
Dodge) svesni su socijalnog okruΩe~a i nemogu†nosti masovne primene ativnih i kratkovidih krugova, ili drußtvenih grupa, koje su u
elektroakustiçkiuh sredstava i raçunara, jer je produkcija i distribu- stvarnosti istinski neprijate¬i pravog Ωivota i vitalne artistiçke
cija muzike uslov¬ena specificnim institucijama i tehnologijama koje diskusije. Ili je uprkos svemu, to samo umetniçka ilizuja odrΩava~a
nisu uvek dostupne ßirem auditorijumu. Sa druge strane, globalna raçu- nade u revalorizaciju mentalnog sta~a, intelekta i duha kao primarne
narska mreΩa omogu†ava ßirokom spektru korisnika da razmeni iskust- ideje çovekovog napretka, pri çemu egoistiçni materijalizam nije
va tehnoloßke i kreativne osnove, i da uçi kreativne tehnike i prirodno sta~e, kao ni da sve drugo nije glupost izloΩena podsmehu!
principe stvara~a elektroakustiçke muzike. Novoj, elektroakustiçkoj muzici i ostvarenim tekovinama u pogledu
komunikacije i oralne senzacije, Hanson upu†uje çestitku: “Happy New
Kompozitor EAM S S aa jjm
m oo nn E
Emmeerr ss oo nn (Simon Emmerson) je jedan od autora Ears”!, napomi~u†i da “stare” ußi ipak çuju drugaçije i razliçitije od
koji posebno fiksiraju problematiku “Ωive elektronike” (live electron- novih! Iz tih razloga, ve†ina serioznih umetnika danas, ne osla~a se
ic), pri çemu navodi da “meßovita dela” (mixed pieces) npr. Ωivi vokal i preterano na opßteprihva†enu i poznatu edukativno-kulturalnu osnovu
instrument sa trakom, çesto predstav¬aju za publiku konfuznu impresi- kao bazu komunikacije, tako da stvaralac predstavla svoje delo kao
ju: ponudu svima koje ono moΩe interesovati, i kreira ga tako kao da slußa
- jedan instrumentalni zvuk moΩe se javiti kao uzrok niza elek- delo koje voli da çuje a koje je realizovao neki drugi autor.
troakustiçkih posledica, i obrnuto Takva, okrutna, stvarnost, deluju pesimistiçki i obeshrabruju†e na
- relacije koje postoje izme∂u izvo∂açkih postupaka i zvuka ost- autora savremene elektroakustiçke muzike daleko viße nego na bilo
varenog na elektroakustiçki naçin çesto su nerazum¬ive publici kojeg drugog autora iz druge umetniçke oblasti, poßto niko izvan ovog
- veliki problem tokom izvo∂e~a predstav¬a i difuzija - osipa~e ili Ωanra ne ispo¬ava patronat ili zaßtitniçki stav ovoj umetniçkoj
rasipa~e kompleksnog reproduktivnog lanca, poßto su instrumenti vrsti, kao ßto ne postoje niti su ikada izgra∂ene strukture ~ene dis-
najçeß†e fiksirani i nepokretni, tako da egzistira prenaglaßenost u tribucije, ili oblici ~enog istraΩiva~a. Ukoliko me neko upita kako
pogledu prostora i tembra. mogu i da¬e da stvaram muziku sa ovako pesimistiçkim stavom, ne bih
Radi pobo¬ßa~a i ukla~a~a ovih nedostataka, Emerson naglaßava umeo da mu odgovorim, napomi~e Hanson. MoΩda je ukus za stvara~em
potrebu ispravne distinkcije termina “local controls” i “field”, pri çemu: nepotrebnih stvari jaçi od onog za stvara~em potrebnih, filosofija
1. lokalna kontrola i funkcije imaju odliku proßire~a, a ne prekida tipa Homo ludens je jedna od k¬uçnih stvari koja odvaja çoveçiju vrstu od
opaΩene relacije izvo∂açke akcije i proizvedenog zvuka; zveri.
2. po¬e funkcioniße u smislu mesta i postav¬a~a rezultata ove
aktivnosti u odre∂eni kontekst, okruΩe~e (environment, landscape); F
Frr aann cc ii ss k
koo K
K rr eepp f
f ll (Francisco Kröpfl), koji je zapoçeo kompozitorsku
Odnos ova dva aspekta treba da bude dinamiçan i interaktivan, ßto aktivnost joß davne 1950. godine, bave†i se integralnom organizacijom
prema ~egovom miß¬e~u otvara mogu†nost da se nanovo humanizuje muziçkog materijala, insistira na paΩ¬ivoj kontroli svih, i muziçkih
( rehumanizuje ) oblast ( po¬e ) elektroakustiçke muzike. kao i parametara zvuka.
Kao profesor akustike upraΩ~avao je laboratorijske eksperimente Zvuk moΩe biti generisan mehaniçkim vibracijama (kod tradicional-
sa zvukom, i bio u toku sa sliçnim koje su u Parizu, Kelnu, i Milanu nih instrumenata), ili pomo†u digitalnih sintisajzera, ili reprodukci-
izvodili K. Ítokhauzen, L. Berio i B. Maderna. Posebno su znacajni jom digitalnog zapisa zvuka (file) koji nije alterovan , ili reprodukcijom
~egovi pokusaji sinteze zvuka i primene parametara zvuka u harmoni- digitalnog zapisa zvuka sa modulacijama ( alteracijama ) u realnom vre-
jskom pogledu, poput “kadenciraju†e” funkcije, pri cemu se sluΩio i menu, itd. “Partitura” moΩe potpuno biti u ”glavi izvo∂aça”, ili na
klasifikacijom zvuçnih objekata Pjera Íefera, itd. Krepfl navodi papiru (u konvencionalnoj muzici), odnosno u memoriji raçunara kao
nekoliko kategorija elektroakustiçkih dela u okviru kojih su sequence, ili kao sound file, ili MIDI zapis, itd.
prime~eni razliçiti kreativni pristupi i postupci: Za koji izbor se odluçiti, zavisi samo od Ωe¬e muziçara, pri çemu
1. dela koja su kreirali umetnici sa ci¬em istraΩiva~a novih izraza- tehniçka ograniçe~a nisu viße tako znaçajna, a ono ßto je zaista vaΩno,
jnih sredstava; pripada podruçju estetike, ili takvog vida izbora. Tako, napomi~e
2. referentna dela çiji je ci¬ narativno ili deskriptivno pred- Metjuz, ve†ina ¬udi †e osobu koja svira na tradicionalnom instrumentu
stav¬a~e situacija i lokacija, ßto donekle liçi na “radio dramu”; nazvati “izvo∂aç”, dok nekoga ko uk¬uçuje reprodukciju na CD plejeru ,
3. liçno iskustvo Krepfla sa kompozicijama baziranim na verbalnom ne†e oznaçiti kao izvo∂aça. Zato kontinuum mogu†nosti izme∂u ova dva
tekstu (govorenom tekstu, uz poznava~e teΩine izgovorene reçi), ßto ih sluçaja, svedoçi u prilog nove definicije umetnosti izvo∂e~a (peforming
stav¬a izme∂u kategorija poezije i muzike; art).
4. dela u kojima se zbog istraΩiva~a totalnog jedinstva izme∂u mikro
i makro struktura uvek prime~uje jedan organizaacioni princip, pri Majkl Obst (Michaël Obst) upozorava na veliki kontrast izme∂u kvali-
cemu se ponekad koriste i procedure preuzete iz matematike, mada se tativnog odre∂e~a savremene muzike od strane specijalista u ovoj
malo paΩ~e posve†uje raznovrsnosti i bogatstcu zvuka; oblasti, i odre∂e~a koje je inicirano interesima publike. Generalno
5. dela zasnovana na zvuçnim objektima reirana uz pomo† analitiçkih uzevßi, publika ima negativan stav prema tzv. tape music, koju doΩiv¬ava
i sintetiçkih procedura, pri çemu se gubi, ili nije relevantan, origi- kao bezΩivotnu formu, hladnu i bez muziçke izraΩajnosti. Slußalac je
nalan izvor zvuka u smislu elktronske ili akustiçke osnove, poßto se posebno frustriran elektroakustiçkom muzikom usled mase nepoznatog,
prime~uju drastiçni vidovi obrade zvuka; ßto je joß viße potencirano sofisticiranom tehnologijom snima~a i
6. dela oznaçena kao “meßovita” (mixed) koja predstavlaju kombinaci- obrade zvuka. Ne pomaΩu ni dobro osmiß¬eni programi koji se kao lit-
ju”Ωivih” izvo∂aca i elektroakustuiçkih delova koji su ili prethodno erarni predloßci dele publici, jer ono ßto je bila namera kompozito-
snimleni ii izvedeni u “Ωivo”; ra mora se spoznati iz samog zvuçno-muziçkog dela, pa je na kompozitoru
7. dela kod kojih se obrada i kontrola izvodi primenom raçunara u da odluçi do koje mere moΩe biti nov i nepoznat jednom konvencional-
realnom vremenu, tj. mogu†nost stvara~a novog zvuka i instrumentalnih nom modelu slusa~a kakav predstav¬a ßiri slußalaçki auditorijum.
boja kod izvo∂e~a u “Ωivo”, pri çemu su promene ritma, tembra, ili Trenutna situacija zahteva i nov pristup u evaluaciji, posebno, elek-
artikulacije teßko izvod¬ive ili çesto nemogu†e bez upotrebe raçu- trokaustiçke muzike. Imena poput Ítokhauzen, Bulez, Ligeti,
nara; Penderecki, Kej∆, i dr., automatski se povezuju sa odre∂enim kompozi-
8. dela sa joß jednim pozitivnim doprinosom raçunara i digitalnih cionim stilom koji je uticao na stvara~e muzicke istorije. Tzv. “intu-
kontrolnih ure∂aja, çime je omogu†ena reprodukcija “u Ωivo”; itivna muzika” kao reakcija na diktatorski vid serijalizma i struktu-
ralistiçke muzike, dospeva da funkcioniße jedva do kategorije “mini-
M eek
M kss M
Meet
tjju
uzz (Max Mathews) profesor na Stenfordu (SAD) i kreator malistiçke muzike” sa zahetovom za novim koncepto slusa~a. Obs,
originalnih prijekata poput Max i Conductor programa, Radio Button pro- tako∂e, postav¬a pita~e kvaliteta i objektivnosti kriterijuma za pro-
grama, napomi~e da mu je joß 1957. godine P. Bulez sugerisao da napravi cenu vrednosti elektroakustiçkog dela?
“maßinu koja bi dirigovala” magnetofonom, ßto bi omogu†ilo da se
zvuci sa trake kombinuju uz Ωivog izvo∂aça. Eduardo Polonio smatra da zava¬eni u sofi i opußtenoj ku†noj atmos-
feri, moΩemo 1000 puta reprodukovati na super Hi-fi ure∂ajima CD ploçu
DORMANT form of music, predstav¬a predlog M. Metjuza za novo ime na kojoj je za vekove zabeleΩena Betovenova V simfonija , me∂utim nijed-
novog tipa koncepta, uslovno reçeno, partiture (“score”). U objaß~e~u no od ovih kloniranih slußnih doga∂a~a ne moΩe se uporediti sa
Metjuz napomi~e da se savremena izvo∂açka praksa proteΩe od svira~a izvo∂e~em te iste muzike in vivo. Civilizacija koja je ovladala
na tradicionalnom instrumentu gde je za svaki ton potreban poseban tehnologijom snima~a i zapisiva~a, suoçena je sa teßkom dilemom: da
pokret izvo∂aça, pa sve do reprodukcije nemodulisanog ( nealterovanog ) izbegne fatalnu sudbinu zamrzava~a na jedan ili drugi medijum.
snimka obiçno pritiskom na jedno dugme. Izme∂u ove dve kraj~e Elektroakustiçka muzika, navodi Polonio, tuΩna zbog svog elektriçnog
mogu†nosti, postoji skoro kontinuum drugih suptilnijih mogu†nosti. karaktera i posti∂ena od svoje konzervisane proßlosti, uvek je Ωelela
da se bori za oralnu transmisiju i protiv pisa~a.
I stoga ko nas moΩe uveriti da †e mediji na kojima beskrupulozno v) i pored tehnoloßkog zna~a i veßtine (know-how) teßka je komu-
beleΩimo naße jedinice i nule biti isto tako neunißtivi kao mastilo nikacija sa novim ure∂ajima, pri cemu se oni koriste na najjednostavni-
na Perotinovom pergamentu. Tako∂e je, sa filosofsko-estetskog aspek- ji i stereotipan nacin, dok vremena za ovladava~e ~ima nema. Muziçka
ta, problematiçna inovacija koju je navodno donela elektroakustiçka kultura koja je zavisna od novih tehnoloßkih resursa nije podrΩana u
muzika, koja je od zaçetka bila otvorena , meßovita , improvizacionog smislu trasira~a pravog puta u pogledu instrumentalnih “nomada”;
karaktera, ili “Ωiva”, odnosno stohastiçka , jer je sve to ve† ranije bilo Dala problematika EAM izraΩena je kao nemogu†nost analize ovog
poznato. Zahva¬uju†i tehnologije koncept “real time” je sve viße “real”, Ωanra, jer muzikolozi ostav¬aju sa strane ovakva dela, realizovana kao
ali to nije “lek koji leçi” kao ßto pojedinci zamiß¬aju “bolesti zvuçni mi¬e bez partiture (score) koji postav¬a velike analitiçke
muzike na traci”. To je svakako novo poglav¬e u filosofiji elek- teßko†e. Na kompozitorima ostaje, da preuzmu odluçnu ulogu u prenosu
troakustiçke, ili muzike uopßte. U stvarnosti, umetnost ne napreduje, tehniçkih podataka i muziçke notacije u ßto jasnijem obliku, pri çemu
ono ßto stvarno napreduje jeste tehnologija: Pikasovo delo Ladies of i oni koji se bave analizom moraju poznavati i razumeti ulogu i primenu
d’Avignon nije mnogo naprednije od Leonardovog Last Supper, kao ßto ni racunara u muzici. Jedino integracija tehniçkih i muziçkih informa-
Bulezovo Marteau sans Maitre nije naprednije od Perotinovog Organum. cija koje cine strukturalnu deskripciju elektroakustickog dela moΩe
Digitalizova~e svega ßto je mer¬ivo svakako je praktiçna posledica predstavlati kompenzaciju za nedostatak partiture. Rise pokusava da
tehnoloßkog napretka naße epohe, ßto svakim danom çini paletu alata definiße EAM , i konstatuje da je u prvom pristupu mogu†e zak¬uçiti
za materijalizaciju ideje preciznijom, ßto zahteva ve†u paΩ~u umetni- da je EAM ona çija produkcija zahteva elektroakustiçku tehnologiju ,
ka u postupku manipulacije. Me∂utim, posebno se mora povesti raçuna o odnosno sa proßire~em da je to muzika koja zvuçi i slußa se preko
samoj ideji, a da se ne upr¬aju prsti bitovima. zvuçnika . Ova definicija je viße tehniçke prirode i ne pravi razlikui
I free jazz je, napomi~e Polonio, omogu†io da se tanka linija prede- zme∂u komercijalne i eksperimentalne muzike, kao ni izme∂u
terminisane improvizacije prekine i unißti koncept kompozicije “konkretne”i “elektronske” osnove zvuçnog materijala.
prime~en u delima tzv. zatvorenog tipa , a kompozitori oslobode teßkog
bremena nasle∂a, tako da su izvo∂açi u najbo¬em sluçaju pretvoreni u K eer
K r tt i
i ss R
Roo aadd ss (Curtis Roads) naglaßava, da je prvi koncert na kome je
intimne pratioce. Kod elektriciteta nema pardona, tehnologija koja elektriçnim putem generisan zvuk, odrΩan u ûjorku 1906. godine
pretvara zvuk u elektricitet, od glasa Karuza do najnovijih koncerata (Telharmonic Hall, New York City), tako da termin novi medijum za EAM,
Berlinske Filharmonije, uticala je da se borba sa efemernim oglasi viße ne odgovara. Tako se novina elektroakustickog zvuka per se razvod-
onda kada se ukazala mogu†nost obuhvata~a i flaßira~a vazdußnih nila. teren EAM i kompozicije zvuka nije tipa Euklidovih dimenzija,
vibracija. ve† je razlom¬en i povezan prekidima, tako da i linearni tip zvuçne
operacije rezultira onim ßto se oznacava kao nelinearna kvalitativna
Æaa n
Æ n KKllo
odd R
Riis
see (Jean-Claude Risset) naglaßava da elektroakustiçka promena percepcije. Heuristiçni, metodi samouçe~a, istraΩiva~a i
muzika treba da postoji kao posebna i odvojena disciplina u odnosu na testira~a, probe sa sekvencama, kombinacije i transformacije, obiçno
instrumentalnu muziku, kao ßto se film razlikuje od pozorißta, tako i su jedini naçin otkriva~a zvuçnih struktura i ~ihovog mi¬ea.
elektroakustiçka muzika kao “cinema for the ears” treba da poseduje Kompozitor mora biti siguran da odabrani algoritam odgovara zvuçnom
sliçnu autonomiju. Rise se pojav¬uje kao apologeta muzike za traku (tape materijalu na koji je prime~en. Permutacioni algoritam kompozicione
music), i definiße je kao “muziku koja zahteva medijum” ßto je dale vodi makrostrukture moΩda ne†e dati interesantne rezultate kada je
ka eleborira~u manipulacije zvukom i akuzmatiçkom principu slußnog prime~en na konstrukciju talasnih zvuçnih formi mikro nivoa. To je
iskustva. rezultat neravnomerne topologije zvuka u okviru datog zvuçnog mi¬ea,
Problematika savremene elktroakustiçke muzike izrazena je, kon- tako da veliki deo vremena zauzima rasvet¬ava~e odnosa izme∂u algo-
statuje Rise, u slede†em: ritma, zvuka, i kompozicionih struktura. Nove estetske forme i
a) tehnoloßki progres omogu†io je danas da muzicari poseduju svoja mogu†nosti su uglavnom prihva†ene univerzalno. konzervativne tenden-
privatna studija, ßto je donekle izmenilo ulogu institucija koje i da¬e cije dominiraju u svakodnevnom muziçkom diskursu. Kulturalistiçke
imaju privilegiju, ne samo u cirkulaciji ideja, ve† i u razmeni i tendencije u pojedinim zem¬ama su ußançene a ne ekspanzionistiçke.
pedagoßkoj inicijativi u pogledu razvoja istraΩiva~a, teorije, alata i Klasiçan kompozicioni model u smislu neçujne, mastilom zabeleΩene
sposobnosti; muzike na papiru, ostao je poput sveti~e. Stariji kompozitori, koji su u
b) industrijski napredak nije podstaknut estetskim razlozima, ve† mladosti eksperimentisali sa elektronskim medijumom, napustili su
masovnim trΩißtem, paΩ~a je usmerena ka tehnoloßkim “objektima” na ovaj zanr zarad konformistiçkih pogodnosti izvo∂e~a tradicionalnog
granici sa fetißizmom, tako da eksperimentalna elektroakustiçka ansambla. Za medije koji distribuiraju informacije, EAM nije viße
muzika produzava mogu†e - evoluciju industrije elektronskih instrume- novost, ve† pre neßto ßto je davno proßlo - passé! U isto vreme, jaki
nata, da bi obezbedila “dug Ωivot” kvalitetnih instrumenata; tehnoloßki i esteski razlozi kontinuirano potiskuju kreativne mogut-
nosti ovog medijuma.
Sve to, rezultira velikim jazom izme∂u potencijala koji poseduje Pored toga, veliki broj kompozitora savremene EAM uticao je na
EAM i “gluve” generacije konzervativnih muziçara i magnata u sferi muziku popularnog Ωanra, poput one koju izvode Brian Eno, Selgen Ono, ili
kulture. Viße nego ikad, EAM mora da dokazuje sama sebe u muziçkom Laurie Anderson. Nikola Sani napomi~e, da je teßko dati kompletan i
smislu; ne moΩe se raçunati da †e apstraktne ideje istovremeno ostavi- zadovo¬avaju†i odgovor na mnoga pita~a koje postav¬a EAM , ali tako∂e
ti i utisak, i same sebe objasniti. Kako posti†i, ili dosti†i, potreban je evidento da, izme∂u ostalih, Internacionalna akademija za elek-
nivo zna~a iz oblasti medijuma EAM ? Instrukcije u novoj muzici pril- troakustiçku muziku u BurΩu (Francuska), daje veliki doprinos klasi-
içno su dezorganizovane i nastupaju sa zakaß~e~em, pri tome i muziçka fikaciji, objaß~e~ima i popularizaciji ovog Ωanra. Pita~e estetske
teorija kasni za kompozicionom praksom. Mnoge ßkole ne pridaju ve†i analize pojedine kompozicije teßko je ostvar¬ivo, ve† bi se pre moglo
znaçaj EAM i ne nude adekvatnu nastavu i obuku. Tako∂e, ve†ina studija govoriti o estetici viße razliçitih EA dela, poßto u okviru ovog
vo∂ena je mena∆erskim interesima, tako da su interesi EAM sekundarnog Ωanra postoje veoma razliçiti kreativni pristupi i umetniçka
tipa. Pored nekoliko specijalizovanih publikacija, ne postoji znaça- izraΩajna sredstva. Poçeci tzv. elektronske muzike bili su vezani za
jnija i ozbi¬nija literatura, çasopisi, i dr., mada na globalnoj mreΩi magnetnu traku , ßto upu†uje na razmatra~e estetike tzv. radiofonijskog
postoji interesna grupa za EAM , u okviru koje se naΩalost jav¬aju svi tipa, jer programi radija koriste i danas traku, izme∂u ostalih, kao
mogu†i korisnici mreΩe çesto sa neadekvatnim pita~ima, nerazume- osnovni medijum, tako da je elektronska muzika posedovala zajedniçki
va~em medija i ~egovim svo∂e~em na banalne zabavno-muziçke denominator : snimak kompozicione strukture na magnetnoj traci. Tako
subΩanrove koji koriste istu tehnologiju. Publika tako “pluta” izme∂u je mogu†e govoriti i o muzici izvan realnog vremena (real-time) u smislu
mase nekvalitetnih i eksperimentalnih, taçnije nedovrßenih, dela koja analogne tehnologije. Posle viße decenija, dve inovacije su fundamen-
su uvrß†ena u programe za difuziju iz najrazliçitijih razloga, pre svega talno doprinele ekspanziji domena EAM muzike: a) upotreba raçunara u
socijalno-politiçkih. To sve stvara kod publike jako loß imi∆ EAM . muzici, i b) uvo∂e~e elektronskih sistema za koncertno izvo∂e~e.
Trenutna situacija u oblasti estetike EAM , napomi~e Roads, odraΩava Muzika na principima tzv. “Ωive” elektronike (live electronic) tesno je
sa jedne strane jako utvr∂ene kulturalne barijere, a sa druge, artistiçka povezana sa pojavom prvih sintisajzera (synthesizer). Dok je tzv. kom-
zrelost elektroakustiçkog medijuma prekida povere~e u ~egovu pjuterska muzika upu†ivala viße na sistem non real-time, dotle je tzv.
budu†nost. Iako su pretpostavke EAM u drußtvu daleko od idealnog, to muzika Ωive elektronike viße upu†ivala na izvo∂e~e i interaktivnost .
ne†e spreçiti kompozitore da urade ono ßto se mora uraditi: da trans- Svaka od ove dve forme, posedovala je sopstveni izraΩajno-umetniçki
formißu potencijal EAM u vrhunsku umetniçku zvuçnu energiju. jezik, kao i specifiçnu tehnoloßku osnovu, ßto je dovelo, u mnogim
sluçajevima, do kritiçkog odnosa prema digitalnoj tehnologiji i
Ni
N ik
koolla
a S
Saan
nii (Nicola Sani) smatra da EAM danas prolazi kroz tranzi- povratka na pojedine znaçajne procedure muziçke produkcije analognog
cionu fazu, od identifikacije pojedinaçnih estetskih tendencija, pa sve tipa. Generalno uzevßi, u haosu savremene EAM , danas je potrebno
do sum~i da uopßte egzistira estetika EAM . ZapaΩa se kontradiktorna istraΩiti istorijske korene i evoluciju EAM kako bi se uspostavila
situacija: posle WWII (2. svetskog rata) EAM se ra∂a kao tehnoloßka posebna, rafinirana i diskretna estetika razliçitih ostvare~a u
avangarda i jezgro novog muziçkog jezika, da bi se postepeno dovela u okviru ovog Ωanra i, istovremeno, unapredila estetika budu†eg razvoja
pita~e jer je tehnoloßki progres naglo postao pristupaçan ve†ini. EAM .
Tako je produkcija muzike uz pomo† raçunara i radnih elektronskih
stanica postala deo trΩißta masovne konzumacije. Publika, generalno, B aar
B rii T
Trru
uaa (Barry Truax) zapaΩa da je savremena situacija u EAM tip-
smatra da EAM pripada domenu popularne, posebno zabavne, muzike, ili içna po naglom i ekspanzionistiçkom uvo∂e~u u kompozicionu praksu
nekog subΩanra koji ona uk¬uçuje po prirodi stvari. To je taçno sa uzorka digitalnog zapisa zvuka (sampled sound), ßto je u isto vreme i
aspekta tehnologije, iako definicije elektronske i elektroakustiçke pristupaçno i problematiçno. To je, svakako, deo savremenog umetniçkog
muzike uk¬uçuju razliçite aspekte i tendencije, poçevßi od osnovne da kreda socio-politiçke osnove koji ukazuje da je kompletan zvuk kreiran
je elektronska muzika isk¬uçivo odre∂ena produkcijom na elektronskim jednako, ßto je mogu†e samo na najniΩem nivou akustiçkog pritiska ili
instrumentima i ure∂ajima. U stvarnosti, pita~e EAM je kompleksno i znakovnog niza (stream) uzorka digitalnog zapisa zvuka. Zapadnoevropska
obavezno uk¬uçuje tehniçku evoluciju naßeg vremena. Da li je mogu†e muziçka teorija koja je uvela funkcionalne odnese u oblasti tonskih
govoriti o spacijalnoj obradi u muzici Luçana Berija (Luciano Berio) bez visina, nije viße u mogu†nosti da objasni zvuçni materijal sa multikom-
razmatra~a razvoja real-time sistema, ili o teßko†ama interakcije muz- pleksnim tonskim visinama kao npr. ambijentalan zvuk (environmental
içkih ure∂aja u muzici Toda Mahovera (Tod Machover), npr. bez razma- sound). Tako je, veoma teßko manipulisati ambijentalan zvuk u umet-
tra~a metajezika i sistema za predstav¬a~e virtuelne realnosti (virtu- niçkom smislu, posebno muziçkom, pri çemu zamena ovog zvuka tonovima
al reality). Tako∂e, o oblasti tembra - zvuçne boje , u okviru koje je poseb- muziçkih instrumenata, ili konvencionalno sintetizovanim zvucima,
no istaknuta tzv. francuska ßkola , ne bi se moglo govoriti bez razma- nije adekvatna i zadovo¬avaju†a zbog izraΩenog nivoa hiperstrukture i
tra~a napretka sistema za analizu i sintezu ( resintezu ) zvuka. superpozicije zvuçnih slojeva ambijentalnog zvuka, kao i znaçajnog pris-
ustva ßuma - buke.
Poseban aspekt predstav¬a znaçe~e ambijentalnog zvuka, za koje Trua Ove pojmove odre∂uje, pre svega, prisustvo i prepoznat¬ivost ambi-
navodi da je uglavnom kontekstualne prirode, tj. direktno zavisno od jentalnog zvuka i konteksta, a namera je da se kod slußalaca podstakne
konteksta , ili osobenosti samog zvuka. Zbog toga se, u semiotiçkom asocijacija, memorija, i imaginacija koja je u vezi sa zvukovima
smislu, ne moΩe govoriti o proizvo¬nosti znaka, poßto su auralne okruΩe~a - sredine - soundscape. Uk¬uçiva~e slußalaca u sußtinu kom-
osobenosti zvuka nedvosmisleno vezane za ~egovo znaçe~e, kao npr. u pozicije je osnovni zadatak, pre svega iz razloga oboga†iva~a ~ihovog
sluçaju kada se u jednom drußtvu pokußavaju zameniti tradicionalni mentalnog koncepta koji je u funkciji semiotike (znaçe~a) zvuka, ßto je
zvuçni signali sa novim, ßto je skoro nemogu†e. Osobenost elek- nastavak pedagoßke orijentacije obra†a~a paΩ~e na ambijentalan zvuk
troakustiçke muzike i ~ene tehnologije, sastoji se u specijalizaciji - zvuk okruΩe~a, çovekove prirodne sredine. To podrazumeva meßa~e
preuzima~a zvuka iz ~egovog originalnog konteksta i ~egovoj slobodnoj (mix) separatno snim¬enih komponenti i dizajnira~e iluzije ~ihove
reprodukciji u okvirima drugog konteksta. To objaß~ava ßiroku prisutnosti, prolaznosti, ili uda¬ava~a. Istovremeno i poznata, a
upotrebu ambijentalnog zvuka kao osnove elektroakustiçke kompozicije povremeno i imaginarna, ovakva vrsta kompozicija zahteva nekoliko
ve† skoro 50 godina. Koriß†e~e ambijentalnog zvuka razvija se na lini- razliçitih nivoa slußalaçke aktivnosti, koji se odvijaju od obiçne
ji od hiperapstraktnih zvuçnih objekata prema ma~e apstraktnim i viße identifikacije do simboliçkog tipa komunikacije. Najzastup¬enija
kontekstualno asociranim. Sa druge strane, kritiçki osvrti (Risset, tehnologija kompozicionog tretira~a ambijentalnog zvuka danas je,
1985) povodom znaçe~a ambijentalnog zvuka u smislu “konkretnog”, svakako, digitalna, pre svega ona koja uk¬uçuje primenu semplera (sam-
ukazuju na inferionost i siromaßtvo transformacije ovakvog zvuka u pler) i ure∂aja - hardvera i softvera za digitalnu obradu signala (DSP),
pore∂e~u sa bogatstvom ~egovog semiotiçkog konteksta. Pored toga, ßto se u komercijalnoj terminologiji oznaçava kao obrada efekata -
ambijentalan zvuk rezultira sasvim razliçitim oblicima percepcije u effectsprocessing. Kompozicije tipa soundscape koje su rezultat 25-
okviru muziçkog konteksta, tako da je rezidualan zvuk daleko ma~e godiß~eg napora SF University, sa konceptualnom pozadinom studija
izraΩen u odnosu na govor ili muziku. Muzika “pozadine”, ambijenta, ili zvuçnog okruΩe~a i akustiçke komunikacije, kao i tehniçkih sredstava
“muziçka zavesa” (background music) name~ena ßirokom slußalaçkom granulacije i ekstenzije vremena, podrazumevaju razvijene modele muz-
auditorijumu, uglavnom je reprodukovana kao “beztelesno” odvojeni i içke primene ambijentalnog zvuka. Principi soundscape kompozicije,
simultani govor, muzika ili ambijentalni zvukovi, poseduju†i u isto prema navodima koje iznosi B. Trua, su slede†i:
vreme osobenost originalne humane produkcije i animaciju ka formama a) slußalac prepoznaje izvor zvuçnog materijala koji je prime~en,
nehumanog vida komunikacije. U tom smislu, kompozicije izgra∂ene na çak i kada je podvrgnut odredenim transformacijama;
osnovi ambijentalnog zvuka çesto predstav¬aju izazov onome ßto b) zna~e slußaoca o ambijentalnom (environmental) i psiholoßkom kon-
podrazumevaju konvencionalne muziçke forme slußa~a i uslovi tekstu soundscape materijala je podstaknuto i ohrabreno u smislu upot-
izvo∂e~a, tj. koncertne sale, radio, javni i privatni prostori. U pogle- pu~ava~a i kompletira~a mreΩe znaçe~a koja se pripisuju muzici;
du problema koji ambijentalan zvuk predstav¬a u radu kompozitora, v) zna~e kompozitora o ambijentalnom i psiholoskom kontesktu
uoçavau se dva momenta: a) kreta~e od cistog efekta ka b) apstraktnom zvuçnog materijala moΩe uticati na oblikova~e na svakom nivou kom-
diskursu. Interesantan je pristup problematici ambijentalnog zvuka pozicije, pri cemu se kompozicija ne moΩe separirati od ve†ine ovih
koji prime~uje Univerzitet Simon Frejzer u Kanadi (SFU Canada), tako realinih aspekata;
ßto studija zapoçi~e svim mogu†im aspektima koje ambijentalan (environ- g) idealno, delo unapre∂uje i podstice naße razumeva~e sveta, i
mental) zvuk ostvaruje u pogledu komunikacije bez potencijalne muziçke ostavla uçinak na svakodnevne oblike perceptualnog ponaßa~a, bez sub-
primene. Postav¬eni ci¬ nije da¬e istraΩiva~e zvukova sredine kao ordinacije i sa balansom izme∂u unutraß~e kompleksnosti soniçne
izvora muziçkog materijala, ve† iskoriß†ava~e baze muziçkog zna~u u organizacije i spo¬aß~e kompleksnosti odnosa koji postoje u realnom
dizajnira~u zvuka da bi se redizajnirao zvuçni prostor (soundscape) i da svetu.
bi se kod ¬udi podstaklo perceptualno uvaΩava~e znaçaja koji poseduje Tako je, navodi Trua, pravi ci¬ soundscape kompozicije integracija
ambijentalan zvuka . Barry Truax napomi~e da je na ovom projektu radio slußaoca sa okruΩe~em (sredinom) u balansiranom ekoloßkom odnosu.
zajedno sa kolegama kompozitorima Murray Schafer i Hildegard Westerkamp,
ßto je rezultiralo stvara~em World Soundscape Projest (WSP), odnosno Or
O raac
ciio
o V
Vaa∂
∂oon
nee (Horacio Vaggione) naglaßava da je za elektroakustiçku
deskriptivnom bazom soundscape studija The Tuning of the World (Schafer, muziku izuzetno znaçajna dimenzija vremena, odnosno kako ih naziva tzv.
1977). Tako∂e je osnovan i Svetski forum za akustiçku ekologiju (World temporalni slojevi - nivoi prisutni u odre∂enoj kompoziciji. U tom
Forum for Acoustic Ecology - WFAE, sa zadatkom da poveΩe grupe i individ- smislu, sve kompozicione manipulacije koje artikulißu odnose izme∂u
ualce koji se u svetu bave problematikom zvuçnog okruΩe~a - soundscape. temporalnih slojeva, zavise u u sußtini od paradigme koju je prihvatio
U tom smislu, Trua se bavi stvara~em uzoraka digitalnog zapisa zvuko- ili odabrao kompozitor, utvr∂uju†i tako status i prirodu ovih interak-
va sredine - sampled environmental sound ßto je rezultiralo kompozicija- cija: kao kontinuum koji je organizovan u smislu fiksirane hijerarhije,
ma tipa soundscape compositions, koje je S. Emerson (Simon Emmerson) ili kao egzistencija diskontinuiteta pojava nelinearnog tipa.
definisao kao “mimetiçki diskurs” i “apstraktnu sintaksu”.
_________________________ Estetika elektroakustiçke kompozicije ____________________________ 69
Va∂one posebno insistira na pojavi nelinearnosti koja je na soniçnom

PRILOG
PRILOG
nivou rezultat relacija izme∂u razliçitih dimenzija vremena koje pos-
toje kod kompozitora i izvodaca, ili konvecionalnih instrumenata i
P OO JJ M
P M OO VV NN II KK SS AA VVRR EEM
M EE NN EE EELL EE KK TT RR OO AA KK UU SS TT II ÇÇ KK EE PP RR AA KK SSEE
/engleski/
nove tehnologije za koju je tipiçna akcija multinivoa. Reße~e problema
za kompozitora, ukoliko Ωeli ekstenziju date sintakse na sve mogu†e
S obzirom da studenti KSOZ-AUBK u svakodnevnom poslu dizajni-
vremenske dimenzije, predstav¬a iznalaΩe~e izraΩajnih sredstava koja
ra~a zvuka i muzike koriste tehnologiju çija terminoloßka osnova pre-
mogu artikulisati ovako kompleksnu situaciju. Elektroakustiçka
vashodno potiçe od izvorne grafije na ngleskom jeziku, u promiß¬a~u,
izraΩajna sredstva stvorila su radikalnu originalnost u muzici i
planira~u i odabira~u izvo∂açkog instrumentarijuma, tehnoloßkog
ukazala na multiplicirane vremenske atribute koji artikulißu jedno
procesa, i drugih relevantnih momenata, a u sferi projektivne metode,
elektroakustiçko delo. Ta sredstva ukazala su i na dimenziju prostora,
pojmovnik na engleskom jeziku pruΩa objaß~e~a svih znaçajnih termina
taçnije dva prostora, koja se ranije nizu mogla zamisliti u kompozi-
koji su neophodni u profesionalnom radu.
cionoj situaciji: a) interni prostor - koji definiße atribute zvuka
unutar dela, virtuelni prostor koji je çvrsto povezan sa fiziçkom real-
noß†u, i b) eksterni prostor - koji korespondira manifestaciji Musical Instruments
internog prostora odre∂enog dela u “realnom” prostoru koncertne sale.
Accordion Harmonica Tuba
Elektroakustiçka sredstva omogu†ila su rad na mikrospektralnim
Aeolian Harp Harp Ud
dimenzijama koje su daleko izvan limita stvara~a za tradicionalne muz-
Alphorn Harpsichord Ukulele
içke instrumente. Va∂one smatra, da koncept “zvuçnih objekata” (sound
Amati Horn Vibraharp
objects) predstav¬a jednu od sußtinskih kategorija elektroakustiçkog
Bagpipe Hornpipe Viele
pristupa. Fenomen akustiçkog zraçe~a instrumenta predstav¬a funkci-
Balalaika Hurdy-Gurdy Viol
ju koja se me~a u zavisnostiod nekoliko kriterijuma, uk¬uçuju†i i
Banjo Jew's Harp Viola
frekvenciju, tako da izgleda da svaki zvuk, u principu, poseduje posebno
Barrel Organ Kithara Violin
usmere~e, tj. sopstvene prostorne vektore, tako da sekvenca zvuka uvek
Bassoon Koto Xylophone
korespondira sekvenci pozicija (“ fantomskih” lokacija ) u prostoru
Bell Lute Zither
koncertne dvorane, çemu se moraju pridodati i karakteristike rezonan-
Boehm Lyre
cije same dvorane, iz cega slede specifivçne trajektorije za svaku ton-
Bouzouki Mandolin
sku visinu, intenzitet, traja~e, i boju. Pri tome se moΩe me~ati pozi-
Bugle Musette
cija instrumenta u prostoru za svaki emitovan zvuk, ßto zajedno sa
Carillon Music Box
akustiçkim zraçe~em instrumenta ukazuje na ogromno bogatstvo poten-
Castanets Musical Instruments
cijalnog zvuka. Pored sluçaja “çiste” elektroakustiçke muzike, Va∂one
Cello Oboe
napomi~e i posebnost tzv. mixed music, koju definiße u smislu kompozi-
Cittern Ocarina
cija koje sadrze elektroakustiçke sekvence i instrumente koji sviraju
Clarinet Organ
“uΩivo”, çime se postiΩe mogu†a konvergencija zajedniçke vektorizaci-
Clavichord Panpipe
je, tj. kompletan proces predstavla intimnu interakciju izme∂u
Cornet Piano
soniçnih rezultata i kompozicionog procesa, ßto odslikava zajedniçki
Cornett Psaltery
muziçki ci¬.
Cymbals Recorder
Didjeridu Sackbut
Izneta estetska promiß¬a~a, danas relativno poznatih i ce~enih
Double Bass Santur
kompozitora EAM zapadnoevropske provinijencije, ukazuju da elek-
Drum Saxophone
troakustiçka muzika predstav¬a poseban semiotiçki kod, izgra∂en kon-
Dulcimer Shakuhachi
ceptualni jezik novih zvuçno-muziçkih izraΩajnih sredstava, koji
Fife Shawm
zapoçi~e od momenta reprodukcije i generiße zvuçno-muziçku kreaciju
Flute Shofar
i slußa~e - slußa~e sa memorijom, a ne puku informaciju o pojedi-
Glockenspiel Stradivari
naçnom zvuku u jedinici vremena. IzraΩeni oralni i literarni aspekti
Gong Triangle
elektroakustiçke kompozicije u smislu soundscape - music of the environ-
Guarneri Trombone
ment, tj. razliçiti modaliteti manipulacije zvuçnih efekata, ambijen-
Guitar Trumpet
talnog zvuka, odnosno raznovrsne muzike, definißu Ωanr EAM kao
specifiçnu sintezu koncepcija konkretne, elektronske i kompjuterske
muzike, çija se estetika i aksiologija nalazi na putu ostvare~a.
Antonio Amati (circa 1550-c. 1638) and Girolamo Amati (c. 1556-c. 1630),
Accordion - a hand-held musical instrument consisting of a bellows attached sons of Andrea Amati. They worked together and followed their father's style.
to two oblong frames, on which buttons and, in some types, pianolike keys are Girolamo also developed a larger violin with an altered sound hole.
mounted. A person plays the accordion by drawing (stretching) and pushing (com-
pressing) the bellows, causing air to pass over metal tabs called reeds. This airflow Nicolò Amati (1596-1684), son of Girolamo Amati. He became the most emi-
makes the reeds vibrate, which produces sounds. A player produces the various nent craftsman of the family. His model is extremely elegant, with the backs and
notes by depressing the buttons and keys. The reeds and buttons that control bass bellies arched and made of beautiful grained wood. The sound holes are graceful
notes are on the player's left-hand side of the bellows, and the reeds and buttons or and bold, the scroll is exquisitely cut, and the varnish is transparent and of a deep,
keys that control treble notes are on the right-hand side. The two main types of rich hue. As a rule, Nicolò used a small pattern, although he produced some large
accordion are single-action and double-action. In single-action accordions, each violins, which are now called grand Amatis and are highly valued. He also made a
button produces two notes, one on the push and another on the draw. In double- number of beautiful violas and violoncellos. The great Italian violin makers
action accordions, each key or button produces the same note on the push as on the Antonio Stradivari and Andrea Guarneri were his pupils.
draw. The most familiar type of accordion, the piano accordion, is a double-action
accordion. The piano accordion has a row of pianolike keys instead of buttons on
Girolamo Amati (1649-1740), son of Nicolò Amati, ended the leadership of the
the right-hand side.
Amati name in the craft of violin making.
An accordionlike instrument called the Handäoline was invented in Berlin in the
1820s. Cyril Demian patented the first actual accordion in 1829 in Vienna. The ear-
liest accordions had ten melody buttons and two bass buttons. Later versions added Bagpipe - musical instrument in which wind is supplied to one or more reed-
more buttons, enabling players to produce an even wider variety of notes and sounded pipes from a bag inflated by the performer, either through a blowpipe or by
chords. The piano accordion was developed in the 1850s. a bellows. Because the wind supply is continuous, the sounding pipes normally can-
The concertina is a small, hexagonal instrument that is similar to the accordion. not be silent, and repeated melody notes must be articulated by inserting grace
It is made in single-action and double-action versions. Sir Charles Wheatstone notes (notes of extremely short duration) between them. The simplest bagpipes have
invented the concertina in 1829. He was inspired by the action of the sheng, an a cane pipe with a single reed cut in the side; often two parallel pipes are present,
ancient Chinese mouth organ. one a chanter (melody pipe) and the other a drone (harmony pipe). Bagpipes were
generally known in Europe and western Asia by the time of the Roman Empire
(from about the 1st century BC to the 5th century AD), often as shepherds' instru-
Aeolian Harp - musical instrument in which several gut strings of different
ments. Single-reed cylindrical chanters and drones remain typical of western Asian
thicknesses and equal length are stretched over a narrow, oblong box. When placed
and North African bagpipes and of such Eastern European bagpipes as the Bulgarian
in a focused current of air (such as an almost-closed window), the Aeolian harp pro-
gaida. Western European bagpipes, such as the Spanish gaita gallega and the Breton
duces eerie chords composed of the harmonics of a single fundamental tone, to
biniou, developed as double-reed chanters of conical bore, but typically retained
which all the strings are tuned. The sounds grow louder with more wind and die
cylindrical, single-reed drones. Most can play a scale of nine notes.
away with the passing of the gust. The instrument was popular during the 19th cen-
The earliest surviving Scottish Highland pipe dates from 1409. Except that it
tury. Similar devices are mentioned in the Bible. See also Musical Instruments:
lacks a bass drone, it resembles the present-day Highland pipe, which has a coni-
Harps and Lyres.
cal-bore, double-reed chanter with eight finger holes, and three drones (two tenors
and a bass tuned an octave lower). The Irish union pipe, or uillean pipe, is a com-
Alphorn - Swiss long wooden horn with a cupped mouthpiece and a conical plicated bellows-blown instrument with a conical double-reed chanter, usually with
bore ending in a bell, or flare. The tubing is about 1.5 to 3 m (about 5 to 10 ft) long nine closed keys. The open bottom of the chanter rests on the player's knee. When
and is typically straight with an upturned bell; the tubing may also be completely all the keys are closed, the sound stops; when the chanter is lifted off the knee, the
straight, S-shaped, or coiled like a trumpet. The notes are the natural harmonics of chanter overblows to a higher octave. In addition to its three cylindrical single-reed
the tube's fundamental pitch (like the notes of a bugle). Known since antiquity, the drones, it has three “regulators”: conical double-reed pipes that produce chords
alphorn is primarily used for signaling, although Swiss cowherders' songs (ranz des when their heavy keys are opened with the edge of the player's right hand.
vaches) and other music can be played on alphorns in three- and four-part har- The bellows-blown Northumbrian small-pipe has seven closed keys on a cylin-
monies. Similar instruments are found in the Carpathians and Pyrenees. drical double-reed chanter closed at the bottom, thus permitting silences. Only three
of its four cylindrical single-reed drones are played at one time (each has a shutoff
Amati - family of celebrated Italian violin makers of Cremona. valve). Its probable ancestor, the courtly musette of 17th- and 18th-century France,
usually had two cylindrical double-reed chanters (the second provided higher pitch-
Andrea Amati (died about 1578), founder of the Cremona school of violin makes). Its four cylindrical double-reed drones were bored in a single chubby pipe. The
ers. His model was a small violin with high back and belly, amber varnish, and a south Italian zampogna has two chanters and two drones, all double reed.
clear although weak tone.
Balalaika - Russian stringed instrument of the lute family. It has a triangular
body, basically flat, with a small round sound hole near the narrow top of the belly;
a long, narrow neck; and three gut or metal strings, normally plucked with the fin- century German manufacturer Wilhelm Heckel, has a more consistent, less flexible
gers (a leather plectrum is sometimes used with metal strings). Made in six sizes, tone than the French bassoon.
from piccolo to contrabass, it developed in the 18th century from the similar domra
or dombra of Central Asia and Siberia. The representative balalaika, the treble or Bell - (musical instrument), musical percussion instrument, a hollow cup-shaped
prima, is usually tuned e1 e1 a1 (e1 = E above middle C. vessel, usually made of metal but sometimes made of wood, pottery, or other mate-
rial, that produces sound when struck with a clapper or hammer. The clapper may
Banjo - stringed instrument of the lute family, with an open-backed round body be fastened to the inside of the bell, or it may be a separate hand-held or mechani-
consisting of a circular wood hoop over which is stretched a vellum belly (former- cally or electrically moved hammer that strikes the outside rim (as in an electroni-
ly nailed on, now held tense by a screw mechanism); a long, narrow, fretted neck; cally operated doorbell). Bells are classified as idiophones (instruments in which
and metal or metal-wound gut strings. resonant solid material vibrates to produce sound); they vibrate primarily near the
rim.
History
The strings run from a tailpiece, over a bridge (a piece of wood that holds the Bells were known in China before 2000 BC and in Egypt, India, Greece, Rome,
strings off of the belly of the banjo) held in place by their pressure, up the neck to and other ancient cultures. From earliest times they were used as signaling devices,
rear tuning pegs (machine screws on modern banjos). Five strings are typical: four as ritual objects, and as magical, often protective, amulets (often hung in doorways
full-length strings and a shorter fifth “thumb” string running to a tuning screw or around the necks of animals). The use of bells in churches spread through Europe
halfway up the neck. A common tuning (beginning with the thumb string) is g1 c0 in the 6th to 11th centuries and were first used in Eastern Christian churches in the
g0 b0 d1 (g1 = G above middle C; c0 = C below middle C). Often a five-string banjo 9th century.
body is suspended in a metal or wood resonator. The earliest metal bells were apparently hammered into a cup shape from a flat
The only Western stringed instrument with a vellum belly, the banjo originated in piece of metal. When the process of casting metal was discovered, many bells were
Africa and was brought to America in the 17th century by black slaves. Early ban- cast of bronze. The casting of bells declined in late antiquity, and handbells of the
jos had fretless necks, a varying number of strings, and, sometimes, gourd bodies. cowbell type came into use; these were made of thin metal plates bent into rectan-
Adopted by white musicians in 19th-century minstrel-show troupes, the banjo gles and fastened with rivets. About AD 800 the casting process resurfaced, making
gained frets and metal strings. The five-string banjo, plucked with the fingers, is possible the manufacture of large tuned bells.
common in folk music and commercial bluegrass bands. The plectrum-plucked four- The small hemispherical cast bell known in antiquity developed differently in the
string banjo was popular about 1900 in vaudeville bands. East and in the West. In the East, the cup shape elongated into beehive (convex-
sided) or straight-sided shapes, with walls of uniform thickness. In the West by
Barrel Organ - musical instrument, usually portable; the music is produced by about AD 800, sets of small, hemispherical, mallet-struck bells were played in
a revolving barrel or cylinder set with pins and staples that open valves for admit- musical ensembles. Bells were also hung in clock towers and struck with hammers.
ting wind to pipes from a bellows worked by the same revolving cylinder. To forestall the frequent cracking at the rim, bellmakers began using interior clap-
The first barrel organs were used in England in the early 18th century. More or pers and gave their bells a thick ring around the rim. By about 1400 the character-
less primitive barrel organs, equipped with pipes for diatonic scales in the major istic campaniform shape of Western bells had evolved: square-shouldered, with
keys, became popular in churches as accompanying instruments for hymn and psalm straight or slightly concave sides (the waist), flaring out and thickening near the rim
singing. At the beginning of the 19th century two other types of organs became pop- (the sound bow). This stronger shape also improved the tone, and in the 15th to 18th
ular. One was the extremely light and portable barrel organ used by itinerant musi- centuries bellmakers in the Low Countries specialized in producing bells so well
cians; the other was a variety of orchestrion (the large and elaborate automatic tuned that they could be played in harmony (see Carillon). In England, sets of some-
organs used in restaurants, music and dancing halls, and carousels). See also Hurdy- what differently tuned bells were rung in complicated permutations of a standard
Gurdy. sequence, a process known as change ringing.
A type of iron handbell was developed in sub-Saharan Africa and remains an
Bassoon - bass double-reed woodwind instrument. It has about 2.4 m (about 8 integral part of many African musical traditions. Because the handbells typically
ft) of conical-bore wood tubing in a narrow U shape, in four sections, or joints. The have no clapper, they are struck with a beater to produce sounds. The sharp, pene-
slightly flared bell joint is set into the bass, or long, joint, which is set in turn—like trating sound of the iron handbell can also be heard in the African-influenced music
the tenor, or wing, joint—into the double, or butt, joint. The bassoon normally has of Latin America.
eight finger holes (usually controlled by keys) and ten or more additional key-con-
trolled holes. The reed is placed in a curved metal tube, or crook, set into the tenor Bell Founding
joint. Developed about 1650 from the similar curtal (which was bored into a single
wood block), the bassoon has a range of about three octaves upward from the third Fine cast bells are made of a bronze alloy called bell metal, which typically con-
B-flat below middle C. The modern French bassoon, played in Belgium, France, sists of four parts copper and one part tin. Other metals tend to produce an inferior
Spain, and Italy, was developed in the mid-19th century by the French firm of sound. The tone of a bell also depends on its proportions of height, width, thick-
Buffet-Crampon. The German bassoon, played elsewhere and perfected by the 19th- ness, and shape. A true bell tone is an intricate composite of many partial tones,
each produced by vibrations of different sections of the bell. If the tuning of these bugles have a single valve that lowers the pitch by a fourth. A semicircular bugle,
sections is imperfect, dissonances occur when bells are played in harmony. one of various European signal horns, was adopted about 1800 by German and
In founding, or casting, a bell, a core is built up with clay, contoured to the size English infantry units. Soon after, the coiled shape became common. In the 19th
and shape of the interior of the bell. A heavy outer shell, made of clay and other century the bugle developed several derivatives. The keyed bugle, or Kent bugle,
ingredients, is then built over the core; the inner surface of the shell conforms to with key-controlled fingerholes, was the first treble brass instrument with a full
the exterior of the proposed bell. Molten bell metal is then poured into the space scale. It was popular in bands until displaced by the cornet. The bass keyed bugle,
between the core and the outer shell. When the metal is cool, the mold is opened or ophicleide, was the common brass bass before the tuba. The flügelhorn is a
and the exterior is smoothed and polished. The interior surface is shaved on lathes valved bugle developed in Germany.
in order to obtain the wall thicknesses needed for proper tuning of the partials of
the bell tone. The largest bell in the world, the Tsar Kolokol of Moscow, cast in Carillon - group of cast bells (23 or more) tuned to a chromatic musical scale of
1733, is 5.8 m (19 ft) high and 61 cm (2 ft) thick and weighs about 181 metric tons. more than two octaves. The chromatic, or half-step, tuning of the carillon enables
America's Liberty Bell, now enshrined in a pavilion in Philadelphia's Independence the instrument to be played in any key. The carillon is hung in a fixed position in a
National Historical Park, weighs 944 kg (2080 lb) and measures 3.7 m (12 ft) in cir- tower. It is played manually by a keyboard called a clavier, or automatically by a
cumference. clockwork mechanism or electropneumatically. The lowest tones are produced by
the largest bells, some of which weigh several tons; the highest tones are made by
bells weighing as little as 4.5 to 9 kg (10 to 20 lb). When the carillon is played man-
ually, the clapper of each bell is wired to the clavier keys; the bellmaster, or caril-
lonneur, depresses the clavier keys with a closed hand, and the clapper strikes the
inside of the bell. The essential differences between a chime and a carillon, both of
which are constructed in the same way, are the number of bells and the method of
tuning; the chime is tuned to the diatonic scale, which is limited to the notes in one
Other Instruments Called Bells key, and has fewer than 23 bells. The art of carillon playing is called campanology,
and the best-known school is in Mechelen (also known as Malines), Belgium,
Tubular bells, used in orchestras, are sets of tuned metal tubes struck with a mal- founded by Jef Denyn, the famous carillonneur, in 1922. The art of casting bells and
let. Electronic bells are small rods of bell metal struck by hammers; the resulting making large carillons was perfected in Europe between the 15th and 18th centuries,
sound is then amplified electronically. Jingle bells are small hollow metal bells with particularly in Belgium, the Netherlands, and France. The largest carillon in the
a rattling pellet enclosed. Also called pellet bells or crotals, they are technically rat- world is the Rockefeller Memorial Carillon in Riverside Church, in New York City.
tles rather than true bells, but they share with bells a similar history of protective, It contains 74 bells, of which the deepest-tuned, weighing 20.5 tons, is the heaviest
magical, and ritual uses. in existence. The so-called electromechanical carillons are electronic devices made
of tiny bars of bell metal that are struck by hammers operated by keyboards.
Boehm, Theobald (1794-1881), German flute virtuoso and flute maker, who
designed the modern orchestral flute. Born in Munich, he was trained as a gold- Castanets - in music, percussion instrument consisting of a pair of hollow shells
smith, but in 1818 became flutist to the royal court in Munich. In 1832, for the then of hardwood, ivory, or composition material loosely bound together by a cord. The
common conical-bore flute, he introduced a new system of keywork and fingering, cord is generally fastened around the first finger and thumb of the performer's hand.
based on acoustically repositioned tone holes. In 1847 he applied his system to a When the other fingers strike the two castanets together, a hollow, clicking sound is
new flute design having a cylindrical bore and parabolic head joint. Almost univer- produced. Used chiefly with Spanish music to accent the rhythm of the piece being
sally adopted, the Boehm cylindrical flute persists today almost unchanged. Boehm performed, castanets are also played by female performers of Spanish dances, who
(also spelled Böhm) also invented a widely used iron-smelting process. usually hold one instrument in each hand. Wood and ivory instruments similar to
castanets were used in ancient times, but the modern term is derived from the
Bouzouki - musical instrument, a Greek long-necked lute, having a pear-shaped Spanish word for “chestnut” (castaño), from which castanets were commonly made.
wooden body and belly, metal frets fixed in the neck, three or four strings, and
geared tuning pegs. The metal strings, arranged in courses of two per note, are Cello - or Violoncello, large, low-pitched musical instrument of the violin fam-
plucked with a plectrum. The bouzouki is about 90 cm (about 3 ft) in length. It may ily, held between the performer's knees. It has four strings tuned C G d a (C = two
be used to accompany singing or to play virtuoso improvisations based upon older, C's below middle C; a = the A below middle C). Its range extends over more than
Arab-influenced melodies and Turkish modes (makams). Some newer pieces for the four octaves. The earliest surviving cellos are two from the 1560s by the Italian vio-
bouzouki also use major and minor scales of European derivation. Similar types of linmaker Andrea Amati. Until the late 18th century the cello was primarily a sup-
lutes can be found in Turkey. porting instrument, playing bass lines and adding fullness to musical textures.
During the baroque era unaccompanied cello suites were composed (1720?) by the
Bugle - cup-mouthpiece wind instrument made of coiled brass or copper tubing German composer Johann Sebastian Bach, as were cello concertos by Antonio
with a wide conical bore and flaring bell. Having no valves, it produces only nat- Vivaldi and Luigi Boccherini, the Italian composers. In the 19th century, works for
ural harmonics of the tubing's fundamental pitch: c0, c1, g1, c2, e2, g2, b-flat2, c3 the cello included concertos by Johannes Brahms and the Czech composer Antonín
(c1 = middle C; c0 = the C below); the B-flat bugle sounds a tone lower. Some
Dvorák. In the 20th century, composers such as the Russians Sergey Prokofiev and 1840 two complex systems of keywork had evolved: the Boehm system, used in
Dmitry Shostakovich further explored its solo capabilities. The most prominent most countries, and patented in 1844 by the French builder Auguste Buffet, who
20th-century cellist was the Spanish-born Pablo Casals. Other leading soloists are adapted the flute improvements of the German builder Theobald Boehm; and the
the Russian-born Gregor Piatigorsky and Mstislav Rostropovich. narrower-bore, darker-sounding system developed about 1860 by the Belgian maker
Eugène Albert.
Cittern - European plucked musical instrument, wire-strung, having a pear- Clarinets were common in orchestras by about 1780. Early works featuring the
shaped wooden body and belly and a nearly flat back. The cittern was popular dur- instrument include the overture for two clarinets and horn (1748) by the German-
ing the 16th and 17th centuries. The name and certain construction elements of the English composer George Frideric Handel and the clarinet concerto (1791) by
cittern probably derive from the ancient Greek instrument called the kithara. The Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.
cittern usually had four strings that were held in place by a long, flat bridge and—
unlike those of the lute—were plucked with a plectrum, or pick. Although the pro- Clavichord - the oldest form of stringed keyboard instrument, and a predeces-
file of the body was always wedge shaped—that is, thicker at the top than at the sor of the piano. The clavichord was popular from the 1400s to the early 1800s and
bottom—the length of the instrument varied from about 55 to 75 cm (about 21.5 to underwent a revival in the 20th century. It has a rectangular case with the keyboard
29.5 in). There was also some variation in the number and tunings of strings and in lengthwise to the left and the soundboard at the right end. The strings run from tun-
certain details of construction. The front of the pegbox (in which the tuning pegs ing pins at the right end of the case, over a bridge set on the soundboard, to hitch-
hold the strings) was usually sculpted in the shape of a head, and the back was fit- pins at the back and left end of the case. Each key has a small upright brass blade,
ted with a large hook carved to suggest a monstrous nose. The fingerboard, bearing or tangent, at its rear end. When the player depresses the front of the key, the tan-
18 or 19 thin brass frets, projected over the belly. To facilitate fingering, there was gent rises, striking the string, both setting it in vibration and determining its sound-
a groove for the player's thumb on one side of the back of the cittern's neck. ing length, which is from the bridge to the tangent. To the left of the tangent, the
vibrations of the string are silenced by felt woven through the strings near the hitch-
pins; when the key is released, the felt silences the entire string. By varying finger
pressure on the key, the player can produce a vibrato (German bebung), a wavelike
fluctuation in pitch. Early clavichords were fretted: Clavichord tangents for two,
For playing in the home, cittern music was often written in tablature, a system of three, or four keys were placed at different points along the same string, which,
notation that represented finger positions on the instrument rather than musical when struck, caused a different series of notes to be sounded. Later clavichords
notes. The cittern lost popularity during the 18th and 19th centuries but survived were unfretted, or built with a string or pair of strings for each key. A typical 18th-
into the 20th century as a folk instrument in rural areas of Germany, Switzerland, century clavichord is about 2.5 m (5 ft) long, with a range of five octaves. Within
and Portugal. the limits of its faint, delicate sound, the clavichord can produce great variation in
loudness and softness. Composers, particularly German composer Carl Philipp
Clarinet - woodwind musical instrument, essentially a cylindrical-bore pipe Emanuel Bach, prized its sensitivity.
sounded by a single beating reed that is clipped over a slot in a mouthpiece set in
the upper end of the pipe. The lower end flares out into a bell. Modern clarinets typ- Cornet - brass wind instrument developed in the middle of the 19th century,
ically are made of ebony (sometimes plastic) and have 20 or more side holes to pro- when valves were applied to the small circular-coiled post horn. Until the late 19th
duce different pitches; some are open, to be closed by the player's fingers, and oth- century it was a popular orchestral instrument that had famous virtuoso players;
ers are covered by padded keys. then the valved trumpet finally won wide acceptance and, except in brass bands,
The most common size of clarinet, the B-flat soprano, has a range of about three- largely displaced the cornet. The cornet has three valves, a medium-narrow conical
and-one-half octaves; the lowest note is the D (written E) below middle C. Notes bore, and a deep, funnel-shaped mouthpiece. In contrast, a trumpet bore is cylindri-
above the lowest, or chalumeau, part of the range are obtained by depressing a cal, its mouthpiece is cup-shaped, and its tone is less mellow than the cornet's
speaker key and overblowing (increasing the speed of air blown into the instru- sound. It is normally built in B-flat, with a range extending from the E below mid-
ment), which causes the instrument's air column to vibrate at a higher frequency. dle C to the second B-flat above middle C. Models were also built in C, A, and E-
Being a cylindrical pipe stopped at one end, the clarinet overblows to the interval flat. Music for all models is written as if the instrument were in C; thus, on a B-flat
of a 12th above the fundamental pitch (unlike flutes and oboes, which overblow to cornet, the tone sounding B-flat is notated as C.
the octave). Other common sizes of clarinet are the A soprano; the E-flat alto; the
bass (an octave below the soprano); and the contrabass (an octave below the bass). Cornett - musical instrument, a slender wooden trumpet with six finger holes, a
The basset horn was a late-18th-century precursor of the alto clarinet. Music for all cupped mouthpiece, and a conical bore. It was used throughout Europe from the late
clarinets is written as if for a C clarinet; on a B-flat clarinet the written note C 15th century to the 17th century, and in Germany it was used sporadically into the
sounds as B-flat. Players can thus switch instruments without learning new finger- 19th century. Generally played with the organ and sackbut to accompany choral
ings. The term B-flat clarinet refers to the notation, and not to the acoustic funda- pieces, the cornett was made in three sizes: treble, about 60 cm (about 23 in) in
mental note of the instrument. length; cornettino, smaller and tuned a fifth higher than the treble instrument; and
The clarinet was invented about 1700 by the German flute maker Johann tenor, about 94 to 104 cm (about 37 to 41 in) in length and tuned a fifth lower than
Christoph Denner as a modification of a folk reedpipe, the chalumeau. By about the treble. The treble cornett occurred in three varieties: curved (known in German
as Zink and in Italian as cornetto curvo), a gently curving, leather-covered octago- the 19th century. Virtuosos on the double bass have included the Italian Domenico
nal tube with a thumbhole on the back and with decorative facets near the detach- Dragonetti, the Russian-American conductor Serge Koussevitzky, and the American
able mouthpiece; straight, a circular conical tube with a separate mouthpiece; and jazz bassist Charlie Mingus.
mute, similar to the straight cornett except for its integral mouthpiece, which pro-
duced a less brilliant tone. Today the cornett is heard exclusively in early-music Drum - (musical instrument), musical instrument consisting of one or two
performances in which the musicians use authentic instruments. stretched membranes, called heads, held taut across a bowl-shaped or tubular frame,
called a shell, and sounded by percussion; that is, by striking the instrument with
Cymbals - percussion musical instruments, two thin, round, concave plates of the hands or with sticks. The drum shell holds the skin or skins taut and also acts as
copper-tin alloy that are clashed together or struck separately with hard or soft beat- a resonator. Drum shells that are basically tubular vary in their actual shape, from
ers, producing a long-lasting loud or soft sound of indeterminate pitch. Cymbals cylindrical, as in a bass drum; to barrel shaped, as in some drums of China and
typically have handles or leather thongs attached to their backs; in dance bands one India; to goblet shaped, as in the single-headed Middle Eastern darabuka; to hour-
cymbal may be suspended from a frame and sounded either by a pedal-actuated glass shaped, as in the double-headed Japanese tsuzumi. If the drum shell is so shal-
cymbal or by metal brushes or a cloth-covered drumstick. Cymbals, used in reli- low that it cannot act as a resonator, as on a tambourine, the drum is called a frame
gious ceremonies since ancient times, were known in Europe since the Middle Ages, drum. Single-headed drums with bowl-shaped shells are called kettledrums. Usually
and during the 18th-century vogue for Turkish military music, became a regular part tunable and played in pairs, they include the European orchestral kettledrums, or
of the orchestra. Traditionally made in Turkey and China, they may be almost flat timpani; the naqqara of Islamic countries and their medieval European relative, the
or may have a high central dome. Small finger cymbals with a bell-like tone have nakers; and the baya, one of a pair of kettledrums, played in Indian classical music.
also been known since antiquity. Drum shells are commonly made of wood, metal, or pottery. The heads, made of
animal skin or plastic, are fastened to the shell by nails, glue, buttons, pegs, laces,
Didjeridu - musical instrument, a trumpet used by the Aborigines of northern or a cord wrapped around the border of skin that overlaps the shell. Double-headed
Australia to accompany singing and dancing in rituals and entertainment. In use for Western orchestral and band drums, such as the snare drum, tenor drum, and bass
about the past 1000 years, the didjeridu is made from an irregular eucalyptus branch drum, usually have two hoops for each head, one around which the excess skin is
about 1 to 1.5 m (about 3.25 to 5 ft) long and has a conical bore that is hollowed by lapped, another pushing against the first hoop and holding the skin taut. Lacing may
termites. The entire length of the tube is often decorated with totemic designs. At be done in a W or Y pattern, adding more tension to the heads. In modern drums the
the smaller end there is a mouthpiece fashioned of pliable beeswax. Players produce lacing may be replaced by tension screws attached to the top hoop.
the fundamental note by loosely vibrating their lips against the mouthpiece. To Cultural and Musical Uses
avoid pausing for breath, players inhale through the nose and store air in their Drums are found throughout the world, in practically every culture, and are
cheeks, a technique known as circular breathing. known to have existed since at least 6000 BC. Almost everywhere they have strong
ceremonial, sacred, or symbolic associations. In much of Africa certain drums sym-
bolize and protect tribal royalty and are often housed in sacred dwellings. In
Europe, timpani were associated with royalty as late as the 17th century.
This technique permits the production of a continuous drone that can be altered Throughout Central Asia and Siberia and among some Native American tribes of
by the lips, by the tongue, and by diaphragm pressure to vary the pitch and texture North America, shallow frame drums with one or two heads serve as ritual instru-
of the instrument's sound. Vocal sounds are integrated to create buzzing, growling, ments for shamans (medicine men).
humming, and croaking effects that imitate birds and animals. In recent years the The tambourine - a single-headed frame drum with or without jingling metal
didjeridu has been adopted by non-Aboriginal musicians. disks set in its frame, is traditionally a woman's instrument in Islamic countries, as
it was in ancient and prehistoric times and in medieval Europe.
Double Bass - largest and lowest-pitched member of the violin family. Also In addition, drums frequently are used for signaling. The talking drums of Africa
known as the contrabass, the double bass is usually about 1.8 m (about 6 ft) high imitate the pitch patterns of language and transmit messages over many miles. The
and has four strings tuned to sound EE AA D G (EE = third E below middle C; G = snare drum, or side drum, used in European infantry regiments, coded instruction
second G below middle C) and notated an octave higher. A low fifth string is some- calls to soldiers.
times added, tuned to the C below the E string. On some instruments the E string is The musical use of drums varies from simple timekeeping to the carrying of com-
extended at the head and fitted with a mechanism that clamps off the extra length; plex rhythms and counterrhythms. In Islamic and Indian classical music, drums pro-
releasing the mechanism allows the string to sound the low notes down to C. vide intricate rhythms to accompany a melody. In Africa, ensembles of drummers
Three-stringed basses were common in the 18th and 19th centuries (often tuned play elaborate rhythmic patterns superimposed on one another, all of different
A D G) and survive in Eastern European folk music. Early basses of the 16th and lengths and timing, held together by the playing of the master drummer.
17th centuries had four or five (or, rarely, six) strings. Modern dance-band basses
occasionally add a high fifth string tuned to the C above the G string. Until the 19th Common Drums
century, bass players used bows with the stick out-curved in relation to the bow On the snare drum, eight to ten wire-bound gut strings, or snares, usually are
hair—long after the in-curved bow was standard for the violin, viola, and cello. The stretched across the lower of the two heads; they vibrate against the heads as the
out-curved bass bow continues in use alongside two in-curved models developed in membranes are struck. The snare drum is related to the tabor, a double-headed
drum, often with a simple gut snare, which is played in combination with a three- about 900 BC. By about AD 1100 it reached Europe, where it became a military
hole pipe in modern European folk music, as it was in the Middle Ages (from about flute in German-speaking areas—hence its old name, German flute (See also Fife).
the 5th century to the 15th century AD). The bass drum of Turkish military music Families of flutes from soprano to bass were played in 16th- and 17th- century
was introduced into European music in the 18th century. The bucket-shaped, paired chamber music. Made in one piece, these flutes had a cylindrical bore and six fin-
bongos and the cylindrical or barrel-shaped conga are single-headed drums of Afro- gerholes. The flute was redesigned in the late 1600s by the Hotteterre family of
Cuban origin. The tom-tom is a shallow double-headed drum associated with Native French woodwind makers. They built it in three sections, or joints, with one key and
American tribes of North America. a conical bore tapering away from the player. This flute displaced the recorder as
the typical orchestral flute in the late 1700s. Gradually, more keys were added to
Classification improve the intonation of certain tones; by about 1800 a four-keyed flute was com-
Drums are formally classified as membranophones; that is, their sound is pro- mon, and eight-keyed flutes were developed in the 19th century.
duced by a vibrating membrane. The friction drum is a nonpercussive form of mem- In 1832 the German flute maker Theobald Boehm created an improved conical-
branophone. It consists of a skin tied over the top of a pot and pierced by a stick; bore flute, and in 1847 he patented his cylindrical-bore flute, which is the model in
when the stick is rubbed up and down, the membrane vibrates. Some instruments widest use in the 20th century. The cylindrical Boehm flute is made of metal or
called drums, such as the steel drums of the Caribbean, are unrelated to the mem- wood and has thirteen or more tone holes controlled by a system of padded keys. Its
branophones; these instruments are made entirely of resonant solid material and are range extends three octaves, from middle C upward. Other orchestral flutes include
thus classified as idiophones. The slit-drum found in many tribal cultures is also an the piccolo (an octave higher than the ordinary flute) and the alto and bass flutes.
idiophone; it is made of a tree trunk hollowed out through a narrow slit.
Glockenspiel - percussion musical instrument, consisting of a series of metal
Dulcimer - musical instrument in which wire strings, in courses of two to five bars tuned to a chromatic scale and mounted in two rows. It is played by a pair of
per note, are stretched across a shallow, trapezoidal sound box and are sounded by knobbed beaters and produces a high-pitched, bell-like sound. Its range is two and
light, spoon-shaped beaters, producing a vibrant, undamped, metallic sound. The a half to three octaves, extending up to the fourth C above middle C and notated two
dulcimer, one of the ancestors of the piano, originated in the Middle East, possibly octaves lower. Military and marching bands use a portable form called a bell lyre,
as the Persian santir. It was known in Spain by the 12th century and by about 1800 in which the bars are mounted on an upright lyre-shaped frame. The orchestral
had reached China, where it is called yangqin (“foreign zither”). Throughout glockenspiel is played horizontally and sometimes is equipped with a keyboard,
Europe, the dulcimer is found as a folk instrument, for example, the Swiss allowing the player to produce chords. Orchestral glockenspiel parts occur in The
Hackbrett, the Czech cimbal, and the Greek santouri. In the late 19th century, the Magic Flute (1791), by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, and in Die Walküre (1870; The
Hungarian dulcimer, the cimbalom, developed into an elaborate, fully chromatic Valkyrie), by the German composer Richard Wagner. An offshoot of the glocken-
instrument on four legs with a pianolike damper pedal. It was scored for in the spiel is the celesta, in which metal bars, suspended over wooden resonators, are
opera Háry János (1926), by the Hungarian composer Zoltán Kodály. In the U.S. it sounded by keyboard-controlled piano hammers and provided with a pianolike
is often called a hammered dulcimer, to differentiate it from the Appalachian dul- damper pedal. Patented in 1886 by the French builder Auguste Mustel, it was first
cimer, which is plucked. used orchestrally in The Nutcracker (1892), by the Russian composer Peter Ilich
Tchaikovsky. Both the glockenspiel and the celesta are metallophones (like a xylo-
phone but with metal, not wooden, bars).
Gong - (Javanese gong), percussion instrument, a bronze disk that produces

sound when struck by a knobbed beater. Many gongs have a central boss, or dome,
Fife - (musical instrument), high-pitched transverse (horizontally held) flute, and most have a turned-down rim; they vibrate at their center. In the potlike tuned
historically associated with infantry troops. The fife has six finger holes and some- gongs of Indonesian music, the rim is deep; it is narrow in the large tam-tam, a
times one key; its basic pitch is usually A-flat. Its main modern use is in fife-and- Chinese gong of indefinite pitch that entered the Western orchestra in the 19th cen-
drum corps and military bands. tury. From obscure origins in the Middle East or Southeast Asia, the gong became
established in Indonesia by the 9th century and reached Europe by at least the 18th
Flute - tubular or sometimes globular musical instrument enclosing air that is century.
set in vibration when the player's breath is directed against the sharp edge of the
hole. Usually additional holes in the flute wall can be opened or closed to produce Guarneri - (in Latin, Guarnerius), Italian family of violin makers, one of whom,
different pitches. In transverse, or horizontally, held flutes, such as the Western Giuseppe Antonio Guarneri, known as Giuseppe del Gesù, is regarded as second
orchestral flute and the Chinese di, the mouth hole, or embouchure, is cut into the only to the great Italian violin maker Antonio Stradivari. The principal members of
side of the tube. In end-blown, or vertically held, flutes the hole may be at the end the family, all of whom were born in Cremona, are the following.
of the tube (for example, the Arabic nay). In duct flutes, such as the end-blown Andrea Guarneri (1626-98), who learned violin-making in the Cremona work-
penny whistle and the recorder and the police whistle and ocarina, a mouthpiece shop of the noted violin maker Niccolò Amati.
channels the breath against the edge of a sound hole. Pietro Giovanni Guarneri (1655-1728), Andrea's elder son, settled in Mantua
The transverse flute, the typical flute of Western music, was known in China by and is known as Peter of Mantua; his instruments are particularly highly regarded.
Giuseppe Giovanni Battista Guarneri (1666-1739?), Andrea's younger son.
Both sons made a number of technical changes in their father's Amati-influenced Glass Harmonica - American diplomat and scientist Benjamin Franklin invent-
designs. ed the glass harmonica, also known as the Franklin harmonica, in the early 1760s.
Pietro Guarneri (1695-1765?), Giuseppe's son, known as Peter of Venice, uti- It is a mechanized version of the much simpler musical glasses that were popular at
lized some features of the Venetian violin-making school. that time. These were a set of glass bowls, graduated in size to produce distinct
Giuseppe Antonio Guarneri (1687-1745), Giuseppe's other son, gained his pitches, and fine-tuned by partial filling with water. In the Franklin invention, shal-
appellation Giuseppe del Gesù (Giuseppe of Jesus) from the sacred monogram IHS low glass basins are fixed concentrically on a horizontal spindle that is revolved by
(the beginning of the Greek word for Jesus), which he placed after his name on his a crank attached to a pedal. The spindle is arranged in a trough of water so that the
labels. His violins are noted for their rich tone and have been prized by such play- glasses are kept wet. The shimmering, bell-like sound is produced by touching the
ers as the Italian virtuoso Nicolò Paganini. fingers to the wet edges. This instrument was popular in the late 18th and early 19th
centuries. Such notable composers as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Ludwig van
Beethoven wrote pieces for it.
Guitar - musical instrument of the lute family, having a flat, waisted body with
a round sound hole and a fretted neck along which run six strings. The strings are
fastened at the top of the neck to tuning screws, and at the other end to a bridge Mouth Organ - Invented independently in Germany and England during the
glued to the instrument's sound board, or belly. The top three strings are usually 1820s, the mouth organ is a small, oblong box fitted with a row of air channels,
made of gut or nylon; the others are metal. The strings are tuned E A d g b e1 (E = each leading to a small metal free reed. Alternating tones of the scale are produced
second E below middle C; e1 = E above middle C). The player's left-hand fingers by blowing or suction. It was one of several free-reed instruments invented after the
stop the strings at the appropriate frets to produce the correct pitches; the right- introduction of the free-reed principle into Europe in 1777, in the form of a Chinese
hand fingers pluck the strings. Some metal-strung guitars are plucked with a small mouth organ called the sheng. The instrument is universally popular as a children's
flat plectrum, or pick. toy, and in the United States it is often used in folk music and in country and west-
Guitarlike instruments have existed since ancient times, but the first written ern music. The American harmonica virtuoso Larry Adler and others have used the
mention of the guitar proper is from the 14th century. In its earliest form it had instrument in recitals with orchestras.
three double courses (pairs) of strings plus a single string (the highest). The guitar
probably originated in Spain, where by the 16th century it was the counterpart Harp - musical instrument in which strings, sounded by plucking, run between a
among the middle and lower classes of the aristocracy's vihuela, an instrument of neck and a sound box (also called the body or resonator). The strings run perpen-
similar shape and ancestry that had six double courses. The guitar became popular dicular to the sound box (instead of parallel, as on a guitar).
in other European countries in the 16th and 17th centuries, and by the late 17th cen- Types
tury a fifth course of strings had been added below the other four. In the mid-18th Harps are made in three basic shapes: arched harps, in which the neck and body
century the guitar attained its modern form, when the double courses were made form a bowlike curve; angular harps, in which neck and body form at least a right
single and a sixth string was added above the lower five. Guitar makers in the 19th angle; and frame harps, in which a third piece, the forepillar, is placed opposite the
century broadened the body, increased the curve of the waist, thinned the belly, and angle between the neck and body, forming a triangle, to brace them against the ten-
changed the internal bracing. The old wooden tuning pegs were replaced by a mod- sion of the strings. The modern orchestral harp is a large frame harp having 46
ern machine head. strings (six and one-half octaves, with 7 strings per octave); the bass strings made
Guitars ranging from contrabass to treble and varying in their number of strings of covered wire and the treble strings of gut or nylon. To produce accidentals
are played in Spain and Latin America. The twelve-string guitar has six double (sharped or flatted notes) lying outside the harp's seven-note scale, the instrument
courses in standard tuning. The Hawaiian, or steel, guitar is laid across the knees of has a system of seven double-action pedals, each pedal controlling one string in
the player, who stops the metal strings by gliding a metal bar along the neck. The every octave. The harp is tuned to the C-flat scale; when a pedal is depressed one
strings are usually tuned to the notes of a given chord. notch, each string it controls is raised by a half step, as from C flat to C natural;
when it is depressed two notches, each is raised a whole step, as from C flat to C
sharp.
Early History
The electric guitar, developed for popular music in the United States in the Arched harps, the most ancient of all harps, were known in Sumer and Egypt
1930s, usually has a solid, nonresonant body. The sound of its strings is both ampli- between about 3000 and 2000 BC, and angular harps appeared somewhat later.
fied and manipulated electronically by the performer. American musician and Arched harps survive today in Burma, in parts of Africa, in a few areas of Siberia,
inventor Les Paul developed prototypes for the solid-bodied electric guitar and pop- and in an isolated part of Afghanistan. Angular harps were prominent in medieval
ularized the instrument beginning in the 1940s. As an instrument of classical music, Arabic and Persian music and were played as late as the 19th century in Persia.
the guitar came to prominence largely through the efforts of the Spanish composer Frame harps, almost exclusively European, appeared by the 9th century and devel-
Francisco Tarrega and the Spanish guitar virtuoso Andrés Segovia. oped in two versions, one used in Ireland and Scotland, and one on the Continent.
The Irish harp, like its Scottish counterpart, was a powerful instrument with a
Harmonica - either of two musical instruments, the glass harmonica or mouth broad, deep sound box hewn from one block of wood; a thick, strong neck; and a
organ. heavy, curved forepillar. Strung with 30 to 50 brass strings that were plucked by the
player's long fingernails to produce a brilliant, ringing sound, it survived in Irish combinations of tone colors. One set of strings may sound an octave above normal
aristocratic circles until about 1800. Medieval harps in other parts of Europe were pitch. Some 18th-century German harpsichords had a set of strings sounding an
smaller and lighter, with about 7 to 25 strings, apparently of metal, and narrower, octave below normal pitch. Harpsichords often have two keyboards, or manuals,
shallower sound boxes. By about 1500, gut strings came into use, and a taller form which can usually be coupled or used separately, allowing further variations of tone
developed, having a straight forepillar that could support more string tension than color and volume. A typical two-manual harpsichord of the 18th century had strings
a light, curved forepillar. This Gothic harp is the ancestor of the folk harps of Latin at normal and octave-high pitch playable on the lower manual, strings at normal
America and of the modern “Irish” and orchestral harps. pitch controlled by the upper manual, and a coupling mechanism.
Later Developments Early History
As music in the 16th to 18th centuries gradually demanded more notes lying out- The earliest school of harpsichord building developed in Italy in the 16th and
side the seven notes of the European harp's scale, attempts were made to enable the 17th centuries. Italian harpsichords differed from others in that they normally were
harp to produce the additional notes. These included adding a second row of strings made of extremely thin wood and then placed in a stronger outer case of the same
tuned to the sharps and flats (chromatic harps), setting small hooks on the neck that shape. A second important school of building developed in the 16th and 17th cen-
could be turned to catch a string and raise its pitch a half step, and providing ped- turies in Flanders, centered around the influential Ruckers family of builders. These
als to which the hooks (or later, rotating disks) were connected by levers and wires schools gave way in the 18th century to distinctive styles of building that developed
set inside the forepillar. Devised in 1720, the first single-action pedal harp could in France (the Blachet family), Germany (the Hass family), and England (Jacob
raise the pitch of the selected strings by a half step, allowing the harp to play in Kirkman). Harpsichords of the different national schools varied in details of their
many, although not all, keys; this was achieved with the double-action harp devel- proportions and construction, resulting in slight, although characteristic differences
oped in 1810 by Sébastien Érard in Paris. in tone color.
Modern Developments
Harpsichord - (Italian cembalo; French clavecin), stringed keyboard instru- In the 20th century, two broad approaches to harpsichord building emerged. The
ment in which the strings are plucked to produce sound. It was developed in Europe first utilized recent principles of construction, such as are found in present-day
in the 14th or 15th century and was widely used from the 16th to the early 19th cen- pianos. Stimulated by the Polish harpsichordist Wanda Landowska, this style was
tury, when it was superseded by the piano. In the 20th century the harpsichord was exemplified by the French piano firms of Pleyel and Érard. Their harpsichords
revived for performance of music of the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, as well as relied on heavy strings under high tension in a heavily braced case. Many 20th-cen-
for new compositions. The incisive sound quality of the plucked metal strings adds tury harpsichord works were written for such instruments. Other builders sought to
clarity to melodic lines. The harpsichord is particularly effective in performing con- relearn historical principles of proportion and construction in an effort to duplicate
trapuntal music—that is, music that consists of two or more melodies played at the the sound of historical instruments. Stimulated by the German-English builder
same time, such as that of the German composer Johann Sebastian Bach. Arnold Dolmetsch and exemplified by Martin Skowroneck, a German, this school
Construction and Mechanism relied on light stringing in a highly resonant case. American builders in this style
The harpsichord usually has a wing-shaped body, or case, like a grand piano; include William Hyman, Frank Hubbard, and William Dowd. American instrument
however, its proportions are narrower and longer, and the case and its inner bracing maker John Challis employed a different, more modern approach to construction of
are normally lighter. Harpsichords have also been built in other shapes. These the instrument. Though he based the decorative scheme of his designs on
include the virginal, or virginals, a small oblong instrument; the spinet, a small Dolmetsch's works, Challis experimented with new techniques and materials, such
polygonal harpsichord; and the less common clavicytherium, an upright harpsi- as metal and plastic, to produce harpsichords that were better adapted to the
chord. From the 16th to 19th century the terms spinet and virginal were often used extreme climate changes in North America and maintained a rich tone quality.
interchangeably, and in England during that era any harpsichord was called a vir-
ginal. Horn - class of wind instruments that usually have a conical opening or derive
Harpsichords of any shape have the same plucking mechanism. For each string a from an animal horn or tusk. Horns are sounded by the vibration of the player's lips
small piece of material, or plectrum, is set in a thin slip of wood, or “jack,” which against a mouthpiece (as with a trumpet). Animal horns that produce one or two
rests internally on the far end of the key. When the front of the key is depressed, the notes when the player blows through a hole are found in many cultures. Such horns
far end rises, and the plectrum plucks the string. The jack is pivoted so that, when include medieval hunting horns, royal African ivory horns, the Roman cornu, and
the key returns to rest position, the plectrum slides by without striking the string. the Jewish shofar. Such instruments were imitated in metal and gave rise to horns
Since the volume and tone of the sound produced by the plucking mechanism such as the great lur of ancient Scandinavia. Other instruments of animal-horn
remain constant regardless of the forcefulness of the keystroke, various methods ancestry include the alphorn, bugle, cornet, and Renaissance cornett, a wooden horn
have been developed to alter the harpsichord's sound. with finger holes.
The orchestral horn, or French horn, was developed about 1650 in France and is
a large version of the smaller crescent-shaped horns that had been redesigned with
circularly coiled tubing. The French hunting horn, which entered the orchestra in
Many harpsichords have two strings for each key, with a row of jacks for each the early 1700s, produced about twelve tones of the natural harmonic series.
set of strings. Stops, or registers, allow the player to move unwanted sets of jacks
slightly out of reach of the strings, thus making possible different volumes and
The horn gained greater flexibility about 1750 with the invention of the tech-
nique of hand-stopping. Hand-stopping involves placing a hand in the bell of the
horn to alter the pitch of the natural notes by as much as a whole tone. Despite this
advance, cumbersome lengths of tubing, called crooks, were necessary for playing Kithara - musical instrument, a type of lyre, adapted by ancient Greeks from
in many keys. The invention of valves in the early 19th century revolutionized the older Near Eastern and North African models. In Greek mythology the kithara was
horn, allowing the player to alter the length of the tubing by the motion of a finger. regarded as the instrument of Apollo and Orpheus. The body of the kithara consist-
A horn in the key of F with three valves can produce a chromatic scale over three ed of a trapezoid-shaped wooden box about 41 cm (about 16 in) high and about 36
octaves, running upward from the B below the bass clef (notated a fifth higher). cm (about 14 in) wide at the base. Two wooden arms projected vertically from each
Modern players use hand-stopping to affect intonation and tone color. side, almost doubling the instrument's height. The seven strings of the classical
The modern horn in F has three valves, circular coils of narrow tubing flaring at kithara were attached to the lower end of the box and extended to a horizontal yoke,
one end to a wide bell, and a funnel-shaped mouth piece that accounts for the horn's or crossbar, fixed at the end of each arm. The instrument was played in a standing
soft, mellow tone. The double horn in F and B-flat, introduced about 1900, is rapid- position, rested on the musician's left hip and strapped to the left wrist. The fingers
ly superseding the F horn. Equipped with an extra valve to switch to the B-flat tub- of the left hand were free to pluck, dampen, or strum the strings from behind while
ing, it offers certain technical advantages. Most modern orchestras include four the right hand plucked with a plectrum, or pick, from in front. A smaller version of
horns. The so-called English horn is actually a deep-toned oboe. the instrument, with a rounded bottom, could be held in the lap. The kithara was the
instrument of professional musicians, who used it in singing lyric and epic poetry,
Hornpipe - a wind instrument and a dance. The instrument, sounded by a single in choral accompaniment, and in displays of virtuosic skill. The Romans adopted
reed, consists of a pipe (or two parallel pipes) of cane, wood, or bone, with a cow's the kithara for use in the theater and at banquets and religious observances.
horn attached as a bell. It is mouth-blown or sounded by an inflated bag. Common
in medieval Europe, the instrument is still played in Asia and North Africa. Popular Koto - muziçki instrument, tzv. duga japanska citra (Japanese long
in England, Wales, and Scotland, the dance is a solo dance with intricate footwork. zither), with a long, convex upper board and a movable ivory bridge for each of its
A type of hornpipe dance is prominent in Ireland. Some tunes and country dances in 13 silk strings. The body of the koto consists of a long, rectangular box, made of
different rhythms are also called hornpipes. The dance was used in symphonic paulownia wood, about 180 cm (about 6 ft) in length and about 24 cm (about 9 in)
music by such composers as George Frideric Handel and Henry Purcell. in width. The instrument is strung lengthwise, and the strings are tuned by moving
the bridges. The koto player sits either on the floor or in a chair behind the instru-
Hurdy-Gurdy - musical instrument, a mechanized fiddle in which the player ment, which rests on the floor or on a stand. The koto is played using plectrums, or
changes the notes by depressing keys along the fingerboard and sounds the strings picks, of bamboo, bone, ivory, or plastic attached to the thumb, index finger, and
by cranking a rosined wheel at the base of the instrument. A typical hurdy-gurdy has middle finger of the player's right hand. The player plucks a string to the right side
two melody strings running under the key mechanism and four drone strings run- of its bridge while the fingers of the left hand depress the plucked string on the
ning alongside it. Large two-person hurdy-gurdies were used in medieval church opposite side of the bridge to create an upward or downward sliding after each tone.
music. Smaller one-person instruments survived among folk and street musicians as The flexible tuning of the instrument accommodates traditional pentatonic scales as
late as 1900. The instrument enjoyed aristocratic vogue in the 18th century. The well as other scales used in contemporary or European-influenced pieces. The harp-
term hurdy-gurdy is sometimes applied to two other mechanized, cranked instru- like sound of the koto renders the instrument suitable for use as a solo instrument
ments, the barrel organ and the barrel piano. or in modern and traditional ensembles. In modern instruments, nylon strings are
sometimes used instead of silk, and the bridges are sometimes made of plastic
Jew's Harp - (possibly a corruption of “jaw's harp”), musical instrument in instead of ivory.
which a small frame flanks a narrow, flexible tongue attached at one end to the
frame. The frame is held against the teeth near the free end of the instrument's Lute - stringed instrument widely played in the 14th to 18th centuries and
tongue, which is set in vibration by various methods. The instrument's tongue pro- revived in the 20th century; also, generically, any stringed instrument having
duces only one tone; when the players change the shape of the mouth cavity, vari- strings that run in a parallel plane to the soundboard and along a protruding neck.
ous harmonics (component tones) of this fundamental tone are made prominent. The The lute developed its classical form by about 1500. It has a flat fir belly, or
harmonic series produced is the same as that of a trumpet. soundboard, and a deep, extremely lightweight, pear-shaped body made by bending
Jew's harps of India and Europe (at least since about 1350) have onion-shaped, narrow strips of wood (ribs) and gluing them side by side. Tied onto the neck and
forged-iron frames that narrow to two protruding arms; a separate tongue is affixed fingerboard are seven to ten gut frets. Six pairs (“double courses”) of strings run
to the frame. The player twangs the free end of the tongue with a finger. Clothespin- from tuning pegs (set in a pegbox that angles sharply back from the neck) to a
shaped jew's harps with the frame and tongue cut of the same piece of bamboo are bridge glued to the belly. The typical Renaissance tuning of the lute was
found in the Pacific islands. These are often sounded by jerking a cord attached to G/c/f/a/d’/g’ (relative pitch); the highest string was sometimes single. Above the
the instrument. In Southeast Asian jew's harps, probably the oldest form, the nar- bridge is a round sound hole filled with an intricate carving, or rose. The player's
row, rectangular frame (of bamboo or, rarely, sheet metal) completely surrounds the right-hand fingers pluck the strings, which are stopped (altered in pitch) by the left-
free end of the tongue, which is vibrated by plucking a tab on the flexible frame. hand fingers. The English lutenist John Dowland was outstanding among
Renaissance composers for the lute.
About 1600, with the coming of the baroque era, the lute acquired additional bass Mandolin - stringed instrument derived from the lute about 1700 in Italy. Of
strings (usually four). These strings were not stopped with the fingers, but were several kinds made in different cities, the Neapolitan mandolin became most popu-
tuned in descending steps (F/E/D/C). For these lutes, French composers such as lar. It has a deep, pear-shaped body and four pairs of steel strings tuned like a vio-
Denis Gaultier developed a notable body of music. Larger lutes with more and lin (G D A E, upward from the G below middle C). It is played with a plectrum,
longer bass strings were also built; they include the theorbo, chitarrone, and arch- which creates the illusion of sustained tones by its rapid tremolo between the
lute. By 1700 the introduction of metal-overspun gut strings allowed bass strings of strings of each pair. The strings, hitched to a metal plate at the base of the body, run
normal length to be used. over a bridge and along the fretted fingerboard to machine-head tuning pegs. The
belly angles down from the bridge to the base, increasing string tension for more
brilliance of tone. The oval sound hole is surrounded by a protective shell plate.
Composers for the mandolin include Ludwig van Beethoven, W. A. Mozart, Antonio
Vivaldi, and Igor Stravinsky. Around 1900 mandolin orchestras came into vogue,
Typical lutes of the 18th century have one bent-back pegbox and a broad neck with families of mandolins ranging from soprano to bass. U.S. folk music also
over which are stretched five to seven bass strings and the six double courses, by adopted the mandolin about 1900; a flat-backed version is played in bluegrass
then usually tuned A/d/f/a/d’/f ’ (relative pitch). The lute entered medieval Europe bands.
from Arabic culture as an instrument plucked by a plectrum, or pick, with four pairs
of strings. It was a version of the Arabic 'ud (spelled oud by its modern Balkan play- Musette - small bellows-blown bagpipe, fashionable in 17th- and 18th-century
ers), which today is an unfretted, plectrum-plucked instrument with four to seven France; also, a musical composition imitating the sound of a musette.
double courses. Relatives of the 'ud and lute include the Romanian cobza, the man-
dolin, and the medieval mandola. These broadly resemble the short-necked lutes
Music Box - mechanical musical instrument that produces sound when the
that had appeared in the Middle East by about 700 BC. Moving to the east as well
tuned teeth of a steel comb are plucked by metal pins set in a revolving barrel or
as the west, such lutes evolved into the Chinese pipa and Japanese biwa. Shallow-
disk. A descendant of the mechanical musical clockworks, the music box was prob-
bodied, long-necked lutes were known in Mesopotamia by 2000 BC. Modern exam-
ably invented around 1770 in Switzerland. In the 18th and early 19th centuries, tiny
ples include the Greek bouzouki and the Japanese samisen.
music boxes were set in snuffboxes, umbrella handles, and other objects. Large
music boxes were popular household instruments until the advent of the phono-
Lyre - stringed musical instrument, in which two arms jut out on one side of the graph; their rich, ringing tone was often varied by the addition of bells, small
instrument's body and at their tips support a yoke or crossbar to which gut strings drums, free reeds, or multiple combs.
are attached. The strings run to the body, across the belly or soundboard, over a
bridge, and to a stringholder at the lower end of the belly. In box lyres, the body and
Musical Instruments - tools used to expand the limited scope of musical
belly form a hollow wooden box; in bowl lyres, the body may be a tortoise shell or
sounds—such as clapping, stamping, whistling, humming, and singing—that can be
carved bowl, and the belly is of animal skin. Box lyres with asymetrical arms were
produced by a person's unaided body. Throughout the world, instruments vary great-
known in ancient Sumeria by 2800 BC; this western Asian lyre was also played in
ly in purpose and design, from natural, uncrafted objects to complicated products of
ancient Egypt, as was a smaller symmetrical lyre. Lyres were extremely popular in
industrial technology. Although sirens, automobile parts, and radios have been
Greece and were associated with the god Apollo. Two main varieties were made.
employed in avant-garde compositions, this article mainly concerns those special-
The kithara, played by professional musicians, was a box lyre with thick, symmet-
ized implements intended for performing the world's conventional folk, popular,
rical, hollow arms; it was plucked with a plectrum, or pick. The lyra, played by
and classical musics.
amateurs and plucked with the fingers, was a bowl lyre, typically a tortoise shell
The Production of Sound
with a belly of bull's hide. The kinnor of the ancient Hebrews, the instrument of
Sound arises from vibration transmitted by waves to the ear. Incoherent, violent
King David, was like the kithara. In modern times similar lyres, with or without a
vibration is normally interpreted as noise, whereas regular, moderate motion pro-
bridge, are played in East Africa. They include the beganna, which was also like the
duces tones that can be pleasing. The faster the vibration, the higher the pitch that
kithara, and the lyra-like krar, both of Ethiopia. In African and ancient lyres the
is perceived. Some pipe organs encompass the full audible range of pitch, approxi-
strings are wound around the crossbar and tightened by adjusting the windings or
mately 16 Hz (hertz, or cycles per second) to 20,000 Hz, or more than ten octaves,
by inserting small wooden wedges in the windings. The left-hand fingers typically
but most instruments have a much more limited compass; indeed, many play only a
damp the unwanted strings, while the right-hand fingers sweep across all the
single note or have no identifiable pitch at all. The greater the amplitude or power
strings, either directly or with a plectrum. In the Middle Ages box lyres were wide-
of audio waves, the louder their sound, which in some electronically amplified
ly used in northern Europe until about AD 1000. These lyres usually had crossbars
music can reach a painful, ear-damaging intensity. The timbre, or tone color, of the
carved of the same piece of wood as the body and arms; they also had tuning pegs.
sound is influenced by the presence and relative strength of overtones, or harmon-
Until about 1000 they were plucked; thereafter, bowing them was more common.
ics, in the sound wave. The perception of timbre, however, is also affected by the
Bowed lyres survived into the 20th century in Finland and Estonia. In Wales, the
duration and location of the sound, and by its envelope, or its characteristics of
crwth, which had a fingerboard running from the crossbar to the body, was played
attack (onset) and decay (which may, for example, be abrupt or gradual, or—espe-
into the 19th century.
cially in attack—may involve transient harmonics). The sounds of musical instru-
ments are caused and modified by three components: (1) the essential vibrating sub- bamboo tubes sliding within a framework). The jingle, or pellet, bell is a metal ves-
stance (such as a violin string), set into motion by bowing, blowing, striking, or sel rattle, not a true bell. Other idiophones may be scraped, as is the washboard
some other method; (2) the connected reflector, amplifier, or resonator (sound- played in old-time jug bands; or they can be rubbed with a bow (as in a nail violin)
board, tube, box, or vessel); and (3) associated sound-altering devices, among them or with the fingers. Moistened fingers rub the rims of musical glasses, tuned by par-
keys, valves, frets, and mutes. tial filling with water (See also Harmonica: Glass Harmonica). Plucked idiophones
Systems of Classification include the rotating ratchet used as a holiday noisemaker; the African mbira or
Instruments can be classified in different ways—for example, by their primary thumb piano, the many metal or cane tongues which can be individually tuned; and
materials (metal, wood, earthenware, skin, and so forth, an arrangement followed in the music box, with its “comb” of flexible steel teeth that are plucked by pins which
East Asia); their social status and appropriate setting (church, military, parlor); or are on a rotating cylinder.
their musical role (rhythmic, melodic, chordal, drone). Since the 2nd century BC, Membranophones
Western audiences have conventionally distinguished among winds, strings, and All true drums belong to the membranophones. A drum has one or two heads of
percussion. This exclusive division, however, does not accommodate instruments skin or plastic stretched over a resonator or over a narrow frame. Kettledrums, hav-
such as the piano, which employs both strings and a percussion mechanism; or the ing a single head over a bowl-shaped resonator, are produced in all sizes. Orchestral
aeolian harp, a zither the strings of which are vibrated by the wind. kettledrums are tuned by means of hand screws or pedals, whereas some non-
Western types are tuned with paste or heat applied to the head, or by manipulating
the lacing which attaches to the head or heads. Hard and soft beaters offer tonal
variety. In India the technique of playing small kettledrums (the baya in the pair
called tabla) with the hands is a subtle art. Cylindrical drums, usually unpitched,
Nor is the familiar distinction of brasses from woodwinds quite logical: vary in size from huge basses drawn on wagons in parades, to shallow, waist-slung
Saxophones and orchestral flutes are metal woodwinds, whereas early “brasses” drums equipped with snares that intensify the sound. In parts of Africa and the
were often made of animal horn (the shofar), wood (the serpent, a bass instrument), Pacific Islands sacred drums are taboo to the uninitiated; their wood bodies are
or even ivory (the cornetto, a small Renaissance horn). elaborately carved and decorated, and revered drums occupy huts to which votive
A comprehensive classification based on acoustical principles was devised in the offerings are brought.
19th century. Instrument families are defined in terms of what vibrates to produce
the sound. These families are the idiophones—solid, intrinsically sonorous objects;
membranophones—taut membranes; aerophones—enclosed or free masses of air;
and chordophones—stretched strings. A fifth family, electrophones—oscillating Slender - elongated drums with reptile-skin heads glued on with human blood
electronic circuits—originated recently. accompany male ritual dances in New Guinea. Some Native Americans accompany
Idiophones tribal dances and chants on broad, shallow drums beaten by several players at once.
The largest, most varied and widespread, and probably the oldest instrument A light hand-held frame drum is played by Eskimo shamans; it resembles Asian
family consists of idiophones. Known at least since the Stone Age, idiophones shamans' drums. The tambourine is a frame drum that usually has rattles attached to
range in complexity from hollowed logs (slit-drums) of indefinite or tuned pitch the frame; it is both struck and shaken and is sometimes rubbed.
that are used rhythmically, often to send signals, to precisely tuned cast-bronze
bells that, combined in a carillon, form the most massive and expensive of instru- The rommelpot - is a Flemish friction drum played as a toy; rubbing a stick
ments. Bells vibrate at their rim, whereas gongs—perhaps invented in Southeast or string protruding through its head causes the head to vibrate. A more important
Asia by Bronze Age metalsmiths—vibrate at their center. The so-called steel drum membranophone is the mirliton. Not actually an instrument in its own right, but
or piano pan is a modern Trinidadian gong that produces more than one pitch from rather a tone modifier, the mirliton is a thin membrane attached over a hole in a res-
its segmented surface. See Bell. These examples are known as percussion idio- onator, adding a buzzing quality to the sound. One popular mirliton, the kazoo, dis-
phones because they are all struck with beaters. Such instruments are often played guises the voice. Other mirlitons enrich the tone of instruments as diverse as
in sets. The xylophone is a set of tuned hardwood bars. In Indonesian music, the African xylophones, drums, and Chinese flutes.
saron is a metallophone, made up of bronze bars; the bonang, a set of small tuned
gongs. The celesta is a metallophone with a pianolike keyboard. A piano hammer
Aerophones
action also strikes the glass bars of the glasschord, a 19th-century English crystal-
Among aerophones, several different methods are used to set the air in vibration.
lophone. The oldest existing sets of tuned-bar idiophones, excavated in East Asia,
are lithophones, made of stone; lithophones were also made in 19th-century
England. Concussion idiophones are struck together, usually in pairs. Turkish-style Flutes - In flutes a wind stream impinges on an edge, setting up eddies in an
brass cymbals and Spanish wooden castanets are the most familiar types, but ivory enclosed body of air. The wind may come from the player's lungs, a bellows or
and bone clappers were common in ancient Egypt. Egyptian worshipers also used squeezed windbag, or a mechanical fan. If the resonator enclosing the air is a tube,
the sistrum, a rattle with metal rings fitted loosely on rods. Rattles are normally its length determines the pitch; usually, tone holes in the tube wall are opened or
shaken rather than struck. They include vessel types, with loose rattling objects closed to change the sounding length and, hence, the pitch.
enclosed in a container; strung rattles, with small, hard objects tied together or to a In the orchestral flute the lips direct breath against the edge of a mouth hole
handle; and frame rattles, such as the sistrum and the Javanese angklung (tuned in the tube wall; such flutes are called transverse, or side blown. The Japanese
shakuhachi is blown against the sharpened rim of one end. A panpipe is also end keyed bugle became obsolete only when valves were widely adopted for brasses in
blown; each of its pipes gives a different note, according to its length. Some end- the 19th century. See also Tuba.
blown flutes are blown through one nostril; such “nose flutes” are often considered In many aerophones, overblowing (drastically increasing the wind pressure)
magical. forces higher harmonics to supersede the fundamental pitch. A bugler, whose instru-
In whistles and recorders an internal duct aims the breath against the edge of ment is a tube of constant length, can thus play tunes by overblowing to produce
a hole in the wall; the flue pipes on an organ thus operate like one-note whistles. various harmonics. Brasses of unvariable sounding length are called natural; they
Some Native American flutes have a duct on the outside of the tube, a system are limited to the notes of the harmonic series. As composers since the 1500s grad-
unknown otherwise. The ocarina, a popular ducted flute invented in Italy (about ually made greater demands on trumpets and horns (which were originally outdoor
1860), has a globular resonator rather than a tubular one, giving it a hollow, dark signal instruments), instrument makers invented the key and valve mechanisms that
tone. In general, the shape of an aerophone's resonator has a more critical effect on enable the instruments to produce fully chromatic scales. Woodwinds, similarly,
timbre than does its material, because the resonator walls vibrate little, compared to were fitted with complex key mechanisms. Such structural changes, however, nec-
the air within. essarily affected the timbre; modern brasses, as well as keyed woodwinds, sound
noticeably different from those of the early 19th century and before.
Single and Double Reeds
Among reed-vibrated aerophones, the clarinet , saxophone , and their relatives Chordophones
employ a single broad reed of springy cane fastened at one end over a hole in a Being of more recent origin than idiophones, drums, and winds, the chordo-
mouthpiece. The reed responds to breath pressure by beating against the hole many phones are not universally distributed; they were virtually unknown in pre-
times per second, allowing puffs of wind into the tube to vibrate the enclosed air. Columbian America (before the 16th century). Chordophones differ widely in struc-
The brass-reed pipes of an organ are of this type. ture, but are all thought to have evolved from the archaic musical bow, which
The oboe , bassoon , shawm , and other double-reed instruments produce sound resembles a hunting bow and is played like a jew's harp. Because the sound of a
vibrating string alone is extremely quiet, strings are almost always coupled to a res-
when two slender blades of cane pinch together rapidly, thus interrupting the wind
onator.
stream passing between them into the resonator. Whereas clarinets have a more-or-
less cylindrical tube, oboes have a conical pipe; the different internal shapes foster
distinctive patterns of harmonics that give these instruments their characteristic Zithers
timbres. In the zither group, the strings stretch side by side over a soundboard or sound
box, and, with the exception of the Chinese qin (ch'in), communicate their vibra-
Free Reeds and Other Instruments tions to either by means of one or more bridges. The Japanese koto has movable
bridges, one for each string. This revered zither, like the bridgeless qin, has an
In free-reed aerophones such as the mouth organ, or harmonica, the accordion,
extensive classical repertoire. The Appalachian dulcimer (not the same as the ham-
and reed organs (harmonium, melodeon), many brass reeds of graduated size pro-
mered dulcimer) evolved in the late 19th century from northern European fretted
duce the sounds. Under wind pressure each reed vibrates back and forth through a
zithers brought to America by immigrants. These folk zithers have melody strings
close-fitting aperture. Because the length and shape of each free reed determines its
passing over a fretted fingerboard, in addition to unfretted accompaniment strings.
pitch and timbre, no resonator is required; the reed vibrates air in the atmosphere.
All Western free-reed instruments evolved from the Oriental mouth organ with mul-
tiple pipes (such as the Chinese sheng and the Japanese sho), introduced into Keyboard Chordophones
Europe in the 18th century. Two zither-family instruments, the hammered dulcimer and the medieval
psaltery, are ancestors of keyboard chordophones such as the piano, clavichord, and
The bull-roarer - a tapered wood blade whirled around on a string, also harpsichord. The last two instruments were invented in the late Middle Ages (the
late 14th and early 15th centuries) in conjunction with the emergence of multipart
vibrates the atmosphere directly without benefit of a resonator. Its unpitched rum-
music. The piano, with its wider dynamic range, appeared about 1700. It largely
ble sounds powerful and mysterious. The jew's harp has a twangy tone that arises
replaced the hammered dulcimer in urban domestic use, and by 1800 it had super-
when the stiff metal or cane reed is plucked in front of the mouth and vibrates the
seded the quieter clavichord and harpsichord. The hurdy-gurdy, which is a fiddle
air within.
with a keyboard of limited compass, has both melody and drone strings, sounded by
a rotating circular “bow” of wood. It resembles the Swedish nyckelharpa, a keyed
Lip-Vibrated Instruments - In the orchestral brasses and other lip-vibrated fiddle played with a conventional bow.
aerophones, the player's lips buzz against a cup- or funnel-shaped mouthpiece
inserted in a conical or cylindrical tube. Broadly speaking, conical, wide-bore tubes
Harps and Lyres
characterize horns, whereas relatively cylindrical, narrow-bore tubes define trum-
Unlike zithers, which may be plucked, bowed, struck, or wind-sounded (the aeo-
pets (see Trumpet). The sounding length of the tube can be altered by means of fin-
lian harp), true harps are almost exclusively plucked. Their many strings fasten
gered or keyed tone holes; by valves that open and close sections of tubing; or by a
directly into the resonator; no bridge is necessary. The frame of European harps
sliding telescopic section of tubing, as on the trombone. The cornetto and serpent,
consists of a sound box, a neck (called the harmonic curve), and a forepillar, rough-
for example, have finger holes much like those of a recorder. The keyed trumpet and
ly forming a triangle. Ancestral, non-Western harps such as the Burmese saung lack
the reinforcing forepillar; their angled or arched necks, therefore, cannot withstand performers.
extreme string tension. The African pluriarc has a separate neck for each string. Among the interesting hybrid chordophones are the baryton , a viol equipped
A modern concert harp has a pedal mechanism that alters the pitch of each string with additional thumb-plucked wire strings; and the arpeggione, a cello-sized
by one or two semitones, thereby producing a full chromatic compass although hav- bowed guitar briefly popular in the 1830s. The viola d'amore, still called for by a
ing only seven strings per octave. Simpler pedal and manual devices offered chro- few 20th-century composers, has unfingered strings that vibrate sympathetically
matic notes in 18th-century harps, but earlier chromatic harps (notably the Welsh beneath the bowed ones, giving an especially warm tone. Sympathetic strings are
telyn) had two or three rows of strings, each chromatic note having its own string. found also in many Asian chordophones, particularly in India, where the gourd-bod-
Although most European harps are strung with gut or synthetic cords, the massive ied sitar is a favorite vehicle for classical improvisation. West African plucked
Irish harp traditionally is wire strung. Once favored to accompany bards, the Irish instruments such as the kora (harp-lute) and the muet (harp-zither) combine fea-
harp became a patriotic symbol when its use was outlawed by English authorities. tures of harps, lutes, and zithers.
On lyres , the strings are anchored to a crossbar supported by two arms that
extend from a box- or bowl-shaped resonator; they are coupled to the resonator by Electrophones
a bridge. Lyres are rare today outside Ethiopia; however, the Greek ancestor of the Just as mechanical invention served European music when the fully developed
Ethiopian lyre was a popular instrument. The kithara was a large, wood-bodied con- keyboard (a device uniquely associated with Western technology) arose in the late
cert lyre of ancient Greece; derivatives of its name were given to unrelated instru- Middle Ages, so electrical engineers have offered 20th-century musicians an inno-
ments such as the cittern and guitar. vative means of producing and controlling sounds. The telharmonium, an electro-
phone created by the American inventor Thaddeus Cahill at the turn of the century,
Plucked and Bowed Lutes produced novel tones with a collection of equipment that included rotary generators
The European lute is the namesake of a group of bowed and plucked instruments. and telephone receivers. The theremin, a compact apparatus invented by the
Their strings pass along a neck that extends from the resonator, and a bridge cou- Russian physicist Leon Theremin, was fashionable in the late 1920s and 1930s,
ples the strings to the resonator. The neck may be a short elongation of the body, as although it could play only a single melodic line. Electronic organs have mainly
in the Chinese pipa; or it may be a separate element fastened to or piercing the influenced popular music, but since the mid-1950s synthesizers have become
body. Frequently, the neck incorporates a fingerboard (which may be fretted), important tools of composers in many idioms. Since the 1930s electronic amplifi-
against which the strings can be pressed to alter their sounding length. cation has tremendously increased the impact and altered the technique of popular
Plucked lutes include the banjo and guitar as well as the pear-shaped Arabic singers and instrumentalists. In the electric guitar such amplification replaced the
'ud, from which the name of the European lute is derived. The technique of bowing sound box and stimulated new musical effects. Except in the distortions and manip-
is not so old as that of plucking, and fiddles, or bowed lutes (such as the violin and ulations of sound used in rock music, however, amplification, like broadcasting and
viol) arrived in Europe from Asia only in the Middle Ages. Early European bowed recording, serves chiefly to disseminate music rather than to create it. The long-
lutes are hardly distinguishable from plucked ones. Evidence of medieval types is term implications of electronic sound production cannot yet be predicted.
limited to fragmentary remains, literary descriptions, and pictures—practically no
complete examples survive, due to the instruments' fragility. Comparison with sim- Oboe - double-reed wind instrument with a wood body and narrow conical bore.
ilar-looking modern folk instruments suggests that the latter have changed little The oboe was invented in the 17th century by the French musicians Jean Hotteterre
since the Middle Ages. and Michel Philidor, who modified the louder shawm (the prevailing double-reed
instrument) for indoor use. Their oboe, called hautbois (French for “high, or loud,
The viola , which evolved from unstandardized medieval fiddles, is first depict- wood”), had a narrower bore than the shawm's, a body in three sections instead of
ed in early 16th-century pictures. Like most other instruments of the Renaissance, one, and a smaller reed grasped near its tip by the player's lips (on a shawm the
it was built in a range of sizes that, together, made up a consort. Small violas (vio- mouth encloses the entire reed, with the lips resting on a wooden disk at the base of
lins), large ones held between the knees (violoncellos; see Cello), and even larger the reed). By 1700 most orchestras included a pair of oboes.
ones played standing up (violones) were the specialty of Italian artisans such as the
Amati family and Antonio Stradivari. The pochette or kit, a miniature violin-type
instrument played by dancing masters, often had a one-piece body and neck carved
from a block of wood; it thus resembled the medieval rebec, the name and shape of
which were in turn derived from the Middle Eastern rabab. Early oboes had seven finger-holes and two keys; by the 1700s four-keyed mod-
els were also in use. In the 1800s additional keys were added, reaching 15 or more,
The violin and its relatives—at first associated with country dance music and
and the bore and sound holes were redesigned. Oboes of the French school (played
considered inferior to the quieter, more sedate viola da gamba (viol)—became
in most countries today) have a very narrow bore and a penetrating, focused sound.
supreme during the 18th century (and earlier in Italy) because viols were less well
Those of the German school (also played in Vienna and Vienna-influenced coun-
suited to the highly dramatic style of late baroque and classical music. When the
tries) have a wider bore and a more easily blending sound. The range of the modern
intimate idiom of the classical era gave way to the 19th-century romantic style, vio-
oboe extends two and one-half octaves upward from the B below middle C.
lins and most other orchestral instruments were modified to increase their compass
Composers of solo works for the oboe include George Frideric Handel, Joseph
and dynamic range. Loudness and brilliance became necessary because of the intro-
Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven, Robert Schumann, and
duction of large concert halls and the virtuosic demands of romantic composers and
Carl Nielsen. Mixtures are ranks of pipes of different pitches operated as a single unit (by a
The English horn (French cor anglais) - is an alto oboe, a fifth lower in pitch, single stop). Mixtures often contain ranks sounding several octaves above 8-ft pitch
and is probably identical to the oboe da caccia (Italian for “hunting oboe”) used by as well as mutation ranks. The high pitches of mutations and mixtures blend togeth-
Johann Sebastian Bach. The oboe d'amore (Italian for “oboe of love”), which was er to produce the incisive, bright quality that is associated with organ sound.
invented about 1720, and also used by Bach, is pitched a third below the oboe. The On large organs the ranks are grouped together into several divisions, each con-
heckelphone (invented 1904) is an improved baritone oboe, pitched an octave below trolled by a separate keyboard, or manual, and having one or more wind chests, air-
the oboe. The term oboe also refers generically to any double-reed instrument, such tight boxes that act as air reservoirs. The main division is called the Great Organ;
as European folk shawms (for example, the Balkan zurla), the ancient Greek aulos, the other most common divisions are the Choir Organ, the Swell Organ, and the
the Indian nagasvaram, and the Japanese hichiriki. Pedal Organ. The pipes of the Swell Organ are enclosed in a “swell box,” a cham-
ber having a slat-covered opening similar to a venetian blind. The slats can be
Ocarina - small, egg-shaped flute with a protruding whistle mouthpiece and opened and closed by a pedal lever, allowing gradual changes in volume.
usually ten finger-holes. The ocarina is a globular flute, a type of flute found in Air Supply
many cultures. The modern ocarina originated in Italy in the mid-19th century. It The air for the pipes is supplied from a wind chest, on which the pipes are
gained popularity among street players and was made in sets ranging from treble to mounted. Air, which is produced by bellows or by an electrical blower, enters the
bass for ensemble playing. Made of hollow metal, earthenware, or plastic, it pro- wind chest at a constant pressure.
duces a muted, flutey tone. In the United States it is colloquially called a “sweet Controls
potato.” When a key is depressed, small valves open to allow air from the wind chest to
enter the pipes and cause them to sound. A “stop” mechanism allows any rank of
pipes to be prevented from sounding. The ranks are controlled by knobs or switch-
Organ - keyboard musical instrument in which compressed air vibrates within
es (called stops) set near the keyboard. By extension, the ranks of pipes they con-
tuned pipes to produce sound. An organ consists of flue pipes and/or reed pipes, an
trol are sometimes called stops.
air supply, and the keys and other controls.
Until the 19th century the connections linking the keys and pipe valves—includ-
ing mechanisms to couple keyboards so that ranks of pipes may be multiply con-
Pipes trolled—were achieved mechanically by a system of levers and cranks connected by
strips of wood called trackers and stickers. Builders in the 19th century began to
Flue pipes are made of metal or wood, and they work much like whistles. Air devise electrical and pneumatic actions to make the key-to-valve and stop connec-
enters at the foot of the pipe, moves as a sheet against a narrow slit or flue, and tions. Because many organists believe these actions to be less responsive and sen-
begins to vibrate as it passes across a sharp lip set in the pipe above the flue. This sitive than direct mechanical linkages, in the 20th century organs were again being
initial vibration causes all the air in the pipe to vibrate, producing a musical tone. built with the traditional tracker action.
The pitch of the tone depends on the length of the pipe; the shape and material of The keyboards, wind chest, and pipes of small organs are contained in one unit.
the pipe influence the color or quality of the tone. Some flue pipes are closed at the In large organs the keyboards and other controls are built in a separate unit called
top; “stopped” pipes produce pitches an octave lower than open pipes of the same the console. Many organ consoles have a number of controls, called pistons, which
length. allow the organist to bring into play at one stroke a combination of several ranks or
In reed pipes , the reed and the metal trough against which it beats (called a stops.
shallot) are encased in a pipe into which air is released from the air supply. The Each organ is unique in that it must suit the acoustics and architecture of the
incoming air causes the curved end of the reed to beat against the shallot and set the room that houses it. The room itself has an intimate acoustic relation to the organ,
surrounding air into vibration. The musical pitch produced is low for long reeds, profoundly influencing the sound of the organ by the amount of reverberation it
high for short reeds. The shallot is connected to a pipelike resonator, the shape of allows.
which affects the color of the sound.
A set of pipes all having the same tone quality is called a rank . The most char- History
acteristic organ sound is produced by metal flue pipes called diapasons or princi- The earliest organ, the hydraulis, was developed by the Greek inventor Ctesibius
pals; pipes of this kind form the central core of classic organ sound. Because the (flourished 3rd century BC). It utilized a large chamber partly filled with water. The
lowest note on most organs (two octaves below middle C) is produced by an open wide mouth of a funnel-like extension from the wind chest was set in the top of the
diapason pipe about 8 ft long, ranks of pipes at normal pitch are spoken of as 8-ft water; as air pressure in the wind chest fell, water rose in the funnel and compressed
ranks. Ranks sounding an octave lower than normal are called 16-ft ranks, and those the air, thus keeping the air pressure constant. The hydraulis was used for public
sounding an octave higher, 4-ft ranks. Mutations are ranks of pipes sounding at entertainments in ancient Rome and Byzantium. Bellows-type organs were also
pitches other than octaves above normal pitch, such as an octave and a fifth above known to the ancient world. This was the organ that reappeared in Europe in the 8th
normal (for example, two G's above a C). and 9th centuries, imported from Byzantium and from Arabs who had discovered
ancient Greek treatises. Although some ancient organs had a stop mechanism, this
device was forgotten, and on early medieval organs all ranks sounded at once, cre-
ating a formidable effect. By the 15th century the stop mechanism had been rein-
vented, pedal keyboards came into common use, and reed stops (not found on
ancient organs) were developed. forte (Italian for “harpsichord with soft and loud”). It was built by Bartolomeo
Smaller organs had also become common: the portative organ, carried by a strap Cristofori, a harpsichord maker of Florence, Italy, who is generally credited with
around the player's neck, which had only one rank of pipes and was supplied with inventing the piano. Two of his pianos still exist. The case of one, dated 1720, is in
wind by a small bellows pumped by the player; the positive organ, self-contained the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City; the other, dated 1726, is in a
and portable; and the regal, a small instrument with one rank of nasal-sounding reed museum in Leipzig, Germany.
pipes. Between 1500 and 1800, various national styles of organ building developed,
each distinguished by characteristic-sounding ranks. German organs of the 17th and
18th centuries were particularly outstanding, and it was for such organs that the
music of Johann Sebastian Bach was written. Organ builders in the 19th century Early Evolution of the Piano
devoted much effort to developing pipes that imitated the sound of orchestral Beginning about 1725, when the noted German organ maker Gottfried
instruments. About the same time, the swell box came into use. These innovations, Silbermann of Freiberg adopted Cristofori's action, the next major developments
which the best builders integrated with the traditional features of earlier organs, took place in Germany. Perhaps the most important contribution was made by
stimulated the organ works of such composers as the Hungarian Franz Liszt, the Johann Andreas Stein of Augsburg, who is credited with inventing an improved
Belgian César Franck, the German Max Reger, and, in the 20th century, the French escapement that became the foundation of the “Viennese” piano praised by
composer Olivier Messiaen. Many 19th-century organs, however, concentrated Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and favored by most German composers of the late 18th
principally on stops imitating the orchestra and were used for music that was basi- and early 19th centuries. Twelve masters from central Germany migrated to London
cally orchestral in origin or conception. In the 20th century a movement occurred to about 1760 and established the English school that, under John Broadwood and oth-
revive 18th-century instruments, often incorporating the best of the 19th-century ers, turned to the production of pianos of a stronger build, resembling those of our
innovations. own day. The French manufacturer Sébastien Erard founded the French school in
the 1790s, and in 1823 created the double action that is still in general use. By this
Electronic Organs time artisans in all Western nations were working to perfect the pianoforte.
Electronic and electric organs, developed in the 20th century, are not organs in Numerous improvements were and are still being made in design and construction.
the strict sense, for they do not produce sound by air vibrating in a pipe; rather, they Germany and the United States have long been distinguished for fine pianos,
are instruments in their own right. One kind, invented in 1935 by an American, notably those of the German firm founded by Karl Bechstein and the American
Laurens Hammond, utilizes electrical circuits and amplifiers to produce and enlarge firms of Baldwin, Mason & Hamlin, Steinway, and Chickering. The pianos of the
the sound. Another kind uses electronic devices such as vacuum tubes. Although Austrian Bösendorfer firm are also highly respected.
such instruments are often designed to imitate the tone qualities of pipe organs, they The compass of the early piano was, like that of the harpsichord, only four, or at
are frequently criticized for a pinched or artificial-seeming sound. Electronic most, five octaves, but it has gradually increased to a compass of more than seven
organs were widely used in the rock bands of the 1960s and after. In such bands, octaves as structural changes allowed for increases in tension amounting to several
which use extensive electrical sound amplification and manipulation, the distinctive tons.
qualities of electronic-organ sound are exploited for their own sake.
Modern Structure
Reed Organs The modern pianoforte has six major parts (in the following discussion, the num-
Keyboard instruments in which the wind supply is directed toward free metal bers in parentheses refer to the accompanying diagram of the structure of a
reeds like those of a harmonica or accordion are called reed organs. They include pianoforte): (1) The frame is usually made of iron. At the rear end is attached the
the melodeon, developed in the United States about 1825, and the harmonium, string plate, into which the strings are fastened. In the front is the wrest plank, into
developed in Germany about 1810. which the tuning pins are set. Around these is wound the other end of the strings,
and by turning these pins the tension of the strings is regulated. (2) The soundboard,
a thin piece of fine-grained spruce placed under the strings, reinforces the tone by
Panpipe - set of tuned pipes, often stopped at the lower end and joined togeth-
means of sympathetic vibration. (3) The strings, made of steel wire, increase in
er in either a raft or a bundle shape. Panpipes made from a variety of materials—
length and thickness from the treble to the bass. The higher pitches are each given
cane, wood, clay, metal, and stone—are found worldwide and have been known
two or three strings tuned alike. The lower ones are single strings made heavier by
since antiquity. They include the ancient Greek syrinx, the modern Romanian nai,
being overspun—that is, wound around with a coil of thin copper wire. (4) The
and the yupana of the Andes. The name panpipe refers to the god Pan of ancient
action is the entire mechanism required for propelling the hammers against the
Greek mythology; fleeing his pursuit, the nymph Syrinx was turned into a bed of
strings (see Operation of the Action below). The most visible part of the action is
reeds, from which Pan made his pipes.
the keyboard, a row of keys manipulated by the fingers. The keys corresponding to
the natural tones are made of ivory or plastic; those corresponding to the chromat-
Piano - stringed keyboard musical instrument, derived from the harpsichord and ically altered tones, of ebony or plastic. (5) The pedals are levers pressed down by
the clavichord. Also called the pianoforte, it differs from its predecessors princi- the feet. The damper, or loud pedal, raises all the dampers so that all the strings
pally in the introduction of a hammer-and-lever action that allows the player to struck continue to vibrate even after the keys are released. The soft pedal either
modify the intensity of sound by the stronger or weaker touch of the fingers. For throws all the hammers nearer to the strings so that the striking distance is dimin-
this reason the earliest known model (1709) was called a gravicembalo col pian e ished by one-half, or shifts the hammers a little to one side so that only a single
string instead of the two or three is struck. Some pianos have a third, or sustaining, it sits more or less vertically. Because it cannot completely rely on gravity, it
pedal that does not raise all the dampers, but keeps raised only those already raised includes various springs and small strips of cloth to pull some of the action parts
by the keys at the moment this pedal is applied. The use of these pedals can produce back into place.
subtle changes in tone quality. Many upright pianos have been built in which the
application of a pedal interposes a strip of felt between the hammers and strings so Eminent Soloists
that only a very faint sound is produced. (6) According to the shape of the case, The piano has always been an instrument for virtuosos. Composers played their
pianos are classified as grand, square, and upright. The square form (actually rec- own compositions in the 18th and 19th centuries, among them Wolfgang Amadeus
tangular) is no longer built. For use in private homes it has been entirely superseded Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven, Frédéric Chopin, and the Hungarian Franz Liszt.
by the upright, which takes up far less room. Grand pianos are built in various sizes, The noted German pianist Clara Schumann played the compositions of her husband,
from the full concert grand, 2.69 m (8 ft 10 in) long, to the parlor or baby grand, Robert Schumann. The end of the century was dominated by the Russian composer-
less than 1.8 m (6 ft) long. performer Anton Rubinstein, and in the early 20th century many performers trav-
eled constantly on concert tours throughout Western Europe and the United States.
Upright pianos include the late 19th-century cottage piano, of which the upright Among such performers were the Polish Ignace Paderewski and the Polish-
grand is merely a larger form. The modern spinet and console pianos are small Americans Josef Hofmann and Arthur Rubinstein.
uprights related to the cottage piano. In the upright pianos the strings run vertical-
ly, or diagonally, from the top to the bottom of the instrument. Uprights and small
grands are sometimes overstrung; that is, the bass strings are stretched diagonally
across the shorter treble strings, thereby gaining extra length and improved tone
quality. The combined tension of the strings on a concert grand piano is about 30 In the period between World Wars I and II (1918-1939), the Russian-American
tons, on an upright about 14. composer-performer Sergey Rachmaninoff, the Austrian-American Artur Schnabel,
the British Dame Myra Hess, the German Walter Gieseking, and the Brazilian
Operation of the Action Guiomar Novaes were popular concert recitalists. After the end of World War II in
Essentially, when a piano key is pressed down, its tail pivots upward and lifts a 1945, Russian pianists again appeared in the United States, among them Emil Gilels
lever that throws a hammer against the strings for that key's note. At the same time and Sviatoslav Richter. Perennially popular recitalists included the Chilean Claudio
a damper is raised from these strings, allowing them to vibrate more freely. The fol- Arrau, master of a particularly broad repertoire; Rudolf Serkin, a Czech-born
lowing is a much more detailed description of how the action works; the numbers American performer and teacher; the Russian-American virtuoso Vladimir
in parentheses refer to the accompanying diagram of the action of a grand piano. Horowitz; and the Spanish Alicia de Larrocha. Other highly accomplished players
The piano key (1) is a lever that pivots on a balance pin (2). When the player who appeared after World War II included the Austrian-English Alfred Brendel,
depresses the key, the tail rises and the capstan screw (3) in the key pushes up the whose scholarly approach aroused some aesthetic controversy; the Canadian Glenn
whippen (4), which is hinged. The free end of the whippen rises, taking with it an Gould, whose recordings of Bach won great acclaim; the Americans Van Cliburn,
L-shaped piece called the jack, or escapement lever (5), and the repetition lever (9). André Watts, and Murray Perahia; and the Russian-born Vladimir Ashkenazy, later
The jack pushes the knuckle, or roller (6), a roll of felt that is fixed to the hammer a citizen of Iceland. Today, with the level of technical proficiency among pianists
shank (7); the hammer thus rises. The jack's upward motion is stopped when its pro- rising, an increasing number of international piano competitions generate wide
truding end hits the regulating button (8). The hammer flies up away from the jack interest and serve to launch the careers of promising artists.
and strikes the appropriate strings. The repetition lever (9) also rises, but only until
the end where the jack passes through it and touches the drop screw (10); this lever Psaltery - musical instrument consisting of a set of strings, one for each note,
stays raised until the key is released. The hammer falls back, but only partway. It is stretched over a horizontal soundboard; its shape is basically trapezoidal, often
stopped by the knuckle (6) hitting the raised repetition lever (9). The jack (5) can with one or two incurved sides. The strings are plucked with the fingers or with a
thus slip back under the partially raised hammer shank and into its original position. plectrum. The name is from the ancient Greek psalterion, probably denoting a harp.
At the same time, the backcheck (11) keeps the hammer from rebounding against The psaltery originated in the Middle East and was popular in Europe during the
the strings. If the key is partly released, the hammer moves free of the backcheck, Middle Ages. During the 14th and 15th centuries, keyboards were linked to psalter-
and the repetition lever stays raised. If the player again depresses the partially ies, giving rise to the harpsichord. Modern psalteries include the Arabic qanun and
released key, the jack (5) can once more push the knuckle (6) and hammer shank (7) the Finnish kantele. The psaltery is classified as a subtype of the zither family.
upward. (This system allows rapid repetition of notes before the key and hammer
have time to return to their original positions. It was an important improvement Recorder - the predominant European flute from about 1500 to about 1750,
over early, simpler piano actions.) Meanwhile, the tail of the key has also pushed revived and mass-produced in the 20th century; it is an end-blown flute with a “fip-
up the damper lever (12), which lifts the damper (13) off the strings for that key. ple,” or whistle, mouthpiece, that is, one that directs air from a mouth hole, through
When the key is even partially released, the damper falls back onto the strings and a narrow flue formed by a block set in the bore, and against the sharp edge of a
silences the note. When the key is fully released, all parts of the mechanism return sound hole in the wall. Small recorderlike flutes, apparently of Asian origin, were
to their original positions because of gravity. Unlike grand pianos, upright pianos known in 11th-century Europe. By 1500 the recorder had acquired its present form
cannot rely on gravity to cause everything to return to place. In a grand piano the with seven finger holes and a thumb hole, and recorders were played in chamber
action sits horizontally on the key; in an upright piano the action is adapted so that
music in families from sopranino to great bass. In the mid-1600s the workshop of Babylonian reliefs dating from 1600 BC. Today it is important in traditional Iranian
the Parisian builder Jean Hotteterre introduced construction in three joints, or sec- and Iraqi musical ensembles.
tions, with a more pronounced downward taper to the bore. Most orchestral music
dating from 1600 to 1750 is scored for the recorder, referred to simply as flute, in Saxophone - family of reed-sounded wind musical instruments. The saxophone
contrast to the transverse flute (called German flute), which displaced the recorder was invented by the Belgian instrument-maker Adolphe Sax about 1840. The saxo-
about 1750. The term recorder appeared in England about 1400. The most common phone combines in its construction the single reed and mouthpiece of the clarinet,
recorders are the alto (or treble), used in much baroque chamber music and having a metal body, and a widened version of the conical bore of the oboe. The body con-
a compass of about two octaves up from the F above middle C; and the soprano (or tains 20 openings, covered by keys, which can be opened or closed in groups by
descant), used in 20th-century school music programs and having a compass of means of six studs, or finger plates, operated by the first three fingers of either
about two octaves up from the second C above middle C. Noteworthy pieces for hand. Two additional holes, called pipes or speakers, are used to produce notes an
recorders include the Brandenburg Concertos no. 2 and no. 4 of J. S. Bach and many octave above or below the normal range. Most saxophones are curved at the end and
sonatas by the German composer Georg Philipp Telemann. The recorder is closely resemble the bass clarinet; a few, such as the soprano saxophone, are straight and
related to the flageolet, an instrument popular about 1800. resemble the standard clarinet. The most common saxophones are the soprano, the
alto, the tenor, and the baritone, all of which have a compass of about two and a half
Sackbut - musical instrument, the immediate predecessor of the modern trom- octaves. The tone quality ranges from soft, flutelike, and mellow to brassy and
bone, made of thin, hammered metal, with a shallow, flat mouthpiece and a narrow, metallic.
nonflaring bell. The instrument produced a soft sound that complemented the harp- Saxophones were first introduced into the symphonic orchestra in 1844, and
sichord, voice, viol, lute, recorder, and cornett. The English name sackbut (along orchestral parts have occasionally been written for them, for example, by the
with its French and Spanish cognates) was used from the mid-15th century until the French composers Hector Berlioz and Georges Bizet; the German composer Richard
18th century, when the Italian term trombone came into general use. The sackbut Strauss used a quartet of saxophones in his Sinfonia Domestica (1903). Notable
was made in at least four sizes, from soprano to bass. solo concert works for the saxophone include a Rhapsody (1903) for saxophone and
orchestra by the French composer Claude Debussy and Fantasia for Saxophone and
Orchestra (1948) by the Brazilian composer Heitor Villa-Lobos. In military bands,
saxophones are usually used instead of clarinets. In the late 20th century, saxo-
It probably evolved as a lower-pitched version of the Renaissance slide trumpet, phones were popular mainly in the United States, where they were particularly asso-
which first appeared at the ducal court of Burgundy in the 15th century. Like the ciated with the development of jazz. Notable jazz saxophonists include Sidney
trombone, the sackbut featured a predominantly cylindrical bore, narrower than that Bechet; Charlie Parker (alto); Lester Young, John Coltrane, and Coleman Hawkins
of the trombone, and a telescopic slide to alter the pitch by increasing or decreas- (tenor); and Gerry Mulligan. Plastic saxophones were used with success by some
ing the length of the tube. Also like the trombone, the sackbut was constructed in jazz musicians.
three sections: the mouthpiece; the slide joint, an assembly consisting of two paral-
lel and stationary tubes attached by a crossbar, or stay, and covered by a long, U-
shaped sleeve (the telescopic slide tube), itself supported with a stay; and the bell
joint, a U-shaped tube terminating at the bell. The mouthpiece was inserted into one Shakuhachi - musical instrument, a Japanese end-blown flute made from a
end of the slide joint, and the bell joint was inserted into the other. The bell joint length of bamboo and having four finger holes and one thumbhole. Its name is
could be fitted with crooks to change the pitch, and the slide joint often had a derived from the Japanese measurement for the length of the basic instrument: one
hinged handle attached to the stay that enabled the player to slide it further than the shaku, about 30 cm (about 12 in), and eight hachi, about 24 cm (about 9.5 in). The
length of the arm. The pitch was lowered as the player extended the slide away from player blows against a slip of horn, ivory, or plastic set into the tube's beveled end.
the mouthpiece. The opposite end incorporates the slightly curved root section of the bamboo stalk,
which is decoratively trimmed.
Santur - musical instrument, a struck zither or dulcimer, found in southern Asia, The ancestor of the shakuhachi was imported from China in the 8th century. The
the Middle East, and southeastern Europe. The body consists of a trapezoid-shaped instrument was used in the 15th century in the form of the hitoyogiri, a small end-
wooden case about 6 cm (about 2 in) deep that has a longer end about 90 cm (about blown flute that eventually developed into the modern shakuhachi. The shakuhachi
3 ft) wide and a shorter end about 35 cm (about 14 in) wide. The left and right sides grew in popularity during the 18th century and now appears in a variety of lengths
taper at a 45° angle to the shorter end. In performance the instrument is placed on and pitches. The instrument is expressive and is used in traditional meditative solo
a stand, with the longer end near the musician. Arranged in quadruple sets, the pieces, in the classical chamber repertory, and in contemporary music.
metal strings run across the width of the instrument and are attached at each side.
They are sounded with two thin hardwood hammers held one in each hand. Each set Shawm - generic term for double-reed musical instruments, found in many parts
of strings rests on either one of two movable hardwood bridges, which run nearly of the world, that incorporate a pirouette, a disc partially surrounding the base of
parallel to their respective sides of the case. By striking the strings to the left and the reed and functioning as a lip rest. In instruments fitted with a pirouette, the reed
right of the bridges, the musician can obtain a range of three octaves. The santur is usually taken entirely into the mouth. This permits the production of a continu-
was known in Muslim Spain in the 11th century, but its ancestors may be seen in ous tone through the technique of circular breathing, whereby air is inhaled through
the nose and stored in the cheeks. The shawm is the direct ancestor of the modern ber music. It declined about 1700, except in town bands, but entered the expanding
oboe. More specifically, the term shawm applies to a European double-reed aero- military band in the late 1700s, when it gained its present widely flared bell.
phone consisting of a wooden tube having seven finger holes located in the upper Trombones with valves were introduced in the 1800s but were judged inferior in
half of the instrument, a conical bore, and a flaring bell. The European shawm, pop- tone.
ular from the late 13th century to the 17th century, ranged in size from soprano, With its slide closed, a B-flat tenor trombone produces the third B-flat below
about 48 cm (about 19 in) in length, to bass, about 3 m (about 10 ft) in length. All middle C as its fundamental or pedal note and also the notes in the harmonic series
sizes except the bass were fitted with a pirouette. In addition to finger holes, the of that B-flat (like a bugle or unvalved trumpet). The slide is successively opened
alto shawm, or bombarde, and the lower shawms included a U-shaped brass key that through six more positions, giving a lower harmonic series each time. The range
was partially hidden by a fontanelle, or detachable wooden barrel. The loud and extends from the second E below middle C to the B-flat above middle C, plus four
somewhat raucous sound of the shawm was exploited in ensembles during proces- pedal notes (B-flat, A, A-flat, G; the remaining pedal notes, down to low E, are dif-
sions and ceremonies. In Europe, the shawm was gradually replaced during the 17th ficult to produce). Orchestral music also uses a bass trombone in F (usually sup-
century by oboes and bassoons. Today it is used only sporadically as a folk instru- plied by a double tenor/bass trombone in B-flat/F, which has a valve to switch in
ment. extra B-flat bass tubing). Early orchestral compositions with trombone include
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's Don Giovanni (1787) and Ludwig van Beethoven's
Shofar - musical instrument developed by the ancient Hebrews and consisting Fifth Symphony (1808), but the trombone was not firmly established in the orches-
of an antelope's or ram's horn, with the smaller end flattened to form a mouthpiece. tra until about 1850.
The shofar normally can produce only two tones; thus, as a purely musical instru-
ment, it is very limited. In ancient times it was used as a signaling instrument in Trumpet - wind instrument sounded by the vibration of the player's lips against
various cultic ceremonies and rituals, most notably in religious rites conducted in a mouthpiece. The trumpet family includes both instruments derived from animal
the Temple. The shofar is still used by Jews in the rituals celebrating Rosh horn and those with more or less cylindrical tubing (usually having bamboo, wood,
Hashanah and Yom Kippur. or reed models). Trumpets made of large conch shells are found as ritual instru-
ments in many cultures. Silver and bronze trumpets with long, straight tubes, coni-
Stradivari, Antonio (1644-1737), Italian violin maker, born in Cremona; he cal bores, and flared bells survive from ancient Egypt (2nd millennium BC) and
also made violas and cellos. The Latin form of his name is Stradivarius. He inher- resemble other ancient trumpets such as the Hebrew hasosra, the Roman tuba, and
ited the traditions of the Cremonese violin makers from his teacher, Nicolò Amati, the Greek salpinx. In medieval Europe the long, straight trumpet called buisine was
and brought their art to its zenith. During his career Stradivari made certain changes replaced by a shorter version of the instrument about 1300. By about 1400 the
in the proportions of his instruments, particularly the violins. The secret of his instrument became folded into an S-shape, and about 1500 it was coiled into an
unmatched mastery remains elusive. Some believe it to be in the varnish he used; elongated loop. In this form, made of brass or silver, it was the standard ceremoni-
this is a subject of controversy. His finest instruments were made between 1700 and al and orchestral trumpet until about 1800. Its narrow cylindrical bore created a
1725. Several hundred of his violins survive; his violas and cellos are much rarer. brilliant tone, but its notes were limited to the harmonic series of the fundamental
His violins are more desired by players than those of any other instrument maker pitch of its length of tubing. Instrument builders in the early 1800s sought to con-
with the exception of his contemporary, Giuseppe Antonio Guarneri. struct a trumpet that could play a full chromatic scale throughout its range. One
Stradivari, who was still making instruments when he was more than 90 years of short-lived invention was a key mechanism to open and close side holes in the tub-
age, had 11 children, of whom two sons, Francesco Stradivari and Omobono ing. About 1820, valves were added to the trumpet. Opening a valve connected an
Stradivari, worked closely with him. extra increment of tubing, thus lowering the basic pitch of the instrument and pro-
viding a different harmonic series.
Triangle - percussion instrument of indefinite pitch. It consists of a steel rod The modern trumpet has three valves and a bore that is partly cylindrical, partly
bent in triangle form, open at one corner. It is suspended by a string and struck with conical. The standard orchestral trumpet, built in B-flat, has a range of about three
a steel beater. The triangle was known in Europe by the 14th century and until about octaves extending upward from the F-sharp below middle C. Models in D, C, and
1800 often had jingling rings strung on it. It entered the orchestra during the 18th- other pitches also exist. All are notated as if pitched in C (written C sounds B-flat
century vogue for Turkish military music. It is a standard rhythm instrument in for a B-flat trumpet), thereby allowing players to switch instruments without learn-
United States Acadian (Cajun) folk music. The Hungarian composer Franz Liszt ing new fingerings.
included a triangle solo in his first piano concerto (1849), called the Triangle con-
certo. Tuba - (Latin, “trumpet”), lowest-pitched of the brass wind instruments, with a
wide conical bore, three or four valves, a deep cup-shaped mouthpiece, and verti-
Trombone - brass wind instrument with a cylindrical bore, a cup-shaped mouth- cally coiled tubing with an upward-pointing bell. Patented in 1835 by the Prussian
piece, and a slide mechanism. It originated about 1400 as an improvement to the bandmaster Friedrich Wilhelm Wieprecht and the German builder Johann Gottfried
trumpet and was built in various sizes, the most common being alto, tenor, and bass. Moritz, it was one of several efforts to provide a suitable valved brass bass for the
Except for its thicker metal and narrower bell, which yielded a softer, mellower wind band. Its antecedents include the serpent (an S-shaped, cup-mouthpiece wood-
tone, the early trombone was basically identical to the modern one. Called sackbut en bass with finger holes) and the ophicleide (a keyed bass bugle). The tuba has a
(Spanish sacabuche, “pull-tube”), it was a favored instrument in church and cham- compass of more than three octaves. It is normally built as a bass in E-flat or F
(lowest sounding note: second B-flat or second C below middle C) or as a contra- standing of the instrument's construction or fittings. Representations in art together
bass in B-flat or C (lowest sounding note: second E-flat or second F below middle with surviving physical remains indicate that the body of the instrument was carved
C). The B-flat contrabass is sometimes known as the “double B-flat” tuba. A tuba from a single piece of wood and was covered by a flat belly with C-shaped sound
with circular coiling is a helicon; the sousaphone is a variety of helicon. Wagner holes. The viele had a relatively thick neck and three to five strings. In modern
tubas are four-valve instruments with a narrower bore, designed for the German usage, the term viele is often employed in combination with other words to denote
composer Richard Wagner. The term tuba is also applied to other low brasses, espe- particular instruments such as the vièle à pique (spike fiddle) and the vièle à roue
cially saxhorns. (hurdy-gurdy).
‘Ud, - (Arabic for “twig” or “flexible rod”), musical instrument, short-necked Viol - bowed stringed instrument popular from about 1500 to about 1750 and
Arabian lute, having a large, wooden, pear-shaped body and belly, and a vaulted revived in the 20th century for early music. The viol rests vertically on the player's
back with 16 to 21 ribs. The ‘ud is both the etymological and the physical ancestor knees, hence its Italian name viola da gamba (leg viol). The bow is held palm out-
of the European lute, the name of which is derived from the phrase al-‘ud, Arabic ward and is slightly convex (in contrast to the concave violin bow). Made in three
for “the lute.” The ‘ud is easily distinguishable from its European counterpart by its principal sizes (treble, tenor, and bass), the viol has a deep body and sloped shoul-
relatively short fretless neck, a scratchplate to protect the belly from the plectrum, ders; a back that angles back sharply near the neck; a violinlike bridge; C-shaped
and its undulating pegbox, which projects back at an angle of nearly 90° to the sound holes; and tied-on gut frets that contribute to its clear, penetrating sound. The
neck. The instrument may be found in lengths from about 65 to 77 cm (about 25 to six gut strings are tuned (in the tenor) G c f a d1 g1 (c = C below middle C; d1 = D
30 in), and it has one to three plain or decorated sound holes. Many different woods, above middle C), a tuning shared by the viol's relative, the lute. The treble tuning
and sometimes mother-of-pearl, are inlaid on the sides of the fingerboard and the has the same pattern starting on d; the bass, starting on D. Less common was the
back. The most common modern form of the ‘ud, noted as early as the 8th century, double bass, tuned an octave lower; it was one ancestor of the modern double bass.
has five gut or nylon strings in courses of two strings per note, and a range of In the 1500s and 1600s a consort, or ensemble, of viols was a favorite medium for
slightly more than two octaves. It has a number of tunings. Modern versions with chamber music by such composers as the Englishman Henry Purcell. In England the
two, four, six, and seven strings are also known. The size, decoration, and number lyra viol—a small bass used for complex solo music—also became popular. With
of strings on these instruments vary by region and period. The ‘ud is used to accom- the rise of the orchestra in the 1700s the violin drove the treble and tenor viols from
pany singing in a wide range of secular music, and it figures prominently in the prominence. The bass viol persisted, its most famous virtuoso being the French
famous collection of stories known as Arabian Nights. The history of the instrument player Marin Marais. Music for bass viol includes the Brandenburg Concerto no. 6
is elusive. The use of silk for the strings suggests a Chinese influence. However, the by J. S. Bach. See also Musical Instruments.
‘ud may have been invented in the mid-3rd century during the reign of the Sassanid
king Shapur I, later spreading west into North Africa and Europe and east to China. Viola - alto member of the violin family, having four strings tuned c g d1 a1 (c
By the end of the 7th century it had arrived in the Arabian Peninsula, and by the = C below middle C; a1 = A above middle C). About 2 to 7 cm (1 to 3.5 in) longer
10th century it was present in Spain and Morocco. than the violin, and tuned a fifth lower, the viola varies more in size than do the vio-
lin and cello. Most violas are resonant and mellow in the lower range and have rich,
Ukulele - (Hawaiian for “flea”), Hawaiian musical instrument, basically a small full sounds in the middle and upper ranges. The earliest surviving examples are two
guitar. It is played by strumming or plucking the strings with the fingers, and it has fairly large violas by the Italian builder Gasparo da Salò (1540-1609). Used promi-
a fretted neck and four strings, which are tuned (relative pitch) G C E A within one nently in such early works as the opera Orfeo (1607) by the Italian composer
octave. It was developed in Hawaii from a similar Portuguese instrument in the late Claudio Monteverdi, the viola in the late 17th and 18th centuries took a secondary
19th century and enjoyed its greatest popularity during the 1920s. role, and smaller models prevailed. With the viola's resurgence in compositions
such as the symphonic poem Harold in Italy (1834) by the French composer Hector
Vibraharp , or Vibraphone - musical percussion instrument, similar to the Berlioz, and works by the German composers Johannes Brahms and Robert
xylophone but with metal bars or keys. When the bars are struck with a hammer, the Schumann, large violas again predominated. Among 20th-century viola virtuosos
notes resonate in tubular chambers beneath each bar. The hammer has a head of were the Scottish player William Primrose and the German composer Paul
wound yarn. Between the bars and resonance chambers, metal disks revolve on a Hindemith, who wrote many works for the viola. Other composers include the
motorized drive shaft. The air deflected by the spinning disks imparts a slight Hungarian Béla Bartók, the English Sir William Walton, and the Swiss-American
tremolo (alternation in intensity) to the notes as they echo in the resonance cham- Ernest Bloch.
bers. American jazz percussionist and bandleader Lionel Hampton popularized the
instrument during the 1930s. Violin - bowed stringed instrument, the highest pitched member of the violin
family. Other members of the violin family are the viola, cello, and double bass.
Viele - musical instrument, ancestor of the modern violin, and the leading fid- The bow is a narrow, slightly incurved stick of Pernambuco about 75 cm (about 30
dle of Europe during the 13th and 14th centuries. The word viele is the medieval in) long, with a band of horsehair stretched from end to end of the bowstick. The
French form of the Provençal and Italian viola, and it is related etymologically to violin has four strings tuned a fifth apart, to the notes g, d’, a’, e’;
other medieval terms such as fiddle, fele, fiedel, fiele, videl, and vihuela. No orig- On early violins the strings were of pure gut. Today they may be of gut, gut
inal examples of the viele are sufficiently well preserved to permit a detailed under- wound with aluminum or silver, steel, or perlon.
This growth in stature continued throughout the baroque period (circa 1600-c.
Construction and Playing 1750) in the works of many notable composer-performers, including Arcangelo
The main parts of the violin are the front, also called the belly, top, or sound- Corelli, Antonio Vivaldi, and Giuseppe Tartini in Italy and Heinrich Biber, Georg
board, usually made of well-seasoned spruce; the back, usually made of well-sea- Philipp Telemann, and Johann Sebastian Bach in Germany.
soned maple; and the ribs, neck, fingerboard, pegbox, scroll, bridge, tailpiece, and The violin became the principal force in the instrumental genres then current—
f-holes, or soundholes. The front, back, and ribs are joined together to form a hol- the solo concerto, concerto grosso, sonata, trio sonata, and suite—as well as in
low sound box. The sound box contains the sound post, a thin, dowel-like stick of opera. By the mid-18th century the violin was one of the most popular solo instru-
wood wedged inside underneath the right side of the bridge and connecting the front ments in European music. Violins also formed the leading section of the orchestra,
and back of the violin; and the bass-bar, a long strip of wood glued to the inside of the most important instrumental ensemble to emerge in both the baroque and clas-
the front under the left side of the bridge. The sound post and bass-bar are impor- sical (circa 1750-c. 1820) eras; and in the modern orchestra—still the most impor-
tant for the transmission of sound, and they also give additional support to the con- tant instrumental ensemble in Western music—the violin family continues to
struction. The strings are fastened to the tailpiece, rest on the bridge, are suspend- account for more than half the players. The predominant chamber-music ensemble,
ed over the fingerboard, and run to the pegbox, where they are attached to tuning the string quartet, consists of two violins, viola, and cello. During the 19th century
pegs that can be turned to change the pitch of the string. The player makes differ- virtuoso violinists of legendary fame concertized extensively throughout Europe.
ent pitches by placing the left-hand fingers on the string and pressing against the They included the Italians Giovanni Viotti and Nicolò Paganini, the Germans Louis
fingerboard. The strings are set in vibration and produce sound when the player Spohr and Joseph Joachim, the Spaniard Pablo de Sarasate, and the Belgians Henri
draws the bow across them at a right angle near the bridge. Vieuxtemps and Eugène Ysaÿe. In the 20th century the violin achieved new artistic
Among the prized characteristics of the violin are its singing tone and its poten- and technical heights in the hands of the Americans Isaac Stern and Yehudi
tial to play rapid, brilliant figurations as well as lyrical melodies. Violinists can Menuhin, the Austrian-born Fritz Kreisler, the Russian-born Jascha Heifetz, Mischa
also create special effects by means of the following techniques: pizzicato, pluck- Elman, and Nathan Milstein (who became U.S. citizens), the Hungarian Joseph
ing the strings; tremolo, moving the bow rapidly back and forth on a string; sul pon- Szigeti, and the Soviet David Oistrakh. Among composers of major solo and cham-
ticello, playing with the bow extremely close to the bridge to produce a thin, glassy ber works for the violin are Bach, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, and Ludwig van
sound; col legno, playing with the wooden part of the bow instead of with the hair; Beethoven in the baroque and classical eras; the Austrian Franz Schubert, the
harmonics, placing the fingers of the left hand lightly on certain points of the string Germans Johannes Brahms, Felix Mendelssohn, and Robert Schumann, and the
to obtain a light, flutelike sound; and glissando, steadily gliding the left-hand fin- Russian Peter Ilich Tchaikovsky in the romantic era; and the French Claude
gers up and down along the string to produce an upward- or downward-sliding Debussy, the Austrian Arnold Schoenberg, the Hungarian Béla Bartók, and the
pitch. Russian-born Igor Stravinsky in the 20th century.
History Xylophone - (Greek xylon, “wood”; phone, “sound”), musical percussion

The violin emerged in Italy in the early 1500s and seems to have evolved from instrument consisting of a series of graduated wooden bars that are struck with mal-
two medieval bowed instruments—the fiddle, also called viele or fiedel, and the lets to produce sound. Xylophones were developed and known in Southeast Asia by
rebec—and from the Renaissance lira da braccio (a violinlike instrument with off- the 14th century. In Africa, where the xylophone was possibly imported by way of
the-fingerboard drone strings). Also related, but not a direct ancestor, is the viol, a Madagascar, its use spread throughout the continent, and the xylophone became a
fretted, six-string instrument that appeared in Europe before the violin and existed prominent instrument in African music. African slaves introduced the xylophone to
side by side with it for about 200 years. Latin America, where it is known as a marimba (one of its many African names). It
The earliest important violin makers were the northern Italians Gasparo da Salò arrived in Europe about 1500 and took root as a folk instrument in central Europe.
(1540-1609) and Giovanni Maggini (1579-c. 1630) from Brescia and Andrea Amati By the 19th century Polish and Russian performers had popularized the xylophone
from Cremona. The craft of violin making reached unprecedented artistic heights in in western Europe. Its first orchestral use was in Danse Macabre (1874) by the
the 17th and early 18th centuries in the workshops of the Italians Antonio Stradivari French composer Camille Saint-Saëns; the Russian-born composer Igor Stravinsky
and Giuseppe Guarneri, both from Cremona, and the Austrian Jacob Stainer. used it in Petrushka (1911).
Compared with the modern instrument, the early violin had a shorter, thicker The simplest African xylophones are a pair of bars laid across the player's legs.
neck that was less angled back from the violin's front; a shorter fingerboard; a flat- Usually the bars are mounted on a frame, touching it at a nonvibrating point (called
ter bridge; and strings made solely of gut. Early bows were somewhat different in a node) near each end of the bar. Frame-mounted xylophones may have gourd or
design from modern ones. These construction details were all modified in the 18th tubular resonators suspended under each bar (as in the Congolese kalanba, which
and 19th centuries to give the violin a louder, more robust, more brilliant tone. A has gourds); or the frame itself may form a troughlike resonator (as in the
number of 20th-century players have restored their 18th-century instruments to the Indonesian gambang). The orchestral xylophone has two rows of bars arranged like
original specifications, believing them more suited for early music. piano keys; normally, tubular resonators are tuned to each bar. It is played with two
Used at first to accompany dancing or to double voice parts in vocal music, the hard mallets for a dry, penetrating sound, or with four to eight softer rubber mallets
violin was considered an instrument of low social status. In the early 1600s, how- for muted chords. Its usual compass is four octaves, running upward from middle C.
ever, the violin gained prestige through its use in operas such as Orfeo (1607), by The orchestral marimba has tubular resonators and is pitched an octave lower than
the Italian composer Claudio Monteverdi, and through the French king Louis XIII's the xylophone.
band of musicians, the 24 violons du roi (“the king's 24 violins,” formed in 1626).
Xylophonelike instruments with metal bars are called metallophones; they
include the glockenspiel, vibraharp, and certain instruments used in the gamelan AFTERTOUCH: A means of generating a control signal based on how much
(percussion orchestra) of Indonesia. pressure is applied to the keys of a MIDI keyboard. Most instruments that support
this do not have independent pressure sensing for all keys, but rather detect the
Zither - any stringed instrument in which the strings run across a body or res- overall pressure by means of a sensing strip running beneath the keys. Aftertouch
onator, and that has no protruding arms or neck. may be used to control such functions as vibrato depth, filter brightness, loudness
By this definition, the zither family includes psalteries and hammered dulcimers, and so on.
but the instruments most characteristically referred to as zithers are the fretted ALGORITHM: A computer program designed to perform a specific task. In the
zithers of Europe. In south Germany and Austria, two highly developed varieties context of effects units, algorithms usually describe a software building block
exist: the Salzburg zither, flat along its fretted side and curved out on the opposite designed to create a specific effect or combination of effects.
side; and the less common Mittenwald zither, curved out on both sides. Both have a ALIASING: When an analogue signal is sampled for conversion into a digital
shallow, flat sound box with a round sound hole and, usually, five metal melody data stream, the sampling frequency must be at least twice that of the highest fre-
strings stretched along a fretted fingerboard. Beyond them are 17 to 40 accompani- quency component of the input signal. If this rule is disobeyed, the sampling
ment strings, generally of gut or nylon. The player's left-hand fingers stop the process becomes ambiguous as there are insufficient points to define each cycle of
melody strings, which are plucked with a plectrum worn on the right thumb; the the waveform, resulting in enharmonic frequencies being added to the audible sig-
right-hand fingers pluck the accompaniment strings. Two common melody string nal.
tunings are c g d1 a1 a1 and c g g1 d1 a1 (g = G below middle C, g1 = G above mid- AMBIENCE: The result of sound reflections in a confined space being added to
dle C); accompaniment-string tunings vary. These zithers are descended from the the original sound. Ambience may also be created electronically by some digital
narrow, boxlike Scheitholt, similar to several north European zithers and to the reverb units. The main difference between ambience and reverberation is that ambi-
Appalachian dulcimer of the U.S. (a three- or four-string fretted zither that was ence doesn't have the characteristic long delay time of reverberation - the reflec-
developed from the Pennsylvania German zitter). A few zithers, such as the tions mainly give the sound a sense of space.
Streichzither, are bowed, rather than plucked. AMP: (Ampere) Unit of electrical current.
Non-Western zithers take many forms, including a trough or a hollow tube (many AMPLIFIER: Device that increases the level of an electrical signal.
African zithers); a solid bar with gourd resonators at each end (the bin of North AMPLITUDE: Another word for level. Can refer to sound levels or electrical
India); and a long, slightly curved board (the Chinese qin [ch'in] and zheng [cheng] signal levels.
and Japanese koto). ANALOGUE: Circuitry that uses a continually changing voltage or current to
represent a signal. The origin of the term is that the electrical signal can be thought
GLOSSARY of as being 'analogous' to the original signal.
ANALOGUE SYNTHESIS: A system for synthesizing sounds by means of ana-
Recording - MIDI - Audio - Music Technology logue circuitry, usually by filtering simple repeating waveforms.
ATTENUATE: To make lower in level.
AC: Alternating Current. ANTI-ALIASING FILTER: Filter used to limit the frequency range of an ana-
A/D CONVERTER: Circuit for converting analogue waveforms into a series of logue signal prior to A/D conversion so that the maximum frequency does not
equally spaced numerical values represented by binary numbers. The more 'bits' a exceed half the sampling rate.
converter has, the greater the resolution of the sampling process. APPLICATION: alternativni termin za kompjuterski program
ACTIVE: Describes a circuit containing transistors, ICs, tubes and other ARPEGGIATOR: ure∂aj (ili software), that allows a MIDI instrument to
devices, that require power to operate and are capable of amplification. sequence around any notes currently being played. Most arpeggiators also allows
ADDITIVE SYNTHESIS: A system for generating waveforms or sounds by the sound to be sequenced over several octaves, so that holding down a simple
combining basic waveforms or sampled sounds prior to further processing with fil- chord can result in an impressive repeating sequence of notes.
ters and envelope shapers. ASCII: American Standard Code for Information Interchange. A standard code
ADSR: Envelope generator with Attack, Sustain, Decay and Release parameters. for representing computer keyboard characters by binary data.
This is a simple type of envelope generator and was first used on early analogue ATTACK: The time taken for a sound to achieve maximum amplitude. Drums
synthesizers. This form of envelope generator continues to be popular on modern have a fast attack, whereas bowed strings have a slow attack. In compressors and
instruments. See Decay for more details. gates, the attack time equates to how quickly the processor can change its gain.
ACTIVE SENSING: A system used to verify that a MIDI connection is working, AUDIO FREQUENCY: Signals in the human audio range: nominally 20Hz to
that involves the sending device sending frequent short messages to the receiving 20kHz.
device to reassure it that all is well. If these active sensing messages stop for any AUTOLOCATOR: Feature of a tape machine or other recording device that
reason,the receiving device will recognise a fault condition and switch off all notes. enables specific locations to be stored, then at some later time, these locations with-
Not all MIDI devices support active sensing.AFL: After Fade listen; a system used in the recording may be recalled. For example, you may store the start of a verse as
within mixing consoles to allow specific signals to be monitored at the level set by a locate point so that you can get the tape machine to wind back the start of the
their fader of level control knob. Aux sends are generally monitored AFL rather than verse after you've recorded an overdub.
PFL (see PFL). AUX: Control on a mixing console designed to route a proportion of the channel
signal to the effects or cue mix outputs (Aux Send).
AUX SEND: Physical output from a mixer Aux Send buss. CARDIOID: Meaning heart shaped, describes the polar response of a unidirec-
AUX RETURN: Mixer inputs used to add effects to the mix. tional microphone.
AZIMUTH: Alignment coordinate of a tape head which references the head gap CD-R: A recordable type of Compact Disc that can only be recorded once - it
to the true vertical relative to the tape path. cannot be erased and reused.
BACKUP: A safety copy of software or other digital data. CD-R BURNER: A device capable of recording data onto blank CD-R discs.
BAND PASS FILTER (BPF): Filter that removes or attenuates frequencies CV: Control Voltage used to control the pitch of an oscillator or filter frequency
above and below the frequency at which it is set. Frequencies within the band are in an analogue synthesizer. Most analogue synthesizers follow a one volt per octave
emphasised. Bandpass filters are often used in synthesizers as tone shaping ele- convention, though there are exceptions. To use a pre-MIDI analogue synthesizer
ments. under MIDI control, a MIDI to CV converter is required.
BALANCE: This word has several meanings in recording. It may refer to the rel- CAPACITANCE: Property of an electrical component able to store electrostatic
ative levels of the left and right channels of a stereo recording, or it may be used to charge.
describe the relative levels of the various instruments and voices within a mix. CAPACITOR: Electrical component exhibiting capacitance. Capacitor micro-
BALANCED WIRING: Wiring system which uses two out-of-phase conductors phones are often abbreviated to capacitors.
and a common screen to reduce the effect of interference. For balancing to be effec- CAPACITOR MICROPHONE: Microphone that operates on the principle of
tive, both the sending and receiving device must have balanced output and input measuring the change in electrical charge across a capacitor where one of the elec-
stages respectively. trodes is a thin conductive membrane that flexes in response tosound pressure.
BANDPASS: A filter that passes frequencies only between specific upper and CHANNEL: A single strip of controls in a mixing console relating to either a
lower limits. single input or a pair of main/monitor inputs.
BANDWIDTH: A means of specifying the range of frequencies passed by an CHANNEL: In the context of MIDI, Channel refers to one of 16 possible data
electronic circuit such as an amplifier, mixer or filter. The frequency range is usu- channel over which MIDI data may be sent. The organisation of data by channels
ally measured at the points where the level drops by 3dB relative to the maximum. means that up to 16 different MIDI instruments or parts may be addressed using a
BETA VERSION: Software which is not fully tested and may include bugs. single cable.
BIAS: High frequency signal used in analogue recording to improve the accura- CHANNEL: In the context of mixing consoles, a channel is a single strip of con-
cy of the recorded signal and to drive the erase head. Bias is generated by a bias trols relating to one input.
oscillator. CHASE: Term describing the process whereby a slave device attempts to syn-
BINARY: Counting system based on only two states - 1s and 0s. chronise itself with a master device. In the context of a MIDI sequence, Chase may
BIOS: Part of a computer operating system held on ROM rather than on disk. also involve chasing events - looking back to earlier positions in the song to see if
This handles basic routines such as accessing the disk drive. there are any program change or other events that need to be acted upon.
BIT: Binary digit, which may either be 1 or 0. CHIP: Integrated circuit.
BOOST/CUT CONTROL: A single control which allows the range of frequen- CHORD: Three or more different musical notes played at the same time.
cies passing through a filter to be either amplified or attenuated. The centre posi- CHORUS: Effect created by doubling a signal and adding delay and pitch mod-
tion is usually the 'flat' or 'no effect' position. ulation.
BOUNCING: The process of mixing two or more recorded tracks together and CHROMATIC: A scale of pitches rising in semitone steps.
re-recording these onto another track. CLICK TRACK: Metronome pulse which assists musicians in playing in time.
BPM: Beats Per Minute. CLIPPING: Severe form of distortion which occurs when a signal attempts to
BREATH CONTROLLER: Device that converts breath pressure into MIDI con- exceed the maximum level which a piece of equipment can handle.
troller data. CLONE: Exact duplicate. Often refers to digital copies of digital tapes.
BUFFER: Circuit designed to isolate the output of a source device from loading COMMON MODE REJECTION: A measure of how well a balanced circuit
effects due to the input impedance of the destination device. rejects a signal that is common to both inputs.
BUFFER MEMORY: Temporary RAM memory used in some computer opera- COMPANDER: Encode decode device that compresses a signal while encoding
tions, sometimes to prevent a break in the data stream when the computer is inter- it, then expands it when decoding it.
rupted to perform another task. COMPRESSOR: Device designed to reduce the dynamic range of audio signals
BUG: Slang term for software fault or equipment design problem. by reducing the level of high signals or by increasing the level of low signals.
BUSS: A common electrical signal path along which signals may travel. In a COMPUTER: A device for the storing and processing of digital data.
mixer, there are several busses carrying the stereo mix, the groups, the PFL signal, CONDUCTOR: Material that provides a low resistance path for electrical cur-
the aux sends and so on. Power supplies are also fed along busses. rent.
BYTE: A piece of digital data comprising eight bits. CONSOLE: Alternative term for mixer.
CONTACT ENHANCER: Compound designed to increase the electrical con- DECAY: The progressive reduction in amplitude of a sound or electrical signal
ductivity of electrical contacts such as plugs, sockets and edge connectors. over time. In the context of an ADSR envelope shaper, the Decay phase starts as
CONTINUOUS CONTROLLER: Type of MIDI message used to translate con- soon as the Attack phase has reached its maximum level. In the Decay phase, the
tinuous change, such as from a pedal, wheel or breath control device. signal level drops until it reaches the Sustain level set by the user. The signal then
COPY PROTECTION: Method used by software manufacturers to prevent remains at this level until the key is released, at which point the Release phase is
unauthorised copying. entered.
CRASH: Slang term relating to malfunction of computer program. DEFRAGMENT: The process of rearranging the files on a hard disk so that all
CUT AND PASTE EDITING: The ability to copy or move sections of a record- the files are as contiguous as possible, and that the remaining free space is also con-
ing to new locations. tiguous.
CUTOFF FREQUENCY: The frequency above or below which attenuation DETENT: Physical click stop in the centre of a control such as a pan or EQ
begins in a filter circuit. cut/boost knob.
CYCLE: One complete vibration of a sound source or its electrical equivalent. DI: Short for Direct Inject, where a signal is plugged directly into an audio chain
One cycle per second is expressed as 1Hertz (Hz). without the aid of a microphone.
CV: Control voltage used in analogue synthesizers, to control oscillator or filter DI BOX: Device for matching the signal level impedance of a source to a tape
frequency. machine or mixer input.
DIGITAL: Electronic system which represents data and signals in the form of
DAMPING: In the context of reverberation, damping refers to the rate at which codes comprising 1s and 0s.
the reverberant energy is absorbed by the various surfaces in the environment. DIGITAL DELAY: Digital processor for generating delay and echo effects.
DAISY CHAIN: Term used to describe serial electrical connection between DIGITAL REVERB: Digital processor for simulating reverberation.
devices or modules.
DAT: Digital Audio Tape. The commonly used DAT machines are more correct-
ly known as R-DAT because they use a rotating head similar to a video recorder.
Digital recorders using fixed or stationary heads (such as DCC) are known as S- DIN CONNECTOR: Consumer multipin signal connection format, also used for
DAT machines. MIDI cabling. Various pin configurations are available.
DATA: Information stored and used by a computer. DIRECT COUPLING: A means of connecting two electrical circuits so that
DATA COMPRESSION: A system used to reduce the amount of data needed to both AC and DC signals may be passed between them.
represent an audio signal, usually by discarding audio information that is being DITHER: A system of adding low level noise to a digitized audio signal in such
masked by more prominent sounds. a way as to extend to the low level resolution at the expense of a slight deteriora-
dB: deciBel. Unit used to express the relative levels of two electrical voltages, tion in noise performance.
powers or sounds. DISC: Used to describe vinyl discs, CDs and MiniDiscs.
dBm: Variation on dB referenced to 0dB = 1mW into 600Ohms. DISK: Abbreviation of Diskette, but now used to describe computer floppy, hard
dBv: Variation on dB referenced to 0dB = 0.775 volts. and removable disks.
dBV: Variation on dB referenced to 0dB = 1 volt. DMA: Direct Memory Access: Part of a computer operating system that allows
dB/Octave: A means of measuring the slope of a filter. The more dBs per octave, peripheral devices to communicate directly with the computer memory without
the sharper the filter slope. going via the central processor or CPU.
DATA COMPRESSION: A system for reducing the amount of data stored by a DOLBY: An encode/decode tape noise reduction system that amplifies low level,
digital system. Most audio data compression systems are so-called lossy systems as high frequency signals during recording, then reverses this process during play-
some of the original signal is discarded based on psychoacoustic principles back. There are several different Dolby systems in use: types B, C and S for domes-
designed to ensure that only components which cannot be heard are lost. tic and semi-professional machines, and types A and SR for professional machines.
DC: Direct Current. Recordings made using one of these systems must also be replayed via the same
DCC: Stationary head digital recorder format developed by Philips. Uses a data system.
compression system to reduce the amount of data that needs to be stored. DOS: Disk Operating System. Part of the operating system of PC and PC com-
dbx: A commercial encode/decode tape noise reduction system that compresses patible computers.
the signal during recording and expands it by an identical amount on playback. DSP: Digital Signal Processor. A powerful microchip used to process digital sig-
DCO: Digitally Controlled Oscillator. nals.
DDL: Digital Delay Line. DRIVER: Piece of software that handles communications between the main pro-
DE-ESSER: Device for reducing the effect of sibilance in vocal signals. gram and a hardware peripheral, such as a soundcard, printer or scanner.
DEOXIDISING COMPOUND: Substance formulated to remove oxides from DRUM PAD: Synthetic playing surface which produces electronic trigger sig-
electrical contacts. nals in response to being hit with drum sticks.
DRY: A signal that has had no effects added. EXPANDER: A devise designed to decrease the level of low level signals and
DUBBING: Adding further material to an existing recording. Also known as increase the level of high level signals, thus increasing the dynamic range of the
overdubbing. signal.
DUCKING: A system for controlling the level of one audio signal with another. EXPANDER MODULE: Synthesizer with no keyboard, often rack mountable or
For example, background music can be made to 'duck' whenever there's a voice in some other compact format.
over. FX: Short for Effects.
DUMP: To transfer digital data from one device to another. A Sysex dump is a FADER: Sliding potentiometer control used in mixers and other processors.
means of transmitting information about a particular instrument or module over FERRIC: Type of magnetic tape coating that uses iron oxide.
MIDI, and may be used to store sound patches, parameter settings and so on. FET: Field Effect Transistor.
DYNAMIC MICROPHONE: A type of microphone that works on the electric FIGURE-OF-EIGHT:
generator principle, where a diaphragm moves a coil of wire within a magnetic FILE: Describes the polar response of a microphone that is equally sensitive
field. both front and rear, yet rejects sounds coming from the sides.
DYNAMIC RANGE: The range in dB between the highest signal that can be FILTER: A meaningful list of data stored in digital form. A Standard MIDI File
handled by a piece of equipment and the level at which small signals disappear into is a specific type of file designed to allow sequence information to be interchanged
the noise floor. between different types of sequencer.
DYNAMICS: Way of describing the relative levels within a piece of music. FLANGING: An electronic circuit designed to emphasize or attenuate a specif-
ic range of frequencies. Modulated delay effect using feedback to create a dramat-
EARLY REFLECTIONS: The first sound reflections from walls, floors and ic, sweeping sound.
ceilings following a sound created in an acoustically reflective environment. FLOPPY DISK: Computer disk that uses a flexible magnetic medium encased in
a protective plastic sleeve. The maximum capacity of a standard High Density disk
is 1.44Mbytes.
EFFECT: Device for treating an audio signal in order to change it in some cre- Earlier Double Density disks hold only around half the amount of data.
ative way. Effects often involve the use of delay circuits, and include such treat- FLUTTER ECHO: Resonant echo that occurs when sound reflects back and
ments as reverb and echo. forth between two parallel, reflective surfaces.
EFFECTS LOOP: Connection system that allows an external signal processor to FOLDBACK: System for feeding one or more separate mixes to the performers
be connected into the audio chain. for use while recording and overdubbing. Also known as a Cue mix.
EFFECTS RETURN: Additional mixer input designed to accommodate the out- FORMANT: Frequency component or resonance of an instrument or voice sound
put from an effects unit. that doesn't change with the pitch of the note being played or sung. For example,
ELECTRET MICROPHONE: Type of capacitor microphone utilising a perma- the body resonance of an acoustic guitar remains constant, regardless of the note
nently charged capsule. being played.
ENCODE/DECODE: A system that requires a signal to be processed prior to FORMAT: Procedure required to ready a computer disk for use. Formatting
recording, then that process reversed during playback. organises the disk's surface into a series of electronic pigeon holes into which data
ENHANCER: A device designed to brighten audio material using techniques can be stored. Different computers often use different formatting systems.
such as dynamic equalisation, phase shifting and harmonic generation.
ENVELOPE: The way in which the level of a sound or signal varies over time. FRAGMENTATION: The process by which the available space on a disk drive
ENVELOPE GENERATOR: A circuit capable of generating a control signal gets split up into small sections due to the storing and erasing of files. See
which represents the envelope of the sound you want to recreate. This may then be Defragmentation.
used to control the level of an oscillator or other sound source, though envelopes FREQUENCY: Indication of how many cycles of a repetitive waveform occur in
may also be used to control filter or modulation settings. The most common exam- 1 second. A waveform which has a repetition cycle of once per second has a fre-
ple is the ADSR generator. quency of 1Hz (pronounced Hertz).
EQUALISER: Device for selectively cutting or boosting selected parts of the FREQUENCY RESPONSE: A measurement of the frequency range that can be
audio spectrum. handled by a specific piece of electrical equipment or loudspeaker.
ERASE: To remove recorded material from an analogue tape, or to remove dig- FSK: Frequency Shift Keying. A method of recording a sync clock signal onto
ital data from any form of storage media. tape by representing it as two alternating tones.
EVENT: In MIDI terms, an event is a single unit of MIDI data, such as a note FUNDAMENTAL: Any sound comprises a fundamental or basic frequency plus
being turned on or off, a piece of controller information, a program change, and so harmonics and partials at a higher frequency.
on. FX: Effects.
EXCITER: An enhancer that works by synthesizing new high frequency har-
monics. GAIN: The amount by which a circuit amplifies a signal.
Hz: Short for Hertz, the unit of frequency.
GATE: An electrical signal that is generated whenever a key is depressed on an
electronic keyboard. This is used to trigger envelope generators and other events IC: Integrated Circuit.
that need to be synchronised to key action. IMPEDANCE: Can be visualised as the 'AC resistance' of a circuit which con-
GATE: An electronic device designed to mute low level signals so as to improve tains both resistive and reactive components.
noise performance during pauses in the wanted material. INDUCTOR: Reactive component that presents an increasing impedance with
GENERAL MIDI: An addition to the basic MIDI spec to assure a minimum frequency.
level of compatibility when playing back GM format song files. The specification INITIALISE: To automatically restore a piece of equipment to its factory
covers type and program number of sounds, minimum levels of polyphony and mul- default settings.
titimbrality, response to controller information and so on. INSERT POINT: A connector that allows an external processor to be patched
GLITCH: Describes an unwanted short term corruption of a signal, or the unex- into a signal path so that the signal now flows through the external processor.
plained, short term malfunction of a piece of equipment. For example, an inexplic- INSULATOR: Material that does not conduct electricity.
able click on a DAT tape would be termed a glitch. INTERFACE: A device that acts as an intermediary to two or more other pieces
GM RESET: A universal sysex command which activates the General MIDI of equipment. For example, a MIDI interface enables a computer to communicate
mode on a GM instrument. The same command also sets all controllers to their with MIDI instruments and keyboards.
default values and switches off any notes still playing by means of an All Notes Off INTERMITTENT: Usually describes a fault that only appears occasionally.
message. INTERMODULATION DISTORTION: A form of distortion that introduces
GRAPHIC EQUALISER: An equaliser whereby several narrow segments of the frequencies not present in the original signal. These are invariably based on the sum
audio spectrum are controlled by individual cut/boost faders. The name comes and difference products of the original frequencies.
about because the fader positions provide a graphic representation of the EQ curve. I/O: The part of a system that handles inputs and outputs, usually in the digital
domain.
IPS: Inches Per Second. Used to describe tape speed.

GROUND: Electrical earth or 0 Volts. In mains wiring, the ground cable is phys- IRQ: Interrupt Request. Part of the operating system of a computer that allows a
ically connected to the ground via a long conductive metal spike. connected device to request attention from the processor in order to transfer data to
GROUND LOOP: Wiring problem where multiple ground connections are caus- it or from it.
ing audible mains hum to be picked up. Also known as earth loops. ISOPROPYL ALCOHOL: Type of alcohol commonly used for cleaning and de-
GROUP: A collection of signals within a mixer that are mixed, then routed greasing tape machine heads and guides.
through a separate fader to provide overall control. In a multitrack mixer, several
groups are provided to feed the various recorder track inputs. JACK: Commonly used audio connector. May be mono or stereo.
GROUND LOOP: A condition likely to lead to the circulation of currents in the JARGON: Specialised words associated with a specialist subject.
ground wiring of an audio system. When these currents are induced by the alternat-
ing mains supply, hum results. k: Abbreviation for 1000 (kilo). Used as a prefix to other values to indicate mag-
GS: Roland's own extension to the General MIDI protocol. nitude.
kHz: 1000Hz
kOhm: 1000 ohms
HARD DISK: High capacity computer storage device based on a rotating rigid
disk with a magnetic coating onto which data may be recorded. LED: Light Emitting Diode. A form of solid state lamp.
HARMONIC: High frequency component of a complex waveform. LCD: Liquid Crystal Display.
HARMONIC DISTORTION: The addition of harmonics that were not present LFO: Low Frequency Oscillator, often found in synths or effects using modula-
in the original signal. tion.
HEAD: The part of a tape machine or disk drive that reads and/or writes data to LSB: Least Significant Byte. If a piece of data has to be conveyed as two bytes,
and from the storage media. one byte represents high value numbers and the other low value numbers, much in
HEADROOM: The safety margin in dBs between the highest peak signal being the same way as tens and units function in the decimal system. The high value, or
passed by a piece of equipment and the absolute maximum level the equipment can most significant part of the message is called the Most Significant Byte or MSB.
handle. LIMITER: Device that controls the gain of a signal so as to prevent it from ever
HIGH PASS FILTER (HPF): A filter which attenuates frequencies below its exceeding a preset level. A limiter is essentially a fast acting compressor with an
cutoff frequency. infinite compression ratio.
HISS: Noise caused by random electrical fluctuations. LINEAR: A device where the output is a direct multiple of the input.
HUM: Signal contamination caused by the addition of low frequencies, usually LINE LEVEL: A nominal signal level which is around -10dBV for semi-pro
related to the mains power frequency. equipment and +4dBu for professional equipment.
LOAD: Electrical circuit that draws power from another circuit or power supply. manuals, which provides information as to which MIDI features are supported.
Also describes reading data into a computer. Supported features are marked with a 0 while unsupported feature are marked with
LOCAL ON/OFF: A function to allow the keyboard and sound generating sec- a X. Additional information may be provided, such as the exact form of the Bank
tion of a keyboard synthesizer to be used independently of each other. Change message.
LOGIC: Type of electronic circuitry used for processing binary signals com- MIDI MERGE: A device or sequencer function that enables two or more streams
prising two discrete voltage levels. of MIDI data to be combined.
LOOP: Circuit where the output is connected back to the input. MIDI MODULE: Sound generating device with no integral keyboard.
LOW FREQUENCY OSCILLATOR (LFO): An oscillator used as a modulation MULTITIMBRAL MODULE: MIDI Sound Source capable of producing sever-
source, usually below 20Hz. The most common LFO waveshape is the sine wave, al different sounds at the same time and controlled on different MIDI channels.
though there is often a choice of sine, square, triangular and sawtooth waveforms. MIDI MODE: MIDI information can be interpreted by the receiving MIDI
LOW PASS FILTER (LPF): A filter which attenuates frequencies above its cut- instrument in a number of ways, the most common being polyphonically on a sin-
off frequency. gle MIDI channel (Poly-Omni Off mode). Omni mode enables a MIDI Instrument to
play all incoming data regardless of channel.
mA: milliamp or one thousandth of an amp. See Amp. MIDI NOTE NUMBER: Every key on a MIDI keyboard has its own note num-
Mb: Megabyte. 1,000,000 (one million) bytes of data. ber ranging from 0 to 127, where 60 represents middle C. Some systems use C3 as
MEG: Abbreviation for 1,000,000. middle C while others use C4.
MDM: Modular Digital Multitrack; a digital recorder that can be used in multi- MIDI NOTE ON: MIDI message sent when note is played (key pressed).
ples to provide a greater number of synchronized tracks than a single machine. MIDI NOTE OFF: Message sent when key is released.
MACHINE HEAD: Another way of describing the tuning machines of a guitar. MIDI OUT: The MIDI connector used to send data from a master device to the
MIDI In of a connected slave device.
MEMORY: Computer's RAM memory used to store programs and data. This data MIDI PORT: The MIDI connections of a MIDI compatible device. A Multiport,
is lost when the computer is switched off and so must be stored to disk or other suit- in the context of a MIDI Interface, is a device with multiple MIDI output sockets,
able media. each capable of carrying data relating to a different set of 16 MIDI channels.
MENU: List of choices presented by a computer program or a device with a dis- Multiports are the only means of exceeding the limitations imposed by 16 MIDI
play window. channels.
MIC LEVEL: The low level signal generated by a microphone. This must be MIDI PROGRAM CHANGE: Type of MIDI message used to change sound
amplified many times to increase it to line level. patches on a remote module or the effects patch on a MIDI effects unit.
MICROPROCESSOR: Specialised microchip at the heart of a computer. It is MIDI SPLITTER: Alternative term for MIDI Thru box.
here that instructions are read and acted upon. MIDI THRU BOX: Device which splits the MIDI Out signal of a master instru-
MIDI: Musical Instrument Digital Interface. ment or sequencer to avoid daisy chaining. Powered circuitry is used to 'buffer' the
MIDI ANALYSER: Device that gives a visual readout of MIDI activity when outputs so as to prevent problems when many pieces of equipment are driven from
connected between two pieces of MIDI equipment. a single MIDI output.
MTC: MIDI Time Code; a MIDI sync implementation based on SMPTE time MIDI IN: The socket used to receive information from a master controller or
code. from the MIDI Thru socket of a slave unit.
MIDI BANK CHANGE: A type of controller message used to select alternate MIDI OUT: The socket on a master controller or sequencer used to send MIDI
banks of MIDI Programs where access to more than 128 programs is required. information to the slave units.
MIDI CONTROLLER: A term used to describe the physical interface by means MIDI SYNC: A description of the synchronisation systems available to MIDI
of which the musician plays the MIDI synthesizer or other sound generator. users - MIDI Clock and MIDI Time Code.
Examples of controllers are keyboards, drum pads, wind synths and so on. MIDI THRU: The socket on a slave unit used to feed the MIDI In socket of the
MIDI CONTROL CHANGE: Also knows as MIDI Controllers or Controller next unit in line.
Data, these messages convey positional information relating to performance con- MIXER: Device for combining two or more audio signals.
trols such as wheels, pedals, switches and other devices. This information can be MONITOR: A reference loudspeaker used for mixing.
used to control functions such as vibrato depth, brightness, portamento, effects lev- MONITOR: The action of listening to a mix or a specific audio signal.
els, and many other parameters. MONITOR: VDU display for a computer.
(STANDARD) MIDI FILE: A standard file format for storing song data record- MONOPHONIC: One note at a time.
ed on a MIDI sequencer in such as way as to allow it to be read by other makes or MOTHERBOARD: The main circuit board within a computer into which all the
model of MIDI sequencer. other components plug or connect.
MIDI IMPLEMENTATION CHART: A chart, usually found in MIDI product MULTI-SAMPLE: The creation of several samples, each covering a limited
musical range, the idea being to produce a more natural range of sounds across the sealed in a cassette.
range of the instrument being sampled. For example, a piano may need to be sam- OPERATING SYSTEM: The basic software that enables a computer to load and
pled every two or three semitones in order to sound convincing. run other programs.
MULTI-TIMBRAL: A synthesizer, sampler or module that can play several OPTO ELECTRONIC DEVICE: A device where some electrical parameter
parts at the same time, each under the control of a different MIDI channel. changes in response to a variation in light intensity. Variable photoresistors are
MULTITRACK: A recording device capable of recording several 'parallel' parts sometimes used as gain control elements in compressors where the side-chain sig-
or tracks which may then be mixed or re-recorded independently. nal modulates the light intensity.
OSCILLATOR: Circuit designed to generate a periodic electrical waveform.
NEAR FIELD: Some people prefer the term 'close field', to describe a loud- OVERDUB: To add another part to a multitrack recording or to replace one of
speaker system designed to be used close to the listener. The advantage is that the the existing parts.
listener hears more of the direct sound from the speakers and less of the reflected OVERLOAD: To exceed the operating capacity of an electronic or electrical cir-
sound from the room. cuit.
NOISE REDUCTION: System for reducing analogue tape noise or for reducing
the level of hiss present in a recording. PAD: Resistive circuit for reducing signal level.
NOISE SHAPING: A system for creating digital dither such that any added PAN POT: Control enabling the user of a mixer to move the signal to any point
noise is shifted into those parts of the audio spectrum where the human ear is least in the stereo soundstage by varying the relative levels fed to the left and right stereo
sensitive. outputs.
NON REGISTERED PARAMETER NUMBER: An addition to the basic MIDI PARALLEL: A means of connecting two or more circuits together so that their
spec that allows Controllers 98 and 99 to be used to control non-standard parame- inputs are connected together, and their outputs are all connected together.
ters relating to particular models of synthesizer. This is an alternative to using PARAMETER: A variable value that affects some aspect of a device's perfor-
System Exclusive data to achieve the same ends, though NRPNs tend to be used mance.
mainly by Yamaha and Roland instruments.
NON-LINEAR RECORDING: Describes digital recording systems that allow PARAMETRIC EQ: An equaliser with separate controls for frequency, band-
any parts of the recording to be played back in any order with no gaps. width and cut/boost.
Conventional tape is referred to as linear, because the material can only play back PASSIVE: A circuit with no active elements.
in the order in which it was recorded. PATCH: Alternative term for Program, referring to a single programmed sound
NORMALISE: A socket is said to be normalised when it is wired such that the within a synthesizer that can be called up using Program Change commands. MIDI
original signal path is maintained unless a plug is inserted into the socket. The most effects units and samplers also have patches.
common examples of normalised connectors are the insert points on a mixing con- PATCH BAY: A system of panel-mounted connectors used to bring inputs and
sole. outputs to a central point from where they can be routed using plug-in patch cords.
NYQUIST THEOREM: The rule which states that a digital sampling system PATCH CORD: Short cable used with patch bays.
must have a sample rate at least twice as high as that of the highest frequency being PEAK: Maximum instantaneous level of a signal.
sampled in order to avoid aliasing. Because anti-aliasing filters aren't perfect, the PHASE: The timing difference between two electrical waveforms expressed in
sampling frequency has usually to be made more than twice that of the maximum degrees where 360 degrees corresponds to a delay of exactly one cycle.
input frequency. PHASER: Effect which combines a signal with a phase shifted version of itself
NUT: Slotted plastic or bone component at the headstock end of a guitar neck to produce creative filtering effects. Most phasers are controlled by means of an
used to guide the strings over the fingerboard, and to space the strings above the LFO.
frets. (Alt: all members of SOS staff!) PEAK: The highest signal level in any section of programme material.
PFL: Pre Fade Listen; a system used within a mixing console to allow the oper-
OCTAVE: When a frequency or pitch is transposed up by one octave, its fre- ator to listen in on a selected signal, regardless of the position of the fader control-
quency is doubled. ling that signal.
OFF-LINE: Process carried out while a recording is not playing. For example, PPM: Peak Programme Meter; a meter designed to register signal peaks rather
some computer-based processes have to be carried out off-line as the computer isn't than the average level.
fast enough to carry out the process in real time. PHANTOM POWER: 48V DC supply for capacitor microphones, transmitted
OHM: Unit of electrical resistance. along the signal cores of a balanced mic cable.
OMNI: Meaning all, refers to a microphone that is equally sensitive in all direc- PHASE: The timing difference between two electrical waveforms expressed in
tions, or to the MIDI mode where data on all channels is recognised. degrees where 360 degrees corresponds to a delay of exactly one cycle.
OPEN CIRCUIT: A break in an electrical circuit that prevents current from PHASER: Effect which combines a signal with a phase shifted version of itself
flowing. to produce creative filtering effects. Most phasers are controlled by means of an
OPEN REEL: A tape machine where the tape is wound on spools rather than LFO.
PHONO PLUG: Hi-Fi connector developed by RCA and used extensively on (mark/space ratio) of a pulse wave. This changes the timbre of the basic tone; LFO
semi-pro, unbalanced recording equipment. modulation of pulse width can be used to produce a pseudo-chorus effect.
PICKUP: The part of a guitar that converts the string vibrations to electrical sig- PUNCH IN: The action of placing an already recorded track into record at the
nals. correct time during playback, so that the existing material may be extended or
PITCH: Musical interpretation of an audio frequency replaced.
PITCH BEND: A special control message specifically designed to produce a PUNCH OUT: The action of switching a tape machine (or other recording
change in pitch in response to the movement of a pitch bend wheel or lever. Pitch device), out of record after executing a punch-in. With most multitrack machines,
bend data can be recorded and edited, just like any other MIDI controller data, even both punching in and punching out can be accomplished without stopping the tape.
though it isn't part of the Controller message group. PQ CODING: Process for adding Pause, Cue and other subcode information to
PITCH SHIFTER: Device for changing the pitch of an audio signal without a digital master tape in preparation for CD manufacture.
changing it's duration. PZM: Pressure Zone Microphone. A type of boundary microphone. Designed to
POLYPHONY: The ability of an instrument to play two or more notes simulta- reject out-of-phase sounds reflected from surfaces within the recording environ-
neously. An instrument which can only play one note at a time is described as mono- ment.
phonic.
POLY MODE: The most common MIDI mode that allows and instrument to Q: A measure of the resonant properties of a filter. The higher the Q, the more
respond to multiple simultaneous notes transmitted on a single MIDI channel. resonant the filter and the narrower the range of frequencies that are allowed to
PORT: Connection for the input or output of data. pass. See about filters.
PORTAMENTO: A gliding effect that allows a sound to change pitch at a grad- QUANTIZE: A means of moving notes recorded in a MIDI sequencer so that
ual rate, rather than abruptly, when a new key is pressed or MIDI note sent. they line up with user defined subdivisions of a musical bar, for example, 16s. The
POST PRODUCTION: Work done to a stereo recording after mixing is com- facility may be used to correct timing errors, but over-quantization can remove the
plete. human feel from a performance.
POWER SUPPLY: A unit designed to convert mains electricity to the voltages RAM: Abbreviation for Random Access Memory. This is a type of memory used
necessary to power an electronic circuit or device. by computers for the temporary storage of programs and data, and all data is lost
POST-FADE: Aux signal taken from after the channel fader so that the aux send when the power is turned off. For that reason, work needs to be saved to disk if it
level follows any channel fader changes. Normally used for feeding effects devices. is not to be lost.
PPQN: Pulsed Per Quarter Note. Used in the context of MIDI Clock derived sync R-DAT: Digital tape machine using a rotating head system.
signals. REAL TIME: An audio process that can be carried out as the signal is being
PRE-EMPHASIS: A system for applying high frequency boost to a sound before recorded or played back. The opposite is off-line, where the signal is processed in
processing so as to reduce the effect of noise. A corresponding de-emphasis process non-real time.
is required on playback so as to restore the original signal, and to attenuate any high RELEASE: The time taken for a level or gain to return to normal. Often used to
frequency noise contributed by the recording process. describe the rate at which a synthesized sound reduces in level after a key has been
PRE-FADE: Aux signal taken from before the channel fader so that the channel released.
fader has no effect on the aux send level. Normally used for creating Foldback or RESISTANCE: Opposition to the flow of electrical current. Measured in Ohms.
Cue mixes. RESOLUTION: The accuracy with which an analogue signal is represented by
PRESET: Effects unit or synth patch that cannot be altered by the user. a digitising system. The more bits are used, the more accurately the amplitude of
PRESSURE: Alternative term for Aftertouch. each sample can be measured, but there are other elements of converter design that
PRINT THROUGH: The undesirable process that causes some magnetic infor- also affect accuracy. High conversion accuracy is known as high resolution.
mation from a recorded analogue tape to become imprinted onto an adjacent layer. RESONANCE: Same as Q.
This can produce low level pre or post echoes. REVERB: Acoustic ambience created by multiple reflections in a confined
PROCESSOR: Device designed to treat an audio signal by changing its dynam- space.
ics or frequency content. Examples of processors include compressors, gates and RF: Radio Frequency.
equalisers. RF Interference: Interference significantly above the range of human hearing.
PROGRAM CHANGE: MIDI message designed to change instrument or effects RIBBON MICROPHONE: A microphone where the sound capturing element is
unit patches. a thin metal ribbon suspended in a magnetic filed. When sound causes the ribbon to
PULSE WAVE: Similar to a square wave but non-symmetrical. Pulse waves vibrate, a small electrical current is generated within the ribbon.
sound brighter and thinner than square waves, making them useful in the synthesis ROLL-OFF: The rate at which a filter attenuates a signal once it has passed the
of reed instruments. The timbre changes according to the mark/space ratio of the filter cut-off point.
waveform. ROM: Abbreviation for Read Only Memory. This is a permanent or non-volatile
PULSE WIDTH MODULATION: A means of modulating the duty cycle type of memory containing data that can't be changed. Operating systems are often
stored on ROM as the memory remains intact when the power is removed. nal to be processed in some way. Compressor use the side-chain signal to derive
E-PROM: (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) Similar to ROM, but their control signals.
the information on the chip can be erased and replaced using special equipment. SIGNAL: Electrical representation of input such as sound.
RELEASE: The rate at which a signal amplitude decays once a key has been SIGNAL CHAIN: Route taken by a signal from the input to a system to the out-
released. put.
RESONANCE: The characteristic of a filter that allows it to selectively pass a SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO: The ratio of maximum signal level to the residual
narrow range of frequencies. See Q. noise, expressed in dBs.
RING MODULATOR: A device that accepts and processes two input signals in SINE WAVE: The waveform of a pure tone with no harmonics.
a particular way. The output signal does not contain any of the original input signal SINGLE ENDED NOISE REDUCTION: A device for removing or attenuating
but instead comprises new frequencies based on the sum and difference of the input the noise component of a signal, but that doesn't require previous coding, as in the
signals' frequency components. Ring Modulators will be covered in depth later in case of Dolby or dbx.
the series. The best known application of Ring Modulation is the creation of Dalek SLAVE: A device under the control of a master device.
voices but it may also be used to create dramatic instrumental textures. Depending SMPTE: Time code developed for the film industry but now extensively used in
on the relationships between the input signals, the results may either be musical or music and recording. SMPTE is a real-time code and is related to hours, minutes,
extremely dissonant - for example, ring modulation can be used to create bell-like seconds and film or video frames rather than to musical tempo.
tones. (The term 'Ring' is used because the original circuit which produced the SOUND ON SOUND: Early recording technique to allow pseudo-multitracking.
effect used a ring of diodes.) Also, Europe's No.1 hi-tech music recording magazine.
RMS: (Root Mean Square) A method of specifying the behaviour of a piece of S/PDIF -- Acronym for "Sony/Philips Digital Inter Face". The S/PDIF digital
electrical equipment under continuous sine wave testing conditions. data format is very similar to the professional AES-EBU standard although it uses
different electrical characteristics.
SAFETY COPY: Copy or clone of an original tape for use in case of loss or The system normally carries 16 or 20-bit data, although it can accommodate 24-
damage to the original. bits of audio data per channel. Extra information can also be carried along side the
SAMPLE: The process carried out by an A/D converter where the instantaneous audio such as track start flags, source identification information, and timing data. [
amplitude of a signal is measured many times per second (44.1kHz in the case of Also sometimes referred to by its common "standards" title of IEC958 (type-2). It
CD). also conforms with the EIAJ standard of CP-340 (type-2), now renumbered to CP-
SAMPLE: A digitised sound used as a musical sound source in a sampler or 1201 ]. The electrical interface is unbalanced and normally employs phono connec-
additive synthesizer. tors. The source impedance of 75 Ohms and high signal frequencies (0.1 to 6MHz)
SAMPLE RATE: The number of time an A/D converter samples the incoming require good quality 75-Ohm co-axial (RF) cable to operate reliably. Also, as the
waveform each second. source amplitude of the data signal is only 0.5V peak-to-peak this restricts the
SAMPLE AND HOLD: Usually refers to a feature whereby random values are transmission distance to short cable runs of up to about 10 metres. An optical ver-
generated at regular intervals and then used to control another function such as sion of the interface is also available known as "TOSLink" which transmits the
pitch or filter frequency. Sample and hold circuits were also used in old analogue same data signals as the electrical IEC958. This is achieved with an LED transmit-
synthesizers to 'remember' the note being played after a key had been released. ter and an opto-sensor as the receiver. High quality optical interfaces offer several
SCSI: (Pronounced SKUZZY) Abbreviation for Small Computer Systems advantages in terms of galvanic isolation and freedom from electro-magnetic inter-
Interface. An interfacing system for using hard drives, scanners, CD-ROM drives ference, but cheap fibre-optic cables suffer from restricted bandwidths and high dis-
and similar peripherals with a computer. Each SCSI device has its own ID number persion which result in severe timing instability and data errors.
and no two SCSI devices in the same chain must be set to the same number. The last SPL: Sound Pressure Level measured in dBs.
SCSI device in the chain should be terminated, either via an internal terminator, SPP: Song Position Pointer (MIDI).
where provided or via a plug-in terminator fitted to a free SCSI socket. STANDARD MIDI FILE: A standard file format that allows MIDI files to be
SESSION TAPE: The original tape made during a recording session. transferred between different sequencers and MIDI file players.
SEQUENCER: Device for recording and replaying MIDI data, usually in a mul- STEP TIME: A system for programming a sequencer in non-real time.
titrack format, allowing complex compositions to be built up a part at a time. STEREO: two-channel system feeding left and right loudspeakers.
SHORT CIRCUIT: A low resistance path that allows electrical current to flow. STICKY SHED SYNDROME: A problem affecting some brands of analogue
The term is usually used to describe a current path that exists through a fault con- tape after a long time in storage. A breakdown of the binder causes the oxide to
dition. shed, and the tape tends to adhere to the tape heads and guides when played. A short
SIBILANCE: High frequency whistling or lisping sound that affects vocal term cure can be affected by baking the affected tape for several hours at 50 degrees
recordings, due either to poor mic technique or excessive equalisation. C.
SIDE CHAIN: A part of the circuit that splits off a proportion of the main sig- STRIPE: To record time code onto one track of a multitrack tape machine.
SQUARE WAVE: A symmetrical rectangular waveform. Square waves contain a TRIANGLE WAVE: Symmetrical triangular shaped wave containing odd har-
series of odd harmonics. monics only, but with a lower harmonic content than the square wave.
SAWTOOTH WAVE: So called because it resembles the teeth of a saw, this TRS JACK: Stereo type jack with Tip, Ring and Sleeve connections.
waveform contains both odd and even harmonics. TRUSS ROD: A metal bar within a guitar neck which is tensioned so as to coun-
SUB BASS: Frequencies below the range of typical monitor loudspeakers. Some teract the tendency for the neck to bend under the tension of the strings.
define sub-bass as frequencies that can be felt rather than heard.
SUBCODE: Hidden data within the CD and DAT format that includes such infor- UNBALANCED: A 2-wire electrical signal connection where the inner or hot or
mation as the absolute time location, number of tracks, total running time and so on. +ve (positive) conductor is usually surrounded by the cold or -ve (negative) con-
SUBTRACTIVE SYNTHESIS: The process of creating a new sound by filter- ductor, which forms a screen against electrical interference.
ing and shaping a raw, harmonically complex waveform. UNISON: To play the same melody using two or more different instruments or
SURGE: Sudden increase in mains voltage. voices.
SUSTAIN: Part of the ADSR envelope which determines the level to which the USB: (Universal Serial Buss) A high-speed serial communications protocol
sound will settle if a key is held down. Once the key is released, the sound decays which allows (theoretically) up to 127 hot-swappable peripherals to be connected in
at a rate set by the Release parameter. Also refers to a guitar's ability to hold notes daisy-chain fashion. USB devices can be unplugged/plugged in without having to
which decay very slowly. reboot your computer. Popular on modern PCs and associayted computer peripher-
SWEET SPOT: The optimum position for a microphone, or for a listener rela- als (printers, scanners etc) but also adopted by Apple on their iMac and blue G3
tive to monitor loudspeakers. machines onwards.
SWITCHING POWER SUPPLY: A type of power supply that uses a high fre- VALVE: Vacuum tube amplification component, also known as a tube.
quency oscillator prior to the transformer so that a smaller, lighter transformer may VELOCITY: The rate at which a key is depressed. This may be used to control
be used. These power supplies are commonly used in computers and some synthe- loudness (to simulate the response of instruments such as pianos) or other parame-
sizer modules. ters on later synthesizers.
SYNC: A system for making two or more pieces of equipment run in synchro- VOCODER: Signal processor that imposes a changing spectral filter on a sound
nism with each other. based on the frequency characteristics of a second sound. By taking the spectral
SYNTHESIZER: Electronic musical instrument designed to create a wide range content of a human voice and imposing it on a musical instrument, talking instru-
of sounds, both imitative and abstract. ment effects can be created.
VOICE: The capacity of a synthesizer to play a single musical note. An instru-
TAPE HEAD: The part of a tape machine that transfers magnetic energy to the ment capable of playing 16 simultaneous notes is said to be a 16-voice instrument.
tape during recording, or reads it during playback. VIBRATO: LFO Pitch modulation using an to modulate a VCO.
TEMPO: The rate of the 'beat' of a piece of music measured in beats per minute. VU Meter: Meter designed to interpret signal levels in roughly the same way as
TEST TONE: steady, fixed level tone recorded onto a multitrack or stereo the human ear, which responds more closely to the average levels of sounds rather
recording to act as a reference when matching levels. than to the peak levels.
THD: Total Harmonic Distortion.
THRU: MIDI connector which passes on the signal received at the MIDI in sock- WAH PEDAL: Guitar effects device where a bandpass filter is varied in fre-
et. quency by means of a pedal control.
TIMBRE: The tonal 'colour' of a sound. WATT: Unit of electrical power.
TOSLINK: See "S/PDIF". WARMTH: Subjective term used to describe sound where the bass and low mid
TRACK: The term dates back to multitrack tape where the tracks are physical frequencies have depth and where the high frequencies are smooth sounding rather
stripes of recorded material, located side by side along the length of the tape. than being aggressive or fatiguing. Warm sounding tube equipment may also exhib-
TRACKING: The system whereby one device follows another. Tracking is often it some of the aspects of compression.
discussed in the context of MIDI guitar synthesizers or controllers where the MIDI WAVEFORM: A graphic representation of the way in which a sound wave or
output attempts to track the pitch of the guitar strings. electrical wave varies with time.
TRANSPARENCY: Subjective term used to describe audio quality where the WHITE NOISE: A random signal with an energy distribution that produces the
high frequency detail is clear and individual sounds are easy to identify and sepa- same amount of noise power per Hz.
rate. WORD CLOCK: The precise and accurate timing of digital audio samples is
TREMOLO: Modulation of the amplitude of a sound using an LFO. critical to the correct operation of interconnected digital audio equipment. The
TRANSDUCER: A device for converting one form of energy to another. A 'metronome' that governs sample timing is called the Word Clock (sometimes con-
microphone is a good example of a transducer as it converts mechanical energy to joined to 'Wordclock', or abbreviated to 'Wclk'). However, word clock does more
electrical energy. than merely beat time; it also identifies the start and end of each digital word or
TRANSPOSE: To shift a musical signal by a fixed number of semitones. sample, and which samples belong to the left or right channels. Digital interfaces
such as the AES-EBU and S/PDIF embody clock signals within the data stream, but distributed equidistantly. This mode of sound processing changes the spectral con-
it is often necessary to convey a discrete word clock between equipment as a square tent of sounds around the selected frequencies, possibly boosting them to the extent
wave signal running at the sampling rate. Dedicated word clock inputs and outputs of generating resonance, when the width of the filtered areas become very thin.
on digital equipment generally use BNC connectors (the kind of terminals com- Sinusoidal frequencies then start to oscillate in response to the feedback created in
monly used for video). those frequencies.
WRITE: To save data to a digital storage medium, such as a hard drive. CROSSFADE — To fade in one or more channels of sound while fading out oth-
ers in order to cross between the two.
XG: Yamaha's alternative to Roland's GS system for enhancing the General DSP — stands for Digital Signal Processing, referring to all modes of digital
MIDI protocol so as to provide additional banks of patches and further editing facil- processes that can be applied to soundfiles, samples, or recorded sounds. The aim is
ities. usually to transform the sound in some way.
XLR: Type of connector commonly used to carry balanced audio signals includ- DYNAMIC PROCESSES — See dynamo.
ing the feeds from microphones. DYNAMO — Expression derived from the idea of 'dynamic process', a term used
by composers of electroacoustic music to designate aspects of a piece, or part of it,
Y-Lead: Lead split so that one source can feed two destinations. Y leads may which follow a dynamic structuring process. This can either result from a sound's
also be used in console insert points in which case a stereo jack plug at one end of reference acquiring a musical function, or from the effect of the settings of GRM
the lead id split into two monos at the other. devices which impose some sort of energetic evolution on sounds. (Nowadays
devices too are DSP MIDI becoming involved in the fabrication of similar process-
ZENITH: Parameter of tape head alignment relating to whether or not the head es — 'acoustic models' in 's terminology in the manual for 'MacSoutiLs'.) I prefer
is perpendicular to the tape path, and aligned so as to be in the same plane. the expression 'dynamo' to 'structure' insofar as the latter is not always 'dynamic',
ZERO CROSSING POINT: The point at which a signal waveform crosses from and is compromised by a complementary notion of 'object'. In the case of the
being positive to negative or vice versa. dynamo is a spiral. (A spiral could be described also as a structure, even as a graph-
ZIPPER NOISE: Audible steps that occur when a parameter is being varied in a ic event, but it is the distribution of the energy orientating the development of the
digital audio processor. piece in this shape that really matters). Try to avoid the expression 'dynamic
process' because a dynamo can be less complex than a process: the idea of process
may suggest a nexus of causes and effects, whereas a dynamo can imply a single
TERMS introduced by composer Michael Chion and simple energetic function. This notion, especially when the dynamo is 'natural',
may invite composers to believe in a 'deeper-naturalistic' music based on more
ABSTRACT-SHAPING — With this term I wish to designate operations in the objective instances than, for example, more 'cultural' 'écriture'-based compositions.
studio that alter the natural and referential* character of a sound, extracting from it In my opinion if such a link is established — which would imply in finding true
'interior'-sounding criteria (see interiority*), presenting a musical potential more sense and full meanings for musics — it deserves to be inhibited by music's ambi-
abstract than its original reference. Transformations of any order, like filtering, guity. (Regarding the mutual confrontation between 'natural' references and the
enveloping or pitch-shifting alter sounds by partially or totally removing traces of 'cultural' or learned side of music, I favour a more phenomenological approach,
their original causes. avoiding the intricacies of this metaphysical labyrinth. The question as to whether
ACOUSMATIC — expression derived from 'acousmata', a term employed to the experience of natural events shapes musical perception or whether musical dis-
designate Pythagoras's disciples who used to listen to his speeches through a cur- position shapes the perception of nature leads to a whole branch of philosophic
tain hiding his visual presence. It is now employed to designate the situation in questioning that, if not dated, cannot be resolved in this commentary).
which listeners to electroacoustic music can no longer identify the source of a ÉCOUTE RÉDUITE — Expression invented by Pierre Schaeffer to designate
sound. The performance of electroacoustic music is optimized when pieces are the more abstract mode of listening (Schaeffer, 1966), where the source is disre-
played in an 'acousmatic' situation: when nothing relevant is exposed to the eyes, garded as attention is directed towards an appreciation of the inner qualities of
leaving the ears the complete freedom of personal imagination. Listeners in an sounds. According to Michel Chion: 'Reduced (listening) (Schaeffer, 60s): inspired
acousmatic concert are usually also remunerated through a sounding environment by Husserl's notion of phenomenological reduction it designates a listening attitude
composed of a comprehensive range of loudspeakers. (See Musique Acousmatique). reserved for the observation and description of any sounding phenomena appreciat-
ACTUALIZATION — Designates the mental attitude of composers towards the ed for themselves, according to perceptible qualities of mass, grain, duration, mat-
attribution of places and functions of sounds and events in a composition. When a ter, volume, etc..., independently of their cause, their meaning, their physical, psy-
composer decides on what a sound or event 'is' in the piece, this sound or event chological or emotional effects.' (Chion, 1991-98).
passes from a potential to an actual state. See potentialization and abstract-shap- ÉCRITURE — French term widely used in the French contemporary music
ing. scene that not only refers to composition as an act of writing. It has also come to
CDP — Composer's Desktop Project. Name given to the workstation designed by work as an alibi for the composer's correct decisions and determinations. The term
the group of the same name. Although somewhat demanding in time, CDP 's appli- is sometimes used to imply criticism of electroacoustic music's supposed 'indeter-
cations for electroacoustic music composition are various and very powerful. minacy'. Pierre Boulez, or perhaps his translator into English, forewarns us that:
COMB-FILTER(ING) — To pass a sound through a group of filters, generally 'The term "musical composition" (for 'écriture') which appears several times in this
text does not fully convey the meaning of the French word "écriture" which has
implications of symbolic reasoning.' Boulez,Contemporary Music Review, Music ITEM — Whenever the word 'item' is related to a musical context, it means
and Psychology: A Mutual Regard , Volume 2 , Part 1, August 1987), p. 171. Pages either one single sound or a single group (of sounds) behaving in a collective and
later, composer Antoine Bonnet clarifies: 'The French word "écriture", used as such functional way. (One exception exists in where some 'items' are too small to be per-
throughout this text, is not easily translated into a single English word. Its meaning ceived as sounds.) For instance, an impact is a 'sound' and an avalanche is an event.
includes the act and product of notating one's thoughts as well as a kind of symbol- My fingers drumming on the table can make either an iterative event or a set of five
ic reasoning — to think a composition starting from the manipulation of abstract brief sounds. (It depends only on my attention and on the speed of my fingers). For
and discrete symbols. 'Bonnet, Contemporary Music Review, Music and the composition of these pieces, most of the time an item is, technically speaking,
Psychology: A Mutual Regard, Volume 2, Part 1, August 1987), p. 209. One needs an isolated unit recorded either as a sample or as a soundfile.
to try only once to compose in the studio without employing 'symbolic reasoning' to ITERATION—ITERATIVE — While classifying the modes of 'execution' ('fac-
understand that this is not really a problem of the poverty of the English language ture') as criteria of sounds, Pierre Schaeffer designates 'iterative' execution: 'A
or of the electroacoustic studio. slowed-down film of the movement of a bow proves that even the purest friction,
ENVELOPE — Generally speaking, an envelope is a graphic or mental repre- the steadiest of sustained notes, is in fact a succession of micro-pulses. Between
sentation of the changes in the dynamic (or pitch) evolution of a sound. Although "pulses" and "sustained sounds", a third kind of execution comes in, called "itera-
belonging to technical jargon, it is almost identical to Pierre Schaeffer's 'profil tive" execution. The most common example of this is a roll on a percussion instru-
dynamique' and 'profil mélodique' (1966), two of the perceptual 'critères de forme' ment.' (Pierre Schaeffer, 1967, FACE VI, section 84. nº2 ).
(as distinct from 'critères de matière') of sound objects. Envelope differs from a LOOP — A loop consists of continuously repeated playback of sounds. In the
'profile' in that while the former is a concept of technique, the latter relates to per- analogue domain of tape recorders a loop consists of pieces of tape whose end is
ception and can only be identified as a profile as long as a necessary duration joined to its beginning. Looping using a digital sampler* offers different possibili-
allows its perception as such. A too fast or too slowly-evolving envelope may not ties, especially if stereo looping is possible: if each channel has a slightly different
present a profile, but rather a brief pulse or an endless sustain. The term 'envelope' size, phasing effects affecting the spatial or the temporal dimensions can be
can be found in synthesisers and other devices, being also applied for modulations explored. Samplers offering more than one loop per sound enable the contruction of
of volume, filter, pitch and other parameters. increasing or decreasing loops. Computer programs like SoundDesigner™ allow
FFT (FFT or Fast Fourier Transform)— is a tool used to represent graphically playlist looping, which enables the progressive increase or decrease in the durations
the spectral constituents of a sound. The sound is mathematically analyzed and is of each of the repetitions.
reduced to its various overtone components in their dynamic evolution over time MIDI VOLUME — Parameter that controls the overall volume of a midi chan-
(see envelope). The graphic representation of an usually plots the amplitudes of the nel. It enables several operations, the most common being the mixing of sequenced
frequency bands over time, offering a highly readable and visual representation of channels.
the sound being examined. MIDI — Musical Instrument Digital Interface designates the standard protocol
FILTER — see comb—filtering. for communication between electronic instruments and equipment with implemen-
FORMANT-CHORD — Expression I use to designate a functional abstract- tation. 'At its simplest level, it means that playing a note on one synthesizer will
shaping* employed in. It is something between a chord and a formant, acting like send out three eight-bit bytes from the ' out' socket on the back of the machine,
the latter in the sense that it creates a spectral coherence throughout the pitch range. which may be routed to the ' in' socket on another machine and so tell it to play the
Its presence throughout the piece relates functionally to a chord. In the formant- same note at the same velocity, that is, hit with the same force.' (Jonathan Gibbs in
chord consists of a set of boosted frequencies in different sounds enabling a sort of Borwick, 'Sound Recording Practice', 1987, p. 348).
canvas to which other functional and dynamic items relate. MIKE-SHAPING — I agree with Michel Chion that the action of recording new
FORMANT — 'A peak of frequencies in the spectrum of a sound which may be ITEMS for use in a composition of electroacoustic music is not as sterile as the
associated with a resonance in the mechanism of the production of the sound. Vowel expression 'sound-recording' would imply. He proposes:'"Tournage sonore" (Chion,
sounds may possess more than one formant in different parts of the spectrum. The 1988): This designates an operation consisting of the creation of sounds or sound-
term may also be used in relation to musical instruments.' (Borwick, 'Sound ing sequences by whatever physical means in front of one or several microphones
Recording Practice', 1987, p. 537). in order to capture them by a recording. This operation is often improperly called
GRAIN — One of Schaeffer's three criteria of matter, the other two being 'masse' "sound recording", a technical expression that does not stress its intentional and
and 'timbre harmonique', grain describes the 'grating' perceptual qualities of sounds creative attitude.' (Michel Chion, 1991, p. 98). This recording action depends on
that are not smooth. It designates a granular quality. Schaeffer's 'grain' should not and determines what will happen in any future application of its results in the com-
be confused with Barry Truax's technical concept of 'granular synthesis'. The latter position. It may demand a very complicated configuration of microphones, or a sim-
refers to a small portion of sound that can be combined with others to create larger ple one perhaps with movement of microphones during the recording; it may vary
sounds or events in a compostition. from picking up embrionic sounds that will fit in a piece, to the recording of fully
INTERIORITY — The contrary of reference, 'interiority' designates the quali- completed parts of it, which establishes an action of authorial intention. Through
ties of a sound that do not refer to external causes/sources. It is close to what one lack of a proper term, I would like to split this notion in two, proposing to the first
hears during what Pierre Schaeffer called 'écoute réduite'. When attention is drawn an inelegant neologism — 'mike-shaping' (for Chion's 'tournage sonore' as far as
away from sound's exteriority, or reference, the 'reduced' experience can be at least only the use of microphones is concerned). The second idea proposes that behind
as full and complicated in its own way, including the perception of mass, grain, etc. the authorial action with a microphone there is an attitude common to actions per-
— qualities of the 'interior' of sounds. formed with other media, which should be acknowledged as well. (See potential-
ization). With the expression 'mike-shaping' I am trying to call attention to the spe- PITCH-BEND — A portamento-like glide in pitch. In MIDI pitch-bends are cre-
cific role of the microphone as an active tool for the shaping of sounds during their ated by means of a dedicated wheel or by means of stored information (e.g.: in a
first potentialization. I believe that the employment of the word 'sonore' in 'tour- sequencer) being sent to the pitch-bend control.
nage sonore' implies a dividing line between what is still sound and what would be PITCH-SHIFTING — The application of a function to alter the pitches of
music. As previously described (cf. chapter ), such a line is unclear at all stages of sounds, most commonly changing their duration as well. Pitch-shifting without this
composition; it presupposes that during the process of sound collection one cannot side-effect is related to MIDI. In some machines this function can be controlled by
extract what might already be a whole and actual section of a piece. Although 'elec- oscillators, by hand-drawing or even by dynamic envelopes extracted from the
troacousticians' may prefer to perform abstract-shaping on the sounds, it cannot be sound itself or from other sounds. The expression designates only the effect on
denied that sounds in which there are no transforming interferences might be used. pitched sounds, but such a process can also be applied to non-periodic, non-pitched
MIXING — To combine sounds from different sources (instruments, sequences, sounds or whole events.
sections, textures, etc.), recorded on separate tracks into a single (and usually PLAYLIST — Facility offered by some hard-disk recording systems that enable
stereo) recording. the playback of selected parts of a soundfile in a pre-defined order (or list).
MUSIQUE ACOUSMATIQUE — 'La Musique Acousmatique ou l'Art des Sons POTENTIALIZATION — (of sound objects, characters or events). I employ
Projetés', note in the Encyclopaedia Universalis, 1984, signed by François Bayle. It this quasi-Aristotelian term to describe a composer's relationship towards items
is the name given by Bayle to electroacoustic musics which are not conditioned by selected to be incorporated into a composition. No matter whether by sampling,
visual cues (see acousmatic), and to electroacoustic music diffused in concert over synthesis, recording, mike-shaping, etc. 'potentialization' concerns the attribution
loudspeakers thereby hiding the origins and causes of sounds. In some francophone of musical potential and power to sounding items. This definition does not rule out
countries it has become a widely accepted label for designating electroacoustic utilizing sources from any media — eg. copying from tapes or s, resampling from
music. existing sampling libraries, etc. This concept has affinities with Michel Chion's
MUSIQUE ANECDOTIQUE — Name given to the genre inside electroacoustic 'sons fixés', and 'tournage sonore' but stresses not the medium but the composition-
music that employs recognizable sounds more for their 'anecdotic' or narrative al attitude.
aspect than for their abstract potential. The first piece to be named thus 4X— Real-time digital signal processor developed at by Giuseppe di Giugno to
("Hétérozygote" by Luc Ferrari) was not the first anecdotic work. It was preceded enable musics demanding sound generation and treatment in real-time, i.e.: during
by many of Schaeffer's compositions and the music of other composers. performances.
MUSIQUE CONCRÈTE — 'We apply (...) the adjective "abstract" to conven- REFERENCE — Property of recorded sounds which expose, suggest or at least
tional music based on the fact that it is first conceived in the mind, then theoreti- do not hide the source to which they belong. A vector pointing in the opposite direc-
cally (sic) notated, and finally realised in an instrumental performance. We have tion to interiority (See also'écoute réduite'), it refers to the 'non-abstractness' of
called our music "concrète" because it is constituted from pre-existing elements sounds, i.e.: to their context away from intrinsic criteria of perception. (Somewhat
taken from whatever sound material, be it noise or conventional music, and then arbitrarily, and in order to help my descriptions, I do not include synthetic sounds
composed by working directly with the material.' Pierre Schaeffer, in Revue in the category of referential sounds even though they can refer to their synthetic
Polyphonie, 1948, quoted by Michel Chion (Chion, 1991), p. 12. source, nor recorded instrumental sounds that refer to the instrument, nor sounds
OBJET SONORE —Concept created by Pierre Schaeffer in the fifties to desig- that remind us of their electroacoustic manipulations.) By referential sounds I
nate any sound unit perceived in 'écoute réduite'. It is described by means of per- should like to designate only those which point towards a more macroscopic setting,
ceptual criteria which are independent of the sound's meaning and cause. 'Objet referring to natural scenes and phenomena, human or mechanical activity. It is not
musical' is a sound unit detected and considered inside and according to its function their real origin that matters, but their power of evoking extrinsic settings. A refer-
in a musical context. ential sound can even be of synthetic origin: e.g.: a filter sweep in a band of white
OBJETS INCONVENABLES — In Schaeffer's 'Typologie' (1966, 1967), trou- noise could refer to 'wind'.
blesome objects are those which either present too little ('objets redondants') or too RESONANCE — Resonance happens when one or more frequencies of a sound
much information for the ears ('objets trop eccentriques'). As a definition of too- are increased in amplitude (volume) by means of a boosting filter so as to trigger a
eccentric objects: 'They carry too much information, too many indices, saturating feedback of the selected frequency(ies). The resulting effect will be perceived as a
the ears by their abundance.' (Schaeffer, 1967, FACE VI, section 87). sort of sustained pitch, or pitches shadowing the original sound. See also comb-fil-
OVERTONE — A component of a complex wave which may or may not be an tering.
integral multiple of the fundamental frequency. When overtones are all integral SAMPLE — (SAMPLER)— (SAMPLING)— A sample is a portion of sound
multiples, the sound produced is clearly pitched and easier to blend harmonically locked in digital memory, which can be played back, transposed and undergo sev-
with others. In that case, overtones are called harmonics. eral other tranformations which are possible in a dedicated device called a sampler.
PAN(ORAMICS) — Control that enables the placement or movement of sounds Most of these functions can be triggered either by the sampler's controls, by a
in the stereo field. PAN control offers positions to be chosen between extreme left instrument or through other digital interfaces: computers, data boxes. (See sound-
and right. file).
PHASE-SHIFTING — The effect produced by creating (and sometimes increas- SEQUENCING — The recording of information in a dedicated machine (soft-
ing), during playback, a gap of time between two copies of one recorded item. When ware or hardware) that can play it back as a computer file. This operation can be
the difference is small the effect is close to that of a sweeping filter. Augmenting either performed in real-time, by playing notes on a equipped instrument, or entered
the gap will lead to panoramic motions and further to 'echoes'. step by step through the computer's interfaces. Sequences thus recorded are called
tracks and can be mixed-down, reversed, time-scaled, merged etc. musically interesting results. Why should I consider these 'bad' or 'abusive' if they
SEUILS TEMPORELS DE L'OREILLE, LES — I include this paragraph as a are genuinely musical?
further development of two earlier entries which comment on the lack of corre-
spondence between acoustics and perception, a theme extensively explored by
Pierre Schaeffer. This is his third theme of reflection in the 'Solfège de l'Objet My difficulty worsens when, shielded by the novelty of the device, the strong
Sonore': 'The repetition of impulsions, i.e.: the parameter of frequency, produces action is not yet classifiable as such. Only after collecting examples of the musical
three types of effects cross-fading in a chain: regular impacts, followed by the repertoire will one be able to detect a pattern of strong actions. Then the existence
traces of rhythm, the grain altogether with the effect of pitch, and then, colouring of the problem is confirmed. It is curious to notice that 'strong actions' are picked
this pitch, the suggestion of matter. Thus we obtain many qualities, and very subtle up at a later date by composers outside the developed nexus. Due to the peculiar
ones, in exchange for the progression of just one parameter. One can say that, for mechanics merging precocious aesthetic ageing with technological obsolescence, it
human beings, the same kind of causes do not assure the same kind of effects.' "Les is easy for us to spot this delayed occurrence of 'strong action'.
Seuils Temporels de l'Oreille", (Pierre Schaeffer, 1967), Face 2, section 31.12. TIME-SCALING — In terms of controls, it means the alterations of the dura-
SOUNDFILE — A sound as a computer file, available for playback and all other tion of any group of data in the time domain. A whole sequence can be accelerated
treatments. Technically speaking it is the same as a sample*, but it is called a or delayed by means of tempo adjustments on a 'conductor track' that imposes its
soundfile in programs that will not play it back in the same way as a sampler (with law on all data uniformly. But when certain channels must be independently time-
pitch transpositions and controls). adjusted, or when information concerning only one type of data (like pitch-bend,
SOLFÈGE DE L'OBJET SONORE — Follow-up to Pierre Schaeffer's most panoramics or MIDI-volume) must be altered, then a device called 'timescale' can
important book (Pierre Schaeffer, 'Traité de l'Objet Sonore', Ed. 2 du Seuil, Paris, be called to perform this without affecting information otherwise not selected.
1966), in which, illustrated with sound examples, he studied the relations between TIME-STRETCHING — DSP operation initially designed to stretch sound files
acoustics and perception and proposed a new solfège of all sounds by means of his in their duration, ideally without affecting their pitch (or pitches). This is the same
'Typo-Morphology'. Presented in a trilingual edition (French, English and German), device that allows pitch transpositions without changes in the soundfile's duration
it is the best introduction to his thought. (see pitch-shifting). When applied exaggeratedly to complex events, time-stretch-
STRONG ACTION — The strong action of devices for sound transformation ing abandons its initial goal of changing duration to that of creating less predictable
and abstract-shaping occurs when these devices impose too much of their own char- events recalling Pierre Schaeffer's experience in 'Les Seuils Temporels de l'Oreille'.
acteristic effects, sometimes fooling composers into believing that the result This relates to what I call 'non-linear response' of elecroacoustic equipment.
obtained is due to characteristics belonging to the input sound or to his imagination.
The same can be said when an exaggerated use of devices marks sounds or events
with a presence that overwhelms the sounds (and events) themselves. Of course it Music Dictionary and Terminology
is difficult to trace a dividing line separating musical production in two parts, one
(pojmovnik u okviru zapadnoevropske muziçke prakse)
made up of 'strong actions' and the other not, because the use of devices is in itself
an inseparable part of the electroacoustic work. But, more embarrassing than the
a: At, to, by A, for, at, in, etc.
corpses of machines acknowledged by Boulez, is the amount of electroacoustic
Absolute - Absolute music. Music which is inspired by itself rather than extra-
music made with them, particularly considering the novelty of their aesthetic
musical implications such as the stories legends of "program" music.
impact when they first appeared compared with their rapid obsolescence and
A capella - One or more vocalists performing without an accompaniment.
descent into cliché. Even though acknowledging the difficulty of the terrain, I
A Cappella (2): in the church style, unaccompanied vocal music
believe that there is something political in the strong action of devices. Strong
a cappella (3) - choral music without instrumental accompaniment.
action is not only responsible for imposing on musics the language of the device,
a capriccio - in a capricious style
but also, by supporting a musicality based on the device's power, it promotes the
Accelerando, accel - Gradually faster.
music made by the device's first user (or buyer, or commissioner), thereby transfer-
Accelerando (2) - A symbol used in musical notation indicating to gradually
ring the values to a more political scale. As far as electroacoustic music is con-
quicken tempo.
cerned, aesthetics and industrial power are closely related. (Perhaps it may not be
Accent - > placed above a note to indicate stress or emphasis.
from the richest power that my favourite music comes, but certainly electroacoustic
accent (2) - emphasis placed on a tone or chord.
music could not be invented and intensely cultivated outside the nexus concentrat-
Accessible - Music that is easy to listen to and understand.
ed in the more developed continents). Yet it is unreasonable to nurture antipathy
Accidental - A sharp, flat, or natural not included in the given key.
toward electroacoustic music only because the world's balance of power is not even.
accidental (2) - a sharp, flat, or natural sign.
However, as a composer and listener one should adopt a certain awareness of mis-
Accompaniment - A vocal or instrument part that supports or is background for
uses of power in the musical domain, one example of which I discern in 'strong
a solo part.
action'. Certainly I would not pretend to dispose of the problem so rapidly by clear-
accompaniment - subordinate harmonic and/or rhythmic material supporting a
ly isolating 'use' from 'abuse', so much so because there are many exceptions which
principal melody.
almost deny the problem's existence. Even more so if we consider how difficult it
accrescendo - getting louder
is to conceive of a 'neutral' device. The problem is that of knowing if there really is
Adagio: Slow, or very slow.
a problem, especially when a so-called strong action happens to be responsible for
Adagio (2) - Slow; slower than andante, faster than largo. Allemande: A moderate duple time dance (4 or 2). It generally has a short upbeat
Adagio (3) - A tempo having slow movement; restful at ease. of one semiquaver (occasionally three) at the beginning. The Baroque suit usually
adagio - ad libitum - at the performer's liberty starts with an allemande which is followed by the faster courante
Addolorato - Sorrowfully. , Al segno - Return to the sign, Dal segno.
A due - Return to unison after divisi. al Tedesca - in the German style
Ad libitium: The speed and Ad Lib manner are left to the performer Alteration - The raising or lowering of a note by means of an accidental.
Alto clef - The C clef falling on the third line of the staff. Most of the time is
Adagietto: Rather slow used by the viola.
Adagissimo: Very Slow Alto: A singer whose vocal compass is between the G below middle C and the D
affabile - in a pleasing manner above the treble clef. In men, this is usually achieved by a bass singing falsetto, in
affettuoso - affectionate, with tender warmth women it is usually referred to as contralto.
Affrettando: Hurrying pressing onwards ambitus - the range of a plainsong from its highest to its lowest tone.
Affrettando (2) - Hurrying. amoroso - lovingAnacrusis: Starting a phrase with an upbeat note, therefore,
agitato - excited making the first note an unaccented one.
Agilmente - Lively. Ancora - Repeat.
Agitati: Agitated Andante: At a moderate pace, rather slow.
Agitato - Agitated; with excitement. Andante (2) - Moderate tempo.
air (ayre) - a melodious composition used in some classic suites, which was Andantino - Slightly faster than andante.
designed to accompany dancing, but it was not one of the standard dance forms Andantino (2): Alternatively faster or slower than Andante
such as the Gavotte or the Minuet. a vocal or instrumental melody. andare - go on
al fine - to the end Anglaise - an English country dance, sometimes part of the suite, in quick duple
Al, all', alla, alle - To; used with other words, e.g. al Fine (to the end). time, always starting on a strong beat.
al, alia, alle (2) - to the - in the style of A niente - To nothing, e.g. to ppp.
Alla Breve: Formerly stood for four minims in a bar, now more often indicates anima (con) - with life
two minim beats. anime - lively , spirited
Alla breve (2): A tempo mark indicating quick duple time; i.e., 2/2 instead of animoso - in a lively manner
4/4. So, the minim but not the crotchet is the unit of time (Cut time; meter in which Animato: Animated
there are two beats in each measure and a half note receives one beat). Animato (2) - Animated; lively.
Allargando: Getting slower, and broader, with an implication also of generally Anima Soul: With deep feeling
bigger tone Antefatto: In opera, the parts of the plot that will have happened prior to the
Allargando, allarg (2) - Slowing of tempo, usually with increasing volume; action on stage. Il Trovatore and Fidelio are examples of operas which have exten-
most frequently occurs toward the end of a piece. sive antefattos (also called argomento).
Allegro: Lively, fast, rather quick anticipation - an unaccented nonharmonic tone which resolves by repetition.
Allegro (2) - A direction to play lively and fast. antico - ancient
allegro assai - very quick antiphonal - alternating choirs.
allegro giusto - quick, with exactness Antiphony: Alternating sounding. In its original meaning it meant the singing of
allegro modetaro - moderately quick the successive verses of a psalm by alternating choruses.
A piacere: At pleasure
Allegretto: Rather lively (but less than Allegro) A piacere (2) - Freedom in performance. Synonymous with ad libitum.
allemande - the first of the dances in the classic suite, written in duple time and Apassionato: Passionately
played at a moderate tempo. Appassionato - Impassioned.
Ad libitum, ad lib - A term which permits the performer to vary tempo the a poco - by degrees, gradually
and/or to include or omit a vocal or instrumental part. Synonymous with a piacere. a poco a poco - little by little
Approggriatura: A grace note
.Al fine - To the end. Appoggiatura (2) - A nonharmonic tone, usually a half or whole step above the
Album - A full length recording. In pop music, it contains a number of songs. harmonic tone, which is performed on the beat and then resolved.
Al coda - "To the coda." Appoggiatura (3): An unprepared, non-harmonic note which does not belong to
Aleatory, or aleatoric music - Chance music in which the performers are free to the chord on the strong beat. Approached by leap and resolves downwards or
perform their own material and/or their own manner of presentation. upwards by step (sometimes by leap) into the chord. In contrast, suspensions are
Allegretto - Slower than allegro. prepared (not approached by leap) and never resolve by leap. Appoggiatura may be
Allegro - Quick tempo; cheerful. shown as an ornament or may be absorbed in the ordinary notation (nineteenth cen-
tury). When there are two appoggiaturas on the same beat, it is calle ddouble appog-
giatura 1. For a triple appoggiatura, see b.18 of the first movement of Beethoven's
String Quartet Op.18, No.1). Also used for a triad with an augmented fifth, e.g. the augmented tonic triad in C
appassionato - impassioned major, C+, c-e-g # .
appenato - grieved, distressed Augmented sixth chords: These are a group of chromatic chords usually occur
appoggiato - leaning upon, drawn out on the flattened submediant or flattened supertonic. In harmonic progression, their
Apotheosis: The perfect (quintessential) example; to glorify as of supreme worth place is invariably before the dominant (V) or the cadential six-four (Ic). The aug-
(used very frequently to describe a piece of music!) mented sixth chord resolves by opening outward to form an octave, and a dominant
Arabesque - A fanciful piano piece. Ornate passage varying or accompanying a chord. If the augmented sixth is on the flattened submediant (A :F# in C major), the
theme. resolution will be on the dominant seventh chord (G in C major). If it is on the flat-
Arabesque 2: A florid melodic section (the real meaning is a florid element in tened supertonic (Db:Bb in C major), the resolution will be on the dominant seventh
Arabian architecture). Generally used for characteristic pieces of a more or less chord on the tonic (one way of modulating to the subdominant). The German sixth
casual type. is enharmonically equivalent to the dominant seventh. The drive of the (German)
arabesque (3) - a light and graceful piece with florid ornamentation in the augmented sixth chord towards the dominant is frequently exploited in harmony
melody. (used instead of II). They are also used to modulate by forming a German sixth on
arcato - played with the bow the flattened submediant of the target key (see modulation).
areabile - sweet, loveable augmented triad - a three-note chord consisting of two major thirds.
areore - tenderness and affection authentic cadence - a cadence concluding with the progression dominant to
ardente - with fire, vehemently tonic (V I).
ardore - with love and warmth authentic mode - in plainsong, a mode which ranges above the final.
aria - a melodic composition for solo voice with accompaniment - or, a song-like auxiliary tone - an unaccented nonharmonic tone approached step-wise from
composition written in ABA form, in an opera, oratorio, or cantata. above or below a chordal tone to which it returns.
arietta - a small aria in binary form, that is not having the middle section of the ayre - a song or polyphonic vocal composition; old English spelling of air.
aria.arioso - in the style of an air
Arpeggio: Like a harp
Arpeggio (2) - A term used to describe the pitches of a chord as they are sung or
played one after the other, rather than simultaneously. Baby grand - A small grand piano.
Arpeggio (3): A chord whose notes are presented one at a time successively Back to Bach movement: The movement which revisited Baroque musical forms
instead of as a stack of notes sounding at the same time. Also called broken chord. and paved the way to Neoclassicism in the twentieth century. Some important works
arpeggio (4) - the notes of a chord played consecutively in a consistently ascend- of this period are Stravinsky's Octet for Winds, Pulcinella (a ballet with songs based
ing or descending direction. on Pergolesi's music), Hindemith's Kammermusik Op.36 and Holst's Fugal
Articulation: The way successive notes are joined to one another in perfor- Concerto (written in 1923). Music historians use the word neoclassicism for the
mance. Opposite kinds of articulation are staccato (detached) and legato (smooth). period after 1923.
The three standard signs of articulation are the dot, the bow or slur, and the tenuto bagatelle - literally, a "trifle" - a short unpretentious composition.
dash. Balance - The harmonious adjustment of volume and timbre between instruments
Articulation (2) - The degree to which notes are separated or connected, such as or voices; it can be between players or vocalists or electronically while recording
staccato or legato. or mixing.
Arrache - Strong pizzicato. Ballad: A poem that tells a story, often of a historic, legendary or fairy-tale char-
Arrangement - An adaption of a composition. acter.
Assai: Very, - very, extremely Ballad opera: A light opera constructed by fitting new lyrics to popular existing
assai piu - much more tunes. It includes extensive spoken dialogue. The Beggar's opera was the first
Attaca: Go on at once inspiring success. The German Singspiel was influenced and inspired by the English
A tempo: In time, i.e. resuming normal speed after a deviation ballad opera.
A tempo (2) - Return to the previous tempo. Ballade - In the medieval period a form of trouvere music and poetry. In later
Atonal - Music that is written and performed without regard to any specific key. time, German poetry set as a through-composed song.
Atonality - Lacking a tonal center. ballade (2) - a piece of a romantic type, usually in ABA form, combining dra-
atonality (2) - absence of key or central tonality. matic and lyrical characteristics.
attacca - go on to the next Band - An instrumental ensemble, usually made up of wind and percussion
Augmentation - Compositional technique in which a melodic line is repeated in instruments and no string instruments.
longer note values. The opposite of diminution. band (2) - a large ensemble consisting mainly of wind instruments.
augmentation (2) - to double the note values of a melody. barcarolle - a lyrical boat song usually in moderate 6/8 or 12/8 time, and ABA
Augmented - The term for a major or perfect interval which has been enlarged form, supposed to be derived from the songs of the Venetian Gondoliers
by one half-step, e.g. c-g # (an augmented fifth) or c-d # , (an augmented second). Bariton: Range of voice between tenor and bass. The compass of a bariton voice
is between the G below the bass clef and the F above middle C. of which may be repeated.
Bar line - The vertical line placed on the staff to divide the music into measures. Binary form 2: The form of a piece which falls into two sections: the first begins
bar, barline - a vertical line drawn through one or more staves to indicate a mea- in the tonic and finishes with a cadence either in the tonic (closed binary), or in the
sure. Bar also means measure (e.g., a four-bar phrase). dominant (open binary); the second section starts in the new key (usually domi-
bar form - a form in three sections, the first of which is ( AAB ) nant), modulates and works back to the tonic. Each section is repeated. The main
Baroque - The period 1600-1750. principle is the contrast of key. If the opening material is repeated (often with mod-
Baroque (2) - Time in music history ranging from the middle of the 16th to the ifications) towards the end of the second section, it is called rounded binary form.
middle of the 17th centuries. Characterized by emotional, flowery music; written in Unsuitable for long pieces and the usual form for Baroque dance movements (alle-
strict form mande, sarabande, courante, gigue, gavotte, bourre, minuets etc).
barocco (2) - eccentric, bizarre. binary two-fold/binary form - a form of two divisions or sections (AB)
Bass clef - The other name for the F clef. Bipartite form: A scheme first found in the opera arias of the mid-eighteenth
Bass: The lowest register male voice which ranges from F below the F clef to the century (A-B-A-B-coda). Unlike the abridged sonata form (slow movements) it is
D just above the middle C. distantly related to, there is no tonal principles within this form.
bass - a voice, instrument, or part in the low register. Bis - Repeated twice. Encore!
bassa - low, deep Bis (2): Lat. Twice (the passage is to be repeated)
basso - the bass part, the lowest male voice Biskra scale: The Arabic scale consisting of D, F, F# and G#. Thus, it contains
basso continuo - the instrumental figured-bass part in an ensemble played by a minor third (D-F), a major third (D-F#) and an augmented fourth - tritone (D-G#).
one or more bass instruments and a keyboard instrument. It is one of the trade marks of Bartokian melodic style (an example being the first
Basso continuo, Continuo, Thorough-bass - The Baroque practice in which the movement of his Music for strings, percussions and celesta).
bass part if played by a viola da gamba (cello) or bassoon, while a keyboard instru- bitonality - use of two different keys simultaneously.
ment performed the bass line and the indicated chords. Bitonality (2) - The occurrence of two different tonalities at the same time.
Basso continuo 2: Thorough-bass (really through-bass), a prominent feature of bolero - a quick Spanish dance in 3/4 time with accompaniment of castanets.
Baroque music. It was first associated with the operatic recitative style, it quickly bourree - a French or Spanish dance, usually in quick duple time, starting on an
came to be used for nearly all Baroque musical repertory. It is called (through) con- upbeat; similar to the Gavotte, and often found in the old suites.
tinuo because it is a continuous, independent part, which continues or goes through Bourree (2) - A French dance from the 17th century in brisk duple time starting
the whole piece as opposed to basso seguente which is not independent. In orches- with a pickup.
tral music, the disappearance of the basso continuo began about 1760, by the end of brass - wind instruments which produce tone by vibration of the lips,
the century it was obsolete. In accompanying recitatives, it was used till 1820 by Brass family - Wind instruments made out of metal with either a cup- or funnel-
some composers. shaped mouthpiece, such as trumpet, cornet, bugle, Flugelhorn, trombone, tuba,
baritone horn, euphonium, saxhorn, and French horn.
basso ostinato - a persistently repeated theme in the bass register. Bravura (con.): Boldness and spirit
Basso seguente: An instrumental bass (organ, etc.) which merely duplicates the bravura (2) - spirit, skill
lowest vocal part. Breit: Ger. Broad
Baton - Conductor's stick. breve - a double whole note equal to two semi-breves or whole notes
Battuto - Beat, bar, or measure. A due or a tre battuta, the musical rhythm in Breve (2): Originally a note of relatively short duration, but now the longest
groups of two or three respectively. note, equal to four minims.
Beat - The unit of musical rhythm. Brillante: Brilliant
beat (2) - the unit of time in metric music. In time signatures, the upper numer- brillante (2) - bright, sparkling
al indicates the number of beats per measure. Brio: Vigour
Bel canto: A style of singing emphasizing the melody. Originated in the Baroque brio (2) - vigor, spirit
era. Appeared in cantata and opera simultaneously. Frequently uses IV-V-I and IIb- broken chord - the tones of a chord played consecutively, usually according to
V-I cadences in short phrases. Powerfully influenced the slow movements of some pattern.
Baroque concerto and sonatas. Broken chord (2) - Notes of a chord played in succession rather than simultane-
Ben - Well. Used with other words, e.g. ben marcato, well accented, empha- ously. Arpeggio.
sized. buffa, buffo - comic, humorous
Ben, Bene (2): Welll, good burlando - in a playful manner
bene placito - at will, at pleasure
ben marcato - well marked or accented cadence - the harmonic or melodic progression which concludes a phrase, sec
berceuse - a lullaby, a quiet piece generally in moderate 6/8 time, with a rocking tion, or composition.
movement in the accompaniment. Cadence (2) - A chordal or melodic progression which occurs at the close of a
Bewegt: Ger.With movement phrase, section, or composition, giving a feeling of repose; a temporary or perma-
Binary form - The term for describing a composition of two sections. AB, each nent ending. The most frequently used cadences are perfect, plagal, and deceptive.
Cadence (3): The close of a musical phrase or movement. There are perfect, cantus firmus - a "borrowed" melody (plainsong, chorale, folk tune) to which
imperfect, plagal and interrupted cadences. The tonic chord preceded by the domi- other melodic lines are added in a contrapuntal texture.
nant constitutes a perfect cadence, but not invariably, only at the end of a phrase. In
the middle of a phrase, V-I is a strong chord progression (especially from a weak to Canzona: (a) Sixteenth century Italian secular vocal music; (b) Sixteenth and
a strong beat) and not a cadence. seventeenth century instrumental (solo or ensemble) form using imitative tech-
Cadence (4) - A sequence of chords that brings an end to a phrase, either in the niques developed from Franco-Flemish chansons. The most important instrumental
middle or the end of a composition. form of the late Renaissance. A canzona consists of contrasting sections in a single
cadenza - an ornamental passage near the end of a solo movement, alternating in tempo, meter, etc. In the Baroque era, it eventually
Cadenza (2) - a solo passage, often virtuosic, usually near the end of a piece, became a separate movement in sonata. The organ canzonas were the forerunners of
either written by the composer or improvised by the performer. the fugue; the ensemble canzonas eventually developed into the sonata da chiesa.
Cadenza (3) - Initially an improvised cadence by a soloist; later becoming an canzonet - a little song or piece with passages of imitation, something like a
elaborate and written out passage in an aria or concerto, featuring the skills of an madrigal.
instrumentalist or vocalist. Capo: The beginning, the top (Da Capo - From the beginning)
Cadenza (4) - Originally an improvised cadence by a soloist. Later it became a cappella - a church, a band of musicians that play in a church
written out passage to display performance skills of an instrumentalist or performer. capriccio (caprice) - a piece of light and humorous style, usually in irregular
Caesura - A sudden silencing of the sound; a pause or break, indicated by the form.
following symbol: // Capriccio (2) - A quick, improvisational, spirited piece of music.
Calando: Decreasing both tone and speed Capriccio (3): A caprice (a piece in free light-hearted style)
calando - gradually decreasing the time and tone carezzando - in a tender manner
calcando - hurrying the time carita - tenderness, feeling
Calmo, calmato - Calm. Carol - A song or hymn celebrating Christmas.
calmato (2) - tranquility Carol (2) - The term was derived from a medieval French word, carole, a circle
caloroso - warmth, animation dance. In England it was first associated with pagan songs celegrating the winter
Cambia - A direction found in scores to change tuning or instruments. solstice. It then developed into a song of praise and celebration, usually for
cambiata - in the Renaissance, an unaccented nonharmonic tone approached Christmas.
downward by step and resolved, on downward, by skip of a third to a chordal Castrato - Male singers who were castrated to preserve their alto and soprano
tone, followed by stepwise upward progression. vocal range.
Camminando - Following easily and gently. Cavatina - A short and simple melody performed by a soloist that is part of a
canon - a composition in which each part has exactly the same melody through larger piece.
out the piece, starting at different points. The strictest form of imitation. C clef - A clef usually centered on the first line (soprano clef), third line (alto
Canon (2) - The strictest form of imitation, in which two or more parts have the clef), fourth line (tenor clef), or third space (vocal tenor clef) of the staff. Wherever
same melody but start at different points. it is centered, that line or space becomes middle C.
Canon (3) - A musical form where the melody or tune is imitated by individual Cell development technique: Exact or slightly varied repetition of a motif (as
parts at regular intervals. The individual parts may enter at different measures and opposed to motivic development). Typical of Eastern European music.
pitches. The tune may also be played at different speeds, backwards, or inverted. celere - quick, rapid
Canonic - A term used to describe a polyphonic style of music in which all the cembalo - a harpsichord
parts have the same melody but which start at different times. chaconne - a slow dance, very similar to a Passacaglia, probably originally from
Cantabile - In a singing style. Spain. Usually in a major key, in 3/4 time, with a ground bass and generally in
Cantabile (2) (cantando): In a singing style the form of variations.
cantata - a work for chores and soloists with orchestral accompaniment. Chaconne (2): A moderate triple time dance with the second-beat accent like
Cantata (2) - Baroque sacred or secular choral composition containing solos, sarabande. They are not in binary form and they have some kind of recurring bass
duets, and choruses, with orchestral or keyboard accompaniment. line together with the full harmony over and over. In passacaglia, just the bass line
Cantata (3): A composite secular vocal genre of the Baroque period. It is on a is repeated.
smaller scale than opera and not staged. The reform cantatas (after Neumeister's chamber music - an ensemble consisting of only a few instruments and usually
texts) consist of several movements such as arias, recitatives, duets and choruses only one instrument to a part.
based on a narrative text. Appeared as an offspring of monodic style and replaced Chamber music (2) - Written for 2 to 10 solo parts featuring one instrument to
the sixteenth century madrigals. a part. Each part bears the same importance.
Cantata (3) - Music written for chorus and orchestra. Most often religious in Chance music - Aleatoric music.
nature. chanson - French term for song.
Cantilena: Short, song-like piece chant - general term for liturgical song similar to plainsong.
Chant (2) - Singing in unison, texts in a free rhythm. Similar to the rhythm of
canto - song, melody speech.
Chest of viols: A group of viols consisting of two treble, two tenor and two bass the notes found in that particular staff.
viols. Clef (2) - A symbol placed at the beginning of the staff to indicate the pitch of
Choir - Group of singers in a chorus. the notes on the staff. The most commonly used clefs in choral music are the G, or
choir (2) - vocal ensemble, usually small church choruses. Also applied to treble, clef and the F or bass clef. On the keyboard, all the notes above middle C are
groups in an orchestra: e.g., brass choir, woodwind choir. said to be in the G clef; all the notes below middle C in the F clef.
choral - music for chorus or choir. Coda - Closing section of a composition. An added ending.
chorale - a German Protestant hymn tune, upon which larger compositions such Coda (2) - Closing section of a movement.
as the CHORAL PRELUDE were based. Coda (3): A passage added at the end of a movement to make a satisfactory fin-
Chorale (2) - Hymn-like song, characterized by blocked chords. ish
Chorale (3) - A hymn sung by the choir and congregation often in unison. Coda (4): Optional last part of a piece that comes after the basic design is com-
Chorale (4) [not choral]: Hymns of the Lutheran church originated in the plete like the closing section after the recapitulation in a sonata-type movement or
Renaissance. As most Catholic church music in the 16th century was an outgrowth the part after the last variation in variation form. Means tail in Italian.
of plainsong, so much Lutheran church music of the seventeenth and eighteenth Codetta: It has the same function of the coda but for a section rather than a
centuries was an outgrowth of the chorale. Most Bach cantatas use a chorale tune. movement of piece. is preferred by some. Closing group
chorale prelude - organ composition based on a chorale melody. Comma: A small interval used in the music of Eastern Europe and Islamic world
Chorale prelude (2): Usually applied to an organ composition based on a which corresponds to one ninth of a whole tone. One (Pythagorean) comma is 24
chorale melody. cents while an octave is 1200 and an equal-tempered semitone is 100 cents (four
Chord - A combination of three or more tones sounded simultaneously. commas). Although not precisely, an octave is 53 comma (five whole-tones and two
semitones: 5x9 + 2x4=53). A comma corresponds to the difference between seven
Chord (2) - 3 or 4 notes played simultaneously in harmony. octaves and twelve perfect fifths.
Chord progression - A string of chords played in succession. Col, Coll': With the
chordal style - in vocal polyphony, a texture in which all the parts have the same Col, coll', colla (2)- With or "with the."
rhythm and sing the same syllables simultaneously. Also called familiar style. coll'arco - with the bow
chorus - a large vocal ensemble. Colla: collo
Chorus (2) - A group singing in unison. Colla parte: A direction to the accompanist
Chromatic scale - Includes all twelve notes of an octave. Colla voce: A To follow the solo instrument or voice
Chromatic - Ascending or descending by half steps. colla voce (2) - with the voice
chromatic scale - twelve consecutive tones within an octave, one half step apart. coloration - written-out ornamentation.
Chromatic scale (2) - A scale composed of 12 half steps. coloratura - ornamental passage in vocal music
Chromatic fourth: see ostinato. Come: As, like
chromatic, chromaticism - extensive use of accidentals in melody and harmony. Come prima: As at first, as before
Chromaticism (2): The use of accidental notes outside the prevailing diatonic Come sopra: As above
key either for special effects (emotionally intense parts; colour-modification of dia- Common time - 4/4 meter.
tonicism) or for modulation. The augmented sixths (augmented triad=affecting comodo - quietly, easily
chord), the Neapolitan sixth and the supertonic chromatic chords are examples. The Comodo (2): Convenient (usually linked with tempo - at a convenient pace)
chromatic or diatonic character of a ‘foreign’ note is conditioned by harmonic con- Compass: The range of notes from the highest to the lowest note obtained from
siderations like: in the progression C-E-F#-G, the note F# is chromatic if the har- an instrument or voice.
mony stays on C, diatonic if it modulates to G. compiacevole - agreeable
Circle of fifths - The succession of keys or chords proceeding by fifths. Complete cadence - I-IV-V-I progression.
Circle-of-fifths 2: The prime harmonic model of the early eighteenth century. Composer - A person who creates (composes) music.
Together with the sequence, an important device to establish tonality as it passes Con - With (for various phrases beginning with con see other words)
through the degrees of the scale in the expected mode (minor, major, diminished, Con brio - With spirit; vigorously.
augmented) for the chord of that degree. Con brio 2: Fiery (the first movement of Beethoven's Symphony No.5 is Allegro
Classical - Music conforming to certain form and structure. Usually music com- con brio).
posed during the period 1770-1825. concento - harmony of voices and instruments
Classical (2) - The period of music history which dates from the mid 1700’s to Concert master - The first violin in an orchestra.
mid 1800’s. The music was spare and emotionally reserved, especially when com Concertare: The Latin word concertare means 'to contend, dispute, debate',
pared to Romantic and Boroque music. whereas, the primary Italian word concertare means 'to arrange, agree, get togeth-
Classicism - The period of music history which dates from the mid 1800’s and er'.
lasted about sixty years. There was a strong regard for order and balance. Concertato: An identical word to concerto.
Clavier - The keyboard of a stringed instrument. Concerto - A composition written for a solo instrument. The soloist plays the
Clef - In sheet music, a symbol at the beginning of the staff defining the pitch of melody while the orchestra plays the accompaniment.
Concerto (2): Appeared in the late Renaissance. The term is probably a deriva- are and vice versa.
tive of the Latin word concertare=to contend; referring to competing or contrasted Consort - A 17th-century term for instrumental chamber ensembles and for the
groups. Solo concerto was first introduced by Torelli, and further developed by compositions written for these ensembles.
Albinoni and Vivaldi. The Baroque solo concerto usually has outer movements writ- Consort 2: Ensemble.
ten in ritornello form with a tonal plan close to that of da capo aria. As the only con sordini - in strings, with mutes; in piano, with dampers, that is the damper
Baroque form survived into the Classical era, the concerto remained in three move- pedal is not to be used.
ments since its emergence. Con spirito - With spirit.
concerto (3) - a composition for one or more solo instruments with orchestral continuo (2) - without cessation
accompaniment, usually written in three movements Continuo: see basso continuo.
Concerto grosso: Orchestral music written for a group of solo instruments (con- Contra - The octave below normal.
certino), contrasted with a tutti of strings (ripieno). The concertino is the same as contralto - the deepest female voice
the trio sonata ensemble (two violins + continuo). It often has three movements: a Contralto (2) - Lowest female singing voice.
long first movement in ritornello form, a slow second movement, and a quick finale contrary motion - simultaneous melodic progression in opposite direction
(usually a rondo). First appeared as an expansion of contrapuntal trio sonata. It may between two parts.
be played by as few as four performers or, by doubling the parts many times, up to Corda, corde - String.
60 performers. Concerto grosso is more a forerunner of the modern symphony [con- Cornetto: A treble wind instrument made of wood. It is curved but played with
certante] than of the modern concerto. a trumpet-like mouth piece. It makes a bright sound but not as loud as the modern
Con: With trumpet. Its bass counterpart is trombone. The cornetto had fallen out of favor about
Con calore - With warmth. 1650 even before the advent of the transverse flute and oboe about 1700.
Concert - A public performance of music. Counter melody - A vocal part which contrasts with the principal melody.
Concert grand piano - The largest of the grand pianos, usually about nine feet counterpoint, contrapuntal - texture consisting of two or more independent
long. melodic lines.
Concertino - A short concerto. The group of soloists in a concerto grosso. Counterpoint - Two or three melodic lines played at the same time.
Concert master - First chair violinist in an orchestra. Counterpoint (2) - The technique of combining single melodic lines or parts of
Concerto - A piece for a soloist and orchestra. equal importance.
Concert pitch - The international tuning pitch -- currently A 440 or 442. The Counterpoint (3): Two parts with individual distinctive melodic significance
pitch for non-transposing (in C) instruments. and rhythmic independence running together (singing in unison or octaves is not
Conducting - The directing of a group of musicians. counterpoint). Thus, the texture of music which is made up of individual melodic
Conductor - The person who directs a group of musicians. strands woven together is contrapuntal (or polyphonic). The opposite is homophon-
Conductor (2) - One who directs a group of performers. The conductor indicates ic texture where one melodic idea is supported by accompanying harmony.
the tempo, phrasing, dynamics, and style by gestures and facial expressions. Counterpoint in which two (or more) strands can function equally well as bass or
Con intensita - With intensity. treble to each other is . If applied to two parts, it is called invertible counterpoint
conjunct - stepwise progression in melody. double counterpoint.
Conjunct (2) - Pitches on successive degrees of the scale; opposite of disjunct. Courante - A piece of music written in triple time. Also an old French dance.
Con moto - With motion. courante (corrente) (2) - an old dance in AB form, literally meaning "running".
Consonance - Intervallic relationships which produce sounds of repose. Usually in triple time, and the second of the standard movements of the suite.
Frequently associated with octave, third and sixth intervals; however, fourths an The Italian Corrente is much quicker than the more refined French Courante,
fifths may be sounds of consonance, as in both early and 20th-century music. which frequently shifted from 3/2 to 6/4 time.
Consonance (2) - Groups of tones that are harmonious when sounded together as
in a chord. Crescendo - Gradually louder, gradually getting louder
consonance (3), consonant - harmonic intervals (thirds, forths, fifths, sixths, Crescendo (2) (cresc.): Becoming gradually louder
and octaves) which produce a sense of repose; harmony which consists only or Cue - Indication by the conductor or a spoke word or gesture for a performer to
mainly of these intervals. make an entry. Small notes that indicate another performer's part. Music occurrence
Consonance vs Dissonance: Agreeable (satisfactory) or disagreeable (unsatis- in a film.
factory) effects created by chords on the listener. Chords consisting of consonant Courante: A moderate to fast triple time (3) dance. Almost always starts with a
intervals (octave, perfect fifth, perfect fourth, third, sixth) are called consonant and quaver upbeat. The time value may change from 3/2 to 6/4 (hemiola).
those containing dissonant intervals (second, seventh, ninth, augmented intervals,
etc) are dissonant chords. The triadic chords and their inversions are consonant, Cut time - 2/2 meter.
whereas, all others including augmented sixth and diminished seventh chords are Cyclical form: A composition in which the same thematic material is used in all
dissonant. or most movements. Although Beethoven did this in the Fifth and Ninth symphonies
Consonant vs Dissonant interval: An interval is consonant when two notes pro- and in the Piano Sonata, Op.101; the form was established by Cesar Franck and
ducing it share overtones. The more overtones they share, the more consonant they used by his French followers d'Indy, Faure, Saint-Saens and Dukas.
Da: From, by, for, etc.
da - da capo - a sign at the end of a movement indicating that the player must
return to the beginning. abbreviation: D.C. difficile - difficult
Da Capo (D.C.): From the beginning dignita - grandeur
Da capo, (2) D. C. - Return to the beginning. diluendo - gradual dying away until no sound is left
Da Capo (2) - In sheet music, an instruction to repeat the beginning of the piece Diminished - The term for an interval which has been decreased from the major
before stopping on the final chord. by two half steps and from the perfect by one half step, e.g. c-a # , diminished sixth,
da capo al fine - return to the beginning and play to the word "fine" or c-g b , a diminished fifth. Also used for a triad which has a minor third and a
Da capo aria: A ternary form (ABA) aria. First section in tonic, second section diminished fifth, e.g. c b , c-e b , g b .
in a related key, then, repeat of ‘A’ probably with ornamentation. A usual tonal plan Diminished seventh chord: A chord consists of three minor thirds on top of each
for da capo arias is as follows: other (B - D - F - A - C = B - D and so on). Because of this structure (an endless
A............................ B.............. string of minor thirds), it has no tonal center and is tonally ambiguous. It is a
Keys (major): I... I to V... V to I... // vi to iii D.C. favorite chord of Romantic composers. It is used for expressive effects or for mod-
Keys (minor): i... i to III.. III to i... // ? to v D.C. ulation. When it is based on the leading note, it has three notes in common with the
Note the Phrygian ending at the end of section B which provides a iii to I tonal V b, therefore behaves like a secondary dominant and nicely resolves on the tonic.
switch by returning to the beginning in major keys. This plan provided the basis for By semitone lowering of any of the four notes of a diminished seventh and with nec-
many Baroque concerto movements (see ritornello). Most da capo arias start with a essary enharmonic changes, a dominant seventh in a new key is obtained (i.e., a
ritornello section. diminished seventh on the leading note of C major or minor turns into a dominant
dal, dalle, dalla - from the, by the, etc. seventh of A, F# or E depending on which note moved a semitone downwards. , if
Dal - "From the", "by the". F is lowered to E, and A being equivalent to G#, the new chord E, G#, B, D is the
Dal sengo (D.S.): From the sign, repeat from the sign dominant seventh of A major/minor). This is a powerful way to modulate as one
diminished seventh may resolve on four different dominant sevenths and they may
Dal segno, (2) D. S. - Repeat from the sign. Frequently followed by al Fine. resolve on four major or four minor tonic chords. See also .
Damper pedal - On pianos, the pedal that lifts the dampers from the strings. bb
debile - weak, feeble 7
Deceptive cadence - Chordal progression dominant (V) to a chord other than the b
expected tonic. For example b
Deceptive cadence (2) - A chord progression that seems to lead to resolving dominant
itself on the final chord; but does not. seventh
Deceptive cadence (3): Sometimes a composer makes all the preparations for a diminished triad - a three-note chord consisting of two minor thirds.
final cadence but at the last moment puts some other chord (anything but tonic; Diminuendo (dim.): Becoming gradually softer, Gradually softer. Synonymous
most frequently chord vi) in the place of the expected tonic chord. Also called inter- with decrescendo, gradually getting softer
rupted cadence. diminution - to halve the note values of a melody. Also, a form of ornamenta
deciso - in a bold manner tion.
Deciso (2): Decisively, firmly Diminution (2) - The shortening of note values; the opposite of augmentation.
Declamation: The mirroring in the musical setting of the rhythm of the text as it di molto - very much
would be declaimed. Dirge - A piece that is performed at a funeral or memorial service.
Declamatory: Vocal music of which the rhythm is determined by the rhythm of disciolto - skillful, dexterous
the words. discreto - discreetly
Decrescendo - Gradually getting softer. Synonymous with diminuendo. disjunct - melodic progression dominated by wide skips.
Decrescendo (2)(decresc.): Becoming gradually softer Disjunct (2) - The term used to describe intervals larger than a second; the oppo-
Degree - One of the eight consecutive tones in a major or minor scale. site of conjunct.
Delicato - Delicately. dissonance, dissonant - harmonic intervals (seconds, sevenths, ninths, augment
Delicato(2): Delicate ed and diminished intervals) which produce the effect of action or tension;
deritta, deritto - the right hand chords which contain one or more of these intervals.
destra - the right hand Dissonance (2) - Sounds of unrest, e.g. intervals of seconds and sevenths; the
Development - Where the musical themes and melodies are developed, written opposite of consonance.
in sonata form Dissonance (3) - Harsh, discordant, and lack of harmony. Also a chord that
devoto - religious sounds incomplete until it resolves itself on a harmonious chord.
. di sopra - above
Di - Of, with, from, etc. disperato - with desperation
Divisi, div - An indication of divided musical parts.
diatonic - melody or harmony confined to the tones of the scale; the opposite of divisi (2) - separated (half the players play the upper notes, and the others play
chromatic.
the lower notes. note held under a melody.
Do - The first degree of the major scale. Du - "From the", "of the".
Dolce - Sweetly. due corde - two strings - the una corda pedal is to be put half-way down
Dolce (2): Tenderly, sweetly Duet - A piece for two performers.
Dolcissimo - Very sweetly. Duet (2) - A piece of music written for two vocalists or instrumentalists.
Dolcissimo (2)(dolciss.): Very gently, very sweetly Duo: A duet
Dolente: Sadly duo (2) - two, in two parts
dolente (2) - sorrowful duolo - sorrow, sadness
Dolore: Grief, sorrow duple meter - two or four beats to the measure.
Doloroso - Sadly; mournfull, sorrowfully. duro - harsh, rude
. Duplet - A group of two notes performed in the time of three of the same kind.
dominant - the fifth tone of a diatonic scale, and the chord buik on that tone. dynamics - levels of soft and loud.
Dynamics (2) - Pertaining to the loudness or softness of a musical composition.
Dominant (2) - The fifth degree of the major or minor scale. Also, the term for Also the symbols in sheet music indicating volume.
the triad built on the fifth degree, labelled V in harmonic analysis. Dynamics (3) - Varying degrees of loud and soft.
Dominant preparation: At the end of the development, the extensive use of
dominant harmony. This helps to stabilize the harmony which is usually destabi-
lized in the development and also create an expectation for the return of the tonic e, ed. - and
(recapitulation). Beethoven is very fond of massive dominant preparation before the E - Italian word meaning "and".
double return (as in the sonata) Pathetique ecclesia - church
Dominant seventh: A chord that consists of the intervals major third, minor ecossaise - originally a slow dance in 3/4 time, allegedly of Scottish origin but
third and minor third from the bottom to the top. It is easily obtained from a dimin- not at all similar to the Scottish dance music, such as the reel. Later it became live-
ished seventh chord, which only contains minor thirds, by lowering any of the notes lier and was written in duple time.
by a semitone. effretto - the effect of music on an audience
dopo - after Eighth - Octave.
Doppio: Double eighth note - one eighth the value of a whole note
Doppio movimento: Twice as fast Eighth note/rest - A note/rest half the length of a quarter note and an eighth of
dotted rhythm - rhythmic patterns consisting of a dotted note followed by a note the length of a whole note.
of the next smaller denomination (e.g., a dotted quarter followed by an eighth Ein wenig Ger.: A little
note) Elegy - An instrumental lament with praise for the dead.
double bar - two vertical lines drawn through one or more staves to indicate a elegante/eleganza - graceful, elegant
major sectional division or the conclusion of a composition. elegiaco - plaintive
Double bar (2) - Two vertical lines placed on the staff to indicate the end of a eleventh chord - a chord of six tones, five superimposed thirds.
section or a composition. Also, used with two dots to enclose repeated sections. embellishment - short, fast ornaments such as trills, mordents, and turns.
Double flat - A symbol for lowering pitch one step. emozione - agitation
double fugue - a fugue with two subjects and, correspondingly, two expositions. Empfindsamkeit: It is translated as sensitive style. It was the North German
Double sharp - A symbol for raising pitch one step. equivalent of Style Galant in 1750-1780. The romantic variety of Rococo style.
double stopping - playing two notes simultaneously on a bowed string instru Tries to arrive at an expression of true and natural feelings, anticipating to some
ment. extent the Romanticism of the nineteenth century. It aims to portray subjective
Double tonguing - On flute and brass instruments, the technique of rapidly artic- expression, especially melancholy. Typical example is CPE Bach's music. WF
ulating notes by using the front and the back of the tongue in alternation (t-k-t-k-t- Bach's music also falls into this category. The volkstumliche Lied and Singspiel are
k). the results of this movement.
Double return: The return of both tonic and the exposition after the develop- Encore - To repeat a piece or play an additional piece at the end of a perfor-
ment in a sonata form movement. Following a harmonically and thematically freer mance.
development section, the double return creates one of the dramatic events of the Encore (2) - A piece of music played at the end of a recital responding to the
sonata form. audiences enthusiastic reaction to the performance, shown by continuous applause.
energico - forcibly
Down beat - The first beat; given by the conductor with a downward stroke. Energico (2) - A symbol in sheet music a direction to play energetically.
Down bow - In the violin family, drawing the bow downward from its frog. The enfactico - with earnestness
symbol is: p. Enharmonic - A term used to describe notes of the same pitch which have dif-
drammatico - dramatic ferent names, e.g. c # and d b , f # and g b .
Drone - Dull, monotonous tone such as a humming or buzzing sound. Also a bass
En dehors Fr.: Prominently
Energico: With energy Fa - In solmization, the fourth degree of the major scale.
Enharmonic Interval - Two notes that differ in name only. The notes occupy the Facile: Easy, light
same position. For example: C sharp and D flat. Falsetto: A vocal technique used mainly by counter-tenors to sing to sing in the
En pressant Fr.: Hurrying highest range of the voice.
En retenant Fr.: Gradually slower Falsetto (2) - A style of male singing where by partial use of the vocal chords,
ensemble - a performing group consisting of two or more players or singers. the voice is able to reach the pitch of a female.
Ensemble - The performance of either all instruments of an orchestra or voices False-relation (cross-relation): Appearance of two contradictory notes in dif-
in a chorus. Espressivo - A direction to play expressively. ferent voices. This is like having E and Eb in diagonal position rather than in hori-
zontal position (in the same voice). Such chromatic movement in different voices in
Entracte: In opera, pause in the action where music continues. Bizet's Carmen successive beats is considered disturbing for the listener in the Classical period (see
has a well-known one. the transition of the first movement of Beethoven's String Quartet Op.18, No.1).
entre'acte - music played between acts of a drama familiar style - chordal style in polyphonic music.
entree - an introduction, a march-like piece played during the entrance of a danc Fanfare - A prelude or opening, a flourish, usually played by brass instruments.
ing group, or played before a ballet. Usually in 4/4 time. fantasia - a movement free in spirit and form, rather like an improvisation.
epico - heroic fantastico - whimsical
Episode: A section of the composition where the principal subjects are missing. Fasola - A system of solmization used in 17th- and 18th-century England and
The term derived from the fugue where after the exposition and before the return of America. Fa, so, and la were given to both c-d-e and f-g-a, with mi used for the sev-
the subject an episode presents new material to decrease the tension. It is used to enth degree.
describe the non-recurring material in rondo and ritornello forms. Also, a new fastoso - proudly, stately
theme in a symphony -usually in the development- may be called an episode fauxbordon - parallel first inversion chords in 15th-century music.
[Beethoven's Eroica; Haydn's Farewell symphonies]. Feminine cadence: Usually the final chord of a cadence falls on an accented
equabitmente - mostly, evenly beat. Sometimes, to soften the effect of the cadence, the final chord is placed on an
equalmente - evenly, alike unaccented beat. This cadence is then called a feminine (perfect, interrupted, etc.)
cadence. The feminine cadence is preferred in Romantic styles. Beethoven uses it
Equal temperament: A tuning adjustment by which the octave on a keyboard is in his late-period works. Feminine cadence is a typical feature of the Polonaise.
divided into twelve equal intervals. ferma - resolute, steady
espirando - gasping fermata - a pause or hold
espressivo - to be played or sung with expression Fermata (2) - To hold a tone or rest held beyond the written value at the discre-
Espressivo (2) - Expressively. tion of the performer.
Espressione (2): Expression fermato - firmly, resolutely
estinto - becoming extinct feroce - fierce
estramamente - extremely fervente - ardent
Esuberante -Exuberant. fervido - vehement
ethnomusicology - the study of music of different cultures, especially non- Festivo, festoso - Festive; merry, gay
Western or non-European music. Feurig Ger.: Fiery
Ethos (1): In ancient Greek music, ethos designated the different characters of fiacco - feeble, weak
various modes. The Dorian was considered manly and strong; the Phrygian, ecstat- fiebile - sad, mournful
ic and passionate; the Lydian, feminine and lascivious; the Mixolydian, sad and fieramente - boldly
mournful. figuration - recurrent melodic pattern.
Ethos (2): The constant, total character (as opposed to transient moods) of a per- figured bass - use of numerals and other signs accompanying the notes of a bass
son depicted in an opera (see pathos). [Greek ethos: custom or character.] part to indicate harmony to be filled in on a keyboard instrument; used in the
etude - a study written for the purpose of practising and developing facility in a Baroque.
special problem of technique, or for displaying the technical skill of the performer. Figured bass (2): The short hand way of describing the harmony in the Baroque
Etude (2) - A musical composition written solely to improve technique. Often era. Briefly, the absence of a figure underneath the bass line implies a root position
per, formed for artistic interest. chord, whereas, 6 implies a first inversion, 7 implies a (root position) seventh
Exposition - The first section of a movement written in sonata form, introducing chord, # implies a major third, and an oblique stroke through a numeral means that
the melodies and themes. the note is chromatically sharpened, etc. Figured bass has a good deal of room for
Expressionism - Atonal and violent style used as a means of evoking heightened improvisation within the framework set by the composer. One can play simple
emotions and states of mind. chords with a variety of spacing, introduce passing notes, or incorporate melodic
Espressivo (espr.): With expression motifs in imitation of the treble or bass parts.
Etwas Ger.: Somewhat Fifth - The fifth degree of the diatonic scale. Also, the interval formed by a given
tone and the fifth tone above or below it, e.g. c up to g, c down to f. Intervals of the exposition, each voice enters at different times, creating counterpoint with one
fifth may be perfect (corresponding to major), diminished, or augmented. another.
Fifth (2) - The interval between two notes. Three whole tones and one semitone Full score - An instrumental score in which all the parts for the instruments
make up the distance between the two notes. appear on their own staves in standard instrumental family order.
final - the concluding tone in a plainsong; the tonic. funerale - mournful
finale - the last movement or concluding section of a large composition. Fuoco: Fire, passion
Finale (2): The last movement of such a work a sonata furioso - furiously
Finale (3) - The last movement of a symphony or sonata, or the last selection of furore - fury, rage
an opera. Fourth - The fourth degree of the diatonic scale. Also, the interval formed by a
Finale (4) - Movement or passage that concludes the musical composition. given tone and the fourth tone above or below it, e.g. c up to f; c down to g.
fine - the end Intervals of the fourth may be perfect, diminished, or augmented.
finement - acutely Fz - Forzando or forzato. Synonomous with sforzando (sf or sfz).
First ending - One or more measures which occur at the end of the stanza or
stanzas. It is usually indicated with the upper horizontal lines with numbers 1., (2.) gaio - with cheerfulness
First and second endings (2): Alternative endings for each repeat of a repeated Galant: Light and elegant musical style of the Rococo period (1730-1780) as
section (like the exposition of a sonata-type movement). opposed to the serious and elaborate style of the Baroque era. Galant referred to a
particularly courtly manner of social manner. In music, it is generally used to refer
fixed do - The system of solmization in which c is always do. to lightly accompanied, clear, natural and pleasing music with balanced phrasing
flat - A symbol which lowers the pitch of a note one half step. (JC Bach, Sammartini, Hasse and Pergolesi). Galant shares with rococo the idea of
flat (2) - A symbol indicating that the note is to be diminished by one semitone. heavy ornamentation, but differs from it in its clear phrase structure and mannered
flat (3) - a symbol placed in front of a note to indicate lowering that note by one elegance. It avoids disturbing sudden dynamic changes.
half step galante - boldly, gallantly
florid - ornamented, embellished, decorated, Galliard - Music written for a lively French dance for two performers written in
triple time.
folk elements in music: Repetition of single notes, motifs, phrases, verses; garbato - graceful
dance-like rhythm; real or imitative folk tunes; modal elements: flat (minor) sev- garbo - grace, elegance
enths [common to many modes], flat seconds [Phrygian], and augmented fourths
[Lydian] are the elements which give music a folk-like character. Direct reference Gauche Fr.: Left
to folk songs have been made (especially by Russians) in classical music. Gavotte: A moderate to fast duple time dance with a time signature of 2. It has a
form - The design or structure of a musical composition. long upbeat of half a bar.
form (2) - The structure of a piece of music. Gavotte (2) - A 17th century dance written in Quadruple time, always beginning
form (3) - the plan of organization of musical materials. on the third beat of the measure.
forte - Loud. gavotte (3) - an old French dance form, stately and dignified, in duple time
forte (2) - A symbol indicating to play loud. beginning on the weak half of the bar. Sometimes found in the old suites. It was
forte piano fp: Loud, then immediately soft often followed by another Gavotte or a Musette, and then repeated.
forte possibile - as loud as possible generoso - in a dignified manner
fortissimo: Very loud gentile - pleasing, elegant
Forza: Force, strength, power
forzando/forzato - forced, usually on one note or chord Gig - A job for a musician.
Forzando (2) fz: Forcing, a sudden accent Gigue: A fast compound duple or triple time (usually 6/4 or 6/8) dance with a
Fourth - The interval between two notes. Two whole tones and one semitone light texture.
make up the distance between the two notes. gigue (jig) (2) - a lively dance in 6/8 or 12/8 time, usually the final movement of
freddezza - coldness a suite. It was contrapuntal in style with the second half frequently using the invert-
frescamente - vigorously ed subject.
fretta - increasing the time giocando - cheerful, merry
Fuga: A fugue giocoso - playful, gay, merry
fugal - in the style of a fugue; use of contrapuntal imitation. giocoso (2) - humourously
fughetta - a short fugue or a fugal section in a composition. Giubilante - Exultant, jubilant.
fugue - a contrapuntal form based on imitation of a subject (theme) written for giubilazione - jubilant
two or more voices. It is based on a short theme or subject, stated at the begin giusto: strict, exact
ning by one voice, and brought in by each of the others in turn. giusto (2) - equal, steady and exact time
Fugue (2) - A composition written for three to six voices. Beginning with the giustezza - precision
ascending or descending, e.g. c-c # ; e-e b ; h-c. The smallest interval on the keyboard.
Glee - Vocal composition written for three or more solo parts, usually without Harmony - The sounding of two or more tones simultaneously; the vertical
instrumental accompaniment. aspect of music.
glissando - in a gliding manner, slurred harmony (2) - the element of music having to do with simultaneous sounds, the
glissando (2) - producing all pitches between two or more notes, as by sliding combinations of tones, chord structure, chord progression, consonance, and dis
the. Sliding between two notes. Finger along the string of a violin or the keyboard sonance.
of a piano. Harmony (3) - Pleasing combination of two or three tones played together in the
Glissando (3): The rapid playing of a scale background while a melody is being played. Harmony also refers to the study of
Glissando (4) - Gliss. The rapid scale achieved by sliding the nail of the thumb chord progressionsHemiola - The term applied to time values in the ration of 3:2,
or third finger over the white keys of the piano. Glissando is commonly used in e.g. three half notes in place of two dotted half notes.
playing the harp. For bowed instruments glissando indicates a flowing, unaccented Heterophony: The use of slightly modified versions of the same melody by two
playing of a passage. or more performers, usually a singer and an instrumentalist. Examples are Javanese
G.P. (General Pause): Indicates all to remain silent music and the music of troubadours.
gradevole - gracefully Homophony (2) - Music written to be sung or played in unison.
gradualmente - gradually, by degrees Homophony (3): Music in which one voice leads melodically being supported by
grandioso - grand, noble, grandiose, majestic. an accompaniment. This is the opposite of polyphony in which all parts contribute
Grandioso (2) - Word to indicate that the movement or entire composition is to equally to the music. The characteristic texture of similar contrapuntal voice parts
be played grandly. was the hallmark of the Renaissance music. The dominance of homophony in the
Grandioso (3): Grandly, in the grand manner Venetian School towards the end of the sixteenth century was a sign of things to
Grand opera: Operas on a historical theme with traditional opera writing such come. (Monody = accompanied solo song.)
as no spoken dialogue, large choruses, full ballets and elaborate sets. (In comic Homophony, Homophonic - Musical texture which is characterized by chordal-
opera, spoken dialogue is allowed.) Examples are Spontini's and Meyerbeer's [Les support of a melodic line.
Huguenots ] operas, and Verdi's Aida. Heldentenor: Heroic tenor. The range, power homophony, homophonic (2) - a texture consisting of a single melodic line with
and quality of this kind of tenor suit best to heroic roles as in most Wagner operas, subordinate accompaniment. Also, sometimes used to mean chordal style in poly
Beethoven's Fidelio, Verdi's Otello and Aida, and Handel's Samson. phonic music.
Grand pause - A rest for the entire ensemble (G.P.). hopak - a lively Russian dance in simple duple time.
Grand piano - A piano with a winglike shape and a horizontal frame, strings, and hornpipe - a very lively English dance, first written in triple time but later in
soundboard. quadruple time. Now usually associated with sailors, but this apparently has no
Grand staff, Great staff - The G and F clef staves together make the grand historical basis.
(great) staff. hymn - a religious song.
Grave - Slow, solemn, extremely slow and solemn. Hymn (2) - A song of praise and glorification. Most often to honor God.
Grave (2): Very slow, solemn
Grave (3) - Word to indicate the movement or entire composition is to be played
very slow and serious. I, it - the
Grazia - Grace. Con grazia, with grace. idiom - style appropriate to a specific medium, its capacities and limitations.
Grazia (2): Grace Also used to mean style in general.
grazioso - graceful, in a graceful style Idyll: A musical composition of peaceful pastoral character (Wagner's Siegfried
Grazioso (2) - Word to indicate the movement or entire composition is to be Idyll, Janacek's Idyll).
played gracefully. il piu - the most
Gregorian Chant - Singing or chanting in unison without strict rhythm. im - in the
Collected during the Reign of Pope Gregory VIII for psalms and other other parts imitando - imitating
of the church service. imitation - a theme or melody which appears consecutively in different parts in
grosso - full, great contrapuntal texture.
Grosso,(2) grosse - Great, large. Imitation (2): Similar melodic material used in dialogue between parts at a dif-
grottesco - grotesque ferent pitch.
gusto - taste, expression Immer Ger.: Always, constantly
impaziente - impatient, hurried
imperioso - pompous
half note - one half the value of a whole note impetuoso - vehement
Impetuoso (2): Impetuously
Half step - The interval from one pitch to the immediately adjacent pitch, imponente - haughtily
Impressionism - A musical movement of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. sion, with the third, or second inversion, with the fifth in the lowest voice. An
Inspired by the French impressionist painters, the movement had its impetus in the example: root position c-e-g; first inversion e-g-c; second inversion g-c-e.
music of Debussy and Ravel. Inversion (3) (chords): A chord without the root in the bass. A first inversion
Impromptu - A short piano piece, often improvisational and intimate in charac chord is used to start a new thought as in recitatives. The second inversion chord
ter. (six-four chord) is a very unstable one with a limited use. Typically it precedes the
impromptu (2) - a piece that suggests improvisation, that has a feeling of infor- cadenza. A great exception in its use is the first Razumovsky Quartet which starts
mality. First used in the early nineteenth century. with a six-four chord.
improvisation - to create music extemporaneously. Also applies to unindicated invertible counterpoint - counterpoint so designed that either of two melodic
ornamentation and to realization of a figured bass. lines may be the upper.
in - in, in the irato - angrily
In altissimo: Notes played an octave higher Ironico - Ironical.
incalzando - with growing warmth irresoluto - wavering
Incalzando: Increasing speed, with an implication of increasing tone istesso - the same
inconsolato - in a mournful style istesso tempo - the same time
inquieto - restless, uneasy
instantemente - urgently jubiloso - exulting
Instrument - Any device that produces a musical sound. key - System of notes or tones based on and named after the key note.
instrumentation - the instruments indicated in an orchestral score. key (2) - the tonal center of a composition or subdivision thereof. The key of a
Instrumentation (2) - The art of composing, orchestrating, or arranging for an composition is indicated by the letter name of its tonic. Also, the white or black sur-
instrumental ensemble. face on a keyboard instrument which produces a tone when depressed.
Interlude - Piece of instrumental music played between scenes in a play or keyboard - the series of black and white keys of a piano, organ, harpsichord or
opera. similar instrument.
Intermezzo - Short movement or interlude connecting the main parts of the com Key signature - The sharps or flats placed at the beginning of the staff to denote
intermezzo (2) - an interlude, a piece designed originally to be performed the scale upon which the music is based.
between the acts of a play or opera position. Key signature (2) - The flats and sharps at the beginning of each staff line indi-
Intermezzo (3): Stage plays of light character usually played between the acts of cat ing the key of music the piece is to be played.
a serious play or an opera. Pergolesi's is a well-known intermezzo which became key signature (3) - sharps or flats at the beginning of each staff to indicate the
the first example of opera buffa La Serva padrona in 1733. The other use of inter- key of the composition.
mezzo as instrumental interpolations in an opera (as in Cavalleria Rusticana) is Klangfarbenmelodie - The technique of altering the tone color of a single note
better called entracte. or musical line by changing from one instrument to another in the middle of a
Interpretation - The expression the performer brings when playing his instru note or line.
ment.
Interval - The difference in pitch between two tones.
Interval (2) - The distance in pitch between two notes.
interval (3) - the pitch distance between two tones, designated numerically as La - In solmization, the sixth degree of the major scale. Also, the first degree of
seconds, thirds, fourths, and so on. the relative minor scale, e.g. a is the sixth degree, or la, in the C major scale and
intimo - expressive the first degree of the a-minor scale.
Intonation - The manner in which tones are produced with regard to pitch. Lacrimoso - Tearful, mournful, sad.
intrata (intrada) - the name given to an opening piece of march-like character. Lacrimoso (2): Sadly, weeping
The Italian equivalent of an Entrée or Prelude. lamentando - mourning
intrepidamente - boldly Lamento - Mournful
Introduction - The opening section of a piece of music or movement. Lamentoso: Mournfully
invention - a short contrapuntal piece for two or three voices, in imitative style. landler - a popular German or Austrian dance in 3/4 or 3/8 time,thought to be the
inversion - in melody, the interval-for-interval progression in the opposite direc true origin of the waltz. It is very like a waltz, though slower.
tion, up for down and vice versa. In harmony, the root of a chord in some part languendo/languido - feeble, languishing
other than the bass, e.g., first inversion (third of the chord in the bass), second Langsam Ger.: Slow
inversion (fifth of the chord in the bass). Largamente - Broadly.
Inversion (2) - As applied to music the term may be used in both melody and Larghetto - Slower than largo.
harmony. Melodic inversion: an exchange of ascending and descending movement, larghetto (2) - not as slow as largo
e.g. c up to f in descending becomes c down to g. Harmonic inversion: the position
of the chord is changed from root position (root on the lowest pitch) to first inver- larghetto (3) - Less slow than largo
largo - very slow loure - a slow French dance in 6/4 time, sometimes found in the classic Suite.
largo (2): Slow and stately, slow and broad lugubre - sad, mournful
Leading tone - The seventh degree of the major scale, so called because of its lunga pausa - a long pause
strong tendency to resolve upward to the tonic. lusingando - alluring, flattering
Leading note (2) - The seventh note of the scale where there is a strong desire Lusingando (2): In a coaxing style
to resolve on the tonic. luttuoso - sorrowful
leading tone (3) - the seventh note of a diatonic scale and the chord built on that lyric - song-like, as opposed to dramatic.
note.
Lebhaft Ger.: Lively
Ledger lines - Short lines placed above and below the staff for pitches beyond ma - but
the range of the staff. Ma (2) - But. Used with other words, e.g. lento ma non troppo, slow but not too
Legato - Smooth, smoothly, connected. slowly.
Legato (2) - Word to indicate that the movement or entire composition is to be Ma non troppo: But not too much
played smoothly. Maestoso - Majestically.
Legatissimo: As smoothly as possible madrigal - a composition for unaccompanied voices. It originated in Italy in the
legatissimo - exceedingly smooth fifteenth century, and was written in from two to eight voices.
leggiero - lightly Madrigal (2): A type of Italian vocal music without any strict form, written in
Leggiero (2): Light, delicate, graceful. four-to-six parts, polyphonic and imitative.
Legno: See col legno Madrigal (3) - A contrapuntal song written for at least three voices, usually with-
Leitmotif - A musical theme given to a particular idea or main character of an out accompaniment.
opera. maestoso - dignified
leno - feeble, faint maggiore - the major key
Lent Fr.: Slow Maestro - Refers to any great composer, conductor, or teacher of music.
lentando - with increased slowness main droite - (M.D.) Fr.: The right hand
Lento - Slow; slightly faster than largo, slower than adagio. main gauche - (M.G.) Fr.: The left hand
L.H. Eng.: Left hand Major - The designation for certain intervals and scales. A key based on a major
lestamente - quickly, lively scale is called a major key. The pattern for the major scale is:
lesto - lively quick whole whole half whole whole whole half
Liberamento - Freely. step step step step step step step
libero - free, unrestrained Major (2) - One of the two modes of the tonal system. Music written in major
libretto - the text of an opera, oratorio, or cantata. keys have a positive affirming character.
Libretto (2) - A book of text containing the words of an opera. major (3) - a diatonic scale with half steps between the third and fourth and
Lied Ger.: Song between the seventh and eighth tones of the scale. Also, a triad consisting of a major
Lied (2)(plural Lieder): Any self-contained song in the German language. In and a minor third.
Schubert's day, a distinction was made between a Lied (strophic song) and a Gesang Major chord - A triad composed of a root, major third, and perfect fifth.
(through-composed). This distinction has now disappeared. Mancando - Fading away, dying away, waning
liederbuch - German book of songs.
Ligature - Curved line connecting notes to be sung or played as a phrase. mano - the hand
line - the melodic component in a composition; melodic line. mano destra - the right hand
Linear - Melodic; horizontal lines. mano sinistra - the left hand
linear counterpoint - dissonant counterpoint, Maqam (makam): Roughly corresponds to modes in Turkish music. A maqam is
liscio - simple, smooth not only a scale but is also distinguished by their treatment of the scale (ascending
l'istesso - the same vs descending, or mixed), certain melodic patterns, and by association with partic-
L'istesso tempo: The speed of the beat remains the same although the notation ular moods and circumstances.
changes marcando/marcato - accented
liturgical - music intended for performance in a church service. Marcato - Emphasized, heavily accented.
Loco: Notes are to be played at their normal pitch (after an indication to play Marcato (2)(marc.): Marked, accented
them an octave higher or lower) Masque: Sixteenth and seventeenth century stage productions, designed for the
loco va - place; return to the written register after playing an octave higher entertainment of the nobility. They consist of a combination of poetry, music (vocal
through using 8 and instrumental), dancing, acting, etc.
lontano - distant, a great way off
Lontano: As from a distance march - a piece written in simple duple or quadruple time, strongly accented,
used for accompanying marching (usually of soldiers). exact tempo of a composition. An indication such as M.M. 60 indicates that the pen-
March (2) - A form of music written for marching in two-step time. Originally dulum, with a weight at the bottom, makes 60 beats per minute. A slider is moved
the march was used for military processions. up and down the pendulum to decrease and increase the tempo. M.M. = 80 means
Marcia: A march (metronome in minute) that the time value of a quarter note is the equivalent of one
Martellato: Hammered out pendulum beat when the slider is set at 80.
martellato - strongly marked - hammered mezza/mezzo - medium, half
marziale - in the style of a march Mezzo (2) - The voice between soprano and alto. Also, in sheet music, a direc-
Marzial: Martial tion for the tempo to be played at medium speed.
mazurka - a Polish national dance in moderate 3/4 time, with strong accents on Mezzo forte mf: Moderately loud
the third beat, and sometimes on the second. Mezzo forte (2) - Medium loud.
Mässig Ger.: Moderate Mezzo piano mp: Moderately soft
measure - a group of beats between bar lines; also, all the notes between two bar Mezzo piano (2) - Medium soft.
lines. mezzo soprano - a female voice lower than a soprano but higher than a contral-
Measure (2) - A group of beats containing a primary accent and one or more sec- to
ondary accents, indicated by the placement of bar lines on the staff. The space Mezza voce: In an undertone
between two bar lines.
Measure (3) - The unit of measure where the beats on the lines of the staff are
divided up into two, three, four beats to a measure. Mi - In solmization, the third degree of the major scale.
Medesimo - The same. Microtone: Any interval smaller than the semitone. Frequently used in Eastern
Mediant - The third degree of the major or minor scale. The triad built on this European, Middle Eastern and Oriental music.
degree is labeled iii in the major scale, III in the natural minor scale, and III + in the
harmonic minor scale. Middle Ages - European historical period between roughly A.D. 500 and 1450.
mediant (2) - the third note of a diatonic scale, and the chord built on that note. Middle C - The note C in the middle of the Grand staff, and near the middle of
Medieval - The period prior to the Renaissance, c. 500-1450, marking the music the paino.
of the early Christian church. minacciando - menacing
medium - the voices and/or instruments required for the performance of a com- minor - a diatonic scale with a half step between the second and third notes of
position; plural: media. the scale; the upper tetrachord of a minor scale is variable, resulting in natural,
Medley - Often used in overtures, a composition that uses passages from other harmonic, and melodic forms of the minor scale. A triad consisting of a minor
movements of the composition in its entirety. and major third.
melisma, melismatic - a melodic passage sung to one syllable of the text; a Minor (2) - The designation for certain intervals and scales. A key based on a
melodic style of many notes to a syllable. minor scale is called a minor key. The three types of minor scales include natural,
Melodrama: As in the grave digging scene of Beethoven's Fidelio, instrumental harmonic, and melodic, which is used infrequently in choral music. The patterns for
accompaniment to a spoken text. Speech is either accompanied or interspersed. The natural and harmonic scales are:
difference between dialogue and melodrama is the same as recitativo secco and natural: whole half whole whole half whole whole
recitativo accompagnato. step step step step step step step
melody, melodic - consecutive tones; the linear or horizontal element of music. harmonic: whole half whole whole whole 1-1/2 half
Melody (2) - In general, a succession of musical tones. It represents the linear or step step step step step steps step
horizontal aspect of music. melodic:
meno - less (ascending): whole half whole whole whole whole half
Meno mosso - Less motion. step step step step step step step
Meno mosso (2): Less movement, slower at once (descending): whole whole half whole whole half whole
Mesto: Sadly step step step step step step step
mesto/mestoso - sad, mournful
meter, metric - the measuring of time in music according to a specific number Minor - One of the two modes of the tonal system. The minor mode can be iden-
of beats to the measure. tified by the dark, melancholic mood.
Meter (2) - The structure of notes in a regular pattern of accented and unaccent- Minuet - Slow and stately dance music written in triple time.
ed beats within a measure, indicated at the beginning of a composition by a meter Minuet (2): A dance in a moderate triple time. It has a light texture. Some have
signature. a cross-rhythm or hemiola which makes two bars of 3/4 sound like one bar of 3/2
Meter signature - The numbers placed at the beginning of a composition to indi- (as in courante). Unlike other dances in the suite, it is often in ternary form. The
cate the meter of the music, e.g. 2/4, 3/4, 6/8. The upper number indicates the beats only Baroque dance form survived into the late symphony of the Classical era as
in a measure; the lower number tells what kind of a note will receive one beat. minuet and trio.
Metronome - Invented by Maelzel in 1816, the instrument is used to indicate the
minuet (menuet) (3) - a French dance in triple time, usually followed by a TRIO b
and then repeated. The early minuets were rather dignified and graceful but the later b b7 7 b b
ones became faster and lighter in character. bb
Misterioso - Mysteriously. b
Misterioso (2): Mysterious
misterioso (3) - in a mysterious manner
misurato - in strict, measured time Moll Ger.: Minor
mobile - changeable
Misura: Senza misura - in free time. Molto - Very. Used with other terms, e.g. molto allegro.
Mit Ger.: With Molto (2): Much, Di molto - very much
modality, modal - melody and/or harmony based on one of the church modes. moniera - manner, style
Mode - Any scalewise arrangement of pitches; more generally, the term refers to monody - early 17-century term for accompanied solo songs.
the patterns upon which medieval music was structured, the patterns which preced- Monody (2): Music for one singer (monophonic) with a simple chordal accom-
ed the development of major and minor scales and tonality. paniment not preventing the expression of the emotional message in the melody line
mode - one of the eight church modes. Also refers to major or minor keys.. (as opposed to polyphony with strict counterpoint). The monodists placed a special
Modes - Either of the two octave arrangements in modern music. The modes are emphasis on the words, and the declamation approximated to speech rhythm. In the
either major or minor. Baroque era, cantata, oratorio and opera evolved from monodic style. Monody in
Moderato: Moderate time the operatic context is synonymous with recitative. (Monody embraces all the styles
Moderato (2) - Moderate speed. of solo singing, including recitative, airs, and madrigals.) The canzona and sonata
Modern - Music written in the 20th century or contempory music. developed as outgrowth of solo monody.
Modulation - The process of changing from one key to another within a compo- monophony, monophonic - texture consisting of a single melodic line without
sition. accompaniment.
Modulation (2) - To shift to another key. Monotone - Repetition of a single tone.
modulation (3) - melodic or harmonic progressions which begin in one key and
end in another Mordent - "Biting." An ornament consisting of an alteration (once or twice) of
Modulation (4): The change of key in a composition verified by a cadence in the the written note by playing the one immediately below it (lower mordent), or above
new key (otherwise, it is a passing modulation or touching upon a different key). As it (upper, or inverted, mordent) and then playing the note again.
a general rule, modulations to the sharp side raises tension, modulation to the flat Morendo - Gradually decreasing in volume; dying away.
side lowers it. Modulations to related keys are ideally accomplished by means of morendo (2) - dying away in time and tone
'pivot chords', i.e., a chord which is common to both the initial and the new key mormoroso - with a gentle, murmuring sound
(like the submediant chord -vi- followed by II (#) - V when modulating to the dom- Mosso - Rapid. Meno mosso, less rapid. Piu mosso, more rapid.
inant; ii-V-I in the new key); or the tonic chord itself would be the subdominant of Mosso (2): Moved, movement, , motion
the dominant key: I - II(#) - V would be a smooth modulation to the dominant (IV- Motive - A short melodic or rhythmic pattern.
V-I in the new key). Some other means to modulate are: circle-of-fifth progression Motif - Primary theme or subject that is developed.
to modulate to another degree of the scale or one-step sharp or flat, by changing the Motif (2): A short melodic, harmonic or rhythmic idea. It is the shortest fragment
chord before the new tonic to a dominant seventh if required; changing any chord of a theme or a phrase that still maintains its identity. A typical example is the open-
to a dominant seventh of the new tonic by adding a minor third above a major triad ing motif in Beethoven's Symphony No.5 which is incomplete in itself but can be
(like I - IV would be V - I in the subdominant 7 7 key); in minor keys, the subme- heard (and recognized) all the way through in the symphony. As few as two notes
diant is a major chord, if it is made a dominant seventh and followed by its tonic, can make up a motif as the descending fifth at the opening of Beethoven's
this would be modulation to the flattened supertonic; resolving a diminished sev- Symphony No.9. A motif is the elemental brick of a theme (or subject) and a theme
enth on the dominant seventh of the new key and progressing to the new tonic (see is the building block of a movement. A figure is similar to the motif but it is of sec-
diminished seventh); using an augmented sixth on the flattened submediant of the ondary importance as motifs are part of themes and figures are not.
target key and resolving onto the new tonic via its dominant (like A - G - C) [mod- Motet: Unaccompanied choral composition based on a Latin sacred text.
ulation via outward resolution]; using a Neapolitan sixth to modulate to the flat-
tened submediant (in C major, D chord as the Neapolitan -IV in A - followed by E Moto - Motion. Con moto, with motion, rather quick
-V in A - and A as the new tonic: IV-V-I in the new key) or by using the D Moto movimento: Movement, Dopio movimento - twice as fast
Neapolitan chord as the dominant of the next key (to G ). The (major) tonic chord moto perpetuo - perpetual motion
of the prevailing key would be the Neapolitan chord of the new key a semitone MS. Eng: Manuscript .
lower (in C, Ib - IV - VII would be IVb - V - I in B). This is another use of the Movable Do - The system of solmization in which do changes to accommodate
Neapolitan chord to modulate a semitone lower. Direct juxtaposition of the new key the key, e.g. in the key of C major, do is c; in E b major do is e b . In the key of a minor
is not considered to be a modulation by some. do is c (relative major); in the key of c minor do is e b (relative major).
b
Movement - A separate section of a larger composition. nocturne (2) - literally "night piece". A romantic, dreamy piece for piano writ-
movement (2) - the complete and independent part of large works such as ten with a melody over a broken chord accompaniment.
sonatas, symphonies, suites. Non - No; not.
movimento - impulse, the time of a piece nonchordal, nonharmonic - a dissonant tone which does not belong to the chord
multitonality - music which shifts abruptly between two or more remotely relat- with which it sounds.
ed keys without modulation. Non tanto: Not so much
Musette: The French bagpipe of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Non troppo: Not too much
Especially suitable for pastoral music. Nonharmonic tones - A designation for tones outside the harmonic structure of
Musette (2) - A Boroque dance with a drone-bass. the chord. Two frequently used examples are the passing tone and the appoggiatu-
musette (3) - a short French dance-tune of pastoral character, with a drone-bass, ra.
originally played on a bag-pipe. Found in some Suites usually following a Nonet - A composition written for nine instruments.
Gavotte. Non troppo - Not too much. Used with other terms, e.g. non troppo allegro, not
Music - The organization of sounds with some degree of rhythm, melody, and too fast.
harmony. Notation - A term for a system of expressing musical sounds through the use of
Musicology - The study of forms, history, science, and methods of music. written characters, called notes.
musicology - the scholarly study of music, especially research in music history. Notation (2) - First developed in the 8th century, methods of writing music.
Music theory - The study of how music is put together. notation (3) - systems of symbols for writing music, mainly indicating pitch and
Mystic chord: A chord developed by Alexander Scriabin (1872-1915) in the duration of tones.
beginning of the 20th century. It consists of a series of fourths (C, F#, B , E, A and Note - The symbol which, when placed on a staff with a particular clef sign,
D). b indicates pitch.
Nuance - Subtle variations in tempo, phrasing, dynamics, etc., to enhance a
Nach - After (as "in the manner of"); behind. musical performance.
Nachtmusik - "Night music." A serenade.
Natural - A musical symbol which cancels a previous or sharp flat. Obbligato: Indispensable, cannot be omitted
Natural (2) - A symbol in sheet music that returns a note to its original pitch Obbligato (2) - An extended solo, often accompanying the vocal part of an aria.
after it has been augmented or diminished. Octave - The eighth tone above a given pitch, with twice as many vibrations per
natural (3) - a symbol which cancels a previously indicated sharp or flat natur- second, or below a given pitch, with half as many vibrations.
al Octave (2) - Eight full tones above the key note where the scale begins and ends.
Neapolitan sixth: First inversion of a major chord on the flattened supertonic in octave (3) - the pitch interval between a tone and the seventh tone above it in a
major or minor keys ( IIb). To keep the fifth above the flattened supertonic a per- diatonic scale, or between the letter name of a tone and its recurrence above or
fect one, the submediant needs to be flattened too (in a major key). Its resolution is below. The vibration ratio of an octave is two to one: if the tone A is 440 vibrations
normally on the dominant via an optional Ic. It can be used to modulate to the flat- per second, the octave above it is 880 and the octave below is 220.
tened submediant or a semitone down (see modulation). Octet - A piece for eight instruments or voices.
b Octet (2) - A composition written for eight instruments.
negligente - unconstrained, careless Open fifth - A triad without a third.
neighbor tone - same as auxiliary tone. Open strings - Strings are not stopped, fingured, or fretted.
nel, nella, nell' - in the, at the Open strings (2): The four strings of the violin are tuned G, D, A, E and, the
Neoclassical - Movement in music where the characteristics are crisp and direct. strings of the viola and cello, in C, G, D, A (an octave apart). When played
Neoclassicism: The musical movement of the post first world war period aiming unstopped by the player's fingers, these (open) strings sound more sonorous. The
to revive the musical forms and textures of the pre-Romantic era. Stravinsky's four notes G, D, A, E are the notes of the D major and G major. This is why these
works after 1920, Prokofiev and Hindemith's works are some of the examples (see keys are featured more frequently in music for violin (three of Mozart's five violin
also ). Back to Bach movement concertos and Beethoven's only violin concerto are in these keys).
neomodality - modern melodic or harmonic material which makes use of a Opera - A drama where the words are sung instead of spoken.
church mode or some new scale basis. opera - a drama set to music for soloists, chores and orchestra.
Neumatic - One style of chant in which two to four pitches occur on one sylla- Operetta - A short light musical drama.
ble; in contrast to melismatic and syllabic. Opus Lat.: A work, published composition
Nicht Ger.: Not Opus, (2) Op - The term, meaning work, is used by composers to show the
ninth chord - a chord of five tones, four superimposed thirds. chronological order of their works, e.g. Op. 1, Op. 2.
nobile - noble, grand Opus (3) - Convenient method of numbering a composer’s works where a num-
Nobilmente: Nobly. A term much used by Elgar ber follows the word “opus”. For example, Opus 28, No. 4.
Nocturne - A musical composition that has a romantic or dreamy character with Oratorio - An extended cantata on a sacred subject.
nocturnal associations. Oratorio (2) : Composition of an extended libretto by solo voices, chorus or
orchestra. It is usually a musical narration of a Biblical story. The presence of a nar- lowed by a fast contrapuntal (fugal allegro) section. Rameau's overtures introduce a
rator standing outside the action is an obvious distinguishing feature of the orato- theme to reappear in the opera later on. The Italian overture has the fast-slow-fast
rio. structure. The overture was the forerunner of the symphony. Later an extra move-
oratorio (3) - a nonliturgical, nontheatrical sacred work for soloists, chores and ment in triple time was added between the slow and the last movements (minuet -
orchestra, something like an opera but performed without action, costumes or scherzo). The Italian type sinfonia provided the basis of the future orchestral sym-
scenery. phony.
Orchestra - A large group of musicians made up of string, brass, woodwind, and overture (4) - a instrumental prelude to an Opera, play or Oratoria.
percussion instruments.
Orchestra (2) - A large group of instrumentalists playing together. Pacato - Calm, quiet.
orchestra )3) - a large instrumental ensemble. Parlando: To be sung in Parlante declamatory fashion, with particular
orchestration - the manner in which instruments are employed in an orchestral care for the enunciation of the words
composition. parallel keys - major and minor keys having the same letter name but different
Orchestration (2) - Arranging a piece of music for an orchestra. Also, the study key signatures (e.g., G major with one sharp and G minor with two flats ).
of music parallel motion, parallelism - two or more melodic lines which move simulta-
Orchestration (2) - The art of writing, arranging, or scoring for the orchestra. neously in the same direction and by the same intervals.
Ornamentation - Note or notes added to the original melodic line for embell- parlando/parlante - accented; in a recitative or speaking style
ishment and added interest. Parody - A composition based on previous work. A common technique used in
Ornaments - Melodic embellishments, either written or improvised. Medieval and Renaissance music.
Ornaments (2) - Tones used to embellish the principal melodic tone. Part - A line in a contrapuntal work performed by an individual voice or instru-
ossia - otherwise, or else ment.
Ossia (2) - "Or." Indicating an alternative passage or version. part (2) - the single line in a polyphonic composition. One refers to the soprano
Ostinato - A repeated melodic or rhythmic pattern, frequently appearing in the part, the violin part, and so on.
bass line. Partial - A harmonic given off by a note when it is played.
Ostinato (2) - A repeated phrase. Partita - Suite of Baroque dances.
ostinato (3) - continuous, unceasing rhythmic and/or melodic pattern. Partita (2): Another name for suite or theme and variations.
Ostinato (4): A melodic phrase repeated persistently in the same voice and at the partita (2) - a word meaning either Suite or a set of variations.
same pitch. (Repetition at a different pitch is called sequence). The ostinato princi- Partitur Ger.: A full orchestral score
ple is the chief characteristic of chaconne and passacaglia. The stepwise semitonic passacaglia - a chaconne with a ground bass in slow triple time, and always in a
descent from the tonic to the dominant in a minor key forms a special kind of osti- minor key.
nato which is associated with operatic lament (the lament aria in Cavalli's Ormindo passepied - a gay, spirited French dance in 3/8 or 6/8 time, sometimes in the
in B minor; Dido's lament in Purcell's Dido and Aeneas in G minor; Crucifixus in German Suites.
Bach's Mass in B minor; Mourn, all ye muses in Handel's Acis and Galatea in F Passing tones - Unaccented notes which move conjunctly between two chords
minor). This chromatic fourth was also used in instrumental music as the ostinato to which they do not belong harmonically.
in Biber's Passacaglia in G minor. passing tone - an unaccented nonharmonic tone between two chordal tones a
ottava - an octave, an eighth third apart
Ottava (Ott.) (2): Octave Passionato: Passionately
Ottava alta - (8va) An higher octave. passionato/passionatamente - impassioned, passionate
Ottave bassa - (8va or 8vb) An octave lower. pastorale - a piece written to imitate the music of shepherds, usually in moder-
Oussoul (usul): The Turkish system of rhythm. About fifty standard combina- ate 6/8 or 12/8 time, a tender flowing melody, somewhat suggestive of a Musette.
tions of beats (up to 120 beats) are known which correspond to Western metres. Pastorale: In a pastoral style
They are repeated throughout the entire composition. Pastoral - A composition whose style is simple and idyllic; suggestive of rural
Overtones - The almost inaudible higher tones which occur with the fundamen- scenes.
tal tone. They are the result of the vibration of small sections of a string (instru- Pastoral: Pieces in imitation of the music of shepherds. The characteristics are
ment) or a column of air. Other general terms for overtones are partials and har- fast triple (3/8) or compound (6/8, 12/8) metre, Siciliana rhythm, moderate time
monics. (often siciliano and larghetto), tender, flowing, lilting melodies mainly in conjunct
Overture - The introductory music for an opera, oratorio or ballet. A concert motion, notes flowing along in groups of threes, prominent use of parallel thirds,
overture is an independent work. repetition, long-held drone bass on dominant or tonic. Oboes and F major are the
Overture (2) - Introduction to an opera or other large musical work. most pastoral instrument and key, respectively.
Overture (3): The seventeenth century opera overture, also known as sinfonia. Paterico: With feeling, pathos
The sinfonia was established as an introduction to the opera by A. Scarlatti. It has patetica - pathetic
differences in Italian and French style. The French overture has two sections: slow- pateticamente - pathetically
solemn chordal introduction with dotted rhythm in simple duple/quadruple time fol- Pathetique: Affecting the emotions of pity, grief or sorrow; touching.
Pathos (1): Evoking pity or compassion. Pianississimo - Very, very soft; the softest common dynamic marking.
Pathos (2): The depiction of momentary (transient) emotional states of a person Piano p - Soft. Pianoforte.
in an opera (see ethos). The Baroque opera focused on pathos in characterization piano (2) - a keyboard instrument. Also, the indication for soft, a low dynamic
with almost total exclusion of ethos. [Greek pathos: feeling.] Phrase: A natural divi- level. Abbreviation: p (pno)
sion of the melodic line (like the sentences of speech). In the Classical period, Piano (2) - An instruction in sheet music to play softly. Abbreviated by a “p”.
phrases are usually two, four or eight bars long. Pianoforte - "Soft-loud." A keyboard instrument, the full name for the piano, on
Pausa - A rest, a pause which sound is produced by hammers striking strings when keys are pressed. It has
pavane - a slow solemn dance in duple (or sometimes triple) time, of Spanish 88 keys.
origin; generally in three sections, each one repeated. Picardy third - The term for the raising of the third, making a major triad, in the
paventato - fearful final chord of a composition which is in a minor key. The practice originated in c.
pedal point - a sustained tone in the bass over which changing harmonies take 1500 and extended through the Baroque period.
place. pickup beat - one or several unaccented notes of a melody preceding the bar line
per - for, by, from, etc. at the beginning of a phrase. Also called anacrusis.
Pensieroso - Contemplative, thoughtful. piena, pieno - full
pentatonic - a five-tone scale (e.g., the black keys of the piano). pieta - pity
Pentatonic Scale - A musical scale having five notes. For example: the five pietoso - tenderly, pitifully
black keys of a keyboard make up a pentatonic scale. pitch - the vibration frequency of a tone.
percussion - essentially rhythmic instruments such as drums, cymbals, gongs, Pitch (2) - The frequency of a note determining how high or low it sounds.
and triangle. Pitch (3)- The highness or lowness of a tone, as determined by the number of
Percussion family - Instruments made of sonorous material that produce sounds vibrations in the sound.
of definite or indefinite pitch when shaken or struck, including drums, rattles, bells, Pitch (4): The location of a musical sound in the tonal scale which is determined
gongs, and xylophones. by the vibration frequency. The present day standard of pitch is a'=435 vibrations
Perdendosi: Dying away: Heavy, (in Europe). The indication of different octaves does not have a uniform notation.
perdendosi - gradually decreasing in time and tone The middle C is usually shown as c, and an octave lower C is shown as C. An octave
Perfect - A term used to label fourth, fifth, and octave intervals. It corresponds higher C is shown as c' (or c ), etc. (The whole range of Cs from the lowest to the
to the major, as given to seconds, thirds, sixths, and sevenths. highest on the piano are: C , C , C, middle c, c , c , c .)
Perfect cadence - The chordal progression of dominant to tonic, in a major key 1
V-I, in minor V-i. 21
Perfect interval - Interval of an octave, fifth, fourth or without alteration. 123
Perfect pitch - The ability to hear and identify a note without any other musical Pizzicato - String instruments that are picked instead of bowed.
support. Piu - More. Used with other terms, e.g. piu mosso, more motion.
Pesante - Heavy. Più: (allegro) Quicker, more lively
Pesante (2): ponderous Più: (lento) More slowly
Petite - Little. Più: (mosso) More movement, quicker
Peu a peu - Little by little. piu mosso/piu moto - more motion
Phrase - A single line of music played or sung. A musical sentence. placido - calm, tranquil
Phrase (2) - A relatively short portion of a melodic line which expresses a musi- plagal cadence - the progression subdominant to tonic (IV I) at the conclusion
cal idea, comparable to a line or sentence in poetry. of a cadence.
phrase (3) - a musical unit, often four measures in length, which concludes with plagal mode - in plainsong, the modes which range approximately a fourth
a cadence. below
Phrygian Cadence: In general, an imperfect cadence in a minor key, but more and a fifth above the final.
precisely an imperfect cadence on the dominant chord of the relative minor using plainsong - liturgical Catholic monophonic song. Also called Gregorian chant,
the first inversion of the subdominant chord (IVb-V). This is a Renaissance device plainchant.
still used in late-Baroque by composers like Corelli, Handel and Bach. It was gen- Plainsong (2): Ancient chant of the Christian church. The term derived from the
erally used at the end of the slow movement (in relative minor) of sonata or con- Latin word. It was first codified by Ambrose, bishop of Milan (Ambrosian chant),
certos written in major keys providing a (iii to I) tonal switch with the start of the and then by Pope Gregory in the 6th century (Gregorian chant). The melodies are
following movement [in a major key]. monophonic (non-harmonic) and rhythmically free (unmeasured).
piacere - pleasure, fancy cantus
Piacevole: Pleasing, agreeable planus
Piangevole: Plaintively, mournful Plus Fr.: More
Pizzicato - "Pinched." On string instruments, plucking the string.
Pianissimo - Very soft. pizzicato (2) - plucking the strings of a bowed string instrument with the fingers
Plagal cadence - Sometimes called the "amen" cadence. The chordal chordal (dissonant) tone, as in a suspension.
progression of subdominant to tonic, in a major key IV-I, in minor iv-i. prestissimo - as fast as possible
Poco: A little. Used with other terms, e.g. poco accel., also, poco a poco, little Prestissimo (2): Very, very fast. The fastest tempo.
by little. presto - quickly, rapidly.
Poco a poco: Little by little Presto - Very quick.
Poco ced., Cedere - A little slower. Presto (2) - A direction in sheet music indicating the tempo is to be very fast.
Poco piu mosso - A little more motion. Prima volta: First time
Pochettino: A very little Primo - First, principal.
pochettino/pochetto - very little slower Principal - Instrumental section leader.
Pochissimo: As small as possible program music - instrumental music which the composer intends to be descrip
Poi - Then or afterwards, e.g. poi No. 3, then No. 3. tive of some action, scene, or story, and which carries a descriptive title.
poi a poi - by degrees progression - a sequence of tones in melody, or chords in harmony.
polonaise (polacca) - a Polish dance in moderate 3/4 time. The phrases end on Progression (2) - The movement of chords in succession.
the third beat of the bar, and there are many repetitions of short motives. It is not Prologue - An introductory piece that presents the background for an opera.
a folk dance, but originated from court ceremonies. Prosody: The blending of words and music or matching of lyrical and musical
Polonaise (2): A Polish national dance of a stately and festive character. The accents. The accented syllables of the lyrics should be on the accented beats of the
music is always in moderate triple metre and typically phrases end with feminine bars.
cadences. The basic Polonaise rhythm is generally given to the left hand accompa- psalm - musical setting of texts from the biblical Book of Psalms.
niment, and the right hand accentuates it by its melody. WF Bach brought the form
to artistic perfection. Beethoven, Schubert, Weber, Liszt all wrote Polonaises, but
Chopin made it a symbol of Polish heroism. Quadrille - A 19th century square dance written for 4 couples.
polychoral - the use of two or more separate choirs.
Polyphony - Combining a number of individual but harmonizing melodies. Also Quarter note/rest - A note/rest one half the length of a half note and one quar-
known as counterpoint. ter the length of a whole note.
polyphony (2), polyphonic - a texture consisting of two or more independent Quartet - A piece for four instruments or voices. Four performers.
melodic lines; nearly synonymous with counterpoint, contrapuntal. Quartet (2) - A set of four musicians who perform a composition written for four
polytonality, polytonal - The simultaneous use of two or more keys. parts.
Polytonality - Combination of two or more keys being played at the same time. Quasi: As if, almost, in the manner of
pomposo - pompous
ponderoso - massively, heavily Quasi (2) - Almost. Used with other terms, e.g. quasi madrigal, almost or as if a
ponticello - the bridge of a stringed instrument madrigal.
possibile - possible Quasi recitativo: Like a recitation
Portamento - A mild glissando between two notes for an expressive effect. quieto - quick, calm, serene
Portamento: The effect produced by the voice in gliding with extreme smooth- Quintet - A piece for five instruments or voices. Five performers.
ness from note to note. Quintet (2) - A set of five musicians who perform a composition written for five
Postlude - "Play after." The final piece in a multi-movement work. Organ piece parts.
played at the end of a church service.
Precipitato: Precipitately, impetuously Rallentando, rall - Gradually slower. Synonymous with ritardando.
precipitato - hurriedly Range - The gamut of pitches, from low to high, which a singer may perform.
precipitando - hurrying range (2) - the pitch distance between the highest and lowest note of a melody,
precisione - exactness voice, or instrument.
preciso - precise, exact rapidamente - rapidly
Prelude - "Play before." An introductory movement or piece. Rapide - Rapidly.
prelude (2) - a piece designed to be played as an introduction, but also an inde- rattenuto - holding back
pendent short romantic piece in an improvised manner. Re - In solmization, the second degree of the major scale.
Prelude (3) and Fugue: Typical of seventeenth century German keyboard music. realization, to realize - filling in the harmony of a figured bass.
Pieces with alternating free (prelude) and fugal sections. The closing section near- Recapitulation - A reprise.
ly always reverts to the free writing of the opening. recitative - a declamatory prose style of singing in operas, oratorios, and can-
Prelude (4) - A short piece originally preceded by a more substantial work, also tatas.
an orchestral introduction to opera, however not lengthy enough to be considered an Recital - A performance by one or more performers.
overture. Recital (2) - A solo concert with or without accompaniment.
Premiere - First performance. Recitative - A form of writing for vocals that is close to the manner of speech
preparation - a chordal (consonant) tone which subsequently becomes a non
and is rhythmically free. has been played.
Recitative (2): Emerged around 1600 as the most important turning point in Requiem - A dirge, hymn, or musical service for the repose of the dead.
music history. A vocal style designed to imitate and emphasize the natural inflec- Resonance - When several strings are tuned to harmonically related pitches, all
tions of speech, and to closely follow the meter. Recitative is a cross between strings vibrate when only one of the strings is struck.
speech and song. Music became subservient to the words. Recitative is sung either
to a continuo accompaniment (recitativo secco) or to a written-out fully developed Resonance (2) - Reinforcement and intensification of sound by vibrations.
accompaniment (recitativo accompagnato). Wagner's unending melodies are indeed
nothing but a recitative of the highest expressiveness and dramatic significance.
Reed - The piece of cane in wind instruments. The players cause vibrations by
blowing through it in order to produce sound.
Register - A portion of the range of the instrument or voice. Rest - A symbol used to denote silence.
Refrain - A repeating phrase that is played at the end of each verse in the song. R.H. Eng.: Right hand
Refrain (2) - A short section of repeated material which occurs at the end of each Rhapsody - A free style instrumental piece characterized by dramatic changes in
stanza. mood.
refrain (3) - recurrent lines of text and music at the end of each stanza of a song. rhapsody (2) - a free fantasy, usually of heroic or national character, and often
register - the general pitch level of a part, voice, or instrument (e.g., soprano brilliant in style.
implies a high register, bass a low register). Rhetoric: Language calculated to produce an effect; the art of effective expres-
registration - the combinations of stops used in an organ composition. sion (a word, music critics cannot live without!)
relative keys - major and minor keys which have the same key signature (e.g., C rhumba (rumba) - a Cuban dance with complex rhythm, much syncopation, and
major and A minor are relative keys). repetition of an eight-bar theme.
Relative major and minor - The major and minor keys that share the same notes rhythm - the time element in music which is determined by accent and/or dura
in that key. For example: A minor shares the same note as C major. tion of tones.
Relative major and minor scales - Major and minor scales which have the same Rhythm (2) - The term which denotes the organization of sound in time; the tem-
key signature. poral quality of sound.
Relative pitch - Ability to determine the pitch of a note as it relates to the notes Rhythm (3) - The element of music pertaining to time, played as a grouping of
that precede and follow it. notes into accented and unaccented beats.
religioso - solemnly, in a devout manner Ricercar - Elaborate polyphonic composition of the Boroque and Renaissance
periods.
Remote keys: The keys represented directly opposite one another on the cir- Rigaudon - A quick 20th century dance written in double time.
cumference of the circle-of-fifths. For C major, the remotest key is F#/G (flattened rigaudon (2) (English: rigadoon) - a seventeenth century Provenqal dance in
dominant) followed by B (seventh) and D (its Neapolitan). lively duple or quadruple time. Something like a Bourrée, with the phrases begin-
b ning on the last quarter of the bar.
b rigore - strictness
Renaissance - The period c. 1450-1600. Rigoroso: Strictly
Renaissance (2) - A period in history dating from the 14th to 16th centuries. This Rinforzando - A reinforced accent.
period signified the rebirth of music, art, and literature. ripetizione - repetition
Repeat - The repetition of a section or a composition as indicated by particular Ripieno (concerto grosso, tutti): Full (string) orchestra as distinguished from
signs. Repeat of a section |: :| ; Repeat from the beginning :| the soloists (concertino, concertante).
Also D.C., repeat from the beginning and D.S., repeat from the sign. risoluto - Resolute, bold, resolved
Repetition: An important principle of musical construction. The use of repeti- Ritardando, rit - Gradually getting slower. Synonymous with rallentando.
tion achieves tonal stability and thematic unity. In contrapuntal music, four devices Ritenuto - Immediate reduction in tempo, suddenly slower.
of repetition are used: Ostinato: repetition in the same part at the same pitch; ritenuto (2)(rit.): held back
Sequence: repetition in the same part at a different pitch; Stimmtausch: repetition Ritmico - Rhythmically.
in a different part at the same pitch; Imitation: repetition in a different part at a dif- Ritornello: A short, recurring, instrumental passage first appeared in the early
ferent pitch. operas. A small section consisting of several musical ideas is stated usually in the
Repetizone (replica): Repitition beginning as a tutti passage, and this recurs -either in full or in part- at various
replicazione - repetition moments within a movement (most popular in the Baroque era). In a movement, it
requiem - a Mass for the Dead, set to music for solo voices and chores. is expected to appear in full in the tonic in the beginning and then usually in trun-
responsorial - in plainsong, a section for solo voice followed by a section for cated forms in the dominant, relative and subdominant keys and finally in the tonic
chorus in unison. key in full again. Fundamental to the ‘ritornello structure’ is the alternation of a
passage containing the basic thematic substance of the movement (ritornello) with
Reprise - To repeat a previous part of a composition generally after other music others in which the music is largely or wholly new (episodes). This form was the
commonest first movement form in Baroque concertos in the place of a fugal alle- Rustico - Pastoral, rustic, rural.
gro movement in solo and trio sonatas. The tonal structure may be originated as an
extension of the first section (AB) of the da capo aria which starts in the tonic with
ritornello (R), first episode (A) in the tonic, R in the dominant (V), A’ in the domi- Sanft - Soft, gentle.
nant, R in the tonic then part B in relative minor (vi) ending with a Phrygian Sans - Without.
cadence in the dominant of relative minor (the mediant of the main major key -iii- Sarabande: A triple time movement with no upbeat as a rule. The second beat of
). (It is also used to describe the tutti passages in a concerto grosso.) The refrain the bar is accented. It has a regular two or four-bar phrase structure.
section in a ritornello movement acts as a binding agent. The difference from rondo sarabande - a dignified dance, probably originally from Spain. In 3/4 or 3/2
is that in rondo form, each repeated part is in the tonic key. time, usually starting on the first beat. It moves along at a steady pace, with an
Rococo - A musical style characterized as excessive, ornamental, and trivial. accent or a prolonged note on the second beat. It is in AB form, with the phras-
Rococo (2): The artistic style of the late Baroque and early Classical periods es ending on the second beat. Commonly found in the old suites.
(1700-1770). In music, the Rococo style was chiefly associated with France. It is a Sec Lit.: Detached
rather fussy, elaborate style typified in Rameau and F. Couperin's music (another scale - a system of adjacent notes on which melody and harmony are based.
example is D. Scarlatti). Telemann represents the German equivalent. Scale (2) - Successive notes of a key or mode either ascending or descending.
Roll - On percussion instruments, a sticking technique consisting of a rapid suc- Scale (3) - A succession of tones. The scale generally used in Western music is
cession of notes: the diatonic scale, consisting of whole and half steps in a specific order.
romance - a piece that is song-like, sentimental and tender in character. Scena: An extended composition for solo voice and accompaniment, made up of
Romantic - A period in history during the 18th and early 19th centuries where several continuous but contrasting sections, some of a recitative-like character, oth-
the focus shifted from the neoclassical style to an emotional, expressive, and ers more song-like.
imaginative style. Scherzando: Playful
Romanticism - The period c. 1825-1900. scherzino - a little scherzo.
scherzo - (Italian meaning "joke") - a piece in 3/4 time which is sometimes
rondino - a small or easy rondo. playful and joking, but also can be moody, gloomy and dramatic, such as those
rondo - French 'rondeau' a piece in which the main theme keeps recurring with of Chopin.
different episodes between - ABACA. A more modern form is extended to ABA Scherzo (2) - Pertaining to the sonata form, a fast movement in triple time.
CAB and coda. Scherzo (3) - "Joke." A piece in a lively tempo. A movement of a symphony,
Rondo (2) - The rondo was often used for the final movements of classical sonata sonata, or quartet in quick triple time, replacing the minuet.
form works. A musical form where the principal theme is repeated several times. Scherzoso: Playfully
Rondo-sonata form: A form which is basically rondo but observing the sonata schietto - simple, neat
principle. The principle rondo theme is followed by the first episode in a contrast- Schnell Ger.: Quick, Fast.
ing key (exposition); the principal rondo theme again and an episode in the charac- Schneller Ger.: Quicker
ter of development; recapitulation of the exposition in the tonic; final appearance of schottische - a round dance in 2/4 time, something like a slow Polka, known in
the rondo theme in the character of a coda. England as the German Polka.
Root - The note upon which a triad or chord is built. sciolto - freedom, ease
Root (2) - The principal note of a triad. score - two or more staves with notes vertically aligned in vocal or instrumental
Root position - The arrangement of a chord in which the root is in the lowest part music.
voice. Score (2) - The written depiction of all the parts of a musical ensemble with the
Round - Like the canon, a song in which two or more parts having the same parts stacked vertically and rhythmically aligned.
melody, starting at different points. The parts may be repeated as desired. Scordatura - The retuning of a stringed instrument in order to play notes below
Round (2) - A canon where the melody is sung in two or more voices. After the the ordinary range of the instrument or to produce an usual tone color.
first voice begins, the next voice starts singing after a couple of measures are se - if, in case, as
played in the preceding voice. All parts repeat continuously. secco - "dry" that is staccato
Rubato - The term used to denote flexibility of tempo to assist in achieving Secco (2) - "Dry." Unornamented.
expressiveness. Second - The second degree of the diatonic scale. Also, the interval formed by
Rubato (2) - An important characteristic of the Romantic period. It is a style a given tone and the next tone above or below it, e.g. c up to d, or c down to b.
where the strict tempo is temporarily abandoned for a more emotional tone. Intervals of the second may be major, diminished, or augmented.
Rubato (3): Robbed, stolen, taking a portion of the duration from one note or Second movement: The second movement of a sonata, symphony, concerto or
group of notes, and adding it to another, so that although the detail varies, the trio, quartet etc., makes a contrast with the first allegro movement and therefore in
length of the phrase is normal. slow tempo. The sonata form would be out of place here where the mood is more
Rudiments - On drums, the basic sticking patterns. relaxed and also the slow speed would make it too long. The usual forms in a slow
Ruhig Ger.: Calm, Quiet. movement are: abridged sonata form, air and variations, ternary form and rondo.
Run - A rapid scale passage. Section - A division of a musical composition.
Segno: A sign. See Dal segno Sheet music - An individually printed song, most often for voice, piano, guitar,or
Segue: Go on with what follows a combination of the three. Any printed music.
Sehr - Very. Shifting meter - The changing of meter within a composition. Synonymous with
Sehr leise beginnend - Very soft in the beginning. changing meter.
Semitone- A half step. The smallest interval on the keyboard. siciliano - a soft, slow peasant dance in 6/8 or 12/8 time, often in a minor key.
Semplice - Simple. Rather similar to a Pastorale, usually in ABA form. It usually has a melody in
Sempre - Always. Used with other terms, e.g. sempre staccato. dotted rhythms, with a broken chord accompaniment.
sentimento - feeling, delicate expression
Senza - Without. Used with other terms, e.g. senza crescendo. Siciliana: A seventeenth - eighteenth century dance in a slow 6/8 or 12/8 time
Sephardic music: Music of the Jews descended from those expelled from Spain originating from Sicily. Pastoral in character and using dotted rhythm which gives
and Portugal in the 15th century. it a swaying motion.
simile - like
Septet - A piece for seven instruments or voices. Seven performers. Simile - An indication to continue in the same manner.
Septet (2) - A set of seven musicians who perform a composition written for Sin' Sino - Until.
seven parts. Singspiel: The German/Austrian equivalent of comic operas with spoken dia-
Sequence - The repetition of a melodic pattern on a higher or lower level. pitch logue like the French opera comique, and the English ballad opera. It uses spoken
Sequence (2) - A successive transposition and repetition of a phrase at different dialogue (like ballad opera and opera comique) rather than recitative (used in
pitches. Italian opera, both seria and buffa). The use of spoken dialogue made it more acces-
sequence (3) - a recurrent melodic pattern repeated at successively higher or sible for the general public. As opposed to the importance of aria in opera comique,
lower intervals. In plainsong, a form of trope. like in opera buffa, ensembles were more popular in Singspiel. In, five of the ten
Sequence (4): More or less exact repetition of a melody (with or without its har- numbers in Act I, and five of the six numbers in Act II are ensembles. It is the
mony) in the same part at another level. If the repetition is only in the melody (the ancestor of the nineteenth century German Romantic opera. Mozart's Zauberflote
harmony being changed) it is a melodic sequence, if in the harmony also, a har- (1782) is an example of Singspiel. The two greatest examples are Mozart's Die
monic sequence. Italian Baroque Music often used harmonic and melodic sequences Entfuhrung aus dem Serail and Beethoven's Fidelio.
based around the circle-of-fifths. Sequence is a fundamental device used in late- Fidelio
Baroque (especially Corelli's) music. The sequence, whether carried out diatonical- Sinistra - Left hand.
ly within one key or modulating downward in the circle-of-fifths, is one of the most Sino - Until.
powerful agents in establishing the tonality. Six-four chord - The second inversion of a triad, made by placing the fifth
Serenade - A love song or piece, usually performed below someone's window in of the chord in the lowest voice, e.g. C is g-c-e.
the evening. Sixteenth note/rest - A note/rest half the length of an eighth note and a sixteenth
Serenade (2) - A lighthearted piece, written in several movements, usually as the length of a whole note.
back ground music for a social function. Sixth - The sixth degree of the diatonic scale. Also, the interval formed by a
serenade (3) - French for "evening music" - originally a love song sung under given tone and the sixth tone above or below it, e.g. c up to a, or c down to e.
the window of a lady, by her lover now an instrumental piece of similar character. Intervals of the sixth may be major, minor, diminished, or augmented.
Serenata: Short operatic works of the eighteenth century best described as dra- Sixth chord - The first inversion of a triad, made by placing the third of the
matic cantatas. Handel's Acis and Galatea is a good example. chord in the lowest voice, e.g. C 6 is e-g-c.
Sereno - Serene, peaceful. Skip - Melodic movement of more than one whole step.
serioso - serious Slargando (slentando): Gradually slower, broadening
Seventh - The seventh degree of the diatonic scale. Also, the interval formed by
a given tone and the seventh tone above or below it, e.g. c up to b, or c down to d. Slide - A glissando or portamento. Also refers to the moving part of a trombone.
Intervals of the seventh may be major, minor, diminished, or augmented. Slur - A curve over notes to indicate that a phrase is to be played legato.
seventh chord - a chord of four tones, three superimposed thirds. Slur (2) - A curved line placed above or below two or more notes of different
Seventh chord (2) - When a seventh (above the root) is added to a triad (root, pitch to indicate that they are to be performed in legato style.
third, fifth), the result is a seventh chord, e.g. the dominant triad in the key of C Smorzando: Dying away, toning down to extinction
major, g-b-d, with the added seventh becomes g-b-d-f and is labelled V 7 .
Sextet - A set of six musicians who perform a composition written for six parts. Smorzando (2) - Fading away.
Sforzando, Sfz, Sf - Sudden strong accent on a note or chord. Soave - Sweet, mild, gentle, smooth.
Sforzando (2)(sforzato): Forcing, accented, suddenly loud Sognando - Dreamily.
Sol - In solmization, the fifth degree of the major scale.
Sharp - A symbol which raises the pitch of a note one-half step. Solenne: Solemn
Sharp (2) - A symbol indicating the note is to be raised by one semitone. solfeggietto - an Italian word meaning "little study".
Solmization - The term for the use of syllables for the degrees of the major Sopra: Above
scale: do, re, mi, fa, sol, la ti, do. The minor scale (natural) is: la, ti, do, re, mi, fa, Soprano - The highest female voice.
sol, la. Soprano (2): The highest register of the human voice which can reach the F
Solo - To perform alone or as the predominant part. above the high C. It is subdivided into mezzo (the lower ranges); lyric (the middle
solo - a composition for a single voice or instrument range); and coloratura (the very top of the register). The usual soprano range is
sonabile - resonant between the middle C and the high A (almost two octaves). As an exceptional exam-
sonata - a work consisting of three or four independent pieces called move- ple, Maria Callas could reach top Eb. Another subclassification is the dramatic
ments, each of which follows certain forms and characteristics, written for one soprano which denotes a soprano with powerful voice and marked declamatory abil-
or two instruments. Similar works for three instruments are called TRIOS, for ity.
four instruments are called QUARTETS, and for orchestra are called SYM- sordamente - softly, gently
PHONIES. sordino - a mute or a stringed instrument. Dampers on a piano
Sonata (2) - An instrumental piece, often in several movements. Sospirando: Sighing
Sonata form (2) - A complex piece of music. Usually the first movement of the Sostenuto: Sustained
piece serving as the exposition, a development, or recapitulation. Sostenuto (2) - Sustaining of tone or slackening of tempo.
Sonata (3) - Music of a particular form consisting of four movements. Each of Sotto: Below
the movements differ in tempo, rhythm, and melody; but are held together by sub- Sotto voce: In an undertone, softly, in a low voice
ject and style. spianato - smooth, even
Sonata form (first movement form): Most commonly the first movement of a spiccato - separated, detached. Played with the point of the bow.
classical sonata (and symphony, quartet, trio) is in sonata form. (In concertos, the Spiccato (2) - On string instruments, a bowing technique wherein the bow is
sonata-form first movement is somewhat less rigid than it would be in a sonata or bounced on the string at moderate speed.
symphony.) It consists of three sections: “exposition” with two themes in the tonic spirito - spirit, life
and the dominant respectively, a modulating “development” of both themes, and a Spiritoso: Spirited
“recapitulation” of both themes in the tonic. The sonata form is considered either a stabile - firm
ternary form (A B A) the opening section itself being in binary form; or more appro- Staccato - Detached sounds, indicated by a dot over or under a note. The oppo-
priately, an extended, rounded, open binary form (A B) the exposition being the site of legato.
first half (and repeated), and the development and the recapitulation the second half Staccato (2) - Short detached notes, as opposed to legato.
(also repeated in earlier examples). In the exposition, two musical ideas are pre- Staccatissimo: Very detached
sented: the first subject (in tonic) and the second subject (in dominant/relative Staff - The most frequently used staff has five horizontal lines, with four spaces,
major) linked with a ‘bridging passage’ and a closing group at the end. In the devel- upon which the notes and other musical symbols are placed.
opment these musical ideas are extended, detailed and developed usually with much Staff (2) - Made up of five horizontal parallel lines and the spaces between them
explorations of new keys and staying away from the tonic. New material may be on which musical notation is written.
presented (the the . In the recapitulation both subjects and the original key return stanchezza - weariness
(double return). In a minor key, the second subject is now in the tonic minor instead Stanza - A selection of a song, two or more lines long, characterized by a com-
of its relative major. This also requires modification of the bridge passage. There mon meter, rhyme, and number of lines.
may be a coda at the end. One of the advantages of the sonata form is that the con- staff, staves - the five horizontal parallel lines on or between which notes are
struction of new themes should consider their capability for development. A dra- written.
matic aspect of this form is the differing characters (rhythmic-masculine first sub- stentando - heavy and retarding
ject and feminine-lyrical second subject) and opposing keys of the themes in the stentato - forced, loud
exposition (tonal contrast). The form is designed to create anticipation as it pro- Stesso - Same.
ceeds. , used in slow movements (the) and classical overtures, lacks the develop- strascinato - dragged along
ment (A-B-A-B-coda). As in the sonata form, the B section should be in the domi- Strepitoso: Noisy, boisterous
nant or a substitute dominant. Stretto - Pertaining to the fugue, the overlapping of the same theme or motif by
Eroica, Farewell) two or more voices a few beats apart.
The abridged sonata form Unfinished string quartet - a chamber ensemble consisting of two violins, viola, and cello.
symphony Also, compositions written for that medium.
sonatina - a small, easier sonata with fewer and short movements. String instrument family - Instruments with strings that produce sound when
Sonatina (2) - A short or brief sonata. plucked, bowed, or struck.
song - a vocal solo. String Quartet - A group of 4 instruments, two violins, a viola, and cello.
Song cycle - A sequence of songs, perhaps on a single theme, or with texts by Stringendo: Gradually faster, pressing onwards, hurrying
one poet, or having continuos narrative. strings - instruments which produce tone by bowing or plucking taut strings
Sonore: Sonorous, full toned, harmonious (e.g., violins, guitars ).
Strophic - A term used to describe a song in which all the stanzas of the text are
sung to the same music. The opposite of through-composed. from the (fast-slow-fast) Italian overture towards the middle of the eighteenth cen-
Strophic (2): Having the same music for every verse of the poem as in folk songs tury. The first movement is cast in sonata form. The second movement can be in
and hymns. sonata form or variations. The minuet is in ternary form. The finale is usually in
Strophic bass: The method, frequent in early cantatas, of using the same bass sonata or sonata-rondo form.
line for all the stanzas of a song, with varying melodies in the upper part. Basso Sul - On the.
ostinato and strophic bass are examples of continuous and sectional variation, sul, sull, sulla - on, upon the
respectively. Strophic variation holds a place of its own halfway between the theme supertonic - the second note of a diatonic scale and the chord built on that note.
and variations and the ostinato bass. Supertonic (2) - The second degree of the major or minor scale. Also, the name
Sturm und Drang: Designation for a period in the preclassical era (app. 1770- of the triad built on the second degree of the major scale, indicated by II in a scale
1780). Means storm and stress. It found its most potent expression in serious, and ii o in a minor scale.
minor-key works, full of sudden and sometimes violent dynamic effects. A number Sur - On, over.
of Haydn's symphonies from his middle period are in this style (No 44,45,49). Suspension - The use of a nonharmonic tone to delay the resolution of a chord,
style - the characteristic quality of music determined by the integration of all ele frequently as it occurs in a cadence.
ments (e.g., rhythm, melody, harmony, texture). suspension (2) - a nonharmonic device in which a chordal (consonant) tone is
Style brise: Arpeggiated chords. Typical of French Baroque Music. Originated held through a change of harmony to become a nonchordal (dissonant) tone which
from the lute idiom. then resolves downward to another chordal (consonant) tone.
su - above, upon sussurando - whispering, murmuring
suavita - sweetness, delicacy Süss Ger.: Sweet
subdominant - the fourth note of a diatonic scale and the chord bulk on that Svelto - Quick, light, free.
note. syllabic - a style of text setting in which there is a predominance of one syllable
Suave: Gentle, smooth of the text to one note of the melody.
Subito: Suddenly Symphony - A piece for large orchestra, usually in four movements, in which the
Subdominant - The fourth degree of the major or minor scale. Also, the name of first movement often is in sonata form. A large orchestra.
the triad built on the fourth degree of the scale, indicated by IV in a major key and symphony )2) - an orchestra, or a multimovement form for orchestra.
by iv in a minor key. syncopation - a rhythmic device in which the normal accents of the measure are
Subject: see theme. displaced by accenting weak beats, rests on strong beats, or tying notes over
subject (2) - the theme of a fugue. from
Subito - Suddenly. a weak to a strong beat.
Submediant - The sixth degree of a major or minor scale. Also, the name of the Syncopation (2) - Accent on an unexpected beat.
triad built on the sixth degree of the scale, indicated by VI in a major key and by Syncopation (3): Displacement of a musical accent from a relatively strong
vi in a minor key. accented note onto a note that would normally be unaccented or weakly accented.
submediant (2) - the sixth note of a diatonic scale and the chord built on that This is created by using rests, tying notes together or adding accent marks to nor-
note. mally unaccented notes.
suite - a group of pieces consisting (in the classical form) entirely of dance
forms, and all in the same key. The basic movements included were the Tablature - A system of notation for stringed instruments. The notes are indicat-
Allemande, Courante, Sarabande, Gigue, and then usually one or more others ed by the finger positions.
such as the Gavotte, Minuet, Bourre, Passepied, etc. The suite was often pre Tacet Lat.: It is silent, be silent
ceded by a Prelude. Also referred to as an instrumental composition of numerous Tanto: So much, as much
movements, often of a dance-like character. Tanbur: A species of lute with a very long neck and smaller body. It is suitable
Suite (2) - A loose collection of instrumental compositions. to play Middle Eastern music as its neck has frets giving comma and all 24 inter-
Suite (3) (sonata da camera in Italian Baroque music): An important instru- vals within an octave in Turkish, Arabic and Persian music.
mental form of (mainly French) Baroque music, consisting of a number of move- tarantella - a wild Italian dance in 3/8 or 6/8 time, which was supposed to cure
ments, each in the character of a dance, and all in the same key. A regular two- or the poisonous bite of the spider called the tarantula. It frequently alternated
four-bar phrase structure is usual in most seventeenth century suite movements. The modes, and increased in frenzy towards the end.
classical suite became extinct after 1750. The usual movements in a classical tardamente - slowly
French suite are: Prelude, Allemande (German), Courante (French), Sarabande Tedesca - German
(Spanish), Gigue (English), Chaconne and Minuet; or a prelude and then A-C-S-G tema - theme or subject
and a closing group usually ending with a minuet. The dance movements in a suite Temperament - Refers to the tuning of an instrument.
are nearly always in binary form except the chaconne and minuet. The modern suit Temperament (2): Adjustment made to the intervals between notes on a key-
is used to describe a number of pieces grouped together by the composer. They are board to allow modulation to any key.
often an arrangement of ballet (Tchaikovsky's ballet suit) or stage (Bizet's suit) Tempo - The rate of speed in a musical work.
work. Nutcracker Carmen Symphony: The commonest orchestral genre. Derived
Tempo (2) - Indicating speed. form.
tempo (3) - generally, the speed of music; the rate of beats as indicated by such
terms as allegro, presto, adagio, lento, and andante. theme (3) - the melodic idea on which a composition is based. A theme may also
Tempo comodo: At a convenient speed include rhythmic, harmonic, and other factors.
Tempo giusto: In strict time Theme (4) (subject): The musical material that forms the basic element in the
tempo ordinario - in moderate time structure of a composition. It usually has a recognizable (leading) melody and is a
Tempo primo - Return to the original tempo. Resume the original speed. complete musical expression in itself (unlike the smaller unit motif). A sonata
tempo rubato - robbed or irregular time movement has two main subjects (or subject groups) whereas a fugue usually has a
Teneramente - Tenderly. single subject. In a sonata movement, the theme would be the leading phrase. As a
Tenerezza: Tenderness recognizable entity, a theme could be used to identify a work (the first movement
Tenor: The range of male voice which usually covers the octave below the mid- of the Eroica is well-known with its first subject only).
dle C and the range up to the first A above it (an octave lower than the soprano Theme and variations - A statement of musical subject followed by restatements
range). in different guises.
Tenor clef - The C clef falling on the fourth line of the staff. Through-composed: Having different music all the way through. Even if the
Tenuto, ten - Held, hold or sustain a note longer than the indicated value, usual- poem has a repeating verse pattern, the music does not.
ly not as long a duration as the fermata. Theory - The study of how music is put together.
Tenuto (2) (or tenue): Held, sustained. Tenuto dash is an articulation sign. Third - The third degree of the diatonic scale. Also, the interval formed by a
Ternary form - Three-part form in which the middle section is different from the given tone and the third tone above or below it, e.g. c up to e, or c down to a.
other sections. Indicated by A B A. Intervals of the third may be major, minor, diminished, or augmented.
Ternary form (2): A form most commonly used in short pieces consisting of thorough bass - see basso continuo, figured bass.
three sections: first section is self-contained and closes in the tonic; second section Through-composed - A term used to describe a song in which the music for each
is in a new key, modulatory and in a contrasting character; the first section is then stanza is different. The opposite of strophic.
repeated. Each section begins and ends in the same key. The overall structure of the Ti - In solmization, the seventh degree of the major scale. Also called the lead-
penultimate movement of a symphony or string quartet (minuet/scherzo - trio - min- ing tone.
uet/scherzo) fits in ternary form although each section is usually in binary form. Tie - A curved line over or below two or more notes of the same pitch. The first
Also used in the slow movements of sonatas (Beethoven's piano sonata Op. 7; pitch is sung or played and held for the duration of the notes affected by the tie.
Op.10/3). In vocal music, it is widely used in from French chansons to (middle-to- tie (2) - a curved line connecting two consecutive notes on the same line or space
late Baroque) opera arias (da capo aria). of the staff; indicates the note to be held over rather than repeated.
Terraced dynamics - The Baroque style of using sudden changes in dynamic lev- timbre - tone color or tone quality.
els, as opposed to gradual increase and decrease in volume. Tierce de picardie: A perfect cadence in a minor key, ending on the major chord
Tertian harmony - A term used to describe music based on chords arranged in of the tonic instead of the minor. The Romantic tendency of a finale in major to a
intervals of thirds. minor work (Mozart No. 40; Beethoven No. 9) is nothing more than a tierce de
Tessitura - The general pitch range of a vocal part. picardie in larger terms.
Tessitura (2) - The range of an instrumental or a vocal part. Timbre - Tone color, quality of sound that distinguishes one verse or instrument
Tessitura (3): The general lie of a vocal part, whether high or low in its average to another. It is determined by the harmonies of sound.
pitch. It is different from range that it does not take into account a few very high or Time signature - Synonymous with meter signature.
low notes that may exist. Time Signature (2) - A numeric symbol in sheet music determining the number
tetrachord - a four-tone section of a scale. of beats to a measure.
texture - the disposition of the melodic element in music. (See monophonic, time signature (3) - numerals at the beginning of a composition, the upper fig-
polyphonic, homophonic); also means sonority. ure of which indicates the number of beats in the measure, the lower of which indi-
Texture (2) - The term used to describe the way in which melodic lines are com- cates the kind of note which gets one beat.
bined, either with or without accompaniment. Types include monophonic, homo- timoroso - with hesitation
phonic, and polyphonic, or contrapuntal. toccata - (Latin meaning "touch") - a virtuoso piece composed to display the
Texture (3): The density and range of the simultaneous sounds forming har- technical skill of the player, usually with full chords, arpeggios and running pas-
monies in music. It can be contrapuntal (polyphonic) or homophonic (chordal). The sages, in a free fantasy style.
typical texture of Renaissance music is a polyphony of independent voices, where- toccatina - a small short toccata - sometimes used as an opening to a Suite.
as, the texture in Baroque music can be described as continuo homophony: a firm Tonal - Pertains to tone or tones.
bass and a florid treble held together by unobtrusive harmony. The texture became tonality - the sense of gravitation around a tonal center or key.
the tune and accompaniment type in the Classical era. Tonality - The term used to describe the organization of the melodic and har-
Theme - The musical subject of a piece (usually a melody ), as in sonata form or monic elements to give a feeling of a key center or a tonic pitch.
a fugue. An extramusical concept behind a piece. Tonality (2) - The tonal characteristics determined by the relationship of the
Theme (2) - A melodic or, sometimes a harmonic idea presented in a musical notes to the tone.
Tonality (3): A system of chordal relations based on the attraction of a tonal cen- measured tremolo roll.
ter (loyalty to a tonic). Fully established in the late Baroque era. The stabilization tremolo - rapid reiteration of a sing-note or rapid alternation between two notes.
and codification of the tonal language first appears consistently in Corelli's sonatas. Triad - Three note chords consisting of a root, third, and fifth.
Tonal ambiguity: Diminished sevenths, tritones (whole tone scale); semitonal Triad (2) - A chord of three tones arranged in thirds, e.g. the C-major triad c-e-
progressions (twelve note scale); empty fifths; free chromaticism; lack of cadences g, root-third-fifth.
(fluid tonality); oscillating major-minor triads; high level dissonance; unresolved Trill - Rapid alternation between notes that are a half tone or whole tone apart.
appoggiatura chords. Increased use of these features resulted in the collapse of the Trill, tr (2) - A musical ornament performed by the rapid alternation of a given
tonal system in music. note with a major or minor second above.
Tone - A note; the basis of music. Trill (3): Rapid alternation of two conjunct notes.
Tone (2) - The intonation, pitch, and modulation of a composition expressing the Trio - A composition written for three voices and instruments performed by three
meaning, feeling, or attitude of the music. persons.
Tone less - Unmusical, without tone. Trio (2): Originally a light-hearted peasant dance in the seventeenth century
Tone clusters - The simultaneous sounding of two or more adjacent tones. French opera performed by two oboes and a musette (a bag-pipe) or bassoon (i.e.,
Tonguing - On wind instruments, articulation with the tongue. three instruments). In a symphony, it is the middle section of the minuet movement
Tonic - The first tone of a scale also known as a keynote. usually in the subdominant of the key of that movement and performed by the wind
Tonic (2) - The first note of a key. Also, the name of the chord built on the first instruments (but not necessarily by only three of them).
degree of the scale, indicated by I in a major key or i in a minor key. Trio sonata: Ancestor of Baroque concerto grosso and classical string quartet.
tonic - the first note of a diatonic scale, the note from which a key gets its name, Written in three parts and played by four instruments (two violins playing the two
and the chord built on that note. melody lines and cello+harpsichord playing the continuo part). Mozart's Trio K266
Tono - Tone, key, pitch. may be considered as the end of trio sonata.
Tosto - Quick. Trionfale (trionfante, troppo): Triumphant
Tosto (2): Swift, rapid Triple meter - Meter based on three beats, or a multiple of three, in a measure.
Tranquillo - Tranquilly; quietly; calmness, quietness, calm. Triple time - Time signature with three beats to the measure.
transcription - arranging a composition for a different medium. triple stopping - playing on three strings of a bowed string instrument, simulta-
trascinando - dragging the time neously or in rapid succession.
Transposition - The process of changing the key of a composition. Triplet - A group of three notes performed in the time of two of the same kind.
Transposing instruments: Instruments for which the music is written in anoth- Triplet (2) - Three notes played in the same amount of time as one or two beats.
er key or in another octave than that of their actual sound. The simplest examples tristezza - sadness, heaviness
are the piccolo and the double bass which sound an octave higher and lower than Tritone - A chord comprised of three whole tones resulting in an augmented
written, respectively. Nearly all wind instruments (except trombones), not pitched fourth or diminished fifth.
in C, are transposing instruments. The clarinet, trumpet and horn sound the interval Tritone (2): The interval of three whole tones (the augmented fourth=diminished
between the C and their pitch lower than written, except the clarinet in E which fifth). It is an awkward interval in vocal music. In the Lydian mode starting on F,
sounds a minor third higher than the written pitch. In other words, a written C the interval of F to B is an augmented fourth. It naturally occurs between the fourth
sounds as the note (below the C) the instrument is pitched. The cornet, saxophone, and seventh degrees of major and descending melodic minor scales. In counter-
bassett horn and cor anglais are also transposing instruments. (In pre-1900 scores, point, it is a very dissonant interval associated with depiction of anguish. The
horns are written an octave too low when notated in the bass clef, in these cases crampy nature of a diminished triad is relieved by using them in first inversion (iib
they transpose upwards.) and viib in minor mode).
b trope - an interpolated section of melody and text in plainsong.
Traurig Ger.: Sadly troppo - too much; non troppo - not too much
Troppo - Too much. Used with other terms, e.g. allegro non troppo, not too fast.
Tre - Three. Used with other terms, e.g. a tre voci, in three parts. Troubadours: The aristocratic poet-musicians in Provence and Southern France
Treble (2) - The playing or singing the upper half of the vocal range. Also the in the 12th-13th centuries. Their music was passed down orally and it is all about
highest voice in choral singing. chivalric ideals of the period (courtly love and the idealization of women). It spread
treble - a relatively high-register part, indicated by the G clef or treble clef. to Northern France (trouveres) and to Germany (Minnesinger). There may have
Treble clef - The G clef falling on the second line of the staff. been an Arabic-Spanish influence in its origination. More than 300 troubadour
tre corde - three strings, an indication to stop using the soft pedal poems are preserved with their melodies (chansonniers). The melodies are mono-
Tremolando: With tremolo. phonic and the accompaniment is merely unison duplication of the melody some-
Tremolando (2) (trem.): The rapid repitition of a note times with slight modification (see heterophony).
Tremolo - Quick repetition of the same note or the rapid alternation between two tune - A melody.
notes Tune - A rhythmic succession of musical tones, a melody for instruments and
Tremolo (2): Rapid repetition of the same note. If the note value for repetition voices.
is shown as strokes on the stem of a minim, it is . Tremolo on the drums is called . Tuning - The raising and lowering a pitch of an instrument to produce the cor
rect tone of a note. Upbeat - One or more notes occurring before the first bar line, as necessitated
Turkish phase: The phase in the Classical period in which some elements of by the text for the purpose of desirable accent. The unaccented beat of a measure.
Turkish music exerted a superficial influence on the Western music. Examples are
Turkish marches in Beethoven's Eroica and Choral symphonies, and Mozart's va - go on
Rondo alla Turca from Piano sonata K311. Also in operas of Mozart ( ), Weber vaccilando - irregular in time
( ), Rossini ( ) Turkish or Middle-Eastern elements were used. vago - rambling, uncertain as to time or expression
Ruins of Athens variation - the modified repetition of a theme or melody without the loss of it's
Die Entfuhrung aus dem Serail entire identity; a form based on this technique.
Abu Hasan Il Turco in Italia Variation - The manipulation of a theme by the use of melodic, rhythmic, and
Turn - A musical ornament characterized by the rapid performance of a given harmonic changes.
note, the major or minor second above and below, and a return to the given note. Variations: The systematic presentation of a theme in different guises. The
Turn (2): A group of four or five notes winding around the principal note (see theme of a set of variations can be anything from a little motif to an elaborate para-
the principal motif of the first movement of Beethoven's String Quartet Op.18, graph, a harmonic pattern, or a rhythmic figure. The monumental examples of the
No.1). music in variation form are JS Bach's variations, Beethoven's Variations and C.
Tutta forza: The whole power, as loud as possible Franck's Symphonic Variations.
Tutee - Passage for the entire ensemble or orchestra without a soloist. Goldberg
Tutti - All. A direction for the entire ensemble to sing or play simultaneously. Diabelli
tutti - A passage played by the entire orchestra. Veloce: Swift, quick
veloce - swiftly
Twelve-tone music - Music composed such that each note is used the same num velocissimo - with extreme rapidity
ber of times. Verismo - A form of Italian opera beginning at the end of the 19th century. The
Twelve-tone technique: A system devised by Schoenberg using all twelve chro- setting is contemporary to the composer’s own time, and the characters are mod-
matic tones of the scale and denying a tonal center. eled after every day life.
Twelve-tone- technique (2) - A system of composition which uses the twelve Vibrato: Vibrating, repeated fluctuation of pitch.
tones of the chromatic scale in an arbitrary arrangement called a tone row or series. vibrato - a slight varying of pitch produced by the rapid movement of the left
The row may be used in its original form, its inversion, in retrograde, and in the hand on a stringed instrument
inversion of the retrograde. The system was devised by Arnold Schoenberg in the Vibrato (2): The effect caused by the vibrating medium (oscillating motion of
early 20th century. the left hand on the strings, or shaking the vocal cords).
Vibrato (3) - Creating variation pitch in a note by quickly alternating between
uguale - equal, similar notes.
un, una, uno - a, an, one Vif Fr.: Lively, quick
unaccompanied - a solo part, passage, or vocal ensemble without accompani- Vigoroso: Boldly, vigorously
ment. vigoroso - bold, energetic
Una corda - Soft pedal. Viol: A family of string instruments popular in the sixteenth and seventeenth
una corda - one string, the soft pedal is to be depressed centuries. They were superseded by the violin family. The standard types are tre-
unison - two parts singing or playing the same note. ble/descant viol, tenor viol, and bass viol. A special type is the double-bass viol or
Unison - Singing or playing the same notes by all singers or players, either at violone which is the ancestor of the modern double bass.
exactly the same pitch or in a different octave. Viola d'amore: A kind of treble viol which also contains sympathetic strings
Unison (2) - Two or more voices or instruments playing the same note simultane which vibrate in sympathy to produce a silvery resonance when the main strings are
ously. bowed.
Unity: Music consists of repetition (similarity) and contrast. The unity in this Viola da gamba: The larger bass/tenor viols that are held between the legs
framework is achieved through a refrain section or basso ostinato as binding agents, (gamba=leg)
recurrent use of the same melodic or rhythmic motif (persistent figuration, idee violento - boisterous, vehement
fixe, leitmotif as means of creating thematic unity), tonal plan (starting and finish- virtuosity - prominent display of technical facility in performance.
ing in the same key visiting related keys in between), use of a certain recurrent Virtuoso - A brillant, skillful performer.
interval in all significant melodic material (intervallic relationship), or thematic Virtuoso (2) - A person with notable technical skill in the performance of music.
transformation (developing related themes from an original theme in different parts vitamente - briskly, immediately
of the piece). In Baroque music, a single melodic or rhythmic figure representing a Vite (vivace, vivo) Fr.: Quick, lively
single mood or affekt establishes the unity. Vivace - Lively, brisk, quick, and bright.
Un peu (un poco) Fr.: A little. Used with other words, e.g. un peu piano.
Un poco - A little. vivace/vivo - animated, briskly
Unis.: In unison after a division (divisi) Vivace (2) - Direction to performer to play a composition in a brisk, lively, and
spirited manner.
Vivacissimo: Very lively, with extreme vivacity Zart Ger.: Delicate
Vivo - Lively, bright.
vocal - music to be performed by the human voice or voices.
voice - the human organ of sound, classified according to registers (e.g., sopra- Arab Music
no, alto, tenor, bass). Also, a part in polyphonic music (e.g., a four-voice madri-
gal, a five-voice fugue). Abu Nasr al-Farabi (died 950) - famous arabian contributor to the science of
Voce: Voice music, known for his famous Kitab al-Musiqa al-Kabir, or Grand Treatise on
Voice - One of two or more parts in polyphonic music. Voice refers to instru Music, in which he presented various systems of pitch, including one diatonic tun-
mental parts as well as the singing voice. ing to which certain microtones, or "neutral" intervals, were added.
Voice leading: The principles governing the progression of the voice-parts in 'Abduh al-Hamuli (1843-1901): famous male opera singer.
contrapuntal music with regard to the design of the individual lines rather than the Abu Khalil al-Qabbani: Syrian-born (1841-1902), who also performed at the
resulting harmonies. Preference of step-wise movement in the three upper parts, Columbian World Fair in Chicago in 1893.
contrary motion in at least one part, and avoidance of parallel fifths and octaves adhan: Islamic call to prayer, which is heard from the minaret at the times of
form the basis of voice leading. prayer throughout the Arab and Muslim world.
Volante: Flying al-Kindi (died about 873) - major theorists who proposed adding a fifth string
volta - time to the 'ud which was commonly used by theorists to illustrate intonation and pitch
volta prima - first time ratios. Besides proposing a detailed fretting for the 'ud , he also discussed the cos-
volta seconda - the second time mological connotations of music.
volti - turn over Almaz (1860-1896): famous female opera singer
volti subito - turn the page over quickly al-musiqa - a term that came from the Greek, emerged as a speculative disci-
Volti subito (V.S.) - Turn [the page] quickly. pline and as one of al-ulum al-riyadiyyah, or "the mathematical sciences," parallel
volubilita - freedom of performance to Quatrivium (arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy) in the Latin West.
Voll Ger.: Full Arab Music World - covers a vast geographical area from the Atlas Mountains
and parts of the Sahara in Africa to the Arabian Gulf region and the banks of the
waltz - a dance in triple time which probably originated from the German Euphrates.
Ländler and is still a very popular form. ' ataba: the love song genre.
Waltz - A dance written in triple time, where the accent falls on the first beat of Bandir: hand-held round frame with snares lining the underside of the drum
each measure. skin.
Whole note/rest - A note/rest equal to two half notes and four quarter notes. bashraf (or pesrev): instrumental genres used in Turkish court and religious Sufi
Whole note - A whole note is equal to 2 half notes, 4 quarter notes, 8 sixteenth music.
notes, etc.
Whole-tone scale - A scale consisting of only whole-tone notes. Such a scale Bayt al-Hikmah - literally "the House of Wisdom," a scholarly institution
consists of only 6 notes. responsible for translating into Arabic a vast number of Greek classics, including
musical treatises by major Pythagorean scholars and works by Plato, Aristotle, and
whole-tone scale - a scale of six notes a whole step apart. Plotinus, established by the Abbasid Caliph al-Ma'mun (reigned 813-33.)
Whole-tone scale (2): A scale consisting of whole tones only. It lacks the perfect Buzuq: long-necked fretted lute with metal strings. It is generally associated
fifth, the perfect fourth and the leading note of the traditional tonal scale. Because with itinerant Gypsies, has a carved sound box, and resembles the Turkish saz from
each interval is equal, there is no tonal center. Its exploitation by Debussy is one of which it appears to have been derived.
the reasons for the dissolution of tonality in the twentieth century. Court artists - singers and scholars Prince Ibrahim al-Mahdi (779-839) and
Wenig Ger.: Little Ishaq al-Mawsili (767-850), and the 'ud (lute) virtuoso, Zalzal (died 791), who was
wind instruments - instruments which produce tones by a vibrating column of Ishaq's uncle.
air when blown; woodwinds and brass. Cultivation of new Arab music - close contact with the musical traditions of
Wind instrument family - Instruments in which sound is produced by the vibra- Syria, Mesopotamia, Byzantium, and Persia.
tion of air, including brass and woodwind instruments.
woodwind instruments - wind instruments which generate tone by a vibrating Darbukka: goblet-shaped drum (aka durbekki dumbek, or tarambukka)
reed (e.g., oboes, clarinets, saxophones, bassoons) or by a whistle-type mecha- Darwish (died 1923): now considered as the father of modern Egyptian music.
nism (flutes, recorders). Dawr:
dividing the octave scale: In Egypt and the Levant, theorists divide the octave
Woodwind family - Instruments, originally made of wood, in which sound is scale into small microtones comparable to those discussed earlier by al-Farabi and
produced by the vibration of air, including recorders, flutes, clarinets, saxophones, Safi ad-Din. Several types of micro-intervals have been advocated, including the
oboes, and bassoons.
comma division (roughly one-ninth of a whole step), which is found in some Syrian on a theoretical scale, specific notes of emphasis, and a typical pattern of melodic
theories. movement, in many instances beginning around the tonic note of the scale, gradu-
ally ascending, and finally descending to the tonic. Although it is the basis for var-
Early centuries of Islam - cultural centers in Syria under the Umayyads (661- ious musical compositions, the maqam scheme may be best illustrated through such
750) and in Iraq under the Abbasids (750-909). nonmetric improvisatory genres as the instrumental solo known in Egypt and the
Early Fondness for music - The Abbasid caliphs al-Mahdi (reigned 775-85) and Levant as taqasim, vocal forms such as the layali and the mawwal, and religious
al-Amin (reigned 809-13). genres such as Qur'anic chanting and the Sufi qasidah. Maqamat are based on a ref-
erential octave scale consisting of twenty-four equal quarter-tones.
fasil: Syrian compound form. Tthe individual pieces may vary in style, impro- Mihbaj: a wood coffee-grinder consisting of approximately a foot-tall base and
vised or precomposed, featuring a solo singer or chorus, metric or nonmetric. a two-foot pestle. The mihbaj serves the double purpose of being a household item
Fergah: instrumental section of a nuba; literally "empty". and, when an expert artist uses it, a percussion instrument as well.
mijwiz: At Lebanese, Syrian, and Palestinian weddings, the mijwiz, a type of
qanun: a trapazoidal plucked zither. double clarinert, is an adjunct to the dabkah or line dance.
qasid: a sort of heroic poem. mizmar: a double-reed wind instrument of Egypt.
qawwal: literally "one who says," in the Lebanese tradition of zajal, or sung Mizwid: a single-reed instrument with a bag played in the bagpipe style. In this
folk-poetry. This link is also exemplified in the common practice of setting to music form it is known by the name mizwid; literally "bag," or "food pouch".
various literary forms, including the qasidah and the muwashshah. Muhammad 'Ali: imported westernization in the Arab world - the European mil-
Gimbri: banjo-like instrument which disappeared from maluf in the 20th centu- itary-band concept into Egypt in the early nineteenth century and the establishment
ry. of military schools in which Western instruments and musical notation were
Ginnawa: the ethnic group of Morocco, has a musical style that is closely asso- employed.
ciated with West Africa. musical contrasts (in Arab world): the music of North Africa, primarily
quynat - female slave singers, Morocco and Algeria, differs from the music of Egypt and the Levant in matters of
intonation, modality, preference for certain musical instruments, and degree of
Ibn al - Munajjim (died 912) - established system of eight melodic modes. Each exposure and retention of Andalusian musical influence. Similarly, the music of
mode had its own diatonic scale, namely an octave span of Pythagorean half and Egypt differs in matters of rhythm and intonation from the overall musical tradi-
whole steps. Used during the eighth and ninth centuries, these modes were fre- tions of the Arabian Peninsula.
quently alluded to in conjunction with the song texts included in the monumental musical similarities (in Arab world): include the use of syncopated rhythm and
Kitab al-Aghani, or Book of Songs, by Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani (died 967). emphasis on percussion. In Nubia and Sudan, the music employs pentatonicism, the
Ibn Sina, or Avicenna (died 1037)- music theorist, also a philosopher and physi- use of five-tone scales. In Kuwait and Bahrain, pearl fishermen's songs utilize a
cian. high pitched male voice accompanied by distinct low pitched drones, complex
Instruments Names Influence - is indicated by name derivations: for example, polyrhythmic clapping, and percussion instruments including a clay pot comparable
the lute from al-'ud; the nakers, or kettledrums, from naqqarat; the rebec from in construction and playing technique to the ghatam of South India. In the Baghdadi
rabab; and the anafil, or natural trumpet, from - al nafir. chalghi ensemble accompanying maqam singing, the instruments usually include
Iqa' (plural iqaat): rhythmic patterns; meter. the santur, a type of hammer dulcimer, and the jawzah, a spike-fiddle, both having
iqa'at (singular iqa'): widely known metric modes In Arab music. These modes close counterparts in the musical traditions of Persia and Central Asia. Similarly,
are rendered on percussion instruments within the ensemble, including the tablah (a individual musical features can be found in the liturgies of various non-Muslim
vase-shaped hand-drum) and the riqq (a small tambourine also called a daff). Each religious groups of the Arab world, including the Maronites of the Lebanon and the
iqa' has a specific name and a pattern of beats ranging in number from two to twen- Copts of Egypt. Viewed in their great variety, Arab musical practices and musical
ty-four or more. instruments are a living testimony to Arab history and to a rich and multifaceted
cultural background.
Kaman (also kamanjah): Western violin adapted to the Arab music through Mutrib: singer, one who provides tarab.
tuning and playing technique. Muwwashah (plural Muwashahat): is a sung poem in the style of Arab
Khedive Isma'il (reigned 1863-1876): on the occasion of the opening of the Andalusia. May also be called a nuba or ma’louf. Muwashshah form, was utilized
Suez Canal, built the Cairo Opera House. by major poets, also emerged as a musical form and survived as such in North
African cities and in the Levant, an area covering what is known historically as
Maqam (plural maqamat): a melodic mode based on a theoretical scale, notes of greater Syria and Palestine. In this area, the muwashshah genre became particular-
emphasis, and a typical pattern of movement. The octave is divided into smaller ly popular in Aleppo, Syria.
microtones to the interval resolution of one-ninth of a step, called comma.
Melody in Arab music: incorporates microtonality, namely intervals that do not nawbat (singular nawbah or nubah): vocal and instrumental pieces in a certain
conform to the half-step and whole-step divisions of traditional Western art music. melodic mode. North African nawbah is a compound form. The nawbat were report-
Commonly connected with modality, a conceptual organizational framework wide- edly associated with the different hours of the day. The nawbah tradition was large-
ly known under the name maqam (plural maqamat). Each of the maqamat is based ly transported to North Africa by the Muslims who were expelled from the Iberian
Peninsula in the late 15. century. Tablah: also called darbukkah, is a vase-shaped hand-drum.
Naqqarat: small kettledrums attached in pairs, used less in modern times. Takht: traditional Arab ensemble typically made of one player of each of the
Nay: an open-ended, obliquely blown flute made from reed; exhibits a breathy primary instru-
tone (a reed flute). ments (qanun,
Nuba (plural nubat): a two-part "musical suite" in a single mode or maqam. ‘ud, nay, kaman,
Thirteen nubat make up the core of the Tunisian maluf. and riqq).
Taqsim: non-
Ottoman period: musical assimilation and excange, hegemony of the Ottoman metric improvisa-
Turks over Syria, Palestine, Iraq, the coasts of Arabia, and much of North Africa tional fergah;
(1517-1917). Arab music interacted with Turkish music, which had already each nuba con-
absorbed musical elements from Central Asia, Anotolia, Persia, and medieval tains one taqsim
Islamic Syria and Iraq. This interaction was most obvious in larger cities, particu- played, by tradi-
larly Aleppo, Damascus, and Cairo. tion, in a maqam
which differs
Qanun: trapezoidal zither with 26 rows of triple strings whose pitch may be from the maqam
modulated by flipping up or down one of dozen tiny bridges, called orab, which of the rest of the
effectively lengthen or shorten the vibrating portion of the string. nuba.
Qasida (plural qasa'ed): a long metered poem often in the classical Arabic Tar: tam-
vocabulary. bourine.
Qur'anic chanting: is the quintessential religious expression, transcending eth- Tarab: the
nic and national boundaries. This form is nonmetric, solo-performed, and based intense connec-
upon the established rules of tajwid, the Islamic principles of recitation. tion between
audience and per-
former in an ideal
Rabab: two-stringed upright fiddle, all but vanished from Tunisian music, musical perfor-
thought by some to have been the precursor to the European violin. mance.
Rababah: is played with a horsehair bow, this instrument has a quadrilateral
sound box covered with skin and a single string made from horsehair (a single- 'Ud: a pear-shaped, short-necked, fretless instrument. It has five double cours-
string fiddle). Egyptian sha'ir uses the rababah, a two-string spike fiddle, to
accompany his recitation of the medieval Arab epic known after its hero, Abu Zayd
al-Hilali.
Riqq: a small tambourine.
Safi ad-Din al-Urmawi (died 1291): music theorist who based the intervals of es of nylon or
the melodic modes used at his time upon a detailed systematic scale that incorpo- gut and metal-
rated small subdivisions within the Pythagorian scale. wound silk
Sajat: small brass finger cymbals. strings (a fret-
sama'i (or Turkish saz semai): instrumental genres used in Turkish court and less plucked
religious Sufi music. lute).
sha'ir: literally "poet," in Upper Egypt and among the Syrian-Desert Bedouins. ughniyyah:
Shaykh Salamah Hijazi, Egyptian (1852-1917): a Sufi-trained singer and stage the word gen-
actor whose theatrical songs were heard on early recordings throughout the entire erally refers to
Arab world. a prevalent
Shgul: traditional singing "elaborate," as the name implies. song category
shruqi: heroic poem. featuring a
Singing of poetical lyrics in Arabic - the language of the Qur'an and the lin- solo singer and
guafranca of the Islamic Empire - this music featured new performance techniques, an elaborate
new aspects of intonation, and new musical instruments. orchestra
equipped with
Tabl: a large double-sided drum. both Western
tabl baladi: a large double-sided drum) are used at weddings and similarly fes- and traditional
tive events, mostly for the accompaniment of dance. Arab instruments. Presented by such celebrities as Egypt's late Muhammad 'Abd
al-Wahhab and the late female singer Um Kulthum, these songs are now enjoyed by
a huge audience extending from Morocco to Iraq.
waslah: the pre-

World Word I
Egyptian compound
music form.
Zajal: a newer
poetic genre using
special dialectical
forms.
Glossary of Indian Music Terms
An alphabetical list of the more important and frequently used terms.
Aarohi - Ascending movement , known as Arohana; Aroh

Aavirbhav - To make visible the original raga form
Abhoga - Closing movement in a composition
Alaap - Unmetered Raga introduction and expansion; prelude
Andolan - Undulating vibrato
Ang - Style; as in -vocal style Ang Gayaki
Alankaar - Ornaments, exercises
Antar Gandhaar - Shudha Gandhar
Antaraa - 2nd Movement in a composition with the melodic progression Naada - Sound in general; but applies more to musical sound or else it is con
generally in the uttarang region of the octave and above sidered noise. Nada is of two types: Ahata (struck) and Unahata (un-
Antya - Ending on struck)
Anuvaadi - Assonant note Naada Brahma - This universe is sound
Asthaan - 1st movement in a composition with the melodic progression general- Naataka - Drama
ly in the poorvang region of the octave and below Nyasa - Closing note; cadence
Asthaai - Region; area: as in Mandar Asthan - lower octave region Nishaadha - Seventh musical note (Ni)
Ati - Very
Audava - Five notes; pentatonic Pakar - Characteristic musical catch phrase of a raga
Avarohi - Descending movement, known as Avarohana; Avaroh Panchama - Fifth Musical note (Pa)
Bhajan - Devotional song Pandit - A learned man; scholar
Bol /s - Sound sylabel /s. as in Tabla Bols Poorvaang - Lower tetrachord - Sa Re Ga Ma / modified to Sa Re Ga Ma Pa
Carnatic - South Indian Prati - Sharp (known as Tivar)
Chakra - South India Melakarta raga classification. There are 12 Chakras of six Raaga - Modal scale
ragas each, giving the 72 Melas. See Mela Chart. Raagini - Feminine gender Modal scale
Chalan - A systematic raga expansion Rasa - Emotional state. In music there are nine: Shringaar (sensual), Raudra
Chautaalaa - 14 Beat Cycle (anger), Hasya (happy),Vibhatsaya (disgust), Veera (heroic), Karuna
Dadra Taal - Six beat cycle (sympathy), Bhayaanak (fear), Adabhuta (wonder), and Shaanta (peace)
Deepchandi Tal - Fourteen beat cycle Rasik - Tasteful, admirer of beauty, creator of Rasa.
Dhamaar Tal - Fourteen beat cycle Rishabha - Second musical note (Re)
Dhaivata - Sixth musical note (Dha) Rupak Tal - Seven beat cycle
Drut - Fast
Ek Taal - Twelve beat cycle Sanchaari - Third movement in a composition encompassing all the regions of
Gandhaar - Third musical note (Ga) the octave; Sanchari means wandering
Gaayaki - Vocal Sangeet - Musical science
Geet - Popular song or composition Sampooran - Seven note; heptatonic
Ghazal - Urdu poem, vocal song style Samvaadi - Subsonant, the second most important note in a raga
Graama - Ancient music scales - Shadaja, Madhyama, and Gandhar Gramas Sandhi Prakaash - Sunrise or sunset time periods
Hindustaani - North Indian Saptak - Octave (Sapt means seven. Indian music does not count repeated notes
Jaati - Tonal classification as a part of the same octave. But saptak and octave basically imply the
Jhaptaal - Ten beat cycle same meaning)
Jhumraa Tal - Fourteen beat cycle Sargam - Indian solfegio; derived from the first four notes Sa, Re, Ga, Ma
Kan - Grace, as in grace note Shadaja - First musical note (Sa), known as Kharaja
Keharwaa Tal - Eight beat cycle Shaastra - Treatise
Shaudava - Six note; hexatonic
Shruti - Musical microtone; pitch; intonation
Komal - Flat Shudha - A pure or a natural note
Kriti - Classical composition (used in South Indian music system) Swara - Musical note
Swaroop - Image
Lakshan - Introduction, definitive principles, or rules Tablaa - North Indian drum set consisting of the Dagga (bass drum) and the
Laya - Tempo Tabal (Treble drum)
Taal - Rhythm cycle
Madhya Saptak - Middle octave region; middle pitch register Taan - An improvised vocal or instrumental musical phrase
Madhya Laya - Medium Tempo Taanpura - String instrument used for drone; Tanpura means to fill the void
Madhyama - Fourth musical note (Ma) behind the music; to complete or assist a tan;known as Tamboora
Mandar - Lower octave region; low pitch register Taar - Upper octave region; upper pitch register
Manjari - Collection, bouquet Tambooraa - See Tanpura; made from a gourd (Tumba)
Meend - Slide or glissando Thaat - Parent scale, parent mode; Thaat means to tie down as in frets
Melaa - South Indian Parent mode; 72 in all; See Mela chart Thumri - Vocal or instrumental song style
Mishra - Mixed Tintaal - Sixteen beat cycle
Mridangam - Barrel shaped drum used in Carnatic classical music
Tirobhaav - Deviating or camouflaging from the original. Concealment
Tivar - Sharp
Uttaraang - Upper tetrachord - Pa Dha Ni Sa / modified to Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa
Vaadi - Sonant. The most important note in a raga
Vakra - Zigzag, indirect, or crooked
Varana - Embellishment, note group
Varjit - Omitted, deleted or avoided note
Vikrit - Modified
Vilambit - Slow
Vivaadi - Dissonant note
LITERATURA

Prof. Dr. Michael Minja Djordjevic: Projecting Electroacoustic Composition

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Prof. Dr. Michael Minja Djordjevic: Projecting Electroacoustic Composition

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prof. dr Mihajlo L.

/kompoziciona metoda za dizajnere zvuka/

1. METODA PROJEKTOVAˆA ELEKTROAKUSTIÇKE KOMPOZICIJE

1.1.2. Ideja i kreativna maßta spojene sa izborom osnovnih

1.1.3. Grub i deta¬an grafiçki kompozicioni plan

1.1.4. Zvuçno-muziçka realizacija grafiçkog kompozicionog plana

1.1.5. Korekcija deta¬a i celine elektroakustiçke kompozicije

2. IZRADA GRAFIÇKOG KOMPOZICIONOG PLANA

3. Savremena KOMPOZICIONA TEHNIKA

4. Savremeni GRAFIÇKI ZAPIS - Partitura (Score)

5. ANALIZA ELEKTROAKUSTIÇKE KOMPOZICIJE

Prilog: POJMOVNIK MUZIÇKIH TERMINA, INSTRUMENATA,

Summary - Projecting Musical Composition

specijalna stvaralaçka metoda name~ena dizajnerima

Konkretna procedura prema naçelima metode projektova~a elek- 11.. M

Druga faza projektivne metode - Projektova~e elektroakustiçke kom-

Prve dve faze projekcione kompozicione metode - PEAK (pod i i ii)

(g) Okvirni izraz dinamiçke sloΩenosti moΩe biti predstav¬en

Dinamiçka razliçitost ( diferenciranost ) moΩe biti izraΩena

(d) Izbor sredstava za realizaciju, moΩe imati liçni pristup nastao

a) na bazi grubog grafiçkog kompozicionog plana

Ponekad su oba plana predstavlena kao jedinstven grafiçki kompozi-

sa Grubi grafiçki kompozicioni plan , ßto je pomenuto, predstav¬a

3 Shema beleΩe~a osnovnih elemenata kod deta¬nog grafiçkog

(mf = mezzo forte) m1 = motiv jedan

MIDI 5 (model traje)

(mp= mezzo piano)

5' 3' pojedinaçno vreme

Tek poßto je izra∂en deta¬an grafiçki kompozicioni plan, mogu†e je

Deo grubog grafiçkog

8 Ct. Kohoutek: Ciklus deçjih horova (Hudebni orisky)

6 Ctirad Kohoutek: Preludijum za kamerni orkestar, I stav

12 Mihajlo Îor∂evi†: Nove relacije 1 - grubi grafiçki plan (1990)

13 M. Îor∂evi†: Nove relacije 1 - I stav - deta¬an grafiçki plan

14 M. Îor∂evi†: Nove relacije 1 - II stav - deta¬an grafiçki plan

20 M. Îor∂evi†: Cosmic divertimento - for string orchestra & synthesizer (1988)

19 Ct. Kohoutek: Ciklus deçjih horova (Hudebni orisky)

- delovi realizovane partiture (score) izra∂eni na osnovu

a) deçji hor, taktovi 1 - 3, impuls 1 (i1);

21 M. Îor∂evi†: The Bridges of Prague - orchestration for strings (1996)

24 M. Îor∂evi†: The Bridges of Prague - orchestration for strings (1996)

22 M. Îor∂evi†: The Bridges of Prague - orchestration for strings (1996)

1) jednaki delovi, bliski u zvuçnom pros-

8) preklapa~e nejednakih delova uda¬enih u

b) osnovna tektonika “ miksaΩe” kompozicionih delova

11) jednaki delovi, uda¬eni u zvuçnom protoru;

12) nejednaki delovi bliski u zvuçnom prostru;

13) nejednaki delovi uda¬eni u zvuçnom

“Exact measurement and notation of durations is in reality mental: imaginary

Dakle, jasno je da je Kej∆ova napomena o taçnom vremenskom traja~u

Ve†ina autora smatra da je analiza elektroakustiçke kompozicije

Zvuk, napomi~e F. Barijer, moΩe trajati dugo i evoluirati postepeno,

Ukinuta je i “taktna crta” ( ametriçna muzika), tako da se razvija~e

Françoise Barriére (Pariz, 1944) kompozitor, direktor i jedan od osnivaça

Francisko Krepfl navodi tri strukturalne kategorije koje uvek

Ukinuta je i “taktna crta”, tako da se razvija~e kompozicije u vremenu

Mogu†nosti individualnog pristupa elektroakustiçkoj kompoziciji i

Pre zapoçi~a~a estetskog razmatra~a i analize elektroakustiçke

No, problem partiture, ili nekog drugog vida zapisa elek- Kr

Va∂one posebno insistira na pojavi nelinearnosti koja je na soniçnom

Gong - (Javanese gong), percussion instrument, a bronze disk that produces

History Xylophone - (Greek xylon, “wood”; phone, “sound”), musical percussion

IPS: Inches Per Second. Used to describe tape speed.

Da: From, by, for, etc.