Varnes Landslide

Classification
What is the purpose of
a classification?
• To file material so it can be easily retrieved*
• To organize thought
• To communicate
*J.N. Hutchinson, c. 2000

Our main need is for labels describing landslide

types (“typology”)
but the system must be flexible and adaptable to
the complexity of landslides
“Typological classification”
Divide phenomena into repeating
patterns (“types”) characterized by
several descriptors.

Requirements:
1) Comprehensive definition
2) Type examples
3) References
Desirable qualities of a
typological classification system:

1. Simple, not too many classes

2. Respectful of previous usage
3. Flexible, with varying quality of data
4. Each class name to be supported by a
definition, examples and references
What to do with “complex” types?
Suggestion: leave the decision to the user.

Dr. Rick Guthrie

“Rock slide” “Rock avalanche”

Framework:
Pre-failure movements
Post-failure movements

“Failure” is the single most significant

movement episode.
“Failure” involves the first formation of
a rupture surface

It is up to the user to decide which.

Principal
movement
types
Cruden and
Varnes, 1996
(dates back to
Balzer, 1875)
D.J. Varnes, 1978

33 types
Varnes Classification Type Names
L andslide classificatio n (V arnes, 1978) C o de: R A P ID , S L O W (IN M O S T C A S E S )
BEDROCK D E B R IS EARTH
(< 80% sand and finer) (> 80% sand and finer)
FA L L S ROCK FALL D E B R IS F A L L EARTH FALL

TOPPLES BLOCK TOPPLE - BLOCK TOPPLE

FL E X U R A L T O P P L E

S L ID E S ROCK SLUM P D E B R IS S L ID E EARTH SLUM P

R O C K S L ID E E A R T H S L ID E

SPREADS ROCK SPREAD - EARTH SPREAD

FL O W S ROCK CREEP D E B R IS F L O W W E T S A N D A N D S IL T
S L O P E S A G G IN G D E B R IS FLOW
AVALANCHE R A P ID E A R T H F L O W
S O IL C R E E P LOESS FLOW
S O L IFL U C T IO N D R Y S A N D FL O W
E A R T H FL O W

COM PLEX ROCK AVALANCHE

E A R T H S L U M P -E A R T H FL O W
R ef.: V arn es, D .J., 1978. Slope m ovem en t types an d processes. In L an dslides, A n alysis an d C on trol. Special
R eport 176, T ran sportation R esearch B oard, W ash in gton , pp. 11 -3 3 .
 Velocity scale
L a ndslide ve lo c it y sca le (C ruden a nd V arnes, 1996).
V e lo c it y D escript io n V e lo c it y T yp ica l H uman
c la ss (m m /sec) ve lo c it y respo nse
7 E xtrem e ly R ap id N il
3
------------------------ 5x10 5 m /sec
6 V ery R ap id N il
1
------------------------ 5x10 3 m /m in
5 R ap id E vacuat io n
-1
------------------------ 5x10 1.8 m /hr
4 M o derate E vacuat io n
-3
------------------------ 5x10 13 m /m o nth
3 S lo w M a inte na nce
-5
------------------------ 5x10 1.6 m /year
2 V ery S lo w M a inte na nce
-7
------------------------ 5 x10 16 m m /ye ar
1 E xtrem e ly S lo w N il
R ef.: C ru d en , D .M . an d V arn es, D .J., 1 9 96 . L an d slid e typ es an d processes. In L an d slid es, In vestig ation an d
M itigation . Sp ecial R ep ort 2 47 , T ran sp ortation R esearch B oard, W ash in g ton , p p. 3 6 -7 5.
Material categories:
- Rock
- Debris (more than 20% coarse*)
- Earth (less than 20% coarse*)
* Gravel clasts and larger

1. Difficult to evaluate
2. Little relevance to slide behaviour
3. Incompatible with established systems
Suggested material classes
Suggested material classes

Geotechnical
classes
- plastic
- granular
Suggested material classes

Mixed materials
- plastic
- granular
(Mixed grain sizes,
diluted by water)
Geotechnical materials:
Clay, silt, sand, gravel, boulders

How to simplify?
Suggestion: use dominant component
with emphasis on mechanical
behaviour.

Example:
plastic clayey silt > “clay”
low plasticity clayey silt > “silt”
Materials not used in geotechnical
classifications (but common in Geology):

“Debris” – mixture of
components, non-plastic

“Mud” - mixture of components,

plastic (clayey), liquid (IL>0.5)

“Earth” – plastic, but not liquid

and may not be strongly mixed.
Supplementary terms, geomorphological

Do not use as primary names, because

there is insufficient correlation with
landslide behaviour.
Example, “Alluvial” (could be gravel, silt, clay)
Some additional movement types:
- Rotational/ translational/ compound slide
(Hutchinson, 1988)

- Block topple/ flexural topple

(Goodman and Bray, 1976)

- Flow slide (Terzaghi, Casagrande, Meyerhof ..)

- Slope deformation “creep”?

- Rock collapse? (Écroulement, felssturz)

- Debris flood (e.g. Aulitzski, 1970)

Summary

* Can be extremely rapid

Rock, ice fall
Detachment, fall, rolling and bouncing of rock or ice
fragments. May occur singly or in clusters, but there is little
dynamic interaction between the most mobile moving
fragments, which interact mainly with the substrate (path).
Fragment deformation is unimportant, although fragments
can break during impacts. Usually of limited volume.
 Rock block
topple
Chaco Canyon,
New Mexico

Forward rotation and overturning of rock columns or

plates (one or many), separated by steeply-dipping
joints. The rock is relatively massive and rotation oc-
curs on well-defined basal discontinuities. Movement
may begin slowly, but the last stage of failure is
extremely rapid. Occurs at all scales.
Multiple block topple
Czech Republic
 Rock Flexural Topple
Bending and forward rotation of
a rock mass characterized by
very closely-spaced, steeply
dipping joints or schistose
partings. The rock is relatively
1980 weak and fissile. There are no
well-defined basal discontinuities
that could allow for rotation of
blocks around their bases. The
movement is generally slow and
tends to self-stabilize. However,
secondary rotational sliding may
develop in the hinge zone of the
1987 topple. Occurs at large scale.
La Clapiére, France
Rock rotational slide (“rock slump”)
Sliding of a mass of weak rock on a cylindrical or ellipsoidal
rupture surface which is not structurally-controlled. Little
internal deformation. A large main scarp and back-tilted
bench at the head. Usually slow to moderately slow.
Rock translational (“planar”) slide
Sliding of a mass of rock on a planar rupture surface. The
surface may be stepped forward. No internal deformation.
The slide head may be sepa-rating from stable rock along
a deep, vertical tension crack. Usually extremely rapid.
Rock wedge slide
Sliding of a mass of rock on a rupture surface formed of
two planes with downslope-oriented intersection. No
internal deformation. Usually extremely rapid.
 Scatter River, North-east British Columbia
(Hungr et al., 1984

Rock compound slide

Sliding of a mass of rock on a rupture surface consisting
of several planes, or a surface of uneven curvature, so that
motion is kinematically possible only if accompanied by
significant internal distortion of the moving mass. Horst-
and-graben features at the head and many secondary
shear surfaces are typical. Parts of the rupture surface
may develop by shearing through the rock. Slow or rapid.
Compound sliding

Internal deformation
required

Graben
Vaiont (1963)
A compound slide
(Mencl, Hutchinson) non-circular
 view

section
random
joints

Rock irregular slide (rock collapse)

Sliding of a rock mass on an irregular rupture surface
consisting of a number of randomly-oriented joints,
separated by segments of intact rock (“rock bridges”).
Occurs in strong rocks with non-systematic structure.
Failure mechanism is very complex and often difficult to
describe. May include elements of toppling. Often very
sudden and extremely rapid.
 rupture
surface

Clay, silt rotational slide (“Soil slump”)

Sliding of a mass of (homogeneous and usu-ally cohesive)
soil on a cylindrical or ellipsoidal rupture surface. Little
internal deformation. Normally slow, but may be extremely
rapid in sensitive or collapsive soils.
 Panama Canal

Clay, silt planar slide

Sliding of a block of cohesive soil on an inclined planar
rupture surface, formed by a weak layer (usually pre-sheared).
The head of the slide mass separates from stable soil along a
deep tension crack (no active wedge). May be slow or rapid.
Sand, Gravel,Debris slide
Sliding of a mass of granular material on a shallow, planar
surface parallel with the ground. Usually, the sliding mass
is a veneer of colluvium, weath-ered soil, or pyroclastic
deposits resting on a stronger substrate. Many debris
slides become flow-like after moving a short distance and
transform into extremely rapid debris ava-lanches.
 Clay, silt
compound slide
Sliding of a mass of soil on a
rupture surface consisting of
several planes, or a surface of
uneven curvature, so that
motion is kinematically possible
only if accompanied by
significant internal distortion of
the moving mass. Horst-and-
graben features at the head and
many secondary shear surfaces
are observed. The basal
segment of the rupture surface
often follows a weak horizon in
the soil stratigraphy
 Nemcok, 1982, Weak rocks
Rock slope
Initial stage, Mature stage, Final stage, Surficial
spread movements

(or deformation?)

Crest sagging in
slopes formed from a
stronger layer (cap
rock) over weak rock.
Blocks of the stronger
rock spread and tilt by
deformation of the
underlying weak
material, without the
formation of a defined
rupture surface.
Extremely slow.
 Turnagain
Heights Slide,
1964

Sand, silt liquefaction spread

Extremely rapid lateral spreading of a series of soil blocks,
floating on a layer of saturated (loose) granular soil, liquefied
by earthquake shaking or spontaneous liquefaction.
 St. Jude,
Quebec, 2010

Sensitive clay spread

Extremely rapid lateral spreading of a series of
coherent clay blocks, floating on a layer of
remoulded sensitive clay.
 Inverse sorting

Frank Slide,
Rock avalanche 1903

Extremely rapid, massive, flow-like motion of

fragmented rock from a large rock slide or rock fall.
Dry (or non-liquefied)
Sand, Silt, Gravel or
Debris Flow

Slow or rapid flow-like

movement of loose dry,
moist or saturated,
sorted or unsorted
granular material,
without excess pore-
pressure.
 Sand, Silt, Debris flow slide:
Very rapid to extremely rapid flow of sorted or unsorted
saturated granular material on moderate slopes, involving
excess pore-pressure or liquefaction of material
originating from the landslide source. Usually originates
as a multiple retrogressive failure. Often under water.
 (Photo: S.G. Evans)
Clay flow slide
Very rapid to extremely rapid flow of
liquefied sensitive clay, due to remoulding
during a multiple retrogressive slide failure
at, or close to the original water content.
INITIATION

Debris flow:
Very rapid to extremely
rapid surging flow of
saturated non-plastic
debris in a steep
CHANNEL
channel. Strong
(“GORGE”) entrainment of material
and water from the flow
path. (Plasticity Index <
DEBRIS 5% in sand and finer
(“COLLUVIAL”)
FAN fractions).
Debris avalanche
Extremely rapid shallow
flow of partially or fully
saturated debris on a
steep slope, without
confinement in an
established channel.
Morphologically similar
to a snow avalanche)

Sharpe (1938)

Alberta
Debris avalanche in Brazil, 2010
(courtesy Prof. Andre S. Avelar, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro
Debris flood:
Very rapid surging flow of water, heavily charged with
debris, in a steep channel. Peak discharge comparable
to that of a major water flood.
(Hungr et al., 2001)
 Difference between debris flow and flood?
Peak discharge (of the largest surge)
(Qf = extreme
DEBRIS FLOOD, Qp= 1 to 3 x Qf
“hydrological” flood)

DEBRIS FLOW, Qp=10 to 50 x Qf Discharge magnification

PIERSON, 1980
Earth flow (or “Mudslide”?)
Rapid or slower, intermittent flow-like movement of plastic,
clayey soil, facilitated by a combination of sliding along
multiple discrete shear surfaces, and internal shear strains.
Long periods of dormancy alternate with more rapid surges.

Motion on discrete slip

surfaces (“mudslide”,
Hutchinson, 1988)
A surging “earth flow”
(Italy, photo Prof. F.Guadagno)
 Nemcok, 1982, Hard rocks
Mountain
Initial stage, Mature stage, Final stage, Surficial
slope movements

deformation

Large-scale
gravitational
deformation of steep,
high mountain slopes,
manifested by scarps,
benches, cracks and
bulges, but lacking a
fully defined rupture
surface. Extremely
slow, or unmeasurable
movement rates.
Mountain
slope
deformation

Nemcok, 1982
Weak rocks
Initial

Mature

Final

Surficial
Mountain slope deformations are ubiquitous

Fraser Valley, B.C.

ValPola, Italy

How can we predict the occurrence of

a “catastrophic” failure (rock avalanche)
Mountain slope deformations are ubiquitous

Fraser Valley, B.C.

ValPola, Italy

How can we predict the occurrence of

a “catastrophic” failure (rock avalanche)
Soil creep Extremely slow movement of surficial
soil layers on a slope (typically less than 1 m deep), as a
result of climate-driven cyclical volume changes
(wetting and drying, frost heave).

Sharpe (1938)
Summary

* Can be extremely rapid