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TISSUE REPAIR
Injury to cells and tissue sets in motion a series of events that contain the damage and initiate the healing
progress. This process can be broadly separated into:
1. Regeneration: proliferation of cells and tissues to replace lost structures, such as liver growth after partial
resection/necrosis. Tissues with high proliferative capacity (e.g. GI tract, epithelia of skin) renew
themselves continuously and can regenerate after injury. Regeneration results in complete restitution of
lost or damaged tissue.
2. Repair: most often combination of regeneration and scar formation by deposition of collagen. The
contribution of regeneration and scarring in tissue repair depends on ability of tissue to regenerate and the
extent of injury.
In healthy tissues, healing, in the form of regeneration or repair, occurs after practically any insult that
causes tissue destruction, and is essential for the survival of organism. In most healing processes occurs
combination between repair & regeneration, influenced by: proliferation of cells, growth factors, and close
interaction between cells and extracellular matrix (ECM).
PROLIFERATION OF CELL
Cell types that proliferate during tissue repair are:
Remnants of injured tissues: restore to normal structure
Vascular endothelial cell: create new vessels that provide nutrients needed for the repair process
Fibroblast: source of fibrous tissue that form scarto fill defects that cannot be corrected by
regeneration
Based on their intrinsic proliferative capacity, tissues are divided into:
1. Labile tissue (continuously dividing tissue)
Cells of these tissues are continuously being lost and replaced by maturation from stem cells and by
proliferation of mature cells. These tissues can readily generate after injury as long as the pool of stem
cells are preserved
e.g. hematopoeitic cells in the bone marrow, majority of surface epithelia, GI tract, urinary tract, ducts
draining exocrine organs
2. Stable tissue
Cells of these tissues are quiescent (in the G0 stage of cell cycle) and have only minimal replicative
activity in their normal state
Cells are capable of proliferating in response to injury/loss of tissue mass
Important in wound healing
e.g. parenchyma of most solid tissues (liver, kidney, pancreas)
3. Permanent tissue
Cells of these tissues are considered to be terminally differentiated and nonproliferative in postnatal life
Repair is typically dominated by scar formation
e.g. neurons, cardiac muscle
Skeletal muscle is usually classified as a permanent tissue, but satellite cells attached to the endomysial
sheath provide some regenerative capacity for this tissue
GROWTH FACTOR
Proteins that expands cell populations by stimulating cell division (usually accompanied by in creased cell
size) and by promoting cell survival.
Function:
Stimulating cellular proliferation
Affect cell movement, contractility, differentiation, angiogenesis
Enhance synthesis of specialized protein
Major growth factors:
EGF: Mitogenic for keratinocytes and fibro blasts; stimulates keratinocyte migra tion and granulation
tissue formation
VEGF: Increases vascular permeability; mitogenic for endothelial cells; angiogenesis
TGFβ: Chemotactic for PMNs, macrophages, lymphocytes, fibroblasts, and smooth muscle cells;
stimulates TIMP synthesis, angiogenesis, and fibroplasia; inhibits production of MMPs and keratinocyte
proliferation
Etc
Signaling Mechanism in Cell Growth
Autocrine (selfservice): substance acts predominantly or even exclusively on the cell that secretes it.
Important in immune response
Paracrine (neighborhood service): substance affects cells in immediate vicinity of the cell that releases the
agent. Important for recruiting inflammatory cells to the infected sites and wound healing
Endocrine (mediatedservice): regulatory substance, such as hormone, is released into the bloodstream and
acts in target cells at a distance
Three Types of Receptor
Receptors with tyrosine kinase activity
Gproteincoupled receptors
Receptor without intrinsic enzymatic activity
ROLE OF EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX (ECM)
ECM is the dynamic, constantly remodelling macromolecular complex synthesized locally, which assembles
into a network that surrounds cells.
Occurs in two basic format:
Interstial matrix: spaces between cells in connective tissue, and between epithelium and supportive
vascular and smooth muscle structures. Syntesized by mesenchymal cells and tends to form a 3D,
amorphous gel. Its major constituents are fibrillar and nonfibrillar collagens, as well as fibronectin,
elastin, proteoglycans, hyaluronate, and other elements.
Basement membrane: lies beneath the epithelium and is synthesized by overlying epithelium and
underlying mesenchymal cells. Its major constituents are amorphous nonfi brillar type IV collagen
and laminin.
Function:
mechanical support scaffolding for tissue renewal
control of cell growth establishment of tissue icroenvironment
maintenance of cell differentiation storage and presentation of regulatory moves
Basic components of the extracellular matrix
Fibrous structural proteins, e.g. collagens and elastins, which confer tensile strength and recoil
Waterhydrated gels such as proteoglycans and hyaluronan, which permit resiliance and lubrication
Adhesive glycoproteins that connect the matrix elements to one another & to cells
MECHANISM OF TISSUE AND ORGAN REGENERATION
Regeneration in damaged tissues is largely just compensatory growth involving cell hypertrophy and
hyperplasia in parenchymal organs with stable cell populations
The inadequacy of true regeneration in mammals is ascribed to a rapid fibroproliferative response & scar
formation after wounding
Pancreas, adrenal, thyroid, and lung tissues have some regenerative capacity, but other organs have
extremely limited regenerative capacity beyond the first few years of life
Regeneration will usually restore functional capacity but does not necessarily reconstitute the original
anatomy
HEALING BY REPAIR, SCAR FORMATION, AND FIBROSIS
The main healing process is repair by deposition of collagen and other ECM components, causing the
formation of a scar. Repair by connective tisue deposition includes:
1. Inflammation 3. Migration and proliferation of fibroblast
2. Angiogenesis: blood vessel formation in 4. Scar formation
adults 5. Connective tissue remodelling
MECHANISM OF ANGIOGENESIS
From preexisting vessels
Vasodilation in response to nitric oxide and VEGFinduced increased permeability of vessels
Proteolytic degradation of basement membrane of parent vessel by MMPs
Disruption of cell to cell contact between endothelial cells by plasminogen activators
Migration of endothelial cell towards the angiogenic stimulus
Proliferation of endothelial cells behind the leading front of migrating cells
Maturation of endothelial cells (inhibition of growth)
Recruitment of periendothelial cells (vascular smooth muscle cells to form the mature vessels)
←
← From Endothelial Percusor Cells (EPC)
EPCs can be recruited from the bone marrow into tissues
Migrate to a site of injury or tumor growth
EPCs differentiate and form a mature network by linking to existing vessels
EPCs express some markers of hematopoietic stem cells as well as VEGR2 and VEcatherin. The growth
factor and receptor in angiogenesis are VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor), and bFGF (base
fibroblast growth factor).
← Regulator of Angiogenesis: ECM proteins
Integrins (αVβ3): for the formation and maintenance of newly formed blood vessels
Matricellular proteins (thrombospondin 1, SPARC, tenascin C): destabilize cellmatrix interactin and
promote angiogenesis
Proteinase (plasminogen activator and MMPs): remodelling during endothelial invasion, cleave
extracellular protein, release inhibitor such as endostatin
CUTANEOUS WOUND HEALING
Three phases:
1. Inflammation: initial injury causes platelet adhesion and aggregation, blood clotting
2. Proliferation: formation of granulation tissue, proliferation and migration of connective tissue cells,
reepithelization of wound surface
3. Maturation: ECM deposition, tissue remodelling, wound contraction
Healing by First or Second Intention
←
← First intention ← Second intention
← minimal tissue loss ← significant tissue loss
← no granulation formation ← granulation tissue
← slow healing
← scar tissue
← Sequence of events
← 1. Formation of blood clot
The clot serves to stop bleeding and also as scaffold forming rating cells
Within 24 hours, neutrophils appear at margin of the incision
Neutrophils release proteolytic enzymes that clean out debris and invading bacteria
← 2. Formation of granulation tissue
Its characteristic histology feature is the presence of the news mall blood vessel (angiogenesis) and the
proliferation of fibroblast
Fibroblast and vascular endothelial cells proliferate in the first 2472 hours forming specialized type of
tissue called granulation tissue
Amount of granulation tissue depends on the size of the tissue deficit and intensity of inflammation
By 57days, granulation tissue fills the wound area and neovascularization is maximal
← 3. Cell proliferation and collagen deposition
Neutrophils are replaced by macrophages by 4896 hours
Migration of fibroblast is driven by chemokines, TNF, PDGF, TGFβ, and FGF. Their proliferation is
triggered by by TNF, PDGF, TGFβ. FGF, IL1, and TNF. Macrophages are the main sources of these
factors.
Collagen fibers are now present at the margins of incision, but at first these are vertically oriented and
do not bridge the incision
In the 2448 hours, spours of epithelial cells move from the wound edge along the cut margins of the
dermis, depositing basement membrance component as they move. They fuse in the midline beneath
the surface scab, producing a thin, continuous epithelial layer that closes the wound
← 4. Scar formation
The leukocytic infiltrate, edema, and increased vascularity largely disappear during the second week
Blanching begins, accomplished bythe increased occumulation of collagen within the wound area and
regression of vascular channel
← 5. Wound contraction
Generally occur in large surface of wounds
The contraction helps to close the wound by decreasing the gap between its dermal edge and by
reducing the wounds surface area
Connective tissue remodeling
← 6. Connective tissue remodelling
The replacement of granulation tissue with a scar involves transitions in the composition of the ECM.
Some of the growth factors that stimulate synthesis of collagen and other connective tissue molecules
also modulate the synthesis and activation of metalloproteinase, enzymes that degrade these ECM
components
The balance between ECM synthesis and degradation results in remodeling of the connective tissue
frameworkan important feature of both chronic inflammation and wound repair
← 7. Recovery of tensile strength
Scar tissue may achieve 7080% of the tensile strength of unwounded skin
Result from excess of collagen synthesis over collagen degradation during the first 2 months of healing
←
← Factors influencing wound healing
← Systemic factor: nutrition, metabolic status, circulatory system, hormone
← Local factor: infection, mechanical factor, foreign bodies, size, location, and type of wound
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