Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1. Phenomenological Studies
a. “Lived experience”
b. Examines human experiences through descriptions provided by the people
involved
c. Bracketing
• The researcher releases expectations and biases prior to doing the
research.
d. End purpose
• To determine themes and patterns of behavior, etc.
2. Ethnographic Studies
a. Collection and analysis of data about cultural groups.
b. End purpose
• To develop cultural theories.
c. Method
• Participant observation and interviews with “key informants”
3. Grounded Theory Studies
a. Data are collected and analyzed and then a theory is developed that is
grounded on the data.
b. Method
• Purposeful sampling, done in field or naturalistic setting.
c. Concerned with generation rather than testing the hypothesis.
4. Historical Studies
a. Identification, location, evaluation, and synthesis of data of the past
b. End purpose
• To relate the past to the present and the future.
c. Sources of data for historical research
1. Documents
a. Oral history, written research, diaries, eyewitness
accounts, pictorial services.
2. Relics and artifacts
a. Physical evidence.
d. Classification of sources can be:
1. Primary
a. An account of the event from the person himself.
2. Secondary
a. Summarized or retold by another.
e. Evaluation or Critism of the data
1. External
a. Authentically or genuineness of the source
2. Internal
a. Accuracy of the data in the source.
5. Case study
• In-depth examination of people.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Steps:
1. Identify the problem
a. Broad topic, narrowed down
b. May be the most difficult and will take the most amount of time
c. Sources of study problems
i. Personal experiences
ii. Literature sources
iii. Previous research
iv. Testing of theories
i. Ethical issues
ii. Significance to nursing
iii. Personal motivation
iv. Researcher qualifications
v. Feasibility of the study
1. Time
2. Cost
3. Equipment and Supplies
4. Administrative support
5. Peer support
6. Availability of Subjects
2. Determine the purpose of the study
a. Define why the study ids being made (often mistakenly interchanged with
problem statement).
b. Must state the significance and use of the study results in order to get
approval.
c. Eg. To develop a better understanding of the significance of consumption of
fast food in the growing number of cases of obesity and overweight among
school aged children.
3. Review of Related Literature
a. Purpose
i. To determine what knowledge already exist on the topic to be
studied.
ii. To develop a conceptual and theoretical framework for the study.
iii. To help the researcher plan the study methods (eg. Instrument and
tools).
b. Primary vs. Secondary sources
i. Theoretical framework
Broad, general explanation of the relationships between
concept of interest in a research study.
Based on the existing theory.
ii. Conceptual framework
• Explains relationship between concept but links concepts
selected from several theories, from previous research results,
and from the researcher’s own experience.
• Eg. Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Theory and Job satisfaction
theory.
e. Theory Generation and Development
i. Deductive reasoning
• Proceeds form general to specific.
• Eg. Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs – job satisfaction scale.
• Theory -> Propositional statement -> Hypothesis -> Empirical
data.
ii. Inductive reasoning
Proceeds from specific to general
Empirical date -> Empirical Generalization -> Propositional
statement -> theory.
Eg. Observed that workers who receive low salaries have poor
work performance – job satisfaction theory.
f. Two types of theories
i. Grand theory
Address a broad range of phenomena in the environment or
humanity.
ii. Middle-range theory
Concerned only with a small area of the environment or human
experiences.
Middle range theories have been found to be more valuable to
nursing research than grand theories.
5. Identify the Study Assumption
Assumptions
o Beliefs that are held to be true but have not necessary
been proven.
o Eg. Fast food makes you fat.
Three types of assumptions:
i. Universal assumptions
Beliefs assumed to be true by a large percentage of society.
Eg. “Fast food makes you fat”.
ii. Assumptions based on theory or research findings
Using another research finding assumptions as the basis of
one’s study.
Eg. An existing research finding may have stated an
assumption that children who eat fast food twice a week tend to
be twice more likely to become overweight than children who
eat only once a week.
iii. Assumptions that are necessary to carry out the study
In the mentioned research, the assumption that children who
study in elementary schools are of “school-age”.
6. Acknowledge the Limitation of the study
a. Limitations
Uncontrolled variables that may affect the study results and limit the
generalizability of the findings.
Extraneous Variables
Also called Confounding or uncontrolled
Variables over which the researcher either has no control or chooses not to
exercise control.
Eg. The attitudes and beliefs of parents of children involved in the study is not
being something that the researcher can control.
b. Delimitations
Limitations placed on the research by the researcher himself.
c. Scope
The extent to which the study will be made.
Hypothesis
o Predicts the relationship between two or more variables.
o Problem statements ask the question, hypothesis gives a
predicted answer.
Characteristics of a hypothesis
i. Declarative form
ii. Written in present tense
iii. Reflects the problem statement
iv. Contains the population and the variables
v. Must be testable or empirically verifiable
Classification of Hypothesis
Simple
a. Relationship between one independent and one dependent variable.
Complex
Relationship between two or more independent or dependent variables.
An interaction effect would concern the action of two variables in
conjunction with each other.
Null
i. No relationship exists between two variables.
Research
ii. There is a relationship, states the expected relationship.
Nondirectional
iii. Mere prediction that a relationship exists.
Directional
iv. Researcher further predicts the type of relationship.
Importance
o To make the meaning of terminologies and variables clearer
to the researcher and the reader.
o To allow for replication of the study.
Operational definitions
o Indicates hoow a variable will be observed or measured.
o Eg. Weight – can be measured in kilograms or pounds.
i. Qualitative
ii. Quantitative
a. Experimental
Concerned with cause and effect relationships.
Highly respected in the scientific world.
Must have: Manipulation or control of independent variable, random
selection of subjects, measurement of independent and dependent
variable.
More control can be exercised over extraneous variables.
In nursing experimental, a nursing intervention is usually introduced.
Internal validity
o Degree to which changes in dependent variable can be
directly attributed to the independent variable.
o Can have the following as threats to validity:
Selection Bias
o Results are due to subject differences before the independent
variables was manipulated.
History
o Some event other than the experimental treatment occurs
during the study that influenced the dependent variable.
Maturation
o Changes that occur within the subjects during an experiment
study influences the study results.
Instrumentation Change
o Difference between the pretest and the post test measurement
caused by a change in the accuracy of the instrument of the
judge’s ratings.
o Avoided by trial runs, or training sessions for judges prior to
rating.
Mortality
o Subject dropout rate is different between the experimental and
comprison group.
External Validity
i. Degree to which the study results can be generalized to other people
and other settings. Threats include:
i. Hawthrone effect
1. Study participants respond in a certain manner
because there are aware that they are being
observed.
a. True Experimental
Researcher has great deal of control over the research
situation.
3 criteria: Manipulation of variables; One experimental
and one comparison group (control group).
Subjects are randomly assigned
i. Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design
R O1 X O2 (experimental group)
R O1 O2 (control group)
R X O1 (Experimental Group)
R O1 (Control Group)
b. Quasiexperimental
Missing one criteria for true experimental design.
Time-series designs
Researchers periodically observes measures the
subjects. Experimental treatment is administered
between two of the observations. 01 02 03 X 04
05 06.
c. Pre-experimental design
Weak researcher has little control over the
research.
i. Correlational Studies
1. Correlation Coefficient
Researcher extent to which one variable (X) is related to
another variable.
a. + Relationship
Also called Direct
As the value of one variable increases, the value of
the other variable also increases.
b. – Relationship
Also called Inverse
As the variable of one value increase, the value of the
other variable decreases.
1. Retrospective studies
Dependent variable identified in the present, and the
independent variable that occurred in the past is
determined.
2. Prospective studies
Independent variable is identified at the present time, and
the subjects are followed in the future to observe the
dependent variable
Eg. Fast food and weight gain.
a. Population
Complete set of individuals or objects the posses some common
characteristics that is of interest to the researcher.
i. Target population
Also called Universe.
The group of people or objects to which the researcher
wishes to generalize the findings of the study.
ii.Accessible population
That group which is actually available for the study.
iii. The accessible population must posses the characteristics similar to the
target population, and vice versa.
a. Sample
A subgroup chosen to represent the population and used to make
generalizations about the population.
i. Probability
Everyone in the population has the chance of being selected.
Identify the sample population and list all the elements of the
population (sampling frame).
Table of random numbers.
a. Proportional stratified
b. Disproportional stratified
1. Convenience sampling
Accidental or incidental.
Choosing readily available people or objects for a study.
Snowball sampling
o Study subjects help refer additional subjects.
2. Quota Sampling
Similar to stratified random but selection not random.
Basis of stratification is determined by the researcher.
Eg. 50% females, 50% male.
3. Purposive sampling
a. Judgmental sampling
b. Handpicking of subjects.
1. Cohort study
Persons are studied who have been born during a particular
time period.
Objectives
To examine issues related to the design, sample size, data
collection procedures and data analysis approaches.
a. Data
Pieces of information or facts that are collected in scientific
investigations.
b. What data will be collected? Who will collect the data? Where will the
data be collected? When will the data be collected? How will the data be
collected? (Why, is answered by the purpose of the study or the research
design, and is not part of this).
i. Questionnaires
Paper and pencil, self-report instrument.
Contains questions the respondents are asked to answer in writing.
2. Types of questions
a. Demographic
Data on the characteristics of the subjects.
Demographic or attribute variables.
Age, educational background, religion.
b. Open-ended questions
Essay, fill-in-the-blank
c. Closed-ended questions
Respondent is asked to choose from given alternatives.
Must be collectively exhaustive (all possible answer provided) and mutually
exclusive ( no overlap between categories)
d. Contingency questions
Items that is relevant for some respondents and not for
others.
Eg. If yes..
e. Filler questions
a. Items in which the researcher has no direct interest but are
included in a questionnaire to reduce the emphasis on the
specific purpose of other questions.
ii. Interviews
b. Interviewer obtains responses from a subject in a face-to-face
encounter or through a telephone call.
1. Unstructured interview
c. Interviewer given a great deal of freedom to direct the course
of the interview.
d. Conducted more like a normal conversation.
Probes
o Additional prompting questions that encourage the
respondent to elaborate on the topic.
2. Structured interviews
Asking the same questions in the same order and in the
same manner of all respondents in the study.
Even subtle changes in the wording of the interview may
not be permitted.
3. Semi-structured interview
a. Structured
Carried out when the researcher has prior knowledge about
the phenomenon of interest.
Uses a checklist.
b. Unstructured
Researcher attempts to describe events or behaviors as they
occur, with no preconceived idea of what will be seen.
b. Time
Observation of events or behaviors during specified times.
Eg. Appetite of patients during scheduled meals.
b. Non-participant observer-covert
Generally not ethical.
Observer does not let participant know of his activity.
Eg. Public behavior (can be ethical)
c. Participant observer-overt
Involved with the subjects openly and subjects know that
they are being observed by the same.
Eg. Immersion with families while observing their day-to-
day lifestyle.
d. Participant observer-covert
“Plant”, “Spy”
Observer interacts with the subjects and observes their
behavior without their knowledge. Rarely ethical.
v. Attitude scales
Self-report, data collection instruments that ask respondents to report their
attitudes or feelings on a continuum.
1. Likert Scale
Uses five or seven responses for each item ranging from
Strongly Agree (5) to strongly disagree (1).
Negatively worded questions are rated scored reverse.
2. Semantic Differential Scales
Asks subjects to indicate their position or attitude about some
concept along a continuum between two adjectives.
1. Personality Inventories
Self-report measures used to assess the differences in
personality traits, needs, or values of people.
2. Projective Techniques
Subject is presented with an ambiguous stimuli, subject
describes what the stimuli appear to represent.
Eg. Rorschach Inkblot Test.
i. Frequency distribution
Simply counting the occurrence of values or scores represented in the
data.
Appropriate for tabulating all types of data (nominal, ordinal, interval,
ratio).
If range of score is less than 20, each score can be listed individually,
when the range is large you can group them into “class intervals”
1. Bar graph
Used to represent frequency distribution with nominal data or
some type of ordinal data.
May be horizontal or vertical.
2. Histogram
Uses bars to represent the frequency distribution of a variable
that is measured at the ordinal, interval, or ratio level.
Has X and Y axis.
3. Frequency polygon
Graph that uses dots connected with straight lines to represent
the frequency distribution or ordinal, interval, or ratio data.
The class intervals are on the horizontal axis, the frequency on
the vertical axis.
iii. Percentages
Represents the proportion of a subgroup to a total group.
Minimum number for the computation of percentages should be atleast
20.
i. Mode
Category or value that occurs most often in a set of data under
consideration.
If the data gathered are nominal this is referred to as “nominal
class”.
Maybe unimodal, bimodal, multimodal.
ii. Median
Middle score or value in a group of data.
If number of values is even, the midpoint between the two
middle values is the median. If the number of values is uneven,
then the median is the middle value.
iii. Mean
The average sum of a set of values found by adding all values
and dividing by the total number of values.
X = Total of all values or number of values.
c. Measures of Variability
Measures how spread out values are in a distribution of values.
i. Range
Distance between the highest and lowest value in a group of
values or scores.
Eg. Highest 60, lowest 40, the range is 20.
ii. Percentile
A datum point below which lies a certain percentage of the
values in a frequency distribution.
Eg. NCEE Score, Weight for Age charts in Pediatrics.
iv. Variance
Standard deviation squared.
v. Z-score
d. Measures of Relationships
Measures the correlation between variables.
i. Correlation Coefficients
Pairing the value of each subjects on one variable with the
value on another variable.
Eg. Athletic ability vs. IQ level. Anxiety level vs. pulse rates.
a. Made in light of the study hypothesis or research question and the theoretical
framework.