QUANTUM FIELD THEORY A Modern Introduction MICHIO KAKU City University of New York New York Oxford OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 1993Oxford University Press Oxford New York Toronto Delhi Bombay Calcutta Madras Karachi Kuala Lumpur Singapore Hong Kong Tokyo Nairobi. Dares Salaam Cape Town Melbourne Auckland Madrid and associated companies in Berlin Tbadan Copyright © 1993 by Oxford University Press, Inc. Published by Oxford University Press, Inc., 200 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016. (Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stroed in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of Oxford University Press. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Kaku, Michio. Quantum field theory: a modern introduction/ Michio Kain, P. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-19-507652-4 ISBN 0-19-509158-2 (pbk.) 1. Quantum field theory. 2. Gauge fields (Physics) 3, Standard model (Nuclear physics) L title QC174.45.K34 1993 $30.1'43—de20 92-2704 9876543 Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paperThis book is dedicated to my parents.Preface In the 1960s, there were a number of classic books written on quantum field theory. Because of the phenomenal experimental success of quantum electrodynamics (QED), quantum field theory became a rigorous body of physical knowledge, as established as nonrelativistic quantum mechanics. In the 1970s and 1980s, because of the growing success of gauge theories, it was clear that a typical 1-year course in quantum field theory was rapidly becoming obsolete. A number of advanced books appeared on various aspects of gauge theories, so often a 1-year course on quantum field theory became disjoint, with one book on QED being the basis of the first semester and one of several books on various aspects of gauge theories being the basis of the second semester. Today, because of the success of the Standard Model, it is necessary to con- solidate and expand the typical 1-year quantum field theory course. There is obviously a need for a book for the 1990s, one that presents this material in a coherent fashion and uses the Standard Model as its foundation in the same way that earlier books used QED as their foundation. Because the Standard Model is rapidly becoming as established as QED, there is a need for a textbook whose focus is the Standard Model. AS a consequence, we have divided the book into three parts, which can be used in either a two- or a three-semester format: I; Quantum Fields and Renormalization Il: Gauge Theory and the Standard Model I: Non preturbative Methods and Unification Part I of this book summarizes the development of QED. It provides the foun- dation for a first-semester course on quantum field theory, laying the basis for perturbation theory and renormalization theory. (However, one may also use it in the last semester of a three-semester course on quantum mechanics, treating it as the relativistic continuation of a course on nonrelativistic quantum mechanics.In this fashion, students who are not specializing in high-energy physics will find Part I particularly useful, since perturbation theory and Feynman diagrams have now penetrated into all branches of quantum physics.) In Part II, the Standard Model is the primary focus. This can be used as the basis of a second semester course on quantum field theory. Particular attention is given to the method of path integrals and the phenomenology of the Standard Model. This chapter is especially geared to students wanting an understanding of high-energy physics, where a working knowledge of the Standard Model is a necessity. It is hoped that the student will finish this section with an appreciation of the overwhelming body of experimental evidence pointing to the correctness of the Standard Model. Because the experiments necessary to go beyond the Standard Model are rapidly becoming prohibitively expensive and time consuming, we are also aware that the development of physics into the next decade may become increasingly theoretical, and therefore we feel that an attempt should be made to explore the various theories that take us beyond the Standard Model. Part III of this book, therefore, is geared to the students who wish to pursue more advanced material and can be used in one of two ways. A lecturer may want to treat a few of the chapters in Part II at the end of a typical two semester course on quantum field theory. Or, Part III can be used as the basis of a third semester course. We are providing a variety of topics so that the lecturer may pick and choose the chapters that are most topical and are of interest. We have written Part III to leave as much discretion as possible for the lecturer in using this material. The approach that we have taken in our book differs from that taken in other books in several ways: First, we have tried to consolidate and streamline, as much as possible in a coherent fashion, a large body of information in one book, beginning with QED, leading to the Standard Model, and ending on supersymmetry. Second, we have emphasized the role of group theory, treating many of the features of quantum field theory as the byproduct of the Lorentz, Poincaré, and internal symmetry groups. Viewed in this way, many of the rather arbitrary and seemingly contrived conventions of quantum field theory are seen as a conse- quence of group theory. Group theory, especially in Part I, plays an essential role in understanding unification. Third, we have presented three distinct proofs of renormalization theory. Most books, if they treat renormalization theory at all, only present one proof. However, because of the importance of renormalization theory to today’s research, the serious student may find that a single proof of renormalization is not enough. The student may be ill prepared to handle research when renormalization theory is developed from an entirely different approach. As a consequence, we have presented three different proofs of renormalization theory so that the student can become fluent in at least two different methods. We have presented the originalPreface ix Dyson/Ward proof in Chapter 7. In Part II, we also present two different proofs based on the BPHZ method and the renormalization group. Fourth, we should caution the reader that experimental proof of nonperturba- tive quark confinement or of supersymmetry is absolutely nonexistent. However, since the bulk of current research in theoretical high-energy physics is focused on the material covered in Part II, this section should give the student a brief overview of the main currents in high-energy physics. Moreover, our attitude is to treat nonperturbative field theory and supersymmetries as useful theoretical “laboratories” in which to test many of our notions about quantum field theory. We feel that these techniques in Part Ill, if viewed as a rich, productive laboratory in which to probe the limits of field theory, will yield great dividends for the serious student. We have structured the chapters so that they can be adapted in many different ways to suit different needs. In Part I, for example, the heart of the canonical quantization method is presented in Chapters 3-6. These chapters are essential for building a strong foundation to quantum field theory and Feynman diagrams. Although path integral methods today have proven more flexible for gauge theo- ries, a student will have a much better appreciation for the rigor of quantum field theory by reading these chapters. Chapters 2 and 7, however, can be skipped by the student who either already understands the basics of group theory and renormalization, or who does not want to delve that deeply into the intricacies of quantum field theory. In Part Il, the essential material is contained in Chapters 8-11. In these chap- ters, we develop the necessary material to understand the Standard Model, that is, path integrals, gauge theory, spontaneous symmetry breaking, and phenomenol- ogy. This forms the heart of this section, and cannot be omitted. However, Chapters 12-14 should only be read by the student who wants a much more de- tailed presentation of the subtleties of quantum field theory (BRST, anomalies, renormalization group, etc.). In Part Il, there is great freedom to choose which material to study, depending on the person’s interests. We have written Part III to give the greatest flexibility to different approaches in quantum field theory. For those want an understanding of quark confinement and nonperturbative methods, Chapters 15-17 are essential. The student wishing to investigate Grand Unified Theories should study Chapter 18. However, the student who wishes to understand some of the most exciting theoretical developments of the past decade should read Chapters 19-21. Because of the wide and often confusing range of notations and conventions found in the literature, we have tried to conform, at least in the early chapters, to those appearing in Bjorken and Drell, Itzykson and Zuber, and Cheng and Li. We also choose our metric to be g,y = (+, —, —, —)- We have also included 311 exercises in this book, which appear after each chapter. We consider solving these exercises essential to an understanding of thex Preface material. Often, students complain that they understand the material but cannot do the problems. We feel that this is a contradiction in terms. If one cannot do the exercises, then one does not really fully understand the material. In writing this book, we have tried to avoid two extremes. We have tried to avoid giving an overly tedious treatise of renormalization theory and the obscure intricacies of Feynman graphs. One is reminded of being an apprentice during the Middle Ages, where the emphasis was on mastering highly specialized, arcane techniques and tricks, rather than getting a comprehensive understanding of the field. The other extreme is a shallow approach to theoretical physics, where many vital concepts are deleted because they are considered too difficult for the student. Then the student receives a superficial introduction to the field, creating confusion rather than understanding. Although students may prefer an easier introduction to quantum field theory, ultimately it is the student who suffers. The student will be totally helpless when confronted with research. Even the titles of the high-energy preprints will be incomprehensible. By taking this intermediate approach, we hope to provide the student with a firm foundation in many of the current areas of research, without overwhelming the student in an avalanche of facts. We will consider the book a success if we have been able to avoid these extremes. New York M.K. July 1992Acknowledgments I would especially like to thank J. D. Bjorken, who has made countless productive and useful suggestions in every chapter of this book. This book has greatly benefited from his careful reading and critical comments, which have significantly strengthened the presentation in a number of important places. I would like to thank Dr. Bunji Sakita and Dr. Joseph Birman for their constant support during the writing of this book. I would like to thank A. Das, S. Samuel, H. Chang, D. Karabali, R. Ray, and C. Lee, for reading various chapters of the book and making valuable comments and numerous corrections that have greatly enhanced this book. I would also like to thank my editor Jeffrey Robbins, who has skillfully guided the passage of the three books that I have written for him. I would also like to thank the National Science Foundation and CUNY-FRAP for partial support.Contents I Quantum Fields and Renormalization 1, Why Quantum Field Theory? 3 1.1 Historical Perspective 3 1.2 Strong Interactions 6 1.3. Weak Interactions 8 1.4 Gravitational Interaction 9 1.5 Gauge Revolution uu 1.6 Unification 14 1.7 Action Principle 16 1.8 From First to Second Quantization 21 1.9 Noether’s Theorem 23 1.10 Exercises 30 2. Symmetries and Group Theory 33 2.1 Elements of Group Theory 33 2.2 $0(2) 35 2.3. Representations of $O(2) and U(1) 39 2.4 Representations of SO(3) and SU(2) 42 2.5 Representations of SO(N) 45 2.6 Spinors 48 2.7 LorentzGroup 49 2.8 Representations of the Poincaré Group 53 2.9 Master Groups and Supersymmetry 56 2.10 Exercises 58 3. Spin-0 and } Fields 61 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 Quantization Schemes 61 Klein—Gordon Scalar Field 63 Charged Scalar Field 69 Propagator Theory 72 Dirac Spinor Field 71 Quantizing the Spinor Field 86Contents 3.7 Weyl Neutrinos 93 3.8 Exercises 95 Quantum Electrodynamics 99 4.1 Maxwell’s Equations 99 4.2 Relativistic Quantum Mechanics 102 4.3 Quantizing the Maxwell Field 106 44 Gupta—Bleuler Quantization 112 45 C, P, and T Invariance 115 45.1 Parity 116 45.2 Charge Conjugation 117 45.3 Time Reversal 119 46 CPT Theorem 120 4.7 Exercises 123 . Feynman Rules and LSZ Reduction 127 5.1 Cross Sections 127 5.2 Propagator Theory and Rutherford Scattering 134 5.3 LSZ Reduction Formulas 141 5.4 Reduction of Dirac Spinors 145 5.5 Time Evolution Operator 147 5.6 Wick’s Theorem 151 5.7. Feynman’s Rules 156 5.8 Exercises 159 Scattering Processes and the S Matrix 163 6.1 Compton Effect 163 6.2 Pair Annihilation 170 6.3 Moller Scattering 173 6.4 Bhabha Scattering 176 6.5 Bremsstrahlung 177 6.6 Radiative Corrections 184 6.7 Anomalous Magnetic Moment 189 6.8 Infrared Divergence 194 6.9 Lamb Shift 196 6.10 Dispersion Relations 199 6.11 Exercises 204 . Renormalization of QED 209 7.1. The Renormalization Program 209 7.2 Renormalization Types 212 7.2.1 Nonrenormalizable Theories 213 7.2.2 Renormalizable Theories 215Contents 73 75 76 1d 78 19 xv 7.2.3 Super-renormalizable Theories 216 7.2.4 Finite Theories 217 Overview of Renormalization ing* Theory 218 Overview of Renormalization in QED 227 Types of Regularization 235 Ward-Takahashi Identities 243 Overlapping Divergences 247 Renormalization of QED 250 78.1 StepOne 250 7.8.2 Step Two 251 7.8.3 Step Three 252 7.84 Step Four 254 Exercises 256 II Gauge Theory and the Standard Model 8 Path Integrals 261 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 Postulates of Quantum Mechanics 261 8.1.1 Postulate I 262 8.1.2 Postulate I 262 Derivation of the Schrédinger Equation 272 From First to Second Quantization 273 Generator of Connected Graphs 279 Loop Expansion 284 Integration over Grassmann Variables 285 Schwinger-Dyson Equations 288 Exercises 291 9. Gauge Theory 295 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 Local Symmetry 295 Faddeev-Popov Gauge Fixing 298 Feynman Rules for Gauge Theory 304 Coulomb Gauge 307 The Gribov Ambiguity 311 Equivalence of the Coulomb and Landau Gauge 314 Exercises 318 10. The Weinberg-Salam Model 321 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 Broken Symmetry in Nature 321 The Higgs Mechanism 326 Weak Interactions 333 Weinberg—Salam Model 335 Lepton Decay 338xvi 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9 Contents R; Gauge 342 *t Hooft Gauge 345 Coleman—Weinberg Mechanism 348 Exercises 357 11. The Standard Model 363 11 11.2 11.3 114 11.5 11.6 117 118 The Quark Model 363 QcD 374 11.2.1 Spin-Statistics Problem 375 11.2.2 Pair Annihilation 376 11.2.3 Jets 376 11.2.4 Absence of Exotics 377 11.2.5 Pion Decay 378 11.2.6 Asymptotic Freedom 378 11.2.7 Confinement 378 11.2.8 Chiral Symmetry 379 11.2.9 No Anomalies 380 Jets 380 Current Algebra 384 PCAC and the Adler—Weisberger Relation 389 11.5.1 CVC 390 11.5.2 PCAC 391 11.5.3 Adler—Weisberger Relation 393 Mixing Angle and Decay Processes 396 11.6.1 Purely Leptonic Decays 397 11.6.2 Semileptonic Decays 397 11.6.3 Nonleptonic Decays 398 GIM Mechanism and Kobayashi-Maskawa Matrix 399 Exercises 403 12. Ward Identities, BRST, and Anomalies 407 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 127 12.8 Ward-Takahashi Identity 407 Slavnov-Taylor Identities All BRST Quantization 412 Anomalies 414 Non-Abelian Anomalies 419 QCD and Pion Decay into Gamma Rays 420 Fujikawa’s Method 424 Exercises 429 13. BPHZ Renormalization of Gauge Theories 431 13.1 13.2 Counterterms in Gauge Theory 431 Dimensional Regularization of Gauge Theory 436Contents xvii 13.3. BPHZ Renormalization 441 13.4 Forests and Skeletons 447 13.5 Does Quantum Field Theory Really Exist? 451 13.6 Exercises 456 14. QCD and the Renormalization Group 459 14.1 Deep Inelastic Scattering 459 14.2 Parton Model 463 14.3 Neutrino Sum Rules 467 14.4 Product Expansion at the Light-Cone 470 14.5 Renormalization Group 476 14.6 Asymptotic Freedom 483 14.7 Callan-Symanzik Relation 485 14.8 Minimal Subtraction 488 14.9 Scale Violations 491 14.10 Renormalization Group Proof 494 14.10.1Step One 496 14.10.2 Step Two 497 14.10.3 Step Three 497 14.11 Exercises 499 Il Nonperturbative Methods and Unification 15. Lattice Gauge Theory 505 15.1 The Wilson Lattice 505 15.2 Scalars and Fermions on the Lattice 508 15.3. Confinement 512 15.4 Strong Coupling Approximation 514 15.5 Monte Carlo Simulations 517 15.6 Hamiltonian Formulation 521 15.7 Renormalization Group 523 15.8 Exercises 524 16. Solitons, Monopoles, and Instantons 529 16.1 Solitons 529 16.1.1 Example: ¢* 531 16.1.2 Example: Sine-Gordon Equation 533 16.1.3. Example: Nonlinear O(3) Model 536 16.2 Monopole Solutions 539 16.3 ’t Hooft-Polyakov Monopole 543 16.4 WKB, Tunneling, and Instantons 545 16.5 Yang-Mills Instantons 554 16.6 @ Vacua and the Strong C P Problem 559 16.7 Exercises 566xviii Contents 17. Phase Transitions and Critical Phenomena 571 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 17.6 177 Critical Exponents 571 The Ising Model 575 17.2.1 XYZ Heisenberg Model 580 17.2.2. IRF and Vertex Models 580 Yang-Baxter Relation 581 Mean-Field Approximation 584 Scaling and the Renormalization Group 588 17.5.1 StepOne 593 17.5.2 Step Two 596 17.5.3 Step Three 596 17.5.4 Step Four 597 ¢ Expansion 597 Exercises 605 18. Grand Unified Theories 609 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 18.6 18.7 18.8 18.9 Unification and Running Coupling Constants 609 su(s) 611 Anomaly Cancellation 612 Fermion Representation 613 Spontaneous Breaking of SU(5) 619 Hierarchy Problen 622 SO(10) 622 Beyond GUT 627 18.8.1 Technicolor 627 18.8.2 Preons or Subquarks 627 18.8.3 Supersymmetry and Superstrings 628 Exercises 628 19. Quantum Gravity 633 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 19.6 19.7 19.8 19.9 19.10 19.11 Equivalence Principle 633 Generally Covariant Action 638 Vierbeins and Spinors in General Relativity 640 GUTs and Cosmology 642 Inflation 647 Cosmological Constant Problem. 649 Kaluza-Klein Theory 650 Generalization to Yang-Mills Theory 652 Quantizing Gravity 657 Counterterms in Quantum Gravity 658 Exercises 660