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University of Leeds
The size of pigment particles within coatings formulations can have a dramatic effect on various coating properties,
such as opacity, tinting strength, viscosity and dispersion stability. Due largely to improvements in instrumentation,
particle sizing is becoming a routine analysis technique in many laboratories. However, there are several
techniques of measurement and many approaches to data analysis which can affect the particle size information
obtained. This paper attempts to explain the basics of particle size measurement and the problems and
confusions which can arise.
INTRODUCTION
Particle size controls a number of properties shows some grains of sand. The difficulty in
important to the paint chemist: optical properties, establishing their sizes is obvious.
including opacity; tinting strength; viscosity; and
Figure 1: Particles of various sizes. How could they
sedimentation. Improved quality procedures mean be measured and compared?
that paint companies must now control the
performance of their paints at the manufacturing
stage. This is largely in response to large
consumers, especially in the automobile and
similar industries, who impose tight tolerances
and specifications on their suppliers, and paint
manufacturers have had to respond. Traditionally,
the paint industry has not been a manufacturer of
chemicals – it buys what it needs and formulates
and packages the material.
This article attempts to explain the importance of
particle size to the modern paint company and to
illustrate it with relevant examples. The equivalent sphere
THE PARTICLE SIZE CONUNDRUM There is only one shape that can be described by
one unique number and that is the sphere. A
Imagine measuring the size of a matchbox using a “50 µm diameter sphere” is described exactly.
ruler. A correct response might be that the Even for a regular shape such as a cube, for
matchbox is 20 x 10 x 5mm. Each of these three example, the 50 µm may refer to an edge or to a
numbers represents only one aspect of the size of diagonal. With a shape such as a matchbox, it is
the matchbox; it is not possible to describe the necessary to look for other properties that can be
three-dimensional matchbox with one unique described by one number. For example, the weight
number. The situation is more difficult for a is a single unique number, as is the volume and
complex shape like a grain of sand or a pigment the surface area.
particle in a can of paint. A QA manager will want
one number only to describe such particles, in If the weight of the matchbox is known, it could be
order to track whether the average size has converted into the weight of a sphere, allowing
increased or decreased since the last production calculation of one unique number for the diameter
run, for example. This is the basic problem of of the sphere of the same weight as the matchbox.
particle size analysis – how to describe a three- This is the equivalent sphere theory. It ensures
dimensional object using one number only. As a that we do not have to describe our three
further illustration, consider Figure 1, which dimensional particles with three or more numbers,
Sedimentation
This has been the traditional method of
measurement in the paint and ceramics industries
Figure 5: Bimodal distribution and gives seductively low answers! The applicable
range is 2 – 50 µm [3,4].
The principle of measurement is based on the
Stokes’ Law equation:
(ρ S − ρ F )D 2 g
US =
18η
Using Stokes’ Law it is relatively easy to calculate • The technique cannot be used for mixtures of
settling times. It can be shown that a 1 µm particle differing densities; many pigments are a
of SiO2 (ρ = 2.5 g.cm-3) will take 3.5 hours to mixture of colouring matter and extender/filler.
settle 1 cm under gravity in water at 20 °C. • Use of X-rays. Some systems use X-rays and, in
Measurements are therefore extremely slow and theory, personnel should be monitored.
repeat measurements are tedious; hence the move
to increase ‘g’ by using a centrifuge. The • Limited range. Below 2 µm Brownian motion
disadvantages of such an approach have been predominates and the system is inaccurate.
discussed [5]. More specific criticisms of the Above 50 µm settling is turbulent and Stokes’
sedimentation technique have also been made [3]. Law again is not applicable.
Table 4: Settling times
Stokes’ Law is valid only for spheres, which
possess the unique feature of being the most Particle Order of size Approx time to
compact shape for the volume or surface area they diameter (mm) settle 1 m
possess. More irregularly shaped ‘normal’ particles 10 Gravel 0.9 secs
will possess more surface area than the sphere and 1 Coarse sand 9 secs
will therefore fall more slowly because of the 0.1 Fine silt 100 secs
increased drag compared with their equivalent 0.02 Silt 1.5 hours
spherical diameters. For objects like kaolins, 0.001 Colloids 2.5 years
which are disc-shaped, this effect is even more
0.000001 Pigment particles 200 years
accentuated and large deviations between
measured and real values are to be expected.
Furthermore, with small particles there are two Figure 6 shows the expected differences between
competing processes - gravitational settling and sedimentation and laser diffraction results.
Brownian motion. Stokes’ Law only applies to
gravitational settling. Table 3 shows a comparison
between the two competing processes. It can be
seen that very large errors (approx. 20%) will
result if sedimentation is used for particles under
2 µm in size. Errors in excess of 100% will result
for particles under 0.5 µm in size.
Microscopic evaluation
Microscopy provides an excellent basis for the
visual evaluation of particles. The shape of the
particles can often be seen, and it may also be
possible to judge whether good dispersion has been
Electrozone sensing (Coulter Counter) achieved or whether agglomeration is present in
This technique was developed in the mid-1950s for the system. The method is relatively cheap and, for
sizing blood cells, which are a virtually monomodal some microscope systems, it is possible to use
suspension in a dilute electrolyte. The principle of image analysis to obtain numerical values for
operation is very simple. A glass vessel has a hole particle size. It is of value to note that 1 g of 10 µm
or orifice in it. Dilute suspension is made to flow particles (density 2.5 g.cm-3) contains 760 x 106
through this orifice and a voltage is applied across particles, which clearly can never all be examined
it. As particles flow through the orifice the individually by microscopy.
capacitance alters; this change is indicated by a Microscopy is not suitable as a quality or
pulse or spike in the voltage trace. production control technique beyond a simple
With older instruments the peak height is judgement of the type indicated above. Relatively
measured and related to a peak height of a few particles are examined and there is the real
standard latex. The method is not an absolute one, danger of unrepresentative sampling.
but is of a comparative nature. Correction can be Furthermore, if a weight distribution is measured
made for problems of particle orientation through the errors are magnified. Missing or ignoring one
the beam by measuring the area under the peak 10 µm particle has the same effect as ignoring one
rather than the peak height. For blood cells, the thousand 1 µm particles.
technique is unsurpassed and the method is Electron microscopy requires elaborate sample
capable of giving both a number count and volume preparation and is slow. Few particles are
distribution. For real, industrial materials such as examined (maybe 2000 in a day with a good
pigments, there are several fundamental operator) and there is rapid operator fatigue.
drawbacks: Again there is the problem of which dimension
• It is difficult to measure emulsions and should be measured; hence there can be large
impossible to measure sprays. Dry powders operator-to-operator variability on the same
need to be suspended in a medium and so sample. In combination with diffraction studies,
cannot be measured directly. microscopy becomes a very valuable aid to the
characterisation of particles.
• Measurement must be carried out in an
electrolyte. For organic based materials this is Laser diffraction
difficult as it is not possible to measure in
This is sometimes called Low Angle Laser Light
xylene, butanol or other poorly conducting
Scattering (LALLS) but the generic term “light
solutions.
scattering” is to be preferred. This method has
• The method requires calibration standards, become the preferred standard in many industries
which are expensive and change their size in for characterisation and quality control. The
distilled water and electrolyte [3]. applicable range, according to ISO13320, is
0.1 - 3000 µm [7]. Light scattering instrumentation
• For materials of relatively wide particle size
has been developed over the last twenty years or
distribution the method is slow, as orifices have
so. The method relies on the fact that diffraction
to be changed and there is a danger of blocking
angle is inversely proportional to particle size.
the smaller orifices.
Instruments consist of a source laser, a suitable
• The lower limit of the method is determined by
detector and some means of passing the sample
the smallest orifice available, and it is not easy
through the laser beam. A laser provides a source
to measure below 2µm or so. Certainly it is not
of coherent, intense light of a fixed wavelength.
possible to measure TiO2 at 0.2µm.
Colour hue
The hue effect is illustrated by iron oxide
pigments, in which the smaller yellow particle
sizes (0.09 – 0.12 µm) give yellow toned reds and
the larger sizes (0.17 – 0.7 µm) give increasingly
bluer toned reds. Generally the finer size pigments Figure 11 illustrates the consequences of adding
(<0.4 µm) produce brighter, purer shades. thixotropic agents (for example, Aerosil – nanosize
SiO2), to prevent settling by increasing the
Tinting strength viscosity of the system. Ultrafine BaSO4 has been
For organic pigments, the finer the particle size, used to reduce sagging [15], which is the
the higher the tinting strength. However, here development of an uneven coating as the result of
again an optimum value is reached, beyond which, excessive flow of paint on a vertical surface. Figure
finer particles do not increase the tinting strength, 12 shows the effect on transparency, viscosity and
and may actually reduce it. gloss of BaSO4 against particle size.
Figure 12: Effect of particle size on viscosity,
Gloss transparency and gloss
The larger the particle size, the less glossy a white
paint will be. In fact matt paints can be produced
by incorporating large particle size TiO2. For
carbon black, the gloss decreases with decreasing
particle size.
Durability
The durability of certain pigments, many organics
for instance, is affected by particle size [4]. Data
related to Arylamide Yellow are shown in Table 6.
Table 6: Effect of particle size on arylamide yellow
Large particle size Smaller particle size
Tinting strength Lower Higher
Opacity Higher Lower
Light fastness Better Poorer
Viscosity
The consistency of slurries is affected by the size of
suspended particles. The behaviour of zinc oxide in
oil [14] is illustrated by Figure 11.