and Rosenthal (1968) and Hargreaves'

conducted by cicourel and Kiisuse (1963), Jacobson

and counsellors use their power in the classrcc -
Hestor and Mellor (1 975) revealed that teachers
the label was to influence the attalnn-e-:
to label students in padicular ways. The obiective behind
levelofstudents.overtimeitwasfoundthatstudentsidentifiedwiththelabelstheyweregiver'
Hence,attainmentexpectationswereachievedandconformityresultedthroughtheself-fulfillin3
prophecy (Haralambos and Holborn 2008' p 638)

the interactionists is that it is created through

Another explanation of social order offered by
negotiation.lndividualsworkouttheirproblemsuntiltheyarebothsatisfiedWiththesituationa-:
that each should play. This helps to avoid conflic '
until there is a clear understanding of the role
on a study done in 1987 by Janet
and allows social order to prevail. Bilton et al. commented
arrived at between specific individuals through
:-=
Finch, who wrote on how agreements Can be -:
so that there is 'a full understanc
process of negotiation 'very much in an interactionist sense' '
operate, (Bilton et al. 1996, p. 520).
of what family obligations mean and how they

Criticisms of interactionism
have the power to induce conformity in the
Just as labelling and the self-fulfilling prophecy
classroom,theycouldalsohavetheoppositeeffectbycreatingacultureofconflict.lnl9Sl
StephenBallcarriedoutastudyataschoolhenicknamedBeachsideComprehensive.He
notedthat,byplacingsomestudentsinthelowerbands,anoppositionalcultureemergedtia.
place
forced the school authorities to instead
threatened the social order in the school, Thls
students in mixed-ability classes in an attempt
to restore order (Bilton et al 1996' pp 363-36-

Theimpressiongivenbyinteractionistsisthat,throughtheprocessofnegotiation,issuesare
resolvedtothemutualsatisfactionofalltheparliesinvolvedHowever'inhisstructurationthe:-
TonyGiddenssaysthesituationisnotthatsimple,becauseallhumanactionsareguidedby
external factors and the 'negotiated
positions' we arrive at always take these external factors
through two factors (o'Donnell 1997' c:
into consideration. Therefore, social order is achieved
11-12).
your ho'- '
As a ciass, in snrall groups, discuss how social
order is achievecl in various settinSs' such as
possible' include : - '
in the clas:room, in a voluntary organisation or some other envirnnment' \Alhere
in yr:ur discussions'
various theoretica! explanatiot"ls of social order

Defining Deviance
Deviance is the violation of cultural norms. lt
may be criminal or non-criminal. whether devia'

behaviourisperceivedasgoodorbaddependsonthesocietyorcultureandthetimeandp.-.
Forexample,femalecircumcisiontakesplaceinsomecountriesinAfrica,theMiddleEasta.:
womanhood and therefore aS a symbol of
pr:.
Western Asia. |t is seen aS a rite of passage to
in many western societies'
However, this same act is seen as deviant

Althoughwhatisconsidereddeviantvariesaccordingtotime,place,societyandwhoComrr.:
lncest, murder and rape - that are universal
fc' '
the act, there are some deviant acts - such as
posilive functions for society' as illustrated in
societies. However, deviance also provides
Table 11 .1.
 '- -r

-.
-
Seviant *ct Fositiq,r* result

l-' :"!,'r,,1: i rl :': i r:r'

I :.;'i'.:::i, i1 : i!i rr,,': :i,' i:lr i iIi:l(:i t,i.,,: r,.; i l1'r i -.i;1lr
,. .. , .. '. ,li
"-.,-]

Tubal Uriah *utler

i a",*. a{a** ,*i*i*, eni "r* u:riv*r*ai
't, -.r
: ". 1,.+:" ;.lr. .:..! : :e -c . s 1,1.,. i "cs
!ndepend*nce
lv{ahatma Gandhi '. li'" .. 11:. .' :;rl: ' :'.,'"-'' l,* ;xet invs't;e* ir: ti':e n*gatians f*r
iri**pe**en*e afid ic rcgarded as 1?,e
. .'.
.,1'' i j. ri't, :..,:..',i
fr:*ne.i+r *f the state *f tndie.
,r . r '' r,,rr'l_,,:,r.,i: .. ,.,r,

,.j:r ,.,- :, :r 'r'il'-

t.,r', r' :: 'r-t rr r: i:il'ii]

:.:
: ... t,,,..' .tl.,i:,. ..,

::],:tt.l:,i,ti,,,, ;':,: i,'.:l 1.,;.,r.,:r, :..irs:j't{lii ri .-tl r:l

.].;.:,
:.ii,r ;1 ;.11 1q ; a:i I 1.. .:
.-11i:
i.:l:lt-

:csa Parks i i1, l-.llr i:r,,:. :1 ,t,,-,". ._:1,:;i.: I ;. r*r_i ,.1't,,i:.

i i r: ii.r :, i ),'.,,:i ltl .,1

j
i t,'1t-: i1 i t :,r,1.:i, lt ;1111 r,..., i1 1i 1:11,; t,,i
: ti-j .i i,:-; t',t-.:: .r;; -1;, l.'ri;1"y,:,,1 r11 i,;ii-irrri j i il,:i.-l
rr.r ;r l
1
ij:.-l :i r.i..: j'],1.,: i 1;1r.,t1 tr': ::lf ;.,!t'1 :.:tl,l r1 :l:+i.r:
:::.. r.::a ::.'.: :it :_'-". l.,i:lj.:i ::. il * :l,iiii:J:

-=::e 11.1 Some instarrces

when deviance produced positive cLt.tcor-ies

Defining Crime
- -e is a category of deviance that is forbidden by law and exrsts . a scciet es. Examples of
-e are carrying a concealed weapon without perrnlss on, d sccer, \E:aE a aws. and murder.
-:sifications of 'crime' within a society apply to everyone, regard ess of ,,.,,hc commits the act
lens, residents or visitors). lt is imporlant to understand that ,r,,hat s ccrstdered a crime in one
. - :ty may not be considered a crime in another society.
I

I
r
Theoretical Explanations of Deviance
FumeeionaEism: ffi urkfleirxt *rr: dev!anee
Durkheim's views on deviance were largely shaped by his observations of what was tak --,: -.
in France in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, The country was experiencing rap d s:, .
changeasittransitionedfromanagricultural toanindustrial society,Thischangemea.i -:-
informal structures such as family, church and community that had held people together .,
='-
parlially being dismantled and new institutions were being put into place. The destructior :' --.
old institutions and the challenges of adapting to the new institutions created a sense o{'a- -

or normlessness, as people felt disconnected from the society they had lived in all their '.:.
Additionally, Durkheim argued that people are selfish and have unlimited desires and hen:= '
there is a need to have well-functioning institutions to keep them in check. He said that fa - =

do so could result in deviance.

According to Durkhelm, the institutions of society establish the norms, values and rules t'-. .
members of society are expected to follow. Crime results when rules are broken. Functlc'= ,'
lmply that it is the lower classes who are more likely to violate the rules of society, either c
=-
. .

they are badly socialised or because of their deprived social situation. Once rules are brc,=-
society has the power to punish those who break the rules, According to the functionalis.: '
punishment should tre carried out n an equitable fashion. Society puts in place various {:'-- -

punishment to penalise rule-breakers - after all, as Durkheim claimed, punishment is imp::. -

because it lets individuals know that society has power over them,

Durkheim also drew attention to the fact that there are times when some members of so: =-
may choose to deviate for one reason or another. He said that this is normal as not even,: - =
committed to the collective sentiments of society in the same way. ln fact, Durkheim sav, .- l
as a good thing because it allows individuals to express their originality while providing p:.
functions for society.

Criticisms of Burkheim
Functionalists claim that in society there are a number of agreed-upon rules and that anyc-=
found breaking these rules is considered to be a crimind. In contrast, both Marxists and
interactionists argue that we need to look at who makes the rules as the social groups r s, -
who have the power to make the rules may do so to protect their own interests.

Functionalists argue that, once rules have been made, they are applied equitably to all,
regardless of an individual's social class, gender, ethnicity or nationality. However, this arg---=
is undermined by the fact that some members of societies break the rules but, because of tf
position in society, are never arrested, charged or convicted of their crime. lnteractionists c. -

that some individuals have more negotiation powers than others.

A third concern registered against the functiona sts concerns their claim that punishment,
among its many other functions, seryes the purpose of deterring people from engaging in ,
-

of crime and also helps in the process of rehabllitating criminals. This claim is challenged b.
interactionists, who argue that punishment does not always lead to the rehabilitation of cr r -.
-
him or her Legitimate
'''' 7'-- '' -'":'scn as'deviant' and stigmatises
..s being imprisoned
reinfcrc:s
oPPortunitY:
-:'life,makinghimorhera'','s'-':-?':.:-s-'srecommendedcommunityserviceinsteadof structure re{ers
:crisonment for some crimes to the aoltttY ot ar t

individual to achieve
Structuenalist"n: Merton's anom ie theory
on Durkheim's
:lo "::1*
s' s::cLcgist' adopted
::cerr Merton, an American funct c-a

,-'ceptofanomieandinlg38heorese-'::-lsargumentonhowanomie'ornormlessness
for his theory is 'strain
theory" Unlike established ruies o{
modern socre:,,',
.:e chapter 2), occurs in ^."]:n"r".u*" that society'
--,.Kheim,whoarguedthathumandesjresareiatLrral,Meftonciaimedthathumandesiresare
' :ated through cultural influences'

.':crdingtohistheory,theinstitutionsinmodernSoCietyhaveestablishedanumberofcultural
.-.sthattheyinsist.",o",.ofsocietyshouldachieveinordertoberecognisedbyotherstn
.-'ety,Thesegoalsu,."pu.."oontothemembersofsocietyihroughthesocialisationproCeSS
achievements and
..:itisexpectedthat,overtime,membersofsocletywillbecomesuccessfullnallareasoftheir
*t
identified bv their :::::::::nal
=. A successful person is "o'"ui'on'
.--ltimportantlybytheirpossessionofawidearrayofmateria|possessions(suchashouses,
so on'
their affluent lifestyle and
.': and money in the bank)'

,-lgthesocialisationprocess'societyimpressesonitsmembersthatthereareprescribed
.''stoachievethesegoals'Peoplemustbewillingtomakesacrifices,workhard,bediligent
=.eq,4hingtheydounOO"disciplinedandambitiouslnotherwords'successshouldonlybe
.^:vedthroughlegitimatemeans.Thinkofafootballgame,wheretheobjectiveistoscore,
The goals must be scoreo
of one's supporters
_.. s to win the nur" uno get the accolades success in
same way that one's
goal is t"o'ld unfairly' it is dlsallowed' in the
-, .'nately. lf a
of society
adherence to the rules
, -: :ty must be based on strict

these goals' For example'

=:onremindedusthat'althougheveryoneisencouragedtoaspiretowardsthegoaisof
opporlunities to achieve
is given the same
, - 3iy, not everyone unable to take
,
deprived and hence be
^ of the w-orxing class may be materially
,, e members
..artageofeducationalopporlunities.Asaresult,tr,"ymayleaveschooluneducated,unskilled
:
..:-nemployable.Thislackofqualificationsmeanstheywillnotbreabletogetagoodlobin
cultural goals of society'
--='to acquire the
_ .ry
a male adult one'
:olacestheminadilemmaastheywanttoliveuptosociety,sexpectationsbuttheydonot
Medon implied, is mainly
to oo tegrtlmateiy. This problem,
sl
. = what
it takes
as providers for their families'
ln this line of thinking'
--en are socialised into seeing themselves
:
.--3nt
.'l]viduai,simageofhimselfasasuccessfulmanisdeterminedbyhisabilitytotakecareof
'--eir -,amily.TheapparentinabilitytoliveuptotheroleofproviderputsastrainonhimandMedon
results
circumstances anomie
-:.fn ..=cned that under these

sc-e "' go along with what

:'.Mertonarguedtherearedifferinglevelsofobsessronvliihii.e..-1-:]iagca]sofSoclety,Sothat
to the way they are socialisec
according
..,r person *itt 'e'ponO
of
-.:ts presenrs l|e fL"'e logical modes
'-etyrequiresofthembutotherswillchoosetorespondinorhe.,..,2.-,Se,,,e|ritheyinvolvethe
(means). Table i'1 2 schematically
I l,
- -lnals'
_=

,
of deiinquent soiutions
..ctation to society that
such individuals are likely
to employ @
{
 I ").,',,,,,,,
Meai:u

t,..tl ,t. , ,, :. _ r :1 .. 1,.

i,t::,t:ir :ri'-':: i,"

1,,.. i.'],t",t : rrrl' , t,::: l :,:-:.: r.:, i

..'..,'l t':i'lt.." rr, ,,i,,,'rr., 'l ''.'l

Table 11.2 Merton's strain theory. + signifies acceptance, - signi{ies rejection and + signifies rejeci,:
and substitution of new goals and standards

Following ls a more detailed analysis of Table 1 1 ,2:

. Adaptatlon 1 (conformify): in this mode of adaptation, there s conformity to both the : - ' :

goals and the prescribed means.

. Adaptation 2 (lnnovation): in this mode of adaptatron, individuals become so frustrate :
by their inability to achieve the much-valued cultural goa s legitimately that they divor:-
themselves from society's regulations and choose to engage in illegitimate ways to e. - - -
the wealth that will give them the symbols of success they crave. Such individuals n'a, . .
been inadequateiy socia ised. Wealth-generating crlminal activties such as corruptlc' - .

dealing, fraud and kidnapping wi I be evident.

. Adaptation 3 (ritualism): in this mode of adaptation, individuals totally embrace the
institutional means of success but have resigned themselves to the fact that the cult--.
goals of society are beyond their reach, so they give up on them, This is perceived as
antisocial behaviour as such individuaLs are believed to be weakly integrated into soc = .
they have no interest in striving for the cultural goals of society,
. Adaptation 4 (retreatism): this mode of adaptation represents a total rejection of the _.:. .

and means of society by those individuals whom l\,4erton describes as 'aliens'. These
are drug add cts, alcoholics, outcasts, vagrants, vagabonds and so on. Although the'
behaviour may seem extreme, it could also be a response to high levels of frustratior ..- .

their acceptance of their failure, Individuals may be looking to 'escape' from the dem:.- ,

society. They are seen to be socalised.

o Adaptation 5 (ebellion): rebellion occurs when individuals wlsh to separate themse ve: '
the existing standards of society. lt could be that such standards marginalise some n-:- :
of the society and they seek to change them and in the process create a new socia c' r-
Durlng the period when they engage in act vities that challenge the existing soclal ord:- ' .

will be involved in a range of devlant acts, For example, Nelson Mandela violated man_, ,'
apadheid laws of South Africa and was impr soned as a result, However, after many _1,:. ,
he was released from prison when South Africa repealed these laws and racial segrega. ,
ended.