Book 2 Module 7A

CATEGORY B1 B2
HAND TOOLS

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Licence By Post © Copyright B EASA 66 7.3 ISSUE 04 0111

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AUTHORITY

It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training

purposes only.

When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST

always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment
manufacturer’s handbook.

You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the
CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording,
report writing, documentation etc.

For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/guidelines
as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety
authorities and national governments.
CONTENTS

Page

Machine tools 1
Hand tools 5
Hammers 5
Punches 6
Pliers 7
Screwdrivers 8
Spanners 9
Hacksaws 12
Hand files 13
Vices 16
Chisels 19
Scrapers 20
Drill bits 21
Taps 23
Dies 26
Reamers 28
Rules – measuring 30
Dividers 30
Trammels 30
Scribers 31
The fitter’s square 31
The combination set 32
Callipers 33
Surface plates 33
Marking-off table 33
Vee blocks 34
Scribing block 34
Key seat rule 35
Marking out 36
Precision measuring equipment 38
The micrometer 38
The vernier 45
The dial test indicator (DTI) 54
Bore gauge 55
Feeler gauges 56
Radius gauges 56
Screw pitch gauges 56
Wire gauge 57
Slip gauges 57
Sine bars 58
Limit gauges 60
The spirit level 61
Adjustable level 61
Clinometer 62
Powered hand tools 63
Torque loading 66
Torque wrenches 69
Tensiometers 74
The dead weight tester 76
HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK

This book is reasonably straight forward and with some students will be revision from
their days on basic training. However, the contents should be studied and learnt –
particularly the subject of precision instruments. Ideally check out each
tool/instrument – using your own tool kit or tools from the tool store. This is
important when dealing with precision instruments.

Practice as often as you can on micrometers (English and metric – non-digital) and
verniers (English and metric – 24/25 and 49/50 systems – non-digital). Make sure
you can read the various instruments and name the parts. When checking the
readings get some one to verify your readings and if necessary take practice readings
on components several times using both micrometers and verniers for the same
reading. You can always check your readings using a digital instrument.

There should be no need to commit to memory much detail concerning Machine Tools
but a good understanding is required for all other tools including Power Tools.

Refer to book 3 in this series on the care, use and calibration of tools and equipment.
 MACHINE TOOLS

The Lathe

Used for turning, facing, drilling and thread cutting. On modern production lines they
are automatic and controlled by computers.

The part to be worked on is placed in the chuck and when turned is shaped using a
variety of lathe cutting tools. Operated by qualified machine tool setters and operators
the lathe can be used on a variety of materials including wood, composites and
metals.

Guards should be fitted when in operation.

Fig. 1 THE LATHE

Fig. 2 DRILLING MACHINE OR PILLAR DRILL

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The Pillar Drill

Can be used by less experienced personnel to drill holes in a variety of materials. May
have a selection of drilling speeds either by the use of a selector lever or by changing
the belt on the pulley drive system from the electric motor to the drilling pillar. Feed
rates usually depend on the operator but may be automatic on some machines.

The part to be drilled should be firmly gripped in a clamp (never held by the fingers),
and the guard must be in place.

Milling Machine

Requires a skilled person to operate and may be a horizontal or vertical milling

machine. A horizontal mill is shown and is used for milling down metal to a close
tolerance and good surface finish.

The part to be milled in clamped to the moving table which moves back and forth
under the cutting head with a height adjustment after each pass.

Fig. 3 MILLING MACHINE

Grinding Machine (Not shown)

Similar to a milling machine but will grind to closer tolerances and a better finish.
Centre-less grinding produces the most accurate dimensions and is used for the
production of close tolerance matched cylinders and pistons (injectors).

Grinding Machine – Bench Type – or Off-Set Grinder

Most workshops and hangars have a grinding machine; the most common type is the
double-ended bench machine with coarse and fine abrasive wheels or stones.

Tool rests are fitted in front of each wheel to support the item being ground. Guards
are also fitted and the user must wear goggles.

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Tools being sharpened can be ruined if allowed to ‘lose their temper’ by overheating.
The item being sharpened must be dipped in water or oil to keep the tip cool
(depending on the type of wheel).

When grinding, move the item being ground from side to side to avoid forming ridges
on the wheel, never use the side of the wheel.

From time to time the wheel will have to be ‘dressed’. That is, cleaned up and made
flat. This is carried out using a special dressing wheel and must be performed by a
qualified person.

Safety Precautions

* ALWAYS wear protective goggles when using a grinding machine.

* Make sure the tool rests are as close to the wheel as possible, but not
touching.
* Do not grind soft metals or materials such as aluminium, brass,
magnesium etc.
* The wheel should be dressed from time to time by a qualified person.

Fig. 4 OFF HAND GRINDING MACHINE

The Guillotine

Used for cutting sheet steel, aluminium, rigid composites, etc. Some machines may be
small enough to be fitted to a bench, others are self standing.

The guard allows only thin gauge metal to be cut and helps to prevent fingers from
being caught by the blade. Some machines have a double safety device fitted in the
form of two levers. These are placed so that both hands must be used to operate them
whilst one foot is used to operate the blade. If the levers are not operated the foot
pedal is locked.

Folding Machine

Folds metals ductile/malleable enough to be bent. Great care is needed to ensure that
the metal being folded is not cracked in the process. The counterbalance weights on
the machine allow for the considerable weight of the folding blade.

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 Fig. 5 GUILLOTINE

Fig. 6 FOLDING MACHINE

Fig. 7 FLY PRESS

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Fly Press

Used to stamp out small sheet metal parts by a downward force of the stamping head.
When the handle is pulled round the masses give the system momentum and the
male die can be wound down quickly into the female die so pressing out a shape in
sheet metal.

HAND TOOLS

There is a vast range of hand tools and following is a description of the most of those
in common use.

HAMMERS

Classified by weight and type of head. Conventional hammerheads are forged from
high carbon steels with faces hardened and tempered. Shafts are made from straight-
grained ash or plastic.

Some hammerheads are made from copper, plastic, rubber or leather. These heads
are designed to allow a part to be hit without causing any damage to the part.

When using a hammer always ensure that the correct hammer is used and that the
head is secure. Hold the handle at the position farthest away from the head.

The main types are:

Ball Pein - The flat surface is used for most general work - the ball pain being used
for peening.

Cross Pein - The pein is at right angles to the shaft. Used for general work, the
cross pein being suitable for use where access to the working area is limited
(knocking in a small nails held by the fingers, for example).

Straight Pein – The pein is inline with shaft and usage similar to the cross pein.

Nylon Faced - Used to deliver blows to the work without damaging the
surface.

Copper or Lead - Similar to the nylon faced hammer in terms of application.

Fig. 8 TYPES OF HAMMERS

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PUNCHES

Centre Punch. Made of high carbon steel hardened and tempered. Used for making
pop marks for indentation to locate the point of a drill at the start of the drilling
operation. A sharp point should be maintained by grinding, the angel should be 90°
for general work and for light work such as marking out etc should be reduced to 60°.

Remember that titanium should not be centre punched as it sets up high internal
stresses.

Pin Punches – Parallel and Tapered. Are both made of high carbon steel- hardened
and tempered. Punches are used with a hammer to localise hammer blows.

The parallel pin punch is used to drive out rivets, (after head removal), bolts, split
pins, shackle pins etc. Always use the correct size punch and never use a tapered
punch, as this will tend to enlarge the hole.

The tapered punch is used to deliver a blow to a part where access to a hammerhead
would be difficult.

Hollow Punch. Sometimes called a Hole Punch and is used to make small holes in soft
materials such as leather etc. The slot in the side of the punch allows for removal of
the hole centres.

Rivet Punches. Usually called Set-ups, Snaps etc.

Set-ups, Dollies and Snaps are used in the forming of snap-head rivets. These are
covered in more detail in the books on riveting.

Fig. 9 THE CENTRE PUNCH

Drifts. These are flat ended punches either solid or tubular, which are used for
localising the effect of hammer blows and preventing damage to finished surfaces.
Also used for dismantling and assembling tight fitting parts. Drifts are made from
copper, brass, steel or aluminium alloy. Steel drifts only should be used to drive ball
or roller bearings as softer drifts may break and fragments from the drift could lodge
in the bearing. Ends must be clean and any damage/burrs removed.

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 Fig. 10 PUNCHES

PLIERS

There are various types of pliers, each designed for a specific use, eg

Combination. Can be used to hold round or flat material and have cutting edges
for cutting split pins, locking wire etc.

Flat Nose. Used to hold items where access is limited.

Snip or Round Nose. For twisting locking wire.

Fig. 11 TYPES OF PLIERS

Diagonal or Side Cutting. Used for cutting soft wire and split pins.

Cable Stripping. For removing the insulation from electrical cables.

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Circlip Pliers. Used for removing/refitting circlips, internal and external.

Pliers are classified by type and overall length, usually made of high carbon steel with
the jaws hardened and tempered.

SCREW DRIVERS

Common or flat bladed. Blade made of high carbon or alloy steel the end being ground
flat to fit the slot cut in the head of the screw. The handle is made of wood or plastic.
Classified by length of blade.

Ratchet. Usually flat bladed. Has a selector to allow for the ratchet to be locked or set
for screw removal or screw fitment.

Watchmaker’s. Has a long thin blade with a flat plastic handle. Used for smaller
screws such as in electrical work.

Fig. 12 SCREWDRIVERS

Pump Screwdriver. Pump operated on the Archimedes principle. Pushing or pumping

the handle turns the screwdriver via the screw mechanism. May be selected to lock or
screw in or screw out.

Phillips. Blade head has a cruciform shape tapered to the correct angle. The end is
machined with four tapered flutes that provide correct engagement with the slots and
faces of the cruciform recessed head of the screw.

Electric. These are usually battery powered and are re-chargeable. Bits are supplied of
different sizes and shapes that fit into a chuck or adapter. The electric motor can be
controlled in such a way that provides for a varying speed and torque output.

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All screw slots or recess should be cleared of paint or dirt before applying the
screwdriver head and the shaft of the screwdriver should be aligned with the screw
during use. Blade fit in the screw is most important otherwise the screw head will be
damaged making removal or tightening difficult. Use correct size screwdriver and
never grind the flat blade to a chisel head.

Fig. 13 TYPES OF BLADE

SPANNERS

These are supplied in a variety of forms and have the size marking stamped on them.
This size relates to the size of nut or bolt to which it fits, eg

¼ BSF
⅜ BSW
0 BA etc.

or, which is common, the spanner is marked with the across flats size, eg

32mm
⅞” etc

This size relates to the distance across the flats of the nut or bolt.

Open-Ended Spanners . Made of high carbon steel with a different size at each end.
The length of the spanner is indicative of the torque to be applied to the nut/bolt
(based on the strength of the average person). The greater the size, the longer the
spanner. This rule also applies to ring spanners.

Ring Spanners. These give full enclosure to the bolt head or nut. Each corner fits
snugly with an angle in the aperture of the spanner and is usually bi-hexagonal to
facilitate its use when angular movement is restricted. Supplied in double-ended form
to fit nuts of consecutive sizes, the ends are generally off set but straight shank types
are available.

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 Fig. 14 OPEN-ENDED SPANNER

Fig. 15 RING SPANNER

Box Spanners. These also fully enclose the nut or bolt head and are particularly
useful where access to the nut or bolt head is restricted to the centre line of the screw
axis – automobile spark plugs for example.

Fig. 16 BOX SPANNER WITH TOMMY BAR

Socket Spanners. These are used with various types of attachments and again this
type of spanner fully encloses the nut or bolt head. The socket aperture is bi-
hexagonal at one end and at the other end the aperture is square to take the various
attachments. Attachments can include: extension bar; drive bar; T bar; universal
joint; flexible extension bar and reversible ratchet. Socket spanners are usually
supplied in sets complete with the requisite attachments.

‘C’ Spanners. Used on ring nuts with recesses cut round the circumference to
accommodate the lug on the spanner.

Peg Spanners. Two round pegs protruding from the flat surface engage in
corresponding holes in special nut or screw plates.

Splined Spanners. For use on circular splined nuts.

Adjustable Spanners. These are supplied in various forms and should not be used if
the correct size ‘ordinary’ spanner is available.

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Fig. 17 SOCKETS & ATTACHMENTS

Fig. 18 ‘C’ SPANNER

Fig. 19 PEG SPANNER

Fig. 20 SPLINED SPANNER

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 Fig. 21 ADJUSTABLE SPANNER

Torque Spanners. These will be dealt with in more detail under the heading Torque
Loading. In most instances a socket is used to fit the square drive of the torque
spanner.

HACKSAWS

These are designed to cut most types of metals and other hard materials. They
usually consist of a frame, handle and removable blade.

The frame is made of mild steel and may be of fixed length or adjustable length to suit
various lengths of blades. The blade is usually located on two pins – one at each end
of the frame.

There are two main types of blade:

(i) High carbon flexible steel, hardened and tempered.

(ii) High Speed Steel, contains 14% tungsten. Remains sharp over a longer
period but is more brittle and expensive.

Blades are classified by their length, material and number of teeth per inch (pitch).
The number of teeth per inch varies from 14 (coarse) to 32 (fine). Normal blade
lengths are 8 inches (203mm), 10 inches (254mm) and 12 inches (305mm) but other
lengths are available.

Fig. 22 CUTTING THICK & THIN MATERIAL

The choice of blade depends on the type of material to be cut. Soft metals (eg
brass, aluminium etc) require coarse pitch blades. Hard metals (eg iron and steel)
require fine pitch blades.

The shape and thickness of the material must also be considered. At least three
teeth must be in contact with the material at any time, therefore, fine blades must
always be used for tubing and thin metals.

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QUESTION List the checks and precautions to take when using a hacksaw? (10
mins)

ANSWER There are lots of checks and precautions to take. Some are:

(a) Choose the correct type of blade.

(b) Choose the correct length of blade with the correct pitch (teeth
per inch - tpi).
(c) Fit the blade to the frame with the teeth pointing away from the
handle.
(d) Tension the blade correctly by taking up the slack then
applying two or three turns of the wing nut.
(e) Make sure that the work is secured in the vice.
(f) Use long steady strokes using the whole length of the blade
releasing the pressure on the back stroke.

Other Types of Metal Cutting Saws

Junior Hacksaw. Uses a small flexible blade usually with 32tpi. It is used for general
light work where a standard hacksaw would be too large. The blades have pins at
each end, which fit into slots in the frame. Tension is applied by the elasticity of the
frame.

Piercing Saw. Uses a very fine (32 – 80tpi) blade. The frame is deeper than the Junior
Hacksaw and it is used for cutting intricate shapes in sheet metal.

Coping Saw. Uses a coarse (14tpi) blade. The blade fits in a frame similar to the
Junior Hacksaw but it can be swivelled to any angle and is used for cutting shapes in
soft materials such as wood.

Tension Files (eg Abrafiles). The blades are made from a specially heat-treated flexible
steel wire with small burrs cut into them and using links they can be fitted to a
standard hacksaw frame. They are useful for cutting intricate shapes as they can cut
in any direction and do not clog. Blades are obtainable in three grades:

* Fine
* Medium
* Coarse

HAND FILES

Used for the removal of metal to an accuracy of plus or minus about 0.001”
(0.025mm) – with skill.

Files are made from High Carbon Steel and consist of the body, which is hardened
and tempered, and a tang which is left relatively soft. A handle is fitted, usually made
from wood (Beech or Ash) and a ferrule made from steel or brass. The ferrule prevents
the wooden handle from splitting. Some files are supplied already fitted with a plastic
handle.

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 Fig. 23 A HAND FILE

Classification

Files are classified by length, cut, section and grade.

Length This is the length of the file excluding the tang.

Section This is the cross-section of the file:

(a) Flat – Usually a double cut file and is used for general work.
Sometimes one edge is left without teeth to permit working
against a finished surface.

(b) Half Round – This file tapers towards the tip. One surface is flat
and the other is curved. It is a general purpose file which can also
be used for filing concave surfaces. It is double cut on both sides.

Fig. 24 FLAT FILE

Fig. 25 HALF ROUND FILE

(c) Triangular or Three Square – This file has three sides each at 60°
to the others. It tapers towards the tip and is used for filing in
awkward corners and angles less than 90°. It is double cut on all
surfaces.

(d) Square – Used for slotting, grooving and finishing square edges. It
tapers for part of its length and is double cut on all surfaces.

Fig. 26 THREE SQUARE FILE

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 Fig. 27 SQUARE FILE

(e) Round – Used for filing out concave surfaces and holes. Usually
double cut and tapering towards the end. Small round files are
sometimes called ‘rat tails’.

Fig. 28 ROUND FILE

Cut

This denotes the type of teeth.

(a) Single Cut – Used mainly on hard metals. The teeth are formed by a
series of cuts parallel to each other but at a small angle.

(b) Double Cut – Are the most widely used. They have two series of cuts
which cross each other, one series being coarser than the other. The
teeth of these files tend to clog more easily than single cut files.

Fig. 29 CUT OF A FILE

(c) Dreadnought – Suitable for heavy cutting of soft metals. They are single
cut files but with teeth curved in an arc.

(d) Rasp – These files are used for coarse work on soft materials (eg lead,
wood etc). Each tooth is cut separately by a single pointed tool.

Grade

This defines the depth and spacing of the teeth. The grades are (in decreasing order of
coarseness:

(a) Bastard – A coarse grade which removes metal fairly quickly. Intended
for roughing out, or completion of a job where finish is unimportant.

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 (b) Second Cut – A finer grade which gives a better finish but is slower
cutting. The most common grade.

(c) Smooth – The teeth are shallow and closely set enabling a good finish to
be obtained. Cuts comparatively slowly and should be used for finishing
work only.

(d) Dead Smooth – The smoothest grade of file. Not often used.

Filing Method

Cross filing (holding the file at both ends and using the file at right angles to the work)
is used for general-purpose work and for squaring and roughing down. Draw filing
(holding the file in line with the work) is used for finishing and for most filing work.
Once the cross filing has been completed, the surfaces can be draw finished until all
the cross filing marks have disappeared.

QUESTION Can you list 4 or 5 precautions to be observed when filing? (10 mins)

ANSWER The precautions include:

1. Never use a file without a handle. Most files are supplied with a
handle attached.
2. Always use the length, type and grade of file appropriate for the
job.
3. Secure the work in the vice (if possible) so that it is rigid and
positioned to enable filing to be done horizontally.
4. Whenever possible use the full length of the file for each stroke.
Do no rush, and as the file only cuts on the forward stroke relieve
the pressure on the return.
5. Keep the file teeth clean using a scratch card. Where clogging
material cannot be removed by this method, pick it out with a
sharp point (ice pick). Chalk rubbed on the teeth during the final
finish helps prevent clogging – and produces a finer finish.
6. New files should, if possible, be used first on brass, cast iron or
similar metals before using on steel. This helps to harden them
off.
7. Files are brittle. To prevent breakage or dulling of teeth, store
them separately after use and do not strike them with, or on, any
other hard material.

VICES

The Bench Vice - provides rigid support for work at the bench. It allows both hands to
be used when sawing, filing, drilling, bending etc.

The body of the vice is normally manufactured from cast iron and has detachable
hardened steel jaws. It is made in two parts:

(a) The main body, which contains a fixed nut or half nut and is bolted to
the workbench.

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 (b) The sliding part which fits into the main body and is moved backwards
and forwards by means of a screw thread. This screw thread engages
with the nut in the main body. Turning the screw thread, by means of a
tommy bar, in a clockwise direction closes the jaws and in an anti-
clockwise direction opens the jaws.

Some vices have a quick release mechanism, which allows the sliding part to be
positioned quickly. With a quick release mechanism, a half nut is used and operation
of a lever disengages the half nut from the screw thread. The screw thread is usually a
single start square or buttress type.

Objects with machined or smooth surfaces can be protected, when held in a vice, by
using clams. These can be made from copper, lead or aluminium. Tubing can be
protected by the use of hardwood ‘V’ blocks.

Fig. 30 THE BENCH VICE

Precautions and Maintenance

The vice should be mounted such that the top of the vice is level with the workers
elbow when he/she is standing (or sitting for some disabled) next to the vice.
Precautions include:

* Ensure the vice securing bolts are tight.

* Ensure the vice is clean.
* Clean the vice after use.
* Keep the screw thread lightly lubricated.
* Never use the vice as an anvil for hammering on.

Vices are classified by the width of their jaws, common size being 100mm (4 inches).

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The Machine Vice – used on drilling and shaping machines to hold the work piece.

The body of the vice is manufactured from cast iron or steel and the base is slotted so
that it can be bolted down to hold the work steady. For light drilling using a pillar
drill, the vice can be held by hand.

The design of machine vices varies, but they all give a parallel grip. As with the Bench
Vice, one jaw is fixed and the other is sliding. The sliding jaw is moved by a screw
thread, which is turned either by a knurled handle, a tommy bar or a cranked handle.
No quick release mechanism is fitted to this type of vice.

Take care, when drilling, not to drill into the base of the vice. If possible, position a
piece of wood under the work to be drilled.

Fig. 31 THE MACHINE VICE

Toolmakers Clamp - used for holding small pieces of work together for assembling,
riveting or screwing.

They are made of case-hardened mild steel. A clip screwed to the top jaw locates
screw A and thus prevents the jaws falling together when being adjusted. This type of
clamp gives a parallel grip in all positions. The jaws are adjusted to approximately the
correct position and the final tightening is done by first adjusting screw A and then
screw B.

The clamp is classified by the length of the jaws (normally 50 to 150mm).

Hand Vice - used for holding work for drilling, riveting etc. The body is made from
steel and the jaws hardened and tempered. The spring is to keep the jaws apart with
the wing nut providing the clamping action.

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 Fig. 32 TOOLMAKERS CLAMP

Fig. 33 HAND VICE

CHISELS

Chisels are made from high carbon steel, hardened and tempered or nickel alloy steel
specially heat-treated to give a lasting cutting edge. The chamfered head is left soft
otherwise it would crack under repeated hammer blows.

Types of Chisels and Their Uses

1. Flat – Used for general chipping work such as parting metal sheet or
cutting flat surfaces prior to filing.
2. Crosscut – Used for cutting grooves in a flat surface.
3. Diamond Point – Used for cleaning out corners and rectifying incorrect
drill starts.
4. Half Round – Used for cutting half round bottomed grooves and may
also be used for rectifying incorrect drill starts.

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Selecting the Correct Chisel for the Job

Consideration must be given to both the nature of the work and the material to be
cut. The nature of the work governs the size and shape of the chisel. The type of
material governs the cutting angle. For example, the cutting angle of aluminium alloy
is 30°, mild steel 60° and hard steel 70-75°.

Care of Chisels

A damaged chisel edge is sharpened on a grindstone and finished on an oilstone.

During grinding, the cutting edge must be kept cool by frequent dipping in water. The
end of the chisel struck by the hammer should be kept free from ragged ends and
burrs by grinding.

Fig. 34 CHISELS

SCRAPERS

These are made of high carbon steel hardened or tempered. They are used to produce
a very accurate finish on the surface that has already been as accurately finished as
possible by filing or machining.

Used mostly on steel. It is essential for scrapers to have a sharp cutting edge and this
is obtained by grinding on a grind stone followed by sharpening on an oil stone. When
not in use, scrapers should be stored with their cutting edges suitably protected.

The types of scraper in general use are:

1. Flat – Used to produce accurate flat surfaces.

2. Three Square – Useful for working in awkward corners.
3. Half Round – Used for scraping curved surfaces such as bearings.

To produce a flat surface, it is necessary to use a surface plate and Engineers Blue (a
blue marking ink). Make sure that the surface plate and the work are clean.

Smear a thin layer if Engineers Blue on to the surface plate, then place the work on
the surface plate and move it backwards and forwards. Remove the work, and the
high spots will be coloured blue. Remove the high spots using a scraper and then rub
the work on the surface plate again. Keep repeating the above procedure until the
work is as flat as possible. For some work a dead smooth file can be used in place of a
scraper.

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The same procedure can be used with journal bearings by applying engineers blue to
the journal.

Fig. 35 SCRAPERS

DRILL BITS

Used for drilling holes and are available in various forms to meet different
requirements. Are manufactured from high carbon steel or alloy steel. Alloy steel drills
are sometimes referred to as high-speed drills as they can be used at much higher
cutting rates than high carbon steel drills. High-speed drills contain 14% tungsten,
which allows them to run hotter without affecting the temper (heat treatment).

The following types of drills are in general use:

Flat Drills – Simple to manufacturer but tend to drill inaccurate holes. They are slow
cutting, power wasting and do not clear the swarf produced. This leads to clogging
and overheating. The cutting angle varies for 5° for hard material, to 20° for soft
material such as brass. The point angle is 45°.

Bottoming Drills – Used to finish the bottom of a blind hole. A standard twist drill
could be modified for the same purpose.

Arboring or Peg Drills – Used for counter-boring holes to provide a good seating for a
Bolt head or nut. It is also used to drill holes to receive a cheese head screw. The
projecting pin on this type of drill must be the same diameter as the hole to be
counter-bored.

Fig. 36 FLAT, BOTTOMING & ARBORING DRILLS

Twist Drills – The most common type of drill bit in general use. The shank is the plain
portion of the drill that provides the drive. The flutes allow for swarf clearance and
provide a means to allow coolant and lubricant access. The land provides for
clearance to reduce friction.

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The web of the drill increases in thickness from the tip to the shank to provide extra
strength. At the tip of the drill, the web forms a chisel edge.

The cutting angel is normally 59°, (from the centre line), the cutting edges being of
equal angle and length. The angle between the web and the cutting edge is 130° and
the clearance angle is 12°. On large drills the web may be thinned by local grinding to
reduce the size of this non-cutting edge.

Fig. 37 TWIST DRILL

NOTE. The cutting angel may be altered to suit specific drilling operations, eg
aluminium 90°, brass 118°, cast iron 118°, copper 90°, hard steel 130°, mild steel
118°, plastics 90°.

Fig. 38 DETAILS OF TWIST DRILL ANGLES

Cutting Speeds

This depends on size, type of drill and the material being drilled, eg

¼” twist drill cutting mild steel at 400 rpm

¼” twist drill cutting brass at 800 rpm
⅛” twist drill on a certain metal 800 rpm
½” twist drill on same metal at 200 rpm

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In general, speeds depend on the peripheral speed of the drill so the larger the drill
the slower the rpm and the harder the material the slower the rpm.

Most smaller drill bits are placed in a self centring chuck on the drilling machine and
the grip exerted by the chuck is adequate, but a stronger grip is required with larger
drills so they usually have a ‘Morse Taper’ terminating in a flat tang. The Morse Taper
(1 in 20) engages directly with the tapered adapter of the drilling machine. A slot is
provided in the adapter to remove the drill by inserting a wedge on top of the drill
tang and tapping the wedge with a hammer to free the drill.

Fig. 39 MORSE TAPER DRILL & ADAPTER

QUESTION Do you know of any other ‘standard’ tapers? (5 mins)

ANSWER Taper pins 1 in 48

Taper keys 1 in 100

Lubrication

Prevents excessive heat by reducing friction, and helps preserves the temper of the
drill. It also helps reduce the heat at the cutting edge by transferring it away.

Suitable Lubricants:

Mild Steel – Cutting oil or soapy water.

High Carbon Steel – Turpentine or paraffin.
Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys – Paraffin.
Brass & Cast Iron – No lubricant needed.

TAPS

Taps are used for cutting internal (female) screw threads. They are manufactured
from high carbon or alloy steel hardened and tempered. They are fluted to provide
cutting edges, the shank is tough with the end squared to allow it to be turned with a
hand wrench. Taps are supplied in sets of three except for BA sizes where the second
tap is omitted. Markings on the shank include, type of thread, the size and the
number of tpi.

- 23 -
 Fig. 40 A SECOND TAP

Types of Tap

1. Taper Tap – Used for starting the thread and is tapered from the tip to
the sixth thread. The tip diameter is equal to the root diameter of the
threads. It will cut a full thread in a through hole.

2. Second Tap – Used to deepen the thread cut by the taper tap in a blind
hole or a hole through thick material. It is less tapered than the taper
tap.

3. Plug Tap – Used to finish the thread cutting at the bottom of a blind hole
or a hole through thick material. It is not tapered at all.

QUESTION What is a blind hole? (2 mins)

ANSWER A hole that does not go completely through the metal.

Cutting Internal Threads

(a) The first step in producing a well-cut internal screw thread is to drill a hole of
the correct size. This should be the core diameter of the thread, but practically,
the hole needs to be slightly larger to prevent the tap from binding and possibly
breaking.

- 24 -
 To find the correct drill to use, consult an Engineers Pocket Book, which will
give tapping drill sizes. If the book is not available, the correct drill size may be
obtained by:

(i) Measuring the core diameter and taking the nearest size drill which is
slightly larger than the core diameter.
(ii) Select a drill which will just pass through a nut of the correct size.
(iii) The drill size may be specified on the shank of the tap.

(b) Having drilled a hole to the correct dimensions fit the tap with a hand wrench
and enter the tap into the hole perpendicular to the face. Turn in the cutting
direction until the tap just starts to cut.
(c) Check the tap is sat in the hole square by using a square.
(d) Continue turning in the cutting direction for half a turn, then reverse the
direction for a quarter turn. Continue the process – ½ turn forward ¼ back -
until the tap bottoms in the hole or protrudes from the other side of the hole.
This continuous action will break the cuttings into chips and prevent straining
the tap.
(e) Continue cutting the thread as described until either the bottom of a blind hole
has been reached or the full cutting length of the tap has been used.
(f) Change to the second or plug tap as required and continue until the thread has
been properly cut.
(g) Lubricate the work using the same lubricant as for drilling.

QUESTION Sometimes the tap may break in the hole – usually through poor
engineering practices. Can you think of any reasons why it might break?
(3 or 4 reasons – 5 mins)

ANSWER My list is as follows:

(a) Using an incorrect tap size.
(b) Hole too small.
(c) Trying to force a tap too far down a blind hole.
(d) Turning tap clockwise all the time.
(e) Lack of lubrication.

Removing a Broken Tap

(a) If a sufficient amount of the tap is projecting above the surface it is sometimes
possible to remove the tap with a pair of pliers.
(b) Providing the melting point of the work piece is well above the annealing
temperature of the tap, anneal both the work and the tap. The tap can then be
drilled out and the hole re-tapped. (This is a difficult process to do and may
affect the heat treatment of the work so should only be carried out by qualified
and experienced engineers).
(c) Large taps may be unscrewed or broken into pieces with a punch or chisel.
(d) Broken taps can be removed using an extractor. There are two types:

(i) A screw extractor which has a left-hand thread. It requires the tap to be
annealed and drilled.
(ii) For larger taps only, an extractor can be used that has a set of prongs
which fit inside the flutes of the tap. No drilling or annealing is required.

- 25 -
(e) Using an Ezi-Out. A tapered coarse threaded tap with a left-handed thread,
more or less the same thing as an extractor. The broken tap is drilled and the
Ezi-Out is screwed in anti-clockwise. The Ezi-Out is tapered and as it is
screwed in so it tightens in the hole and will (hopefully) cause the tap to screw
out.

Broken taps are notoriously difficult to remove. It is best not to break them in the first
place.

DIES

These are for cutting male threads. There are two types of die:

Circular – This type is generally used for cutting smaller threads. Slight adjustment
can be effected by the screws in the side of the stock. The die thread is tapered to
allow an easier start to be made. When fitting the die to the stock, the tapered side
must always be away from the shoulder of the stock.

Fig. 41 DIE AND STOCK

Rectangular – This is a two-piece die which is adjustable and is used for cutting larger
diameter threads. Two or three cuts may be required to cut the full thread, the die
being closed up after each cut. The die has tapered threads to allow easier starting.
The engraved numbers on the two halves must be fitted on the same side.

Fig. 42 ADJUSTABLE DIES & STOCK

- 26 -
Cutting External Threads (Using Circular Die)

(a) Secure the work in the vice.

(b) Slightly taper the rod end to assist the start. The round rod must have an
external diameter equal to the major or crest diameter of the thread to be cut.
(c) Place the correct die in the stock and slacken the two outer screws. Tighten the
centre screw and re-tighten the outer screws.
(d) Place the stock and die squarely on the rod and commence cutting the thread
using the same technique as for taps (½ turn forward ¼ turn back).
(e) With the thread cut, try a new nut on the new thread.
(f) If further cutting is required, slightly loosen the centre screw of the stock,
tighten the two outer screws and re-tighten the centre screw.
(g) Repeat the process in (d), (e) and (f) until the nut is a good fit on the thread.

Die Nuts

These are similar in shape to a hexagon or square nut and are used to clean or
restore a thread that has become damaged. They are turned using a spanner.

Fig. 43 DIE NUTS

Precautions Result if not observed

1. Use taps in the correct order. Difficulty in starting the thread,

possible tap Breakage.

2. Ensure the die is the right way Difficulty in starting the thread.
round in the stock.

3. Chamfer the rod before starting Difficulty in starting the thread.

the die.

4. Use the correct size tapping drill. Oversize holes result in a partial
thread. Undersize holes may
result in a broken tap.

5. Check for squareness once Broken taps. Badly damaged

cutting has started. thread.

6. Ensure blind hole is deep Hole too shallow in depth may

enough to allow for clearance cause a broken tap.
of chippings.

- 27 -
 7. Use a cutting solution where Overheating, binding, seizure
necessary. and consequent tap breakage.
Ragged or stripped thread.

8. When tapping a deep blind hole Tap breakage.

withdraw the tap occasionally
to clear chippings.

9. Take a ‘roughing’ cut with an Poorly furnished thread,

undersize die first then follow stripped thread.
with a ‘finishing’ cut.

Note. All thread cutting is done by hand – unless you are a Machine Tool Setter and
Operator.

QUESTION If you had to cut a male and female mating thread, which one would you
cut first and why? (5 mins)

ANSWER: The female thread should be cut first (taps). When the male thread is cut
the die is set to its largest setting on the first cut and is adjusted on
subsequent cuts so as to obtain a good fit between the male and female
thread, (occasionally trying the male thread in the female).

REAMERS

Reamers are used to finish drilled holes to accurate dimensions and give a smooth
internal finish. They are manufactured from high carbon or alloy steel and the flutes
provide a series of cutting edges. The amount of metal than can be removed by a
parallel reamer depends on its size and the type of material being used. As a rough
guide, the amount of metal that can be removed from a ½ inch (13mm) diameter hole
by a parallel reamer is about 0.005 inch (0.127mm). With larger holes, a
correspondingly larger amount of metal can be removed.

Type of reamers include:

Parallel – These only cut to one size and may have straight or spiral flutes. The size is
marked on the reamer.

Expanding – These have separate blades that slide in slots which taper in depth. The
blades are held in position by two nuts. Alteration to the cutting size is made by
loosening one nut and tightening the other. They are parallel reamers.

The reamer has 5 blades and therefore cannot be checked for size by a micrometer or
vernier calliper. It has to be checked using a Ring Gauge. (For information on
micrometers, verniers and ring gauges see the section Precision Measuring
Instruments in this book).

Shell – These are hollow fixed size reamers used on close fitting mandrels or boring
bars, which pass through the hollow centre. Used to ream long or deep holes such as
gun barrels.

- 28 -
 Fig. 44 REAMER TYPES

Taper – These are used to prepare holes for taper pins. They are supplied in sets
numbered from 0 to 10, the taper being the same as the standard for taper pins (ie 1
in 48).

Piloted – These ensure that the reamer cuts centrally in the hole and is easier to use.
The tapered end makes the reamer cut progressively and also ensures a neater hole at
the entry end.

Machine Reamers – Have a tapered drive (Morse Taper) to fit directly into a drilling
machine or lathe.

Precautions During Use

Great care must be taken to ensure that the reamer enters square in the hole.
Reamers must be hand turned and only in a clockwise direction whilst cutting and
removing. The same lubricants should be used as for drilling.

When drilling a hole that is to be reamed:

* Select a drill 0.005 inch (0.127mm) smaller than the reamer for a
parallel reamer or 0.005 inch smaller than the small end of the reamer
for taper reaming.

* Always ream by hand using the correct wrench – except for machine
reaming – and that should be carried out by a qualified person.

* When taper reaming for a taper pin, ream the hole so that the pin is a
hand push fit with the small end flush with the bottom of the work. The
taper pin is then hammered in (gently) so that ¼ inch (6.35mm)
protrudes from the bottom with ⅛ inch (3.17mm) showing at the top.
The taper pin is then locked into position by either:

(a) Peening.
(b) Bending the legs out (split taper pin).
(c) A nut (threaded taper pin).

- 29 -
RULES - MEASURING

The Steel Rule. Made from high carbon steel hardened and tempered, usually
graduated in Imperial and metric units. Classified by length. Rules must be kept free
from rust and must not be subjected to rough usage. After use clean and lightly oil.

Measuring Tapes. Can be obtained in various lengths usually marked off with both
metric and Imperial scales. Tapes are made of linen, plastic or flexible steel. When
storing steel tapes clean and lightly oil. Remember that linen and plastic tapes can be
made to stretch if pulled – and this can affect the indicated measurement.

DIVIDERS

Used to set out distances, scribe arcs and circles. The legs are made of high carbon
steel hardened and tempered; the spring of spring steel and the adjusting screw mild
steel. Classified by length of legs. The points should be kept sharp and the legs of
equal length by stoning on the outside. When not in use the points should be
protected by sticking them into a cork.

Fig. 45 DIVIDERS AND RULE

TRAMMELS

These consist of a bar with up to 3 adjustable trammel points attached. Using two of
the points the trammel can be used to scribe large circles. Using 3 points the trammel
can be used to check bow in a member. The points may be adjusted for both height
and position on the bar.

- 30 -
 Fig. 46 THREE POINT TRAMMEL

SCRIBERS

Used for marking lines on the surfaces of work. They are made of high carbon steel
hardened and tempered. Classified by length, like the points of dividers must be kept
sharp and protected when not in use.

Note. Materials such as aluminium alloy are notch sensitive – ie will soon start to
develop
a crack at a notch or scriber mark when under stress. Therefore never scribe a line on
aluminium and its alloys unless it is a cutting line.

THE FITTER’S SQUARE

Used for marking off lines at right angles to an edge or surface and checking for
squareness. Squares are made of high carbon steel hardened and tempered. The
square should be kept clean, lightly oiled and it its box when not in use.

To check for accuracy, check it against a master square or place on a known true
edge, scribe a line down using the blade as the guide. Reverse the square on the
known true edge and any error will show up as twice the actual error.

Fig. 47 THE FITTER’S SQUARE

- 31 -
THE COMBINATION SET

A combination set is three tools in one, consisting of a blade which is graduated in

inch and metric scales and fitted as necessary to one of the heads. There is a central
groove along its entire length, which accommodates the clamping screw fitted to each
head. There are three heads made of close grained cast iron:

(a) Square Head – This is provided with two working faces one at 90°, the other at
45° to the blade thus enabling it to be used as a square and as a mitre. A
spirit level is incorporated in the head and a scriber is also fitted.

(b) Centre Head – This is used in conjunction with the blade to locate the centre of
round bars, etc.

(c) Protractor Head – This is used in conjunction with the blade for checking or
setting any angle up to 180°. A spirit level is often incorporated. The accuracy
is 1°.

Fig. 48 THE COMBINATION SET

Fig. 49 USE OF HEADS

- 32 -
CALLIPERS

Inside and outside - are used in conjunction with a rule or other measuring
instrument for measuring distances between or over surfaces or for comparing
measurements. To set the callipers set them close to size, by hand, then adjust to the
correct size by tapping one leg (not at the point) against a rigid object. Odd leg
callipers are used for finding the centre of a round bar and for scribing lines parallel
to an edge or surface. Sometimes referred to as ‘Jenny Callipers’.

Fig. 50 TYPES OF CALLIPERS

SURFACE PLATES

Made of cast iron and accurately machined and hand finished to provide a dead flat
surface. Provided with three feet to prevent rock; the undersides are ribbed to prevent
warping and twisting of the top face. Always keep clean and lightly oiled. When not in
use keep covered with a wooden cover preferably felt lined soaked with oil. Avoid
damaging surface. Do not drop tools or work onto the surface.

Fig. 51 SURFACE PLATE

MARKING-OFF TABLE

Used to support work for marking-out and form a base from which measurements can
be taken. Made of close-grained cast iron and are strongly ribbed on the underside for
rigidity. They are free standing – usually with 3 legs to prevent wobble.

- 33 -
The working surface is accurately machined to give a true flat surface and the edges
are square. To preserve the surface no work other than marking out or measurement
should be done on the table. After use the surface should be lightly oiled and then
covered with a wooden cover.

VEE BLOCKS

Used on the marking-off table or a surface plate to support round work, they are
made of cast iron or mild steel case hardened and are supplied in matching pairs,
each one of the pair being stamped with the same identification number. All surfaces
are accurately machined and the Vee angle is 90°. Vee blocks are classified by the
maximum diameter of the work which can be held. Can also support square work at
45°.

Fig. 52 VEE BLOCK BOLTED TO ANGLE PLATE

SCRIBING BLOCK

Used to mark out lines parallel to a true surface, such as the marking off table or
surface plate. The accurately machined base is made of cast iron or case hardened
mild steel. The scriber is made of high carbon steel hardened and tempered. The pillar
angel and scriber height and angle are adjustable. A fine adjustment is provided for
the pillar angle. Dowels in the base can be pushed down to serve as guides against
the edge of the marking off table so that lines can be scribed parallel to the edge. Are
classified by the height of the pillar.

- 34 -
 Fig. 53 USING VEE BLOCKS SCRIBING BLOCK AND A DTI

Fig. 54 SCRIBING BLOCK BEING USED TO MARK THE

LARGEST SQUARE ON THE END OF A ROUND BAR

KEY SEAT RULE

Sometimes called a box square and is used for marking off lines parallel to the axis on
the surface of tubes or round bars. Are usually graduated and are classified by their
length.

- 35 -
 MARKING OUT

To Find Centre of Round Bar

Fit bar in Vee blocks on the surface table; with the scribing block set approximately
one third diameter scribe a line across the end of the bar; rotate bat 90°; check with
fitters square for verticality; with scriber set at the same height scribe a second line;
rotate bar 90°; check line is vertical and scribe third line; rotate bar 90°; check line
again with square; scribe fourth line with the square. Join corners diagonally and
where diagonals intersect this is the centre of the bar.

Fig. 55 FINDING THE CENTRE OF A ROUND BAR

To Find The Largest Square on The End of a Round Bar

First find the centre – as described above. Scribe a line horizontally across the bar
through the centre. Rotate this line to the vertical and draw another horizontal line
through the centre. Where these lines touch the outside of the bar draw a horizontal
line using the scribing block. Rotate this to the vertical and repeat drawing the
horizontal line. Repeat this process twice more to produce the square.

Marking the Largest Hexagon

Find the centre. Set dividers to a radius slightly smaller than the bar radius and
scribe a circle. With the dividers set at this setting, mark off the radius around the
circumference of the circle. Scribe lines from the centre through each of these points
then rotate bar ’till one of these lines is horizontal. Reset scriber, scribe a line across
the top of the ends of the two lines. Rotate bar and repeat process till hexagon is
complete.

- 36 -
 Fig. 56 MARKING THE LARGEST HEXAGON

To Find The Centre of a Tube

There are two methods. One method is to plug the tube with a piece of wood and find
the centre as if it were solid. The other method is described below.

Fig. 57 FINDING THE CENTRE OF A ROUND TUBE

- 37 -
Set the tube in Vee blocks. Set the scriber by eye to the centre height and make a
small mark at each side. Rotate the tube approximately 180° till the mark on the far
side comes to the scriber point where the second mark was made, move the scriber to
the other side and make another small mark which will be near but unlikely to be on
the original mark.

Reset scriber towards original mark ¼ of the distance between, repeat the marking
process disregarding the original marks. This time the marks should nearly coincide
with the other mark.

Repeat the operation until the marks agree. The scriber is now set at the centre
height.

PRECISION MEASURING EQUIPMENT

This section deals mainly with micrometers and verniers, the accuracy of which
depends on:

* The user.
* The temperature of the instrument/work place.
* The type and quality of the instrument.

The best quality instruments are made from a steel with a low co-efficient of linier
expansion – sometimes called INVAR steel, which contains 36% nickel.

Some instruments have a temperature marked on them and this is the temperature at
which they are most accurate. It is usually 68°F or 20°C.

Modern micrometers and verniers can be electronic. In other words there is an

electronic display on the frame of the micrometer or sliding jaw of the vernier to
display the reading that the instrument is set to. The value is simply read straight
from the display. We will concentrate on the non-electronic type sometimes called a
non-digital instrument.

In general the accuracy of each instrument is:

English micrometer 0.001in (0.001”).

English vernier micrometer 0.0001in (0.0001”).
Metric micrometer 0.01mm
Metric vernier micrometer 0.001mm
English vernier calliper 0.001in (0.001”).
Metric vernier calliper 0.02mm
Vernier Bevel protractor 5min (60 mins in one degree)

THE MICROMETER

The micrometer principle can be applied to:

* Outside micrometers
* Inside micrometers
* Depth gauges, etc

- 38 -
The principle of the micrometer is the same in all cases. If we know the numbers of
threads per inch (tpi) and we know that it is a single start thread, then we know that
the lead equals the pitch.

QUESTION Some revision on screw threads. What do the following terms mean?
(10 mins)

* Single start thread.

* Lead.
* Pitch.

ANSWER A single start thread is a thread which only has one helix, ie one single
thread only cut as a helix on the surface of a round bar or on the inside
of a hole.

The pitch of a thread is the distance between two adjacent threads.

The lead of a screw thread is the amount of axial movement the nut or
bolt makes in one revolution.

So if we know the lead then we can divide the rotating part into a number of equal
divisions (say N), so each division will represent an Nth of the lead when rotated. This
is the principle of all micrometers.

The Outside Micrometer (English)

All outside micrometers are similar in construction, it is the thread and type of scales
on them which will dictate whether they are English or metric.

The main components of the instrument are the frame, anvil, barrel, spindle and the
sleeve (or thimble).

The frame is suitably machined to receive the anvil, which is usually a press fit. The
mating faces of the anvil and the spindle are made of tungsten or tipped with carbide
to reduce wear.

The barrel is pressed into the frame to permit rotational adjustment. The barrel is
engraved with a graduated scale equal in length to the range of the instrument,
usually 1 inch or 25mm and is bored and internally screwed with an accurate fine
thread.

An integral sleeve on the spindle surrounds the barrel, this is usually knurled at the
outer end to facilitate easy finger action. Incorporated is a ratchet or friction device to
eliminate variation of pressure between the contacting faces. The inner end of the
sleeve is bevelled to prevent barrel scale shadows and the bevelled portion is
graduated into equal divisions around its periphery.

The micrometer has a range of 1 inch and are supplied as a naught to 1 inch
micrometer, 1 to 2 inch micrometer, 2 to 3 inch micrometer etc. This size is stamped
on the frame.

- 39 -
 Fig. 58 THE EXTERNAL MICROMETER (ENGLISH)

The Principle of the English Micrometer

The spindle has 40tpi. This means that one complete turn of the barrel (and spindle)
will move the spindle forward or back by 1/40th of an inch. The thimble is divided into
25 equal divisions. This means that one division will have an axial movement of 1/25th
of a 1/40th. which equals 1/1000th.

= 1 x 1
25 40

= 1
1000

= 0.001in.

Fig. 59 READING THE ENGLISH MICROMETER

- 40 -
Reading the Micrometer

With any micrometer the principle is the same – note the size of the micrometer (0 to
1 inch for example on an English mic) - read all the whole divisions showing on the
barrel (eg all the tenths and the remaining fortieths on an English mic) then note
which line on the thimble aligns with the datum line on the barrel.

Record each on a piece of paper and add to provide the total – this is the micrometer
reading. In more detail using figure 59 as an example:

1. First read off the number of inches on the frame (assume a 0 to 1 inch mic).

= 0.000

2. Read the number of complete tenths showing (4).

= 0.400

3. Now the number of complete fortieths showing – in this case (3).

= 0.025 x 3 = 0.075

4. Now find the coinciding line on the thimble with the datum line (8).

= 0.008

Adding these figures up we get: 0.000

0.400
0.075
0.008
-------
0.483

With no graduation on the thimble coincides with the barrel scale line, the graduation
to be read is that nearest to the datum.

THE VERNIER MICROMETER

An additional scale on the barrel based on the vernier principle, gives a greater degree
of accuracy.

The vernier scale on the barrel consists of ten divisions (or 5 where the thimble
divisions are thous and half thous) whose total length is equal to nine divisions on the
thimble – 9 thous (or 9 half thous). The length of the vernier scale = 0.009 (or 0.0045)
and is divided into 10 equal divisions (or 5 equal divisions).

This means that each vernier scale division = 0.0009 in and therefore the difference
between one vernier scale division (0.0009) and one thimble scale division (0.001) is
0.0001.

- 41 -
 Fig. 60 READING THE VERNIER SCALE

The micrometer is read the same as a normal micrometer for the inches, tenths,
fortieths and thousandths of an inch. For the ten thousandths of an inch reading the
coinciding line is found on the vernier scale. In figure 60, assuming that the third
vernier division coincides with a sleeve graduation then the reading is:

Barrel Scale = 0.4500

Thimble Scale = 0.0195 (Note the thimble scale – thous and half thous)
Vernier Scale = 0.0003
---------
0.4698

THE METRIC MICROMETER

The spindle and barrel threads of the metric micrometer have a pitch of 0.5mm. The
barrel is graduated in millimetres and half millimetres and the thimble is graduated
into fifty equal division, so that each represents 1/50th of 0.5 = 0.01mm.

The range of the micrometer is 25mm and are supplied as 0 to 25mm, 25 to 50mm,
50 to 75mm micrometer etc.

Fig. 61 READING THE METRIC MICROMETER

- 42 -
Reading the Micrometer

To read the micrometer, the highest figure on the barrel scale is read together with
any additional visible half-millimetre division, in the example (figure 61) it is 5mm +
0.50 = 5.5mm. To this is added the number of hundredths of a millimetre which are
indicated by the co-incident thimble and barrel datum lines, in this case 14, so that
the reading is 5.5 + 0.14 = 5.64mm.

There may also be a vernier scale, the length of the scale is equal to nine thimble
divisions (0.09mm) and is sub-divided into five equal divisions so that each division is
equal to 0.018mm. The difference between two thimble divisions (0.02) and one
vernier division (0.018) is 0.02 – 0.018 = 0.002mm.

Care and Use of the Micrometer

Keep the anvil and spindle end clean. Hold the micrometer truly square with the job.
Turn the thimble by the ratchet stud only – this ensures that the same grip is taken
at each measurement. Look at the micrometer after it is set, before handing to
another.

(a) Checking – Always check for correct zero setting. To do this, screw the spindle
down on to the anvil till the ratchet slips (0 to 1in and 0 to 25mm size only).
The reading should be 0.000 in. If incorrect the micrometer must be re-set.

For larger micrometers, test pieces are provided, exactly 1in, 2in, 3in, (or
25mm, 50mm, 75mm) etc, which are ‘measured’ between anvil and spindle.
The micrometer scale should again read zero.

(b) Adjustment – The method of adjustment of the zero setting can be by rotating
the barrel on the frame by using a ‘C’ spanner, or by adjusting the thimble on
the spindle, or by adjusting the anvil in the frame. Play in the spindle threads
is taken up by adjusting a nut at the thimble end of the barrel; this nut is
normally covered by the thimble.

THE INTERNAL MICROMETER

This is used to measure internal dimensions. It is similar in principle to the external

type, but usually has ½ in micrometer adjustment only. The micrometer consists of a
micrometer head and different lengths of detachable extension rods, which enable the
instrument to be used for a range of sizes, eg 2in to 8in. (With the 8in set, 6 rods are
supplied, ie 2-3in, 3-4in, 4-5in, 5-6in, 6-7in, and 7-8in. The set comes complete with
a collar which allows each rod to measure 2½ to 3, 3½ to 4 etc. When fitting a rod,
the collar must butt against the rod flanges and the micrometer head.

The collar is used to allow an extension to read to its upper limit, eg to measure from
7½in to 8in the 7in rod is used together with the ½in collar.

The length marked on the rod includes the 2in length of the micrometer head.

- 43 -
 Fig. 62 INTERNAL MICROMETER

Checking

To check an internal micrometer, set it to read any figure, eg 3 in and measure it with
an accurate external micrometer; the readings should coincide.

THE THREE POINT MICROMETER

This type of internal micrometer has three measuring anvils mounted 120° to each
other. The inner ends of the anvils are angled and screw cut to suit the conical
measuring thread, springs fitted inside the cap ensure contact between them.
Generally these instruments have accuracies similar to that of other micrometers but
with the three anvils it is not possible to measure ovality.

MICROMETER DEPTH GAUGE

Used for measuring the depth of holes or recesses and the height of spigots and
shoulders from some reference plane on the component.

The instrument reads opposite to the other types of micrometer, ie from right to left.

These instruments are usually supplied with detachable spindles, to increase the
range of measurements.

- 44 -
 Fig. 63 MICROMETER DEPTH GAUGE

OTHER TYPES OF MICROMETER

Other types of micrometers are available including:

* Calliper Micrometer – Similar to a vernier calliper but uses a micrometer

head with a range limited to 1in.

* Variable Range Micrometer – Has a set of different length detachable

anvils.

* Recess Micrometer – Supplied with a long anvil to get into deep recesses.

* Deep Frame Micrometer – Has a deep frame for access around sheet
metal plates, etc. May need two people to handle it.

* Tube Micrometer – The anvil has a convex face and the micrometer is
used for checking the thicknesses of curved surfaces.

* Screw Thread Micrometer – The anvil has a Vee slot cut in it and the
spindle is ground to a point. It is used for the accurate measurement of
Vee threads.

THE VERNIER

The vernier system consists of a fixed Main Scale and a moving Vernier Scale.
Assuming the two scales are of equal length and that the total number of divisions in
one scale is greater by one division than the number of divisions in the other scale.
The difference between the length of one division on one of the scales and one division
on the other scale will give the accuracy of the instrument.

- 45 -
ENGLISH VERNIER CALLIPER

These have a vernier scale to read to 0.001in. They give inside as well as outside
measurements and have a much greater range than a micrometer – but are usually
more difficult to read. They frequently have small ‘target points’ for setting dividers
accurately. Both English and metric scales may be incorporated in the same
instrument.

The 24/25 System

The main scale is graduated in inches, tenths and fortieths (each fortieth equals
0.025). The vernier scale on the sliding jaw is formed by taking a length of twenty-four
main scale subdivisions (24 x 0.025 = 0.6in) and dividing this into 25 equal parts (0.6
÷ 25 = 0.024in). The difference in size between one main scale subdivision (0.025in)
and one vernier scale division (0.024in) is 0.001in.

Fig. 64 THE VERNIER CALLIPER

The 49/50 System

The main scale is graduated in inches, tenths and twentieths (one twentieth equals
0.050in). 49 main scale divisions are divided into 50 equal divisions to form the
vernier scale. 49 main scale divisions = 49 x 0.050in = 2.450 in (0.050 is the length
of each main scale division).

One vernier scale division = 2.450 = 0.049in

50

But one main scale division = 0.050in

Therefore the difference in size between one main scale division and one vernier scale
division = 0.050 – 0.049 = 0.001in.

- 46 -
 Fig. 65 THE 49/50 VERNIER SCALE

Note the accuracy of the two systems is the same – though some say the
49/50 system is easier to read. I’m not so sure.

Reading the Vernier

Always read the main scale up to the zero on the vernier. Then read the vernier reading
from the zero on the vernier scale to the coinciding line.

1. Read the total number of whole inches.

2. Then read the remaining number of whole tenths.
3. Then read the remaining number of whole twentieths or fortieths.
4. Then check the coinciding line on the vernier with any line on the main
scale to give the thousandths reading.

Example 1 English Vernier (24/25)

EXAMPLE 1 24/25 ENGLISH VERNIER

* Reading the inches (1) = 1.000

* Reading the tenths (2) = 0.200 (0.100 x 2)
* Reading the fortieths (3) = 0.075 (0.025 x 3)
* Reading the coinciding line
(9th) on the vernier scale = 0.009
TOTAL 1.284in

The reading is 1.284 in.

- 47 -
Example 2 English Vernier (49/50)

EXAMPLE 2 ENGLISH 49/50 VERNIER

* Reading the inches (5) = 5.000

* Reading the tenths (2) = 0.200 (reading up to the zero on
the vernier scale)
* Reading the twentieths (1) = 0.050
* Reading the coinciding line
(26th) on the vernier scale = 0.026
-------
TOTAL 5.276

The reading is 5.276 in.

Note. Try the readings of the verniers shown in figures 64 and 65. The author gets
them to be 1.230in (assuming the 30th vernier division lines up) and 5.148in
(assuming the 48th division lines up) respectively.

METRIC VERNIER CALLIPER

Again these may be based on the 24/24 or the 49/50 principle.

The 49/50 System

The main scale is graduated in millimetres, each tenth division being numbered 0, 1,
2, 3 etc, and centimetres (10 millimetres = 1 centimetre). The vernier scale is formed
by taking 49 main scale divisions (49 x 1 = 49mm) and dividing by fifty (49 ÷ 50 =
0.98mm). The difference between one main scale division (1.00) and one vernier scale
division (.98) is 0.02mm. Note. It is not as accurate as the metric micrometer.

The 24/25 System

With this system the main scale is graduated in millimetres and half millimetres and
the vernier scale is formed by taking 24 main scale divisions (0.5mm) and dividing by
25 equal divisions which make up the vernier scale. 24 main scale divisions (½
millimetres) = 12mm. 12mm divided by 25 = 0.48mm. So each main scale division
= 0.5mm and each vernier scale division = 0.48mm and the difference between the
two = 0.02mm.

- 48 -
Reading the Metric Vernier

1. Read the main scale (total complete divisions) either mm or ½ mm

depending on the system up to the zero on the vernier scale.
2. Read to the coinciding line on the vernier scale to give the reading to an
accuracy of 0.02mm.

Example 1 Metric 49/50 Vernier

EXAMPLE 1 METRIC 49/50 VERNIER

* Read the complete number of millimetres

showing up to the zero of the vernier scale (32) = 32.00mm
* Find the coinciding line on the vernier scale and
either:
(a) Count this line (31) and double it (62).
This represents 0.62mm = 0.62mm
or
(b) Take the nearest numbered division to
the left of the coinciding line, ie 6 and
call this tenths of a mm = 0.6mm
and each division thereafter is equal to
0.02mm. In this case ……………… = 0.02mm
TOTAL 32.62mm

The reading is 32.62 mm.

Example 2 24/25 Metric Vernier

EXAMPLE 2 24/24 METRIC VERNIER

- 49 -
 * Read the complete number of mm (11). = 11.00mm
* Read the complete number of ½mm (1). = 00.50mm
* Read the coinciding line on the vernier
scale (12) and double it. = 00.24mm
-------
TOTAL 11.74mm

The reading is 11.74 mm.

Checks Before Use

(a) The zero reading must be checked by cleaning the gauging faces and
closing the jaws using firm finger pressure, securing the frame with the
locking screw. The zero lines of the main scale and vernier scale should
line up.
(b) Hold the instrument to a good source of light; dirt, wear or strain
causing poor contact will be indicated by light between the faces.
(c) Check the vernier scale locating screws for security and check the zero
reading. If the zero marks are not aligned – note the error. Adjustment
can be made by loosening the vernier scale securing screws and re-
positioning the vernier scale to read zero, then tightening the securing
screws and re-checking. A magnifying glass will help.
(d) Check a known dimension toward the limit of the instruments
measuring capacity, this checks any distortion or ‘bowing’ of the beam.
(e) Ideally use the instrument at its calibrated temperature (marked on one
of the jaws). Keep the instrument at this temperature for an hour or so
to allow it to acclimatise.

VERNIER HEIGHT GAUGE

This instrument is similar in construction to the vernier calliper except that the fixed
jaw is shaped as a base, the lower face of which is accurately ground to form a
contact face at right angles to the beam.

The upper face of the moving jaw is the surface from which measurements are taken.
This surface is parallel with the under face of the base. The measuring jaw is provided
with a detachable scriber to permit accurate marking out, but can also be used for
internal measurement. The scale of the instrument does not start at zero, the surface
table is in fact the zero.

Precautions

It is essential that the base of the instrument is at all times in contact with the
surface table. It is advisable not to pre-set the instrument, otherwise the scriber may
override the work piece. The scriber should be lowered/raised slowly using the fine
adjustment until the required feel is obtained.

The instrument is not particularly stable when standing on its base, so when not in
use it is advisable to lay it on its side

- 50 -
 Fig. 66 VERNIER HEIGHT GAUGE

When checking the instrument, since the main scale does not start at zero, it is
necessary to use an accurately ground distance piece, which is usually supplied with
the instrument. Adjustment of the vernier scale is similar to that used for the vernier
calliper.

DEPTH GAUGES

The depth gauge is used for measuring the depth of holes and recesses or the height
of spigots and shoulders from some reference plane. In its simplest form the gauge
consists of a graduated blade or rod, fitted with a moveable head or stock, which can
be locked in any position. Some gauges use a vernier scale or a micrometer head to
measure with the same accuracies as the ordinary verniers or micrometers. Examples
of the three main types are shown in figure 67.

blank

- 51 -
 Fig. 67 DEPTH GAUGES

THE VERNIER BEVEL PROTRACTOR

The bevel protractor consists of a blade, a graduated protractor head and a stock. The
angles between the stock and the blade are indicated by the position of the zero on
the vernier scale. The main scale is marked off in degrees (0 to 360 or 0 to 90 and 90
to 0). The vernier scale/s are formed by taking 23 main scale divisions (23°) and
dividing by 12.

23° = 1° 55’
12

The accuracy is obtained by comparing one vernier scale division (1° 55’) to two main
scale divisions (2°). The difference is 5’ (5 mins).

Fig. 68 VERNIER PROTRACTOR

- 52 -
Reading the Protractor

1. Read from the zero on the main scale to the zero on the vernier scale to
find the degrees.
2. Continue to read in the same direction to find the coinciding line on the
vernier scale. This will give the number of minutes.

Example 1 Vernier Bevel Protractor

EXAMPLE 1 VERNIER BEVEL PROTRACTOR

Reading Angle B

* The number of complete degrees to the zero

of the vernier scale. = 63°
* Continuing to read in the same direction the
coinciding line is found to be 15. = 00 15’
-------
TOTAL 63°15’

Reading angle A gives a reading of 116°45’.

A quick check should show that the sum of the readings should equal 180°. If they do
not you have mis-read the instrument.

blank

- 53 -
Example 2 Bevel Protractor

EXAMPLE 2 BEVEL PROTRACTOR

* Reading from the left to the zero on the

vernier scale gives 42° = 42°
* Continuing in the same direction to find
30’ as the coinciding line = 30’
--------
TOTAL 42°30’

* Reading from the right to the zero on the venier

gives 137° (note that the zero on the vernier has
gone passed the 90° mark on the main scale = 137°
* Continue reading in the same direction to find
the coinciding line which is 30’ = 30’
---------
TOTAL 137°30’
----------

THE DIAL TEST INDICATOR

This instrument, which is also known as a DTI or Clock Gauge, is used not for
measuring the actual size of a component, but to indicate small differences in size, or
for indicating the amount of eccentricity of revolving parts. It can also be used to
measure the ‘run out’ or movement of mechanisms which have a small amount of
movement. It is graduated in thousandths of an inch – every tenth thousandth being
marked – and reads up to 0.050in clockwise and 0.050in counter-clockwise. Metric
DTIs have a similar range.

In use it is rigidly supported (by being fixed to a scribing block on a marking-off table
or bolted to the component), and is set to the first height (or length) with which
comparison is desired. This is done by moving the plunger to the first height (or
length). The pointer will settle to any position on and dial. Adjust the zero on the DTI
by turning the bezel until the zero on the dial is under the needle.

If any other height (or length) is measured (by sliding it under the plunger, or by
moving the part to another position) the needle will indicate on the + side it if is larger
and on the – side if it is smaller. The difference in size will in each case be read off
directly on the dial.

- 54 -
 Fig. 69 DIAL TEST INDICTOR

BORE GAUGE

Similar to the DTI but used to measure the ovality of a bore. The contact face of the
gauge is operated by a lightly spring loaded plunger fitted to a ‘T’ shaped head, the
plunger movement being transmitted by a small curved rod retained in a slide and a
long rod housed in the hollow handle. The curved rod limits the plunger movement,
so sets of distance pieces and extension rods are supplied to increase the range –
generally 2in to 6in. The spring-loaded anvil centralises the tool in the bore to ensure
that the spindle and plunger make contact with the wall of the bore across its
diameter.

Fig. 70 BORE GAUGE

- 55 -
FEELER GAUGES

‘Feelers’ are used to measure small clearances or gaps. The flexible steel blades are
graduated in thickness in most cases from 1½ to 15 thousandths of an inch. The
blades are secured in a stock when not in use. Classified by length of blades, After
use should be lightly oiled and kept in the stock to prevent distortion. Metric sets are
also available.

Fig. 71 USING FEELER GAUGES

THE RADIUS GAUGE

This is similar to a feeler gauge except that the blades are thicker (and all of the same
thickness) and an internal and external radius is cut on each blade. Each blade is
also marked with the radius size. Metric and English sets are available.

Fig. 72 RADIUS GAUGES

SCREW PITCH GAUGE

Similar to a radius gauge but each blade has teeth cut on its edge and marked with
the number of tpi. The stock into which the blades fit when not in use is marked with
the thread angle.

- 56 -
 Fig. 73 SCREW PITCH GAUGES

WIRE GAUGE

This is used to determine the thickness of wire and sheet metal. It is made of sheet
steel with accurately ground slots round the edges, each slot being numbered
according to the specification. This could be British Standard Institute (British
Standard Wire Gauge), or American Wire Gauge for example. To use the gauge try the
metal sheet or wire into the slots until the nearest fit is obtained, then read off the
number at the side of that slot.

The gauge may be rectangular or circular in shape.

Fig. 74 WIRE GAUGE

SLIP GAUGES

Slip Gauges or Johannson blocks are mainly used as standards for checking the
accuracy of working gauges. They are simply rectangular blocks of hardened and
polished steel, but they are ground to extremely high standards of accuracy in length,
flatness and parallelism. The full set of slips comprises 81 pieces, graduated in size,
to enable any length from 0.05in to over 10 inches to be built up in steps of 0.0001in.
The slips are used in conjunction with a set of accessories to produce fixed
gauges/angles for a wide variety of purposes. Figure 75 shows three examples of
check gauges built-up from slips to give accurate linier measurements and figure 77
shows how they can be used, in conjunction with a Sine Bar, to produce accurate
angles.

- 57 -
 Fig. 75 TYPICAL BUILD-UPS OF SLIP GAUGES

As the blocks are manufactured to limits of accuracy of a few millionths of an inch,

slips must always be handled with the utmost care; unnecessary wear of the slip
surfaces must be avoided as far as possible. Because of the very high surface finish
(smoothness), atmospheric pressure is sufficient to cause the slips to adhere together
with a very tenancies grip, and in this condition they are said to ‘wrung’ together;
when wrung together, a parcel of slips can be handled like a solid block. Wringing is
not possible if the adjacent surfaces of two slips are separated by even the finest film
of dust or oil, or by a layer of air; when building up a gauge length, the slips should
first be wiped with a dry fine chamois leather (not a cloth) and then placed in contact
by sliding one surface onto the other. Conversely, separation of wrung slips should
always be done by sliding one slip off the other – never try to pull them apart – it is
not possible.

Always dismantle slips immediately after use as they will bond together if left
assembled too long. Once bonding has taken place then the slips involved are useless
– and they are very expensive. Once wrung apart the separate slips are placed in their
separate compartments in the boxed set.

SINE BARS

The sine bar is an accurately machined bar which is used on a surface table or
surface plate. It is used in conjunction with slip gauges and rollers to produce
accurate angles (to an accuracy of 1 minute) (60 minutes = 1 degree).

Machined angles can be checked against it as can other instruments such as the
vernier bevel protractor, the clinometer etc.

- 58 -
 Fig. 76 THE SINE BAR

To use the sine bar a knowledge of trigonometry is required – in particular the Sine
Ratio. (Refer to the books in this series entitled Mathematics).

QUESTION As a quick bit of revision, can you state what the sine of an angle is? (5
mins)

ANSWER The sine of an angle (of a right angel triangle) is the ratio of the Opposite
side over the Hypotenuse.

SINE = O (SOH)
H

If we know the length of the sides O and H then we can divide O by H

and then find the angle by using Sine tables or a scientific calculator.

For accuracy it is essential that:

(a) The rollers are of the same diameter.

(b) The centre distance (L) is absolutely correct.
(c) The centre line (XX) of the rollers is absolutely parallel with the edge (YY)
of the bar.

Example

In figure 77, a sine bar (H = 100mm) is set up and the height O of the slip gauges is
26.15mm. From the angle theta the opposite side (O) is 26.15mm and H = 100mm.
The angle is:

Sine θ = O = 26.15 = 0.2615

H 100

From the Sine table: θ = 15°10’

- 59 -
 Fig. 77 THE SINE BAR IN USE

Another way the sine bar may be used is to calculate the height of the slip gauges to
produce a given angle.

Given an angle of 18°11’, if a 200mm sine bar is used, the height of the slip gauges
would be:

O = Sine θ or O = H x Sine θ
H

O = 200 x Sine 18°11’

From the tables sine 18°11’ = 0.3120 so

O = 200 x 0.3120

= 62.40mm

LIMIT GAUGES

Sometimes called GO/NO GO gauges and are used to check that components are
within wear limits. Used mostly in component bays with the plug gauge used for
checking holes and the gap gauge used for checking shafts.

The ends of the gauges are indicated which is the GO and which is the NOT GO end
with sometimes actual dimensions given as well.

When using a plug gauge the GO end (small end) should go into the hole – if it does
not the hole is too small, and the NOT GO end should not – if it does go in it indicates
the hole is too big (warn beyond limits). The difference between the sizes indicates the
maximum permissible wear. The flats on the side of the plugs allow for the checking
of ovality.

For the gap gauge the GO side is the larger (if it doesn’t fit, the shaft is too big) and
the smaller end is the NOT GO end indicating the shaft has worn to it's lowest limit.

- 60 -
 Fig. 78 LIMIT GAUGES

THE SPIRIT LEVEL

Consists of a body made of wood or metal which houses a curved glass tube partially
filled with a liquid. The tube is sealed at both ends. Will indicate when a surface is
horizontal by the bubble being central on the zero datum line. Treat the instrument
with care and check for accuracy before use (reversal on a straight edge held in a vice
- the straight edge is protected by a cloth and set level using the spirit level, the level
is turned around on the straight edge and if the bubble still reads zero it is accurate).

Fig. 79 SPIRIT LEVEL

ADJUSTABLE LEVEL

These vary in design but may be used to measure angles up to 10° from the
horizontal. The vertical scale reads in degrees and one complete turn of the adjusting
micrometer knob will alter this scale by one degree. The adjusting knob has a scale of
it's own which is divided into 60 equal divisions. Each division represents one sixtieth
of a degree which is equal to one minute.

The instrument is placed on the surface to be measured and the knob turned until
the bubble reads zero - the degrees are read from the vertical scale and the minutes
from the rotating scale.

To check for accuracy set both scales to zero and then proceed as for the spirit level.

- 61 -
 Fig. 80 ADJUSTABLE LEVEL

CLINOMETER

Used for checking angles from 0 to 90°. The mechanical clino shown has a
mechanism which consists of a worm gear and quadrant. Rotation of the quick
release knob rotates the worm which moves the quadrant. The spirit level and degree
scale are attached to the quadrant. One revolution of the quick release knob moves
the spirit level and degree scale through one degree.

Fig. 81 THE MECHANICAL CLINOMETER

The quick release knob has it's diameter divided into 60 equal divisions so that
movement of one of these is equal to one minute of ark. The quick release knob may
be moved down against a spring to release the quadrant, thus allowing quick
approximate adjustments of the degree scale. To check the instrument, set both
scales to zero and proceed as for the spirit level.

- 62 -
Electronic Clinometer

Sometimes called a Digital Clinometer and can be used to measure angles for 0 to
90°. When switched on and placed on a surface the angle in degrees and minutes is
shown in the window. This can be locked, to be read later if visual access to the
instrument is limited.

POWERED HAND TOOLS

Included in this section are the following portable power tools:

* Torches
* Lead lamps
* Electric mains operated drills
* Battery operated drills
* Riveting guns
* Pneumatic hammers
* Pneumatic millers
* Pneumatic nibblers

Torches

These are supplied in a variety of forms and may be battery operated or re-chargeable.

The important point to note is that they should be of the spark proof type, ie approved
for use on aircraft.

Lead Lamps

These also should be of the safety type with the glass cover protected with a wire
frame. Leads should be so arranged that they are not is a position so that people can
trip on them and they do not pass over liquids of any kind, or over sharp edges.

Lead lamps and the lead should be inspected before used checking for security of the
plug and drill. Check for damage and contamination of the lamp and plug, and check
the cable for contamination and fraying. If in doubt about its serviceability change it
for another.

Mains Operated Drills

These may have a variable speed control and may have a gearing system to further
enhance the selectable speed range. Not normally used on aircraft because of the
sparks produced at the commutator, but may be used in workshop and other
maintenance areas. Should be inspected before use the same as the lamp.

- 63 -
 Fig. 82 MAINS OPERATED DRILL

When provided with a variable speed control the drill may be used (with the
appropriate bit) as a screwdriver. To place a screwdriver bit or a drill bit, the bit is
locked in the chuck using a chuck key.

Cordless Drill

Similar in operation to the drill described above except that it is powered by re-
chargeable batteries. Generally not so powerful but can be used in remote locations
away from a power source. Should be kept fully charged and the same precautions
and inspections apply – except for the lead of course.

Fig. 83 CORDLESS DRILL

Pneumatic Drills (Windy Drills)

These are pneumatically powered using air pressure in the range 60 to 100psi. They
are controlled by an open/close air valve and may have a straight or angled drive.
They are vane operated, rotate at about 2500rpm and are significantly safer to use
than electrical drills as there is no possibility of electric shock, or a spark – to cause a
fire.

The ‘straight windy’ uses a chuck to hold the drill bit whilst the ‘angled windies’ use a
collet. The correct size collet must be used with each drill bit.

Before use check for general serviceability and put a few drops of thin machine oil
into the air inlet before connecting the air supply line.

- 64 -
 Fig. 84 STRAIGHT ‘WINDY’

Fig. 85 RIGHT ANGLED ‘WINDY’

Pneumatic Riveting Hammers

These come in a variety of shapes and sizes. In general air pressure (between 60 to
100psi) causes a steel plunger to move up and down inside a barrel. As it does so it
strikes a rivet snap secured in the end by a retaining spring.

Fig. 86 PNEUMATIC HAMMER

- 65 -
Before use check the hammer for damage and check that the correct rivet snap is
securely fitted by its retaining spring onto the body. Before actually riveting it is
advisable to try the hammer out first to ascertain how strong the hammer action is.
This should be done by placing the snap against a firm wooden block (held in a vice
for example) and operating the push button.

Never operate the hammer without the snap being supported – if the spring was to
loosen and come off the snap would fly and could injure someone.

TORQUE LOADING

QUESTION Can you define torque and state the units it is measured in?
(5 mins)

ANSWER Torque is a twisting action and it is defined as force times perpendicular

distance from the point of application of the force to the fulcrum. In SI
units it is Newtons (N) times metres (m) = Nm, and in imperial units it is
feet (or inches) times lbs = lbs ft or lbs in.

There are several ways of torque loading a nut and bolt assembly without the use of a
torque spanner, eg

* Using a spring balance – to get the required force pulling at right angles
at the end of an open-ended or ring spanner.

* Using Preload Indicator Washers. Special washers that compress when

torqued down by a nut. Consist of an inner and outer washer. The inner
washer is compressed when the nut is tightened down while the outer
washer is moved by the operator using a piece of wire.

At the correct torque loading the inner washer will have compressed
sufficiently to allow the nut to ‘nip’ or hold the outer washer so that it
cannot now be moved. This ‘nipping’ occurs at a pre-determined torque
value.

* Using a micrometer. This is the most accurate method but is limited by

access problems. The bolt is accurately measured for length before any
torque is applied. Torque is then applied using an ordinary spanner or
socket to slowly stretch the bolt a specific length as laid down in the
manual. Thus it is the actual stretch of the bolt that is being measured –
and that is what torque loading is really all about.

The bold will be stretched a little at a time until the required stretch is
achieved (say 0.005in). The assembly will be given a time to settle down
and a measurement taken to see if the stretch has changed – if it has it
will be re-torqued.

It is the most accurate system but can only be used where access is
available to both ends of the bolt with an instrument such as a
micrometer or vernier.

- 66 -
Torque loading, therefore, is a measure of how far the bolt has been stretched and
how tight the joint is being held together.

If a nut/bolt assembly is over-torqued then the bolt material might be stretched

beyond its elastic limit and therefore it will be weakened. If the assembly is under-
torqued then the joint is not held tight enough and movement and failure could occur.

The majority of bolts, nuts or screws on aircraft are subject to a standard torque-
loading dependant on material, thread size, type and lubrication. Different
applications may require a particular torque loading, this will be specified in the
appropriate manual. The normal method of applying a specified torque loading is by
means of a Torque Wrench.

The Technique

This may vary depending on application, but in general the following points apply:

1. Check the manual for torque values.

2. Always inspect the joint, nut and bolt for damage, corrosion and
cleanliness.
3. Assemble, lubricate the threads or keep then dry – as laid down in the
manual. This is important – bolted assemblies have failed in the past
because they have been assembled dry when they should have been
assembled wet – and vice-versa.
4. Apply sealant or anti-seize compound as specified.
5. Run down nut by hand to check for excessive binding. Remember a self-
locking nut should not be able to be run down by hand. (If it can be it is
unserviceable).
6. Using a serviceable torque wrench within test date set to the correct
torque loading and using the correct size socket, torque the nut down
slowly to half the specified value.
7. Undo the nut slightly and slowly torque to the full value.
8. If it has to re-checked after a settling down period – recheck after that
period.
9. Lock the nut by the appropriate means.
10. If the (castellated) nut does not align with the split pin hole in the bolt
then check on torque tolerances laid down in the manual and torque to
within those tolerances to align holes.

NOTE. If several nut bolts/studs are used for joining the same part (such as a
cylinder head), they are usually tightened in sequence.

If they are located in a circle, for example, the first one to be tightened is usually the
one at the 12 o’c position followed by the one at 6 o’c position then:

1 o’c then,
7 o’c then,
2 o’c then,
8 o’c then …………………….

Several clock circles may have to be completed before the correct reading is
obtained on each nut/stud.

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When using sealants in a joint the torque loading of fasteners should be carried out
within the sealant setting time. After ten minutes but within twice the application life
of the sealant, the loading should be checked and re-applied as necessary.

Pipeline Union Nuts

To ensure freedom from leaks, the parts of flared pipe couplings need bedding in. By
adopting the following procedure leaks will be avoided on this type of coupling.

1. Assemble the parts of the joint, run up the nut by hand.

2. Tighten to specified torque loading.
3. Slacken nut half a turn then re-apply specified torque loading.

NOTE. Torque loading is not usually specified for flareless couplings.

The method recommended is to tighten the nut with the fingers until positive
resistance is felt, then tighten a further half to one turn.

Lubrication of components is usually by the type of fluid used in the system.

Connections in oxygen systems must be dry unless a special preparation is
recommended. PTFE tape may be recommended for oxygen systems.

QUESTION Why must oxygen connections not be lubricated? (2 mins)

ANSWER The combination of high-pressure oxygen and most lubricants will cause
an explosion.

Stiffnuts

In order to check the effectiveness of the friction element of a stiffnut it is general

practice to turn the nut onto its mating thread by hand. If it is possible to pass the
thread through the friction element by hand, then the nut should be discarded.

However, certain manufacturers specify limits of frictional torque for various thread
types and sizes and in these instances each stiffnut should be checked with a torque
wrench before re-use. Usually the stiffnut torque value is then added to the specified
torque value for the nut/bolt assembly, and this value is set on the torque wrench.

Torque Tables

Tables of standard torque values for difference thread types and sizes and for special
applications should be found in the AMM. Manuals for older types of aircraft may be
found to contain only special torque loading requirements and a single table
applicable to non self-locking nuts. In these cases the frictional torque of a stiffnut
must be added to the torque quoted for the type and size of thread. Tables usually
specify the upper and lower limits of torque, but if a single figure is quoted, it is
generally accepted that this may be exceeded for the purpose of lining up a split pin
hole, tab washer or locking plate. However, an upper torque limit should not be
exceeded and nuts should not be slackened to line up locking devices.

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 Torque (lb in)

Thread (UNF) Tension Shear

10-32 20 to 25 12 to 15
1/4-28 60 to 70 30 to 40
5/16-24 115 to 125 60 to 85
3/8-24 200 to 215 95 to 110
7/16-20 335 to 355 270 to 300
1/2-20 500 to 530 290 to 410
9/16-18 720 to 760 480 to 600
5/8-18 980 to 1020 660 to 780
3/4-16 1650 to 1790 1300 to 1500
7/8-14 2500 to 2700 1500 to 1800
1-12 3500 to 3700 2200 to 3300

TABLE OF LUBRICATED TORQUE VALUES

The table shows typical torque loading figures for steel non self-locking lubricated
Unified threads. It is applicable to British Standards A102 to A217 or American AN3
to AN20 bolts and nuts, and should not be used when different values are specified by
the equipment manufacturers. If applied to self-locking fasteners, the frictional torque
of the nut should be added to the figures shown.

There should be no need to commit the table to memory.

TORQUE WRENCHES

In general can be classified as Dial Type or Break Type. Dial type wrenches have some
form of indicator on them to indicate how much torque is being applied. They may
have an actual dial on the handle or may have an indicator bar attached to the socket
drive.

The break type wrench is set to a particular value either by checking it against a
master rig (eg an Acratork test rig) or by setting the torque value on a micrometer type
scale on the handle of the wrench.

Dial Wrench

Figure 87 shows a typical dial wrench. When under torque loading the drive shaft
tends to twist (a very small amount) against a spring beam within the unit. This twist
is transmitted to a lever, which moves a pointer on the dial indicated in
lb in or Nm.

The dial should be checked for zero prior to use.

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 Fig. 87 DIAL TYPE WRENCH

Beam Type Dial Wrench

This works on the principle that the handle of the wrench flexes when torque is
applied. The indicator bar does not, so it will read the torque value on the scale. It
should be checked for zero before use.

Fig. 88 BEAM TYPE DIAL WRENCH

Break Type Wrench (Acratork)

The drawing below shows a typical break type wrench. The particular type has no
setting scale on it and each time it is set (by adjusting the screw adjuster with a
special spanner) it must be checked on a special checking rig.

It works on the principle that a roller is pushed by a spring into a slot in the cam
mechanism. As torque is applied to the wrench so the roller is pushed out of the cam
slot at a pre-determined value. Increasing the spring pressure, by screwing in the
adjuster, increases the torque setting by pushing the roller more firmly into the slot.

When the torque on the wrench reaches its setting value the roller is forced out of the
slot and the wrench looses all drive to the drive spigot. Care is required when pulling
the wrench back to re-engage the roller with the slot as it can cause the wrench to
move rapidly to its ‘set’ position.

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 Fig. 89 ACRATORK WRENCH

Break Type Wrench (Britool)

This works on a similar principle to the Acratork except that it has a micrometer type
indicator scale on the barrel of the handle. To adjust the setting the adjuster is
screwed in or out (in to increase the setting – out to decrease) and the sliding handle
will move up or down the barrel to indicate the torque set.

Scales on the handle can include lb in, lb ft and Nm.

The torque loading is applied via a helical spring within the barrel body.

Fig. 90 BREAK TYPE WRENCH (BRITOOL)

When the preset torque loading is reached, an audible click is produced and an
indicator bar moves out to give a visual indication. ‘Feel’ is also momentarily relieved.
The wrench does not loose drive so it must never be operated past the position when
the click is heard. The wrench is reset automatically on release of the hand pressure.

For very accurate torque loadings the wrench should be checked on a test rig prior to
use to confirm the barrel readings.

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Extension Spanners

In some cases an extension spanner can be fitted onto the end of a torque wrench.
When this happens the reading on the torque wrench will be less than the actual
torque felt by the nut/bolt.

Fig. 91 EXTENSION SPANNER – 1

When an extension spanner is used the reading on the torque wrench can be found
from the equation:

Reading = Specified Torque x L

D

Fig. 92 EXTENSION SPANNER – 2

If the extension spanner has to be placed at an angle (for access) then all lengths
must be measured perpendicular to the force as shown in figure 88.

Example

Set specified torque = 200 lb in

L = 12in
D = 14in

What will the scale reading be?

Reading = Specified Torque x L

D

= 200 x 12
14

= 171 lb in

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Precautions

Verify that the specified torque and the wrench scale are in the same units, if not the
specified torque should be converted by calculation to the scale units. When torque
loading the wrench, the handle should be lightly gripped and force applied smoothly
at 90° to the axis of the wrench.

Values of torque within the first quarter of the wrench scale may be difficult to read
accurately and some manufacturers specify that the torque wrench selected for a
particular use should have a range where the specified torque falls in the upper range
of the scale.

When using a torque wrench with a floating driving tang so that the direction of
rotation can be reversed, ensure that the driving tang is correctly positioned otherwise
damage to the fasteners may occur before it is noticed. Indicator type torque
wrenches should be checked before use to ensure that the scale reading is zero.

All torque wrenches should be frequently checked for accuracy and a record kept of
the checks – the wrench should have an indication attached as to when the last check
was carried out.

One method of checking is by attaching a spring balance to the centre of the wrench
handle and force applied in the arc of movement. The scale reading on the torque
wrench should be the same as the spring balance reading multiplied by the length of
the wrench. Checks should be carried out at several values on the torque wrench
scale range.

The Acratork Test Rig

Another method of checking and setting torque wrenches is to use the Acratork test
rig (or similar). It has a range of 0 – 400lb ft.

Adapters and different sizes of adjusting keys are provided and the rig can be used to
check any wrench. The following is a description of how to set an Acratork wrench on
the rig.

To check an Acratork wrench remove the end cap from the handle and fit the wrench
in the rig ensuring that the wrench is placed in as nearly horizontal a position as
possible, press downwards on the wrench handle until a sudden drop in resistance of
the handle is felt, return the wrench to the starting position and remove. Set the
pointer on the dial to zero and replace the wrench on the rig, press the handle
downward and note the reading on the dial at the point where the drop in resistance
occurs. This reading is the torque loading to which the wrench is set. To increase the
torque loading, tighten the screw adjuster inside the handle (RH thread) by means of
the adjusting key.

Note this can be done without removing the wrench from the rig. Retest the wrench
and set the adjuster screw until the desired torque loading is obtained. Ensure that
the dot and the arrow on the head of the wrench are in-line (this indicates the roller is
re-engaged with the cam) before removing the wrench from the rig. Refit the handle
end cap and the wrench is then ready for use.

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 Fig. 93 ACRATORK TEST RIG

Checking Torque Wrenches – General

Beam and dial type torque wrenches should be checked for zero reading each time
before use.

All torque wrenches ideally, should be checked for accuracy before use or at intervals
not exceeding 6 months. Those wrenches in greater use should be checked more
frequently. Records should be kept and a label attached indicating when the last test
was carried out and when the next one is due. Those without a setting scale should
be checked and set on a test rig each time before use.

Wrenches can be checked using a test rig or attaching a calibrated spring balance to
the handle and applying a pull at right angles. The torque can be calculated by
multiplying the spring balance reading by the distance from the spring balance to the
fulcrum. This value should be the same as that indicated on the wrench. Several
readings should be obtained over the full range of the wrench.

TENSIOMETERS

Used to check the tension of control cables – for flying controls, engine controls etc.
There are several types available. Two are described below.

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SME Type Tensiometer

Supplied in various marks to suit different sizes of cable. Each tensiometer will fit two
sizes of cable, the sizes being marked on the scales. It is important that the correct
mark of tensiometer is used otherwise inaccurate readings will result.

Fig. 94 SME TYPE TENSIOMETER

Instructions for use.

(a) Fit the instrument where there is a clear run of cable – or as stated in
the aircraft maintenance manual (AMM).
(b) Pull the pointer over to it’s stop.
(c) Pass the cable under the right hand fixed pulley, then over the centre
floating pulley then under the left hand pulley.
(d) Ensure that the tensiometer hangs freely.
(e) Run the tensiometer back and forth along the cable a few inches and tap
the cable until the reading settles down. The tension is indicated in lbf
on the appropriate scale.

Before use, the position of the spring anchorage pin should be checked to see that it
has not moved outside its engraved circle. If movement has occurred the pin should
be restored to its original position. The tensiometer should be checked at regular
intervals by the manufacturer or at an approved standards room.

The Pacific T5 Type Tensiometer

This tensiometer is suitable for various sizes of cable.

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 Fig. 95 FITTING THE T5 TENSIOMETER TO A CABLE

Instructions for use

(a) From the chart supplied find the correct riser to use for the size of cable.
Fit the riser.
(b) Check that the brake is off. Move trigger away from the case - this lowers
the riser.
(c) Over the longest free length of cable possible (or as specified in the AMM)
place the cable under the two sectors and over the riser.
(d) Close the trigger - this raises the riser.
(e) Note the reading on the gauge. (If the reading is to be held operate the
brake lever).
(f) Open the trigger and remove the tensiometer from the cable.
(g) Convert the dial reading to lb tension by reference to a chart.

NOTE. Each tensiometer has its own calibration chart. Make sure the calibration
chart bears the same serial number as the tensiometer.

THE DEAD WEIGHT TESTER

The Dead Weight Tester is used to calibrate Bourdon tube type instruments. The
instrument under test is fitted to the correct dead weight tester (filled with the correct
fluid – the same as is in the system the gauge is to be fitted to). The inlet and outlet
valves are opened and the gauge and unit bled of air ensuring the reservoir is kept
full. With the connections tightened the inlet valve is closed.

Standard masses are placed on the mass carrier (piston platform) and the plunger
screwed in. This raises the mass carrier clear of the body and the pressure is
indicated on the pressure gauge under test. The actual pressure can be calculated by
knowing the area of the piston (A), the total mass of the piston and the masses (M).
Pressure (P) = M/A.

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 Fig. 96 THE DEAD WEIGHT TESTER

For the imperial type tester the piston area = 0.125in2 and the piston mass = 0.125lb.

The calculated pressure is compared with the indicated pressure – they should both
be the same for a serviceable gauge. The process would be repeated with several
different masses to cover the full operating range of the gauge.

These testers tend to be messy affairs and are usually bolted to a liquid proof metal
tray with turned up edges so as to keep spillages to a minimum. The tray is labelled
with the type of fluid used in the tester. In hydraulic test bays there is usually several
dead weight testers – each labelled with the type of fluid used – eg DTD585, Skydrol
etc.

”””””””

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