JOURNAL OF QUATERNARY SCIENCE 1986 1 (1) 45-56

@ 1986 Longman Group UK Ltd

The Quaternary glacial sequence in Ecuador: a

reinterpretation of the work of Walter Sauer
CHALMERS M. CLAPPERTON Department of Geography, University of Aberdeen, Scotland, UK
RAMON VERA Departamento de Geologia, Escuela Politkcnica Nacional, Quito, Ecuador

Clapperton, Chalmers M. and Vera, Ramon 1986.The Quaternary glacial sequence in Ecuador: a reinterpretation of the work of Walter Sauer. journal of Quaternary
Science, Vol. 1, pp. 45-56. ISSN 0143-2826

ABSTRACT: The Quaternary glacial sequence proposedfor the EcuadorianAndes by Walter Sauer is
critically reviewed. Examination of his field evidence at sections exposing Quaternary sediments east
of Quito has led to a fundamental reinterpretation. Deposits which Sauer considered as glacial,
glacio-fluvial, glacio-lacustrine and pluvio-glacial in origin appear to have been formed mainly by
volcanic, volcano-loessic, laharic, fluvial, colluvial and pedogenic processes.

Journal of Quaternary Science

KEYWORDS: Andes, stratigraphical diagrams, cangahua, volcano-loessic, lahar.

Background canyon, in Quebrada Guarangupugru and at the Guangopolo

By the early 20th century a number of European geologists,
climbers and travellers had found evidence that glaciers in the
tropical mountains of Ecuador had formerly been more exten-
sive (Reiss and Stubel, 1892; Whymper, 1892; Wolf, 1879;
Meyer, 1907). The first suggested sequence of Quaternary
glaciation was by Meyer (1 907) who, on the basis of morpho-
logical evidence, proposed two glacial-pluvial periods
equivalent to the European Riss and Wurm ages; he believed
that these were separated by a period of dry interglaciation.
Sauer (1950, 1965, 1971) evolved a more elaborate scheme of
Quaternary events from stratigraphical evidence exposed in
deep stream-cut sections immediately east of Quito. He
identified a pluvio-glacial and three glacial periods separated
by three interglaciations. When first proposed (1950) this
sequence appeared to correlate closely with that long accepted
for the European Alps (cf. Penck and Bruckner, 1909).
Although Kennerly and Bromley (1971 have briefly described
glacial features observed in the Llanganati mountains of the
eastern cordillera and Hastenrath (1981) has discussed the
glaciation of the Ecuadorian Andes in general, the scheme
proposed by Sauer in 1950 has remained unchallenged as the
model for Quaternary glaciation in Ecuador. This paper reviews
the evidence used by Sauer to determine the former existence of
glacial and interglacial periods and suggests that alternative
interpretations are more plausible.
electric power station (Fig. 1). His interpretation of the
sediments, together with cursory observations of what he
believed were glacial deposits at other localities in Ecuador,
formed the basis for his Quaternary sequence. The two main
diagrams are reproduced in this paper as Figure 2. The
following discussion summarises Sauer’s scheme and draws
attention to some of the assumptions he made.
The ‘Pluvio-glacial’:
The lower 34 m of sediments exposed in the Rio Chiche canyon
consist of alternating beds of conglomerate and fine volcanic
material, containing inclusions of unconsolidated gravels and
coarse sand. Sauer (1965 p.265) believed that these were the
products of intense denudation of ‘Neo-Tertiary’ beds of lava
and tephra under pluvio-glacial climatic conditions. He
assumed a moist environment to account for the coarse
sediments and also that the Ecuadorian Andes had not yet been
uplifted to altitudes of more than 3000m. The last assumption
permitted him to argue that small glaciers confined to the higher
summits were present during this period. Sauer concluded that
any morainic deposits were removed by larger glaciers during
subsequent glaciations but interpreted the coarse sands and
gravels as fluvio-glacial products from the small glaciers.
The 1st Interglacial:

The identification of an interglacial period seems to be based on

Quaternary sequence of Sauer (1950,1965)
Sauer published three stratigraphical diagrams depicting
sedirnentsexposed east of Quito in the intermontanedepression
known as the Sangolqui basin; the sites are in the Rio Chiche
Sauer’s interpretation of an unconformity at the top of his
‘pluvio-glacial’ beds in the Rio Chiche section. He argued that
the interglacial period i s recognised from an interruption
(caused by renewed uplift of the cordillera) to what he called
‘fluvio-lacustrine’ sedimentation and by the appearance of true
alluvial sediments.
46 JOURNALOF QUATERNARY SCIENCE
Figure 1 Map showing location of sites discussed in the text.
The 2nd Glaciation:
Figure 2a shows that 17.8m of sediment interpreted as a
‘glacio-lacustrine’ deposit is Sauer‘s evidence for a second
glacial period. He believed this interval to have been chayac-
terised by large ‘Malaspina-like’ outlet glaciers advancing from
the eastern cordillera to terminate in lakes occupying the
intermontane basins. Heenvisagedthat melting icebergs calved
from floating glaciers and dropped mounds of coarse sediment
onto the lake floors. The repetition of ‘glacio-lacustrine’ beds in
the sequence suggested many readvances of the glaciers, but at
no point did Sauer discuss evidence for the former existence of
large lakes or explain his interpretation of the sediments.
The 2nd Interglacial:
This was characterised by the first appearance in the strati-
graphical column of sediment interpreted by Sauer as ’eolian
cangagua‘. He believed this to be a sediment of volcanic origin,
but did not precisely explain the mechanism of its deposition.
He distinguished the material from underlying ‘lacustrine
cangagua’, a member of the previously-formed ’glacio-lacus-
trine’ formation. In a discussion of ’cangagua‘ Sauer (1950,
p.23-26) drew attention to its similarity with loess (we presume
he was thinking of European loess), but because he thought that
cangagua lacked the calcium carbonate content which he
believed to be typical of loess deposits, he concluded that the
sediment was not of loessal origin. In view of a mineral
assemblage similar to that of andesites and dacites, Sauer
decided that cangagua was an eolian sediment produced during
warm and dry interglacial conditions (unlike the European loess
which i s the product of cold glacial conditions). Sauer subse-
quently used ‘eolian cangagua’ as a marker bed for interglacial
periods and made the fundamental and unsubstantiated
assumption that the main period of Pleistocene volcanism
began during the 2nd interglacial, thereby providing a source
for the sediment. He argued without any supporting evidence
that volcanoes such as Rucu Pichincha, llalo and part of
Chimborazo developed at this time. Sauer’s observation that
cangagua lacks calcium carbonate is not strictly true since
several horizons in the Rio Chiche canyon contain abundant
nodules of cangagua cemented by interstitial calcite. Further-
more, microscopic examination of thin sections of cangagua
show that it is highly siliceous (70% SiOz), corresponding more
with an origin from dacitic - rhyolitic magma than from
andesite. Also present i n the ‘eolian cangagua’ are ball-like
concretions (bolas de cangagua), which are the fossilised nests
of dung beetles (Coprinisphaera ecuadoriensis). Sauer identi-
fied the origin of these features and also noted the presence of
other fossils incorporated within the cangagua -the bones of
large grazing mammals such as Mastodon, Giant Llama and
Horse (Hoffstetter, 1952). On the basis of such evidence he
envisaged a semi-arid savannah or steppe-like grassland land-
scape in the intermontane basins, thereby supporting his view
that the ‘eolian cangagua’ must be an interglacial deposit.
The 3rd Glaciation:
Sauer (1950 p.26-27) concluded that the 3rd glaciation was the
largest of all because renewed tectonic activity had created
higher land. Volcanoes which, he believed, had been con-
structed during the preceding interglacial period became
glacially sculptured for the first time, and ‘Malaspina‘ outlet
glaciers from ice caps on the eastern cordillera again reached
the intermontane basins. He considered that this powerful
glaciation created most of the ‘U‘-shaped glacial valleys present
 THE QUATERNARY GLACIAL SEQUENCE IN ECUADOR: A REINTERPRETATION OF THE WORK OF WALTER SAUER 47

1
Aeolian cangagua

10.0 Cangagua balls

Limestone concretions

1.o Pumice
- 0.3
1.5, 0.7
2.0
Volcanic ash
2.0 Lacustrinb cangagua
3 r d Inter- 0.4
glaciation 1.1 Fine sand
1.o
0.3
1.o Lacustrine cangagua and pumice
1.2
Palaeosol
6.0 Lacustrine cangagua, sandy with pumice
0.1 Ice stillstand layer
1.1 Sandy cangagua
4.0 Sandy-loamy cangagua with fossils
Limonite concretions
1.o Lacustrine, loamy cangagua
1.5 Sand layer
Palaeosol
3rd Glaciation 3.0 Moraine
Lacustrine cangagua with limonite
2nd Inter- 2.0 Erosional discordance
glaciation 2.0 Aeolian cangagua with balls
1.5 Lava boulders
1.5 Sand and gravel
1.5
1.5
2.0 Glacio-lacustrine deposits
2.0
2nd Glaciation 2.0

1.8

1st Inter-
glaciation 1-1
310
0
O .".". .".". ."
0 0 25. Fluvial erosion and sedimentation

Pluvio-glacia 14.0 Fl Beds of various volcanic material

26. with boulders, gravels and coarse
sand in monotonic repetition

Figure 2a Interpretationof sediments exposed in the Rio Chiche gorge (Fig. 4) by W. Sauer (1950, 1971).

D
48 JOURNALOF QUATERNARY SCIENCE
Figure 2b Interpretation of sediments exposed in the Quebrada Cuarangupugru (Fig. 7) by W. Sauer (1 950).
in the cordilleras of Ecuador. The main sedimentary and
stratigraphical evidence for this glacial period consists of ’dark
gravels’ in Quebrada Guarangupugru, ‘fluvioglacial gravels’ at
Guangopolo and ‘moraine’ in the Rio Chiche section. The last
deposit required glaciers to extend 1Okm from the eastern
cordillera, and on the basis of this Sauer had to assume that
tectonic uplift created land sufficiently high to generate such
large glaciers.
The 3rd Interglacial
In the Rio Chiche section Sauer‘s marker beds of ‘eolian
cangagua’ overlie sediments of the 3rd glaciation, and on this
evidence he assumed a return to warm and dry interglacial
conditions. Renewed uplift, faulting and volcanic activity were
also suggested for this period, leading to the formation of the
younger parts of Pichincha and Chimborazo volcanoes. Sauer
also proposed (1950 p.27) that tectonic dislocation had caused
drainage incision and the drying up of lakes in the intermontane
basins; this assumption was necessary to account for the
absence of ‘lacustrine cangagua’ during and after the ’fourth
glaciation‘.
The 4th Glaciation:
The 4th Glaciation was considered to be of relatively small
extent although glaciers became large enough to remove all
traces of terminal moraines constructed during the 3rd glac-
iation. According to Sauer (1 950, p.291, renewed uplift of the
cordillera permitted sufficient nourishment on the higher land
for glaciers to re-occupy the ’U’ valleys created during the
previous glaciation and thus reach similar limits. Sauer
observed fresh terminal and recessional moraines of the 4th
glaciation in parts of the cordillera, and since these moraines
appeared to contain a matrix of ’eolian cangagua’, he con-
cluded that volcanic activity had continued during this glacial
period.
The Postglacial:
This period is characterised by eolian cangagua overlying
deposits of the 4th glaciation. The inference is drawn that warm
and dry conditions accompanied by volcanic activity have
affected the intermontane basins during the postglacial period.
1 Moraine
2 Fossll soils
3 Eolian cangagua
4 L a c u s t r i n e aedtmen t s
5 Lacustrine cangagua
6 Fine send
7 Dark g r a v e l s
B Dark g r a v e l s
9 Lacustrine c a n g a g u a
10 Eolian c a n g a g u a
Reinterpretationof the Rio Chiche and
Quebrada Guarangupugru Sections
Figures 3a, 3b and 3c illustrate the present writers‘ interpreta-
tion of the sedimentsand stratigraphy exposed in the RioChiche
canyon and in the Quebrada Guarangupugru at the same sites
described by Sauer. The characteristics of each section will be
discussed briefly before considering their implications for the
Quaternary sequence proposed by Sauer.
The Rio Chiche Section
Approximately 120m of sediments are exposed by road- and
river-cut sections where the Tumbaco-Pifo road crosses the Rio
Chiche at an altitude of 2400m (Fig. 1). The sediments fall
naturally into two major formations separated by a distinct
discontinuity (Fig. 4); these are the Chiche Formation and the
*Cangahua Formation (Vera 1983). The following discussion
provides descriptions and new interpretations of the two
formations.
The Chiche Formation:
This has three sedimentary components: a conglomerate inter-
bedded with cemented fine tephra and sporadic beds and
pockets of unconsolidated sand, gravel and cobbles. The
Chiche Formation can be subdivided into lower and upper units
that are 29m and 48m thick respectively. The basis for
subdivision is merely the more frequent occurrence in the upper
part of the formation of interbedded tephra layers (mean
thickness 30cm) and more sand and gravel pockets. Con-
glomerate beds in the lower unit are up to 1.5 m thick and less
than 1.0m thick in the upper unit. Discontinuous lenses of
sand, gravel and cobbles as well as conspicuous layers of black
ashes occasionally occur in the lower unit. Pockets of gravels
*Sauer (1950) used the spelling ‘cangagua’ whereas Vera (1983) used
‘cangahua‘. Cangagua is the Indian word for “hard soil”, whereas
cangahua is the modern spelling adopted by INEMIN (Ecuadorian
Geological Survey).
 THE QUATERNARY GLACIAL SEQUENCE IN ECUADOR: A REINTERPRETATION OF THE WORK OF WALTER SAUER
Qepth below
ground surface Thickness
6
P
{ o.*.b.. .be.
...............
b\
........
: '.I :.'. : ...
::.:::::...:.I.,::
.......
. . . .
+ +
. . ........
.,:
.............
.o''...0'0....ij ....b...
. . .. .. .. . . :...........
Figure 3a Interpretation of sediments composing the Chiche Formation in the Rio Chiche gorge.
and well-developed fluvial channel-fills of 4-5 m width and
depth are present in the upper unit.
The conglomerate has been analysed in detail by Vera
(1983). It is composed predominantly of sub-angular shaped
clasts of volcanic origin, the most common lithologies being
andesites (pyroxene-olivine dominant), trachyandesite (with
biotite) and basaltic andesite; also present are traces of rhyolite,
chert, obsidian and graywacke. The sandy matrix consists of
primary crystals, including plagioclase (60%), amphibole
(5-7%), pyroxene (6-1O%), biotite (3-5%)and magnetite (5%),
and fine lithic volcanic fragments; it i s cemented by secondary
calcium carbonate and iron oxide. Measurements of the long
axes of clasts indicate a S-N preferred alignment with angles of
imbrication dipping towards their provenance area in the south.
The conglomerate is poorly sorted in general; grading structures
vary from normal to inverted within the same bed, to beds
lacking any recognisable internal stratification. it is most
commonly a dark-coloured clast-supported deposit, clast size
ranging from 2 cm-8cm with occasionally larger cobbles and
blocks present; interstices between clasts are filled with fine,
silt-like material. Such characteristics indicate that the con-
glomerate i s more like a coarse mud flow deposit than a fluvial
or glacio-fluvial sediment.
The interbedded tephra i s a cream-coloured, structureless
sediment conspicuously different from the conglomerate.
Although it i s rnineralogically similar to the latter, it contains no
large clasts and has a mean grain size of O.l20mm, the range of
49
Conglomerate with sub-rounded - sub-angular
volcanic clasts (up to lOcm diameter) : gradual
decrease in clast size to fine sandy beds 20cm
thick. This sedimentary cycle is repeated 8
times Towards the top a sand lens shows
cross - stratification.
The section is typified by dark coloured beds
(conglomerates) alternating with light coloured
beds (sandy and fine tephra with occasional beds
of volcanic clasts 30cm thick).
Light coloured beds predominate..
Tephra with normal stratification containing
volcanic clasts towards the middle.
Grey-black conglomerate with dark sub-angular
volcanic clasts.
This section consists of cemented conglomerate
beds interstratified with light coloured tephra beds.
The clasts consist mainly of dark andesites
but vitric basalts are also present ( 1 %).
coarse-medium silt to fine sand. Lower beds of tephra are
characterised by poor development of silica diagenesis and
pedogenesis, suggesting relatively rapid deposition of the
sedimentary units; tephras in the upper part of the formation
appear to have undergone more alteration through pedogenic
processes before the deposition of interbedded conglomerates,
suggesting a slower rate of sedimentation.
The Chiche Formation was periodically incised by streams
which cut channels ca 4-6m wide and 3-5rn deep into the
aggrading surface of the basin (Fig. 4). The channels are filled
with loose accumulations of gravels and cobbles that are
predominantly sub-angular to sub-rounded in shape; the clean
smoothed surfaces of most clasts suggest that the deposit is
mainly a water-worn stream sediment. Cobbles exceeding
50cm are common and in general these deposits are much
coarser than the cemented conglomerate. North of llalo a wider
range of lithologies is present in the gravels and cobbles and
although andesitic rocks dominate, the presence of vitric clasts
indicates a more easterly source for these sediments.
The characteristics of the Chiche Formation suggest the
following interpretation. The conglomerates appear to be
consolidated volcanic mud flows (lahars) from a southerly
source. The presence of some structures and imbrication
indicates that a substantial water content was present in some of
the lahars, particularly in the upper unit of the formation. The
tephra layers most probably represent fall-out material from the
explosive volcanism which generated the lahars. Because
 THICKNESS THICKNESS
Acarmlated Accumulated Parti
0.65
0.85 Cangahua..
yellow-fawn

28.98 2.50
2.85 Pumice. 5mm size
29.39 0.40
29.79 0.40 Volcanic sand

Cangahua. soft

3 1.79 2.00

Cangagua with pumice

clasts. 4-6cm
33.7s 2.00 Fluvial sand and gravel
33.89 0.10
Cangahua. light fawn,
partially bedded
34.9s 1.10
Qritty aluvium
35.3s 0.40 Cangahua. prismatic joints

Cangagua. cubic joints

11.35 ,n 36.54 1.15
Cangagua-soil. black-brown
0.45 37.54 1.oo

Cangaeua with pumice clasb

39.44 1.90
Cangagua. cubic joints
40.44 1.00
Soil. rubified
15.50 41.04 0.60

Cangahua

19.50 45.04 4.00

Pumice-sand with iron pan
45.34 0.30
20.70 Cangahua. cubic joints
1.50
0.20 Hard white sediment
Cangahua. cubic joints,
48.24 1.20 plant remains
22.25
48.54 0.30 Stream gravel, 15cm size

50.14 1.60
50.24 0.10 Stream gravel
Soil, rubified
50.84 0.80
25.45 Cangahua with pumice
clasts 5cm size, lenses
26.48 of stream pebbles
52.44 1.60

Figure 3b Interpretationof the Cangahua Formation in the Rio Chiche gorge.

 THICKNESS THICKNESS
Partial Accumulated Partial
A C C,umulated
Present soil: stoney
0.60 0.03-0.08- Fine tephra
Coarse lahar deposit 27.84 2.10--
27.82 0.18-- Soil, weathered. light chocolate
Fine tephra. weathered
28.72 0.90- - Fine tephra. weathered with poor
organic soil on top : contalns
Weathered, light-brown, stones up to 4cm size
fine tephra : light grey- 2847 0.75- -
orange mottling
+ GAP +Gap
41.47
Organic rich soil : developed
on fine tephra

Pumiceous tephra layer and

l c m size particles
Coarse tephra 44.47
44.97

Weathered, clayey
tephra-based soil

47.17

White fine grained tephra 48.22

48.23
Weathered pumiceous tephra 4863
48.87

49.47
Fine tephra. lens
Grey-brown soil
Fine tephra with pumice 50.07
Mid-brown soil, clayey
Sandy tephra 51.09
Brown clayey soil

53.1 9
Alluvial sand and silt with 11 laminae
Alluvial sand, mottled grey and brown
Weathered fine tephra Yellow-fawn mottled
: upper 10-12cm is grey-brown clayey soil
54.93
Fine tephra. weathered greylbrown
: u p p e r 1 2 - 1 5 c m i s y e l l o w l b r o w n Soil
55.87

Tephra, weathered with lapilli-like

aggregates of quartz and pumice :
top 45cm is reddishlchocolate soil

58.67

60.17
Light grey tephra containing
Stream
pumice particles 1-4cm size

Figure 3c Interpretation of sediments exposed in the Quebrada Guarangupugru.

52 JOURNAL OF QUATERNARY SCIENCE
Figure 4 The Rio Chiche gorge site described in Figures 2a, 3a and 3b. The Cangahua Formation lies above bridge level, the
Chiche Formation lies below. One of the ’cut-and-fill’ pockets of gravel and cobbles crops out in the Chiche Formation at the centre
bottom of the photograph.
lahars require a source of water, the likely origin of those in the
Sangolqui basin is from snow- and ice-coveredvolcanoes lying
to the south. Since recent eruptions of Cotopaxi have dis-
charged lahars northwards through the basin, this volcano is an
obvious source for at least some of the Chiche conglomerates.
The lithological characteristicsof the conglomerate are consis-
tent with an origin from this volcano and from adjacent extinct
volcanoes which may have been active in glacial times. The
lenses and pockets of unconsolidated fluvial sand, gravel and
cobbles appear to be cut-and-fill sediments related to the
occasional discharge of stream floods across the former land
surfaces underlain by the aggrading sequence of laharic
conglomerate and tephra beds. All or part of these fluvial
deposits seem to have originated in valleys draining to the
Sangolqui basin mainly from the eastern cordillera. It is not yet
clear whether the deposits are the produce of meltwaters from
former glaciers, or merely relate to heavy rainstorms.
The Cangahua Formation:
A distinct sedimentological discontinuity separates the Chiche
Formation from the overlying Cangahua Formation which
continues the section a further 52 m to the present land surface.
The principal differences between the two are that the Canga-
hua Formation does not contain beds of conglomerate and is
mainly unconsolidated. The Cangahua Formation is so-called
(Vera 1983) because it is dominated by the fawn-coloured fine
volcaniclastic sediment known in Ecuador as cangahua; it i s
interbedded with three other sedimentary facies. Fluvial depos-
its at the base of the formation mark the last occasion when
either fluvial or volcanic floods crossed the Sangolqui basin.
Three palaeosols mark intervals when pedogenesis on the land
surface was not interrupted by heavy fall-out from volcanic
activity or by slope movements and stream action. Eruptions
from adjacent volcanoes produced distinctive beds of
pumiceous lapilli and sand-sized tephra on several occasions.
The beds of very conspicuouswhite pumice are two pyroclastic
flow deposits separated by a unit of cangahua; the flows
appear to have come from eruptions in the eastern cordillera,
but the source has not yet been determined. In some horizons
the cangahua has evolved diagenetically through the develop-
ment of amorphous silica and contains scattered ‘relic’ pumice
fragments. Pieces of broken beetle nests and reworked canga-
hua fragments also occur in places. These may be colluvial
deposits originating from the downslope movement and mixing
of materials.
Particular features of the Cangahua Formation which may
have palaeoclimatic implications are the cangahua nodules,
the fossilised beetle nests and the buried soils. The nodules are
composed of cangahua particles cemented together with
interstitial secondary calcite and vary in shape from smooth
ovoid to rough irregular masses commonly from 10-13 cm in
size (Fig.5). A road-cut on the east side of the Chiche canyon
exposes the nodule horizons most clearly. They occur in
significant numbers only above the white pumice horizons and
appear to be irregularly disseminated through 4m of homogen-
ous cangahua. Similar nodules contained in wind-blown silts
have been observed and studied in northeast Argentina where
they are believed to have formed during cool semi-arid
conditions that coincided with glacial periods (Tonni and
Fidalgo 1983). Those in Ecuador may have formed in similar
circumstances: that is, from the diagenesis of calcium car-
bonate contained in the cangahua (also an air-born silt) as a
 THE QUATERNARY GLACIAL SEQUENCE IN ECUADOR: A REINTERPRETATION OF THE WORK OF WALTER SAUER
Figure 5 Examples of cangahua nodules (top)and fossil beetle nests
(bottom)from the Cangahua Formation.
result of particular climatic conditions. As in Argentina, these
could have been cool and semi-arid, coinciding with glacier
expansion in the adjacent cordillera. At high altitude in
equatorial latitudes strong evaporation over a bare semi-arid
landscape could have influenced groundwater movement in
such a way as to achieve the necessary diagenesis of the calcite.
A variety of materials overlie the main nodule-bearing horizon,
including layers of hard and soft cangahua (Fig. 3). The hard
layers appear to be partially cemented and contain many
noduleswhereas the soft layers are relatively free from them and
more commonly contain fossil beetle nests.
Sauer (1950) observed the possible link between dung beetles
and large grazing animals, the former depending on excretions
of the latter for their procreation; the fossils of both occur in the
Cangahua Formation. Dung beetles are no longer present in
Ecuador and exist mainly in semi-arid parts of the world
populated by grazing animals. It is believed that dung beetles
excavate spherical caves close to the surface of silt deposits;
they fill these with balls of dung as a food supply for the larvae
the instant they hatch from eggs laid in a hollow in the
dung-ball. Some types of dung beetle burrow to a common level
of c. 30cm to bury their’ nests; others develop dendritic
networksof burrow tunnels to depths of 2-4 m (Crowson, 19811.
The latter lead to a more random dispersal of nest balls
throughout 2-4m of sediment. After the young beetle has
consumed its food supply and has left the nest, fine sediment
surrounding the ball subsequently creeps into the space inside.
Because the shell is more consolidated and harder than
surroundingsediment it survives as a relic feature (Fig. 5). Since
dung beetles at present exist only in semi-arid parts of South
America, Sauer interpreted the relic balls in Ecuador as
evidence that such conditions formerly occurred in the inter-
montane basins at a time when grazing animals roamed across a
steppe-like landscape; he implied, however, that this was
during interglacial periods. Since climatic conditions in the
Amazon basin during glacial build-up were drier than at present
(Goudie 1983, pp. 96-97, Ochsenius, 1985), it may be inferred
that climate in the adjacent Andes was also more arid because
their predominant rain-bearing air masses were derived from
the same sources. Thus the steppe-like conditions suggested by
thebeetleand animal remainsaremore likely to havecoincided
with the cooler and drier glacial periods rather than with
interglacial periods as Sauer envisaged. The buried soil hori-
zons are conspicuous because of their reddish-dark brown
colour and clearly-developed profiles. Their palaeoclimatic
significance is that they indicate distinct periods of soil develop-
ment interrupting more prolonged episodes of cangahua
sedimentation when conditions were too arid or cold to permit
comparable pedogenesis. The buried soils, therefore, may be
53
interpreted as marker beds corresponding to times of greater
moisture and vegetation cover, possibly during interstadial or
interglacial periods.
The Quebrada Guarangupugru Section
The Quebrada Guarangupugru is a narrow canyon cut into
slopes descending from the llumbisi horst to the Sangolqui
graben. The canyon grades to the Rio San Pedro, which drains
the depression between llalo volcano and the llumbisi horst
before joining the Rio Chiche to become the Rio Guayllabamba
(Fig. 1). The valley, at an altitude of 25001-11, is well outside the
limits of the last glaciation as defined by terminal moraines.
The section described by Sauer (1950 p.33) is easily found
because of the distinctive dark band in the upper part labelled
on his diagram as a fossil soil. Figure 3c illustrates the present
writers’ interpretation of the sediments exposed at this site; in
their opinion, the only horizon correctly interpreted by Sauer is
the ‘fossil soil’. It is clear that Sauer mistook laharic deposits
generated by eruptions of Cotopaxi for morainic deposits of his
so-called 3rd glaciation. Laharic deposits discharged down the
Rio San Pedro depression have been mapped by Miller et a/.
(1978), the most recent event occurred in 1877. Beneath the
superficial laharic deposit (Fig. 6) the well-stratified sediments,
interpreted by Sauer as glacio-lacustrine sediments, consist of at
least 1 7 palaeosols interbedded with fine-grained volcanic
materials (Fig. 7); the latter are composed mainly of silt- and
sand-sizedtephras mixed with occasional layers and inclusions
of pumice lapilli. The mean organic content of the palaeosols is
3.14%; the highest value of 4.6% is in layer 5 (Figs. 3c and 7).
Stream sands and gravels predominate at the base of the section,
suggesting that the site experienced more fluvial activity when
the land surface was c. 65 m lower.
Sediments exposed in the Quebrada Guarangupugru are
different from those composing the Cangahua Formation in the
Rio Chiche in that they lack concretionary nodules and
compacted layers; fossilised beetle nests are also rare. Such
contrasts could be explained by site differences; the Rio Chiche
area is a lower, relatively dry basin floor site whereas the
Cuarangupugru site is on a higher slope, possibly with more
abundant moisture and a more dense vegetation cover. The
absence of the white pumice layers so conspicuous at the Rio
Chiche site (and in various sections exposed along the Quito-
Cayambe road) is puzzling if the ages of sediments at the two
Figure 6 Lahar deposits from Cotopaxi exposed near the
Cuangopolo electric power station; interpreted by W. Sauer as a
moraine.
54 JOURNAL OF QUATERNARY SCIENCE
Figure 7 Palaeosols interbedded with alluvial sediments in the
Quebrada Cuarangupugru. Soil layers 5-14 of Figure 3c are visible
(top to bottom).
sites are broadly corresponding. One possible explanation is
that the Guarangupugru site in the lee of llalo was protected
from the pumice ash flow. The stratigraphical equivalent of the
pumice eruption is possibly the 33cm layer of white, fine-
grained tephra at a depth of c. 12m. This interpretation is
supported by the observation that immediately above this
tephra is a 4 m layer of homogeneous, apparently weathered,
cangahua-like material, possibly the equivalent of the 4 m
cangahua layer overlying the white pumice in the Rio Chiche
section.
The Guangopolo Section
Sediments exposed on both banks of the Rio San Pedro
immediately downstream from the electric power station (Fig.
1) were not sampled or analysed in detail. However, field
examination of the deposits indicated that they were primarily
of volcanic, laharic, fluvial and colluvial origin. For example,
large boulders up to 2m size are scattered widely over the
ground surface in this area above the stream canyon and were
probably derived from the same lahar event observed at
Quebrada Guarangupugru; beds of tephra and fine pumice
lapilli commonly occur in the cangahua-like horizons, and at
least two buried soils are present. A major difference between
the sediments exposed at Guangopolo and the other two sites is
the greater abundance of water-laid materials. Over 20m of
bedded sands, gravels and cobbles are exposed on the east bank
of the river; the bedding and imbrication of these suggest that
they were derived from valleys cut into contiguous slopes of
llalo volcano.
As at the other two sites, it was not possible to interpret any
particular series of glacial-interglacial events from the sedi-
ments exposed at Guangopolo.
Chronology
Only three dates relating to the age of cangahua deposits in the
Sangolqui basin are known. One is from Guangopolo where a
piece of wood obtained from above the sand and gravel
horizons and at the base of the cangahua gave a radiocarbon
age of >48800 yr BP (Bristow et a/., 1980). Another is from
Bonifaz (1972) who concluded from archaeological evidence
and obsidian hydration-dating of microliths that the main
deposition of cangahua had ended by 12900 yr BP or possibly
by 21 600 yr BP. The third is from a sample taken 4 m from the
surface of the Cangahua Formation (at the base of horizon 22 of
Estrada, 1941) in the vicinity of Quito; it has given an age of
c. 35000 BP by thermoluminescent dating (A.M.D. Gemmell,
pers comm). The formation in this locality is c.8m thick, and
although there are no data on its rate of accumulation, these
dates encourage speculation that the Cangahua Formation may
have accumulated entirely within the last 100000 yr.
Conclusions
We conclude that the sediments interpreted by Sauer (1950,
1971) as glacial, glacio-fluvial and glacial-lacustrine are not of
such origins and that the foundation for his Quaternary
sequence must therefore be considered untenable. It is not yet
possible to replace Sauer’s scheme with an equally elegant
model of Quaternary glacial and interglacial periods but Table 1
illustrates a tentative sequence based on more recent fieldwork
(Hastenrath, 1981; Clapperton, 1983; Clapperton and
McEwan, 1985; Clapperton, 1986). The table shows that a
reasonably clear pattern of glacier fluctuations is known for the
last c. 40000 yr. Most morainic landforms seem to be assoc-
iated with this period. Some morphologically subdued ridges
may have been deposited earlier in the last glaciation, losing
their fresh form through denudation and a covering of canga-
hua. Although theentire sequence suggested in Table 1 needs to
be thoroughly tested and refined with more dating, two
outstanding problems require early attention. One is to deter-
mine whether or not the belt of 3-4 closely-spaced moraines
assigned to the last glaciation represent glacier fluctuations
widely separated in time, but falling within the last 100000 yr.
For example, interpretation of the oxygen-isotope record from
ice sheet and ocean bed cores suggests global periodsof cooling
separated by warmer (interstadial) conditions peaking around
70000, 50000 and 20000 BP. It i s possiblethat glacier systems
more sensitiveto climatic fluctuations than the large continental
ice sheets may have respondedto the cold peaks by advancing.
Thus parts of the moraine complexes in Ecuador and the
partially oxidised till overlain by peat with a radiocarbon age
>40000 BP may have been formed by glacier advances
coinciding with cold peaks in the middle and early parts of the
last glaciation. Evidence from the adjacent Andes in Colombia
suggests that glaciers were more extensive before c. 35000 BP
 THE QUATERNARY GLACIAL SEQUENCE IN ECUADOR: A REINTERPRETATIONOF THE WORK OF WALTER SAUER 55

Table 1 Quaternary glacial sequence in the Ecuadorian Andes. The range of valuesfor altitudinal limits of each formation
is due to the asymmetry in distribution, the lower values occurring on the eastern (windward) side of the mountains

Altitudinal Age
Formation Characteristics Limits(m) Determination Source
Little Ice Age Moraines, trim-lines. 4100-4800 ~15th-early~ 2 0 t h . Hastenrath, 1981
Clapperton 1986
Neoglacial Moraines (superposed in 3900-4600 pre-2000 BP Clapperton 1986
places).
Late-glac ia I Moraines. 3800-4400 12000-10000 BP Clapperton &
McEwan 1985
Last glaciation Moraines, erosion 3000-3900 C35000 BP Clapperton &
(late) forms. McEwan 1985
Last glaciation Subdued moraines, 2900-3800 >40000 BP Clapperton &
(earlier) erosion forms, McEwan 1985
oxidised ti IIc2m.
Pre-last Ox idised ti II>2m, 2750-3250 no data Clapperton 1983
glaciation deep1y weat hered
diamictite,
erosion forms.

than during the period of maximum cold which occurred after
c. 20000 BP when the climate became drier (van der Hammen
et al., 1981). The problem in Ecuador may be resolved if
volcanic sediments interbedded with glacial deposits can be
found and dated with thermoluminescence and fission track
methods and if biostratigraphicalanalyses, such as those by van
der Hammen and associates in Colombia, are applied to deep
cores from sedimentary basins.
The second problem is how to interpret deeply weathered
diamicites such as those exposed in parts of the western and
southern cordilleras. In terms of their clast characteristics -
shape, size-range, varied lithology - the diamictites are similar
to adjacent or overlying glacial deposits, but since the clasts are
weathered to sand or clay it is not possible to detect evidence of
glacial polish or striations; the diamictites could therefore be of
mudflow, debris avalanche or alluvial origin. However,
because the sediments closely resemble adjacent glacial depos-
its and are not found beyond the limits of the glacially eroded
parts of the valleys in which they are situated, they have been
tentatively interpreted as deeply weathered tills (Clapperton
1983). The degree of weathering implies an age greater than the
last glaciation and, by analogy with weathered tills in the
Chilean lake district (also a warm, humid environment), they
could be older than the penultimate glaciation. It is known that
glacier fluctuations have affected parts of the Andes periodically
over the last 3 My (Clapperton 1983). The penultimate glacia-
tion seems to have been more extensive than the last throughout
the Andes. In the southern Andes at least four major glaciations
have occurred during the last 800000 yr, each one less
extensive than the previous. Old, deeply weathered tills may
therefore be expected in the Ecuadorian Andes, assuming that
these mountains were high enough (through tectonic uplift)
earlier in. the Quaternary. Since this paper concludes that the
sedimentary sequence exposed by deep sections in the inter-
montane basins of Ecuador is largely of non-glacial origin,
partly because of the accumulation of volcanic deposits, it is
suggested that the longest record of Quaternary glaciation and
interglaciation is more likely to be preserved in the non-
volcanic southern cordillera.
AcknowledgmentsThanks are due to the Royal Society, The Carnegie
Trust for the Universities of Scotland, and Aberdeen University for
supporting field work in Ecuador in 1983 and 1985.
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