Advanced Dynamics Textbook

Contents
List of Symbols 3
1 Introduction 5
1.1 Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2 Vectors and matrices 7
2.1 Denition of a Vector . . . . . .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 7

2.2 Vector Calculus . . . . . . . . . .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 8
2.2.1 Dot product . . . . . . . .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 8
2.2.2 Matrix Multiplication . .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 9
2.2.3 Cross Product . . . . . .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 9
2.3 Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 11
3 Reference Frames 15
3.1 Rotation Transformation Matrices . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 15

3.1.1 Problem: Eulerian Angles . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 16
3.1.2 Example Robot Arm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 17
3.1.3 Orthonormality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 21
3.2 Writing Vectors in Dierent Reference Frames . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 22
3.2.1 Problem: Quasi Perspective Transformation . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 24
3.3 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 24
4 Angular Velocities 27
4.1 Rotation Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 27

4.1.1 Problem: Airplane . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 28
4.2 Velocity of a Point . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 29
4.2.1 Problem: Helicopter Blade . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 30
4.2.2 Example Robot Arm . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 31
4.3 Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 32
4.3.1 Problem: Accelerations of Rotor .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 34
1
2 CONTENTS
4.3.2 Problem: Rotating Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

5 Energy 37
5.1 Angular Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 37

5.1.1 Example Helicopter Blade . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 39
5.1.2 Problem: Ballerina . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 41
5.1.3 Example Dutch Dakota . . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 41
5.1.4 Accelerated Point of Rotation . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 43
5.2 Kinetic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 45
5.2.1 Example Robot Arm . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 47
5.3 Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 48
5.4 Gyroscopic Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 48
5.4.1 Gyroscopic Eects . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 48
5.4.2 Problem: Wheel . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 51
5.4.3 Gyroscopic Behaviour . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 51
5.4.4 Example Spin . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 51
5.4.5 Gyroscopic Eects of an Engine . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 55
5.4.6 Gyrocompass . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 56
6 Lagrange's Equations of Motion 61
6.1 Derivation of Lagrange's Equations of Motion . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 61

6.1.1 Hamilton's Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 61
6.1.2 Generalised Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 63
6.1.3 Lagrange's Equations in a Conservative Force Field . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 65
6.1.4 Generalised Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 65
6.2 Using Lagrange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 66
6.2.1 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 67
A Inertia 73
B Answers to the Problems 79
B.1 Eulerian Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 79

B.2 Robot Arm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 79
B.3 Ballerina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 80
B.4 Kinetic Energy of a Helicopter Rotor Blade .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 81
B.5 Wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 82
List of Symbols
a - Acceleration
Cxy - Product of inertia
D - Angular momentum
- Row of unit vectors dening reference frame i
fE i g
F - Force
g - Gravitational acceleration vector
i - Unit vector in x-direction
Ix - Moment of inertia about the x-axis
Iy - Moment of inertia about the y-axis
Iz - Moment of inertia about the z-axis
j - Unit vector in y-direction
[J ]- Mass moment of inertia matrix
k - Spring stiness
k - Unit vector in z-direction
L - Lagrangian: L = T V
m - Mass
M - Moment
p - Component in x-direction of the rotational velocity
q - Component in y-direction of the rotational velocity
qi - Degree of freedom i
[qi ]
- Rotation transformation matrix between fEi g and fEi g
- Generalised force in the direction of qi
1
Qi
r - Component in z-direction of the rotational velocity
r - Position vector
R - Position vector
- Rotation transformation matrix between fEi g and fEi g
[Ri ]
[R]- Distance in matrix form for cross product
1
s - Displacement
T - Kinetic energy
u - Spring extention
v - Velocity
V - Potential energy
V - Velocity
x - x-coordinate
y - y-coordinate
z - z-coordinate
- Flap angle
[ ]- Rotation transformation matrix
- Density
[] - Rotation transformation matrix
[ ] - Rotation transformation matrix
3
4 LIST OF SYMBOLS
! - Rotational velocity
! - Rotational velocity vector

- Rotational velocity

- Rotational velocity vector
[
] - Rotational operator
(_::) - dtd
Chapter 1
Introduction
In these lecturenotes a method to derive equations of motion for three dimensional systems will be explained.
This method is very suitable if used in combination with a symbolic manipulation software programme. It is
possible to nd the equations of motion for very complex systems in a short time. This is why this method
has become very popular over the past decades. It has become clear that this method is also very suitable
for manual calculations of simple problems. The method is almost like book keeping making it very routine
work. The brain does not need to do much thinking during the work. Therefore these lectures could also
be called 'Dynamics for dummies'. Spatial aptitude is hardly necessary, the same goes for understanding of
virtual forces and a good sense for rotating reference frames.
The experiences of the previous years have been used in these lecture notes. Through these experiences it
became clear which parts of the material needed extra attention because a lot of mistakes were made by
students. Ample examples are given to explain the method in more detail and clarify the method.
1.1 Notation
Throughout these notes a certain notation is for vectors and rows and columns. A vector is always an underlined
letter. A row is always written as follows: ( , , ). For a column the following parentheses are used: f g. There
is a great dierence between a vector and a row. A row consists of two or three expressions or numbers that
describe the dierent components of a vector in a certain reference frame. A vector is actually an arrow that
can be divided into components in every possible reference frame. To further clarify this: a velocity is a vector,
no matter which reference frame someone uses, this vector will always be the same arrow.
The notation fEi g is used for a column of unity vectors for reference frame i.
In short:
(a; b; c) - a row
(E i ) - a row of unity vectors for reference frame i
fag - a column
fE i g - a column of unity vectors for reference frame i
a - a vector
[ A] - a matrix
5
6 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Chapter 2
Vectors and matrices
In this chapter the denition of a vector will be given followed by a short summary of matrix and vector
calculations. After this a method will be given to write the position vectors of points on moving and/or
rotating objects.
2.1 Denition of a Vector

A vector has a length and a direction in space. To be able to do calculations with vectors it is necessary to
write a vector in its components in a certain reference frame. The starting point of the vector is in the origin
of this reference frame. This is depicted in gure 2.1:
8 9
< i =
r = ix + jy + kz = (x; y; z ) j = (x; y; z)fE g (2.1)
: ;
k
In this equation (x,y,z) is a row with the coordinates of point P and fEg is the short notation for the column
of the unity vectors. Note the dierence between a row and a vector.
Z
P
z r
Y
y j
Figure 2.1: Point P.
7
8 CHAPTER 2. VECTORS AND MATRICES
It is also possible to write this in the transposed form:

8 9
< x =
r = ix + jy + kz = (E ) y = (E )(x; y; z)T (2.2)
: ;
z
In this equation (E ) is a row of the unity vectors. Very often the row or column of unity vectors is left out of
the notation, however it is much clearer and very useful to write this explicitly. And it is absolutely necessary
if dierent reference frames are used, as will be the case in the following chapters.
2.2 Vector Calculus

Using vector notations can be very useful for some analysis. Very often this entails some multiplication or
addition. In the following sections some very basic vector and matrix rules will be summarized in short.
2.2.1 Dot product

If a and b are vectors then the dot product is dened as:
X
a b = ai bi (2.3)
i
This product is used to write the work done by a force in vector notation, see gure 2.2
F (Force)
α
s (Displacement)
Figure 2.2: Force and displacement
The work done can be written as:

W =F s (2.4)
The result of a dot product, in this case W, the work done, is a scalar! The dot product is dened such that
the following is true:
W = F s = jF j jsj cos (2.5)
In components:
F = (Fx ; Fy ; Fz )fE g (2.6)
s = (sx ; sy ; sz )fE g = (E )(sx ; sy ; sz ) T (2.7)
8 9
< sx =
W = F s = (Fx; Fy ; Fz )fE g(E ) : sy
;
= Fxsx + Fy sy + Fz sz (2.8)
sz
Because fEg(E ) = [I ]
Among other the following rules apply:
2.2. VECTOR CALCULUS 9
1. a b = b a
2. a (b + c) = a b + a c
3. (a) b = a (b) = (a b)
2.2.2 Matrix Multiplication

When the method described in the next chapters is used to determine position vectors, velocities and equations
of motion, al lot of matrix multiplications must be performed. Therefore it is very important to make sure
that this is done correctly. Two dierent methods can be used to describe the way to multiply two matrices
(N.B. One of these two can be a vector, which is a matrix with one of its dimensions equal to one). First the
correct way to do the multiplication will be given in formula. The second way visualizes this formula. If A is
a matrix of m n and B is a matrix of n p then AB=C with the elements of C:
n
X
cik = ai bk = air brk (2.9)
r=1
This means that C will be an m p matrix. A matrix multiplication is only possible if the number of columns
of the rst matrix is equal to the number of rows of the second matrix. These formulas are also depicted in
gure ( ). ??
The following is true for matrix multiplications:

1. (AB)T = BT AT
2. A(B + C ) = AB + AC
3. (A + B)C = AC + BC
4. (A)B = A(B) = (AB)
2.2.3 Cross Product

If a and b are vectors in R then the cross product is dened as:
3
a b = (ay bz az by ; az bx ax bz ; axby ay bx ) (2.10)

This product can be used to write the velocity of a point on a rotating body in vector notation, see gure 2.3.
V =
s (2.11)
Thus the velocity is the vector that is dened by
s. Its direction is perpendicular to
and s and its length
is:
jV j = j
j jrj sin (2.12)
It is also possible to write the cross product as a matrix product. This method is very suitable for being used
in combination with symbolic manipulation software.
2
0 az ay 3
6 az
a b = (bx ; by ; bz ) 6 0 ax 77 fE g (2.13)
4 ay ax 0 5
Figure 2.3: Cross product
This multiplication gives the same result as Eq. (2.10). It is possible to write this in dierent ways, among
other (by using the right hand rule for the cross product):
2
0 bz by 3
a b = b a = (ax ; ay ; az ) 4 bz 0 bx 5 fE g (2.14)
by bx 0
Using these notations to calculate the velocity of point P gives:
V =
s = (x; y; z )[
]fE g (2.15)
or transposed:
8 9
< x =
V = (E )[
]T : y
;
(2.16)
z
In these equations [
] is the vector
written as a matrix as shown in Eq. (2.13) and s is written in its
components (x; y; z).
Other ways to write the same multiplication:
2
0 z y3 2
0 z y 3T
V = s
= (p; q; r) 4 z 0 x 5 fE g = (p; q; r) 4 z 0 x 5 fE g
y x 0 y x 0
2 38 9
0 z y <p=
= (E ) 4 z 0 x 5 : q ; (2.17)
y x 0 r
Where (p; q; r)fE g is the vector
.
The cross product is also used to calculate the moment of a force. In gure 2.4 a force is drawn in the X Y
plane, although the following is of course true in general. The force F has its point of application in P. The
position vector of this point is r. This means that the moment about O of the force F is:
M =rF (2.18)
2.3. VECTOR 11
Y
F
Figure 2.4: Moment of a force
This is because M ? r and M ? F and

jM j = jrjjF j sin (2.19)
Written in matrix notation:
2
0 z y3
M = (Fx ; Fy ; Fz ) 4 z 0 x 5 (2.20)
y x 0
2.3 Vector
Figure 2.5 shows a robot arm. Assuming that everything is xed in space, one can write the vector for point
A and for point B and calculate the vector from A to B in all three reference frames that are drawn.
For reference frame 1 the vector to point A is:
rA = (0; 0; 0)fE g
1 1 (2.21)
The vector for point B is:
rB = (l ; l ; l )fE g
1 2 3 1 1 (2.22)
The vector from A to B is equal to:
r = rB rA
1 1 (2.23)
This last equation is valid in any reference frame. In the rst reference frame this equation leads to:
r = (XB XA ; YB YA ; ZB ZA)fE g = (l ; l ; l )fE g
1 2 3 1 1 (2.24)
Similarly for reference frame 2, the vector to point A is:
rA = ( l ; 0; l )fE g
2 2 1 2 (2.25)
rB = (0; l ; 0)fE g
2 3 2 (2.26)
This results in the vector from A to B in reference frame 2:
r = (XB XA ; YB YA ; ZB ZA)fE g = (l ; l ; l )fE g
2 2 3 1 2 (2.27)
B
1
0
0
1 l3
z2
y2
x2
l2
Y3 X3
Z3
l1
z1
y
1 11 x1
00
00
11
00 A
11
Figure 2.5: Robot arm
Similarly for reference frame 3, the vector to point A is:
rA3 = (0; 0; l1)fE3 g (2.28)
rB3 = ( l3 ; l2 ; 0)fE3g (2.29)
This results in the vector from A to B in reference frame 3:
r = (XB XA ; YB YA ; ZB ZA)fE3 g = ( l3 ; l2; l1 )fE3 g (2.30)
Three dierent expressions for one and the same vector. Looking at these expressions, it shows that the place
of the origin has in uence on the vector to point A and the vector to point B but it has no in uence on the
elements of the vector from A to B. The direction of the axes does have an in uence on the vector elements
of the vector from A to B. It is very important to realize this. If one has to determine the vector from A
to B, the origin of the reference frame is of no importance, it can be chosen anywhere. This means that
fE g = fE g! A vector is unambiguously dened. Every vector is from one chosen origin, but very often it is
depicted incorrectly as illustrated in gure 2.6.
1 2
2.3. VECTOR 13
O O
rB
A
A
r r rA+B
A A+B rA
r B
B
Figure 2.6: The correct way to illustrate a vector sum (left) and an incorrect way(right)
The meaning of a vector does not change if it is written in another reference frame.
Again looking at gure 2.5 if one wants to write the vector from A to B, it is possible to do this in dierent
reference frames. If the three dierent elements of this robot arm would be connected to each other with
hinges, they would be able to move relative to each other. If every element has some angular velocity then the
best way to write the vector from A to B is to write it as three dierent vectors in three dierent reference
frames, where every vector is written in its local reference frame with the same velocity as the element that is
described by that vector.
This would lead to the following very simple sum:
r = (r x ; r y ; r z )fE g + (r x ; r y ; r z )fE g + (r x ; r y ; r z )fE g
1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 2
= (0; 0; l )fE g + (0; l ; 0)fE g + (0; l ; 0)fE g

1 1 2 3 3 2 (2.31)
Now all that is needed to do the sum, is an expression that would make it possible to write a vector that is
given in reference frame i as a vector in reference frame i 1. For instance:
(0; l ; 0)fE g = (0; l ; 0)[A]fE g
2 3 2 2
This will be further discussed in the next chapter.

Chapter 3
Reference Frames
In this chapter the transformation matrices that are used to write a vector known as a row in one reference
frame, as a row in another reference frame. When determining a vector that consists of a sum of dierent
smaller vectors in dierent reference frames, the transformation matrices must be used in order to get all
dierent parts as expressions in one reference frame.
3.1 Rotation Transformation Matrices

As shown in the previous chapter a vector can have dierent components if it is written in dierent reference
frames. In gure 3.1 the moving earth reference frame is drawn as an example. This reference frame is rotated
about the z-axis over the angle of yaw.
Figure 3.1: Rotation of the reference frame over the angle of yaw
15
16 CHAPTER 3. REFERENCE FRAMES
Unit vector i can be written as the sum of two vectors in ie and j e directions respectively with lengths of
cos and sin .
1
The same can be done for the other unit vectors of reference frame 1, leading to the following expression:
i = cos ie + sin j e + 0 ke
1
j = sin ie + cos j e + 0 ke
1
(3.1)
k = 0 ie + 0 j e + 1 ke
1
or written as a matrix multiplication:

8 9 2 8 9
< i = 1 cos sin 0 3 < ie =
j = 4 sin cos 0 5 : j e ; (3.2)
:
k ;
1
1 0 0 1 ke
or in short:
fE g = [ ] fE e g
1 (3.3)
where [ ] is the rotation transformation matrix.
3.1.1 Problem: Eulerian Angles
Figure 3.2: Rotation of the reference frame over the angle of pitch
Suppose there are more rotations, following the sequence of Eulerian angles, as shown in gures 3.2 and 3.3.
This means that from reference frame fE g a rotation about the y-axis over the angle of pitch results in
reference frame fE g. This latter reference frame is rotated about its x-axis over the angle of roll resulting
1
in the airplane body reference frame. This means that:

2
3.1. ROTATION TRANSFORMATION MATRICES 17
Figure 3.3: Rotation of the reference frame over the angle of roll
fE g = []fE g
2 1 (3.4)
and
fE b g = []fE g
2 (3.5)
Give the elements of the two rotation transformation matrices, [] and [].
The answers of this problem can be found in appendix B, in section B.1 .
3.1.2 Example Robot Arm

Figure 3.4 shows a robot arm. Several reference frames are also drawn. System 0 is assumed to be xed.
Compared to this frame the rst arm has a rotation about the positive z-axis of reference frame 0. Reference
frame 2 has other directions for the x, y and z-axes than reference frame 1, but does rotate with the rst
element. The second element can rotate about the y-axis of reference frame 2. The nal element can rotate
about the negative z-axis of reference frame 3. For all these reference frames one can write the transformation
matrices.
q
2
y y3
2 y
4
x2 x3
x4
z z3
2
z4
q
3
x1
z1
y
q 1
1
x0
z0
y
0
Figure 3.4: Example of a robot arm
First draw a picture of the axes that change. In gure 3.5 this is done for the rst rotation. It is very important
to clearly draw the angle so that the gure shows the direction and also in which position this angle is chosen
to be zero.
x
0 x
1
q
1
z0
y
0
z1
y
1
Figure 3.5: reference frames 0 and 1
Figure 3.5 shows:

i = cos q i + sin q j + 0k
1 1 0 1 0 0
j = sin q i + cos q j + 0k
1 1 0 1 0 0 (3.6)
k = 0i + 0j + k
1 0 0 0
This can be written as:

fE g = [q ]fE g
1 1 0 (3.7)
with
2
cos q sin q 0 3 1 1
[q ] = 4 sin q cos q 0 5
1 1 1 (3.8)
0 0 1
The following expressions can be found by looking at gure 3.5:
i = cos q i sin q j + 0k
0 1 1 1 1 1
j = sin q i + cos q j + 0k
0 1 1 1 1 1 (3.9)
k = 0i + 0j + k
0 1 1 1

fE g = [Q ]fE g
0 1 1 (3.10)
with
2
cos q sin q 0 3 1 1
[Q ] = 4 sin q cos q 0 5
1 1 1 (3.11)
0 0 1
If one compares [Q ] to [q ], it appears that one is the transposed matrix of the other. In the next section this
1 1
will be discussed.
The directions of the axes of frame 2 have changed compared to frame 1, but there is no angle that can change
in time. The following can be concluded:
i = 0i + j + 0k
2 1 1 1
j = i + 0j + 0k
2 1 1 1 (3.12)
k = 0i + 0j k
2 1 1 1

fE g = [R]fE g
2 1 (3.13)
with
2
0 1 0 3
[R] = 4 1 0 0 5 (3.14)
0 0 1
The second arm of the robot is free to rotate about the y axis of reference frame 2. For this another gure is
drawn, gure 3.6. This gure shows that:
x3
y
3
y
2
x
2
q
2
z
3
z
2

i3 = cos q2 i2 + 0j 2 sin q2 k2
j 3 = 0i2 + 1j 2 + 0k2 (3.15)
k3 = sin q2 i2 + 0j 2 + cos q2 k2

fE g = [q ]fE g
3 2 2 (3.16)
with
2 3
cos q 0 sin q
2 2
[q ] = 4 0 1 0
2
5 (3.17)
sin q 0 cos q
2 2
And nally the last element of the robot turns in negative z-direction as depicted in gure 3.7.
y y
3 4
1
0
0
1
z x 3
3 q
z4 3
x
4
i4 = cos q3 i3 sin q3 j 3 + 0k3

j 4 = sin q3 i3 + cos q3 j 3 + 0k3 (3.18)
k4 = 0i3 + 0j 3 + k3

fE g = [q ]fE g
4 3 3 (3.19)
with
2
cos q 3 sin q 0 3
3
[q ] = 4 sin q
3 3 cos q 0 5
3 (3.20)
0 0 1
From gure 3.4 it is obvious that it is also possible to determine the transformation matrix to get from reference
frame 3 to frame 1 in one transformation, without using reference frame 2. Figure 3.8 shows:
z
1
x3
y q
3 2
11
00 y
x 11
00 1
1
z
3
i3 = 0i1 + cos q2 j 1 + sin q2 k1

j 3 = i1 + 0j 1 + 0k1 (3.21)
k3 = 0i1 + sin q2 j 1 cos q2 k1
Or in matrix notation:
fE g = [Rq ]fE g
3 2 1 (3.22)
with 2
0 cos q sin q 3
2 2
[Rq ] = 4 1 0
2 0 5 (3.23)
0 sin q cos q 2 2
For reference frame 3 the following can be written:

fE g = [q ]fE g = [q ]([R]fE g)
3 2 2 2 1 (3.24)
This means that:
[Rq ] = [q ][R]
2 2 (3.25)
Doing this multiplication shows that it is indeed the case.
One nal observation that can be made is that [q ] and [q ] are very similar. The only dierence is the positive
1 3
direction of the angles. To get [q ] one can draw the same gure as for [q ], with the only dierence being that
3 1
one then has to substitute q for q . 3 1
3.1.3 Orthonormality
It is very important to clearly state from which to which reference frame a transformation matrix does the
transformation. Writing it down explicitly as follows leaves no room for any doubt:
fE i g = [Ri ]fE i g
+1 (3.26)
Transposing this equation results in:
(E i ) = (E i )[Ri ]T
+1 (3.27)
Now multiplying this:
fE i g(E i ) = [Ri ]fE i g(E i )[Ri ]T

+1 +1 (3.28)
The left side of this equation can be worked out:

8 9 2
< i = 1 0 03
fE i g(E i ) = : j ( i j k ) = 4 0 1 0 5 = [I ] (3.29)
0 0 1
+1 +1
;
k
Meaning that
[I ] = [Ri ][I ][Ri ]T = [Ri ][Ri ]T (3.30)
The conclusion of this is that:
[Ri]T = [Ri ] 1
(3.31)
This is a very useful property for the transformation matrices that will very often be used. In this case it
means that:
fE i g = [Ri ] fE i g = [Ri ]T fE i g
1
+1 +1 (3.32)
3.2 Writing Vectors in Dierent Reference Frames

In gure 3.9 the robot arm is drawn again. It consists of three elements, the rst element can rotate about the
z -axis of reference frame 1, the second element can rotate about the y-axis of frame 2 and the nal hand can
rotate about the negative z axis of reference frame 3. The position of the hinges is clearly drawn. Reference
frame 1 and 2 rotate with the rst element. The third frame is xed to the second element and the fourth
frame is xed to the hand. The vector R from point A to B can be written as:
3.2. WRITING VECTORS IN DIFFERENT REFERENCE FRAMES 23
q
2
y y3
2 y
4
x2 x3
r3 x4
z z3
2
z4
q
3 r4
r
1
B
x1 R
A z1
y
q 1
1
x0
z0
y
0
R = (r1x ; r1y ; r1z )fE 1 g + (r3x ; r3y ; r3z )fE 3 g + (r4x ; r4y ; r4z )fE 4 g (3.33)
It is important that the dierent vectors are constant in the chosen reference frame, or their change is known.
An example of this last possibility is a robot arm that can be extended. For instance the rst element of the
robot arm has a length l (t). This expression can be used in the local vector.
1
In practice this means that usually the vector is written as a sum of vectors going from hinge to hinge, because
after the hinge the element has a dierent angular velocity and thus a dierent reference frame with that same
angular velocity.
Using the transformation matrices discussed in the previous sections it is possible to rewrite the expression for
the vector from A to B:
R = (r x ; r y ; r z )fE g + (r x ; r y ; r z )fE g + (r x ; r y ; r z )fE g
1 1 1 1 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4

= (r x ; r y ; r z )[q ] + (r x ; r y ; r z )[q ][R][q ] + (r x ; r y ; r z )[q ][q ][R][q ] fE g
1 1 1 1 3 3 3 2 1 (3.34) 4 4 4 3 2 1 0
This expression can be used in computers. Most of the time is not necessary to do the complete calculations
and end up with a very long expression with sines and cosines. The computer can substitute the value of each
angle at every time step and then do the matrix multiplications. This makes the risk of mistakes much smaller.
One can write the vector R in any reference frame desired. As an example the vector in fE g would be: 2
R = (r x ; r y ; r z )fE g + (r x ; r y ; r z )fE g + (r x ; r y ; r z )fE g

1 1 1 1 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4

= (r x ; r y ; r z )[R] + (r x; r y ; r z )[q ] + (r x ; r y ; r z )[q ][q ] fE g
1 1
T
1 3 3 3 2 (3.35) 4 4 4 3 2 2
Note that to calculate (r x; r y ; r z )[q ][q ] it is quickest to do these multiplications from left to right and not
4 4 4 3 2
rst multiplying the matrices [q ] and [q ]. Especially when these multiplications are done by hand this is an
3 3
important time saver and the change of making a mistake is smaller.
3.2.1 Problem: Quasi Perspective Transformation
Figure 3.10: Quasi perspective transformation
Suppose that all coordinates of a 3-D gure are known in reference frame X , Y , Z . These coordinates are a
result of a computer calculation and a projection has to be created for the 2-D screen. This projection must
show the gure from a certain view point. Therefore all points need to be projected on a plane that does not
coincide with any of the coordinate planes.
If the coordinates of point P in gure 3.10 are given, how will the eye see this point and the axes of the
reference frame?
3.3 Problems
Figure 3.3 shows a robot arm that has a few degrees of freedom. The rst element is free to rotate about the
vertical axis. The angle corresponding to this movement is called . The second element is connected to the
rst element. This bar can only move vertically relative to element 1. This translation is called Æ. The third
element is free to move horizontally. The translation is called ". The fourth and nal element can rotate as
shown in the gure. The angle from the horizontal position is . fE g in gure 3.3 is the inertial reference
frame. Reference frame fE g rotates with element 1. Point O is situated in the middle of the bottom side of
0
element 1.
1
Determine the vector expression in reference frame fE g for the position of the centre of gravity of element 4
relative to point O.
1
The answer can be found in B.2

3.3. PROBLEMS 25
k4
L3
β Zβ
3 Xβ
Yβ
4
k3
ε L4
L2
g
L1 1 Z 0,1
α
δ k2 O
Y1
X0 α
X1 Y0
Figure 3.11: The robot arm consisting of four elements.

Chapter 4
Angular Velocities
To describe the velocity of a point using vectors, the eect of rotations must be taken into account. If an
expression of the position of the point is known in a rotating reference frame, this rotation must be known if
the velocity is to be determined.
Very often the rotational velocity of a reference frame will be a summation of dierent rotations. These
rotations must be added and transformed to the correct reference frame. Once the rotation of the reference
frame is known, this can be used to determine the time derivative of the reference frame, which is needed to
determine the velocity of the point.
4.1 Rotation Operator

Earlier it was discussed that it can be extremely useful to use reference frames that are xed to a certain
object. This way the vector of a certain point on this object will remain constant in the reference frame and
so will the inertia matrix. It means that if the object rotates, the frame rotates as well and with the same
angular velocity. The angular velocity of the reference frame can be written in its components p, q and r as
shown in gure 4.1.
! = (p; q; r)fE g (4.1)
The vector of point P in the object is:
R = (x; y; z )fE g (4.2)
Dierentiating this equation will result in the velocity:
R_ = (x; _ y;_ z_ )fE g + (x; y; z)fE_ g (4.3)
where (x;_ y;_ z_ ) is equal to ( 0 , 0 , 0 ), because the point does not move relative to the reference frame that
is xed to the object. fE_ g is a column of the time derivatives of the unit vectors. The unit vectors have a
constant length, but the direction changes due to the angular velocity of the object. As shown in gure 4.1
the velocities are:
i_ = 0i + rj qk
j_ = ri + 0j + pk (4.4)
_k = qi pj + 0k
27
28 CHAPTER 4. ANGULAR VELOCITIES
−jp
iq
k
kp
−ir
Y
r
j
q
P
R
p
i
jr
X
−kq
Figure 4.1: Angular velocity in matrix notation
This can be written as a matrix multiplication:
i_
8 9 2 38 9
< = 0 r q < i =
j_ =4 r 0 p 5 j (4.6)
k_ 0
: ; : ;
q p k
In short this can be written as

fE_ g = [
]fE g (4.7)
[
] is called the rotation operator. The elements of the rotation vector ! are placed in such a way in the
matrix that operation on fEg results in fE_ g. The rotation operator has the following property:
[
]T = [
] (4.8)
Using the rotation operator the velocity can be written as:
R_ = (x;_ y;_ z_ )fE g + (x; y; z)[
]fE g = (x;_ y;_ z_ )fE g + ! R (4.9)
Where (x;_ y;_ z_ ) is the velocity relative to the rotating reference frame.
4.1.1 Problem: Airplane

An airplane has an angular velocity !. Its components in the airplane body reference frame are p, q and r:
! = (p; q; r)fE b g (4.10)
Give the expressions for these components in terms of the Eulerian angles: the angle of yaw , the angle of
pitch and the angle of roll . These angles determine the attitude of the airplane relative to the earth.
4.2. VELOCITY OF A POINT 29
Hint
First determine the transformation matrices [ ], [] and [] using the following notation:
fE g = [ ]fE e g
0
(4.11)
fE g = []fE g
00 0
(4.12)
fE b g = []fE g 00
(4.13)
Part of the angular velocity is due to the rotation _ . Call this part ! : 1
! = _ k = 0i + 0j + _ k = _ (0; 0; 1)fEeg = _ (0; 0; 1)[ ]T fE g = _ (0; 0; 1)[ ]T []T []T fE b g (4.14) 0
This results in the contribution of _ to the angular velocity written in the airplane body reference frame.
Similarly the contributions of _ and _ can be calculated. From this p, q and r can be calculated.
4.2 Velocity of a Point

The velocity of a point can be calculated by dierentiating the expression for the position vector of that point.
The vector for point B of the robot-arm in gure 3.9 is:
R = (r x ; r y ; r z )fE g + (r x ; r y ; r z )fE g + (r x ; r y ; r z )fE g + r
1 1 1 1 3 3 3 3 4 (4.15)
4 4 4 0
Where r is the vector from the inertial system to point A.

0
Dierentiating this expression will give the velocity of point B.

V B = (_r x ; r_ y ; r_ z )fE g + (r x ; r y ; r z )fE_ g + (_r x ; r_ y ; r_ z )fE g + (r x ; r y ; r z )fE_ g
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
+ (_r x ; r_ y ; r_ z )fE g + (r x; r y ; r z )fE_ g

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 (4.16)
For the robot arm all terms with r_i are zero, because these distances are constant in the local reference frames.
Using the notation with the rotation operator, the velocity becomes:
V B = (r x ; r y ; r z )[
1 ]fE g + (r x ; r y ; r z )[
3 ]fE g + (r x ; r y ; r z )[
4 ]fE g
1 1 1 1 3 3 3 (4.17)
3 4 4 4 4
In this expression
i is the rotation operator for reference frame i. This rotation operator contains the total
rotation of the reference frame. For the chosen robot arm this means that the rotation operator for reference
frame 4, this is the rotation of element 3, entails all rotations of the robot. The hand will rotate with all
three rotations. Therefore these rotations must be added, but the same problem as for other vectors occurs.
The correct reference frames must be used and addition can only be done after converting all vectors to one
reference frame. The rotation operators of the robot arm are calculated in the example in the section below.
Figure 4.2 illustrates in more detail how the rotations can be added. Reference frame 1 does not rotate.
! = (0; 0; 0)fE g
1 1 (4.18)
The second reference frame rotates with _ only. Its rotation operator will be rather simple with only _ as
1 1
the "p"-term:
! = (_ ; 0; 0)fE g = (p ; q ; r )fE g
2 1 2 2 2 2 2 (4.19)
2 3
0 0 0
[
2 ] = 4 0 0 _ 5 1 (4.20)
0 _ 0 1
The next reference frame has an extra rotation _ in y-direction. It is clearly shown that the rotations are
2
z2 z1
z3
y3 α2
y2
α1
y1
α2
x1
x2 x3
α1
Figure 4.2: Two rotations
dened in dierent reference frames. To be able to add these, one rotation must be transformed to the other
reference frame. The third reference frame will rotate with both rotations:
!3 = (p2 ; q2 ; r2 )fE 2 g + (0; _ 2 ; 0)fE 3 g = (p2 ; q2 ; r2 )[2]T fE 3 g + (0; _ 2 ; 0)fE 3 g = (p3 ; q3 ; r3 )fE 3 g (4.21)
where
2 3
cos 0 sin
2 2
[ ] = 4 0 1 0
2
5 (4.22)
sin 0 cos
2 2
Notice that the transposed transformation matrix is used in order to write the rotation in the third reference
frame. The rotations are always written in its own reference frame. This is because they are used in combination
with a vector in that same reference frame.
Doing the multiplication gives:
!3 = (_ 1 cos 2 ; _ 2 ; _ 1 sin 2 )fE 3 g (4.23)
This means that the rotation operator will be:
2 3
0 _ 1 sin 2 _ 2
[
3 ] = 4 _ sin
1 2 0 _ 1 cos 2 5 (4.24)
_ 2 _ cos
1 2 0
By just looking at the gure this answer could also be found. This is also a very good way to check the answer.
If there are more rotations it gets very diÆcult to nd the expression for the rotation operator by looking at
a gure of the rotations.
4.2.1 Problem: Helicopter Blade

In gure 4.3 a rotor blade is shown with a central apping hinge. The angular velocity of the shaft is
and
the apping velocity is _ . Both
and _ contribute to the velocity of a point on the blade, for instance on the
quarter-chord line. The air speed relative to the chord is determined by this velocity.
4.2. VELOCITY OF A POINT 31
Figure 4.3: Rotor blade
What is the angle of attack of a blade element at radius r from the rotor centre? Assume that the air is
at rest. The blade chord is parallel to the rotor plane. Derive the expression by using the method discussed
above. Check the answer using common sense.
Again looking at the robot arm in gure 3.9, the expression for the velocity is:
V B = (r x ; r y ; r z )[
1 ]fE g + (r x ; r y ; r z )[
3 ]fE g + (r x ; r y ; r z )[
4 ]fE g
1 1 1 1 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 (4.25)
4
The rotation operators must be determined. Reference frame 1 rotates with q_ about the z-axis. The rotation
1
vector is:
! = (0; 0; q_ )fE g
1 1 1 (4.26)
This means that the rotation operator for this reference frame is:
2
0 q_ 0 3 1
[
1 ] = 4 q_ 0 0 5
1 (4.27)
0 0 0
For reference frame 2 there is no extra rotation. The rotation q_ must be transformed to the correct reference
1
frame. It is not very diÆcult to see what the rotation vector should be, but it can also be calculated:
! = (0; 0; q_ )fE g + (0; 0; 0)fE g = (0; 0; q_ )[R]T fE g = (0; 0; q_ )fE g
2 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 (4.28)
And the rotation operator will be:
2
0 q_ 0 3 1
[
2 ] = 4 q_ 0 0 5
1 (4.29)
0 0 0
Reference frame 3 rotates with the second element, which rotates with q_ and q_ . The rotation vector is:
1 2
! = (0; 0; q_ )fE g + (0; q_ ; 0)fE g

3 1 2 2 3
= (0; 0; q_ )[q ]T fE g + (0; q_ ; 0)fE g = (q_ sin q ; q_ ; q_ cos q )fE g

1 2 3 2 3 1 2 2 1 2 3 (4.30)
The corresponding rotation operator is:

2 3
0 q_1 cos q2 q_2
[
3 ] = 4 q_ cos q 1 2 0 q_1 sin q2 5 (4.31)
q_ 2 q_1 sin q2 0
Finally reference frame 4 rotates with an extra q_ . The rotation vector is:
3
!4 = (q_1 sin q2 ; q_2 ; q_1 cos q2 )fE 3 g + (0; 0; q_3)fE 4 g

= (q_1 sin q2 ; q_2; q_1 cos q2 )[q3]T fE4 g + (0; 0; q_3)fE4 g (4.32)
= (q_1 sin q2 cos q3 q_2 sin q3; q_1 sin q2 sin q3 + q_2 cos q3; q_1 cos q2 q_3 )fE 4 g
The corresponding rotation operator is:

2 3
0 q_1 cos q2 q_3 q_1 sin q2 sin q3 q_2 cos q3
[
4 ] = 4 q_1 cos q2 + q_3 0 q_1 sin q2 cos q3 q_2 sin q3 5 (4.33)
q_1 sin q2 sin q3 + q_2 cos q3 q_1 sin q2 cos q3 + q_2 sin q3 0
Knowing all the rotation operators it is possible to calculate the velocity of point B. This entails quite a few
matrix multiplications that can easily be done using symbolic manipulation software. To be able to add the
dierent terms of the velocity, they must be transformed to one reference frame. This means that to calculate
the velocity in reference frame 0, the following expression must be worked out, using symbolic manipulation
software:

VB = (r x ; r y ; r z )[
1 ][q ]+(r x ; r y ; r z )[
3 ][q ][R][q ]+(r x ; r y ; r z )[
4 ][q ][q ][R][q ] fE g (4.34)
1 1 1 1 3 3 3 2 1 4 4 4 3 2 1 0
All the matrices in this expression are now known. It is also possible to give an expression for the velocity of
point B in other reference frames. It is important to realize that the velocity in any reference frame is still the
total velocity of point B. The only dierence is the direction of the dierent unit vectors, but the meaning of
the vector does not change!
4.3 Acceleration
In gure 4.4 a translating and rotating reference frame is depicted. In this reference frame moves point P. The
angular velocity of the moving reference frame is:
! = (p; q; r)fE g (4.35)
The absolute position vector of point P is:
rP = r + (x; y; z)fEg
0 (4.36)
This means that the absolute velocity of that point is:
_ y;_ z_ )fE g + (x; y; z)fE_ g
V P = r_ + (x;
0 (4.37)
= r_ + (x;_ y;_ z_ )fE g + (x; y; z)[
]fE g
0
4.3. ACCELERATION 33
r P(x,y,z)
r0
X0
Z0
Figure 4.4: Rotor blade
Dierentiating the velocity vector will give the acceleration of a point:

aP = r + (x; y; z)fE g + 2(x;
0 _ y;_ z_ )[
]fEg (4.38)
+ (x; y; z)[
_ ]fE g + (x; y; z)[
][
]fEg
Where the following terms can directly be explained: r in Dutch is called 'sleepversnelling' due to the transla-
tion, (x; y; z)fE g is the relative acceleration and (x; y; z)[
_ ]fE g again in Dutch is called the 'sleepversnelling'
0
due to the rotation. The other two terms might not be directly clear, they are the Coriolis acceleration and
the centrifugal acceleration. The Coriolis acceleration is:
acor = 2(x; _ y;_ z_ )[
]fEg = 2
@r @t
(4.39)
This is the acceleration perpendicular to
and @r@t and its magnitude is:
jacor j = 2j
jj @r
@t
j sin (4.40)
Where is the angle between
and @r@t .
The coriolis acceleration can be explained using the following example. In gure 4.5 a rotating disc is depicted.
A person on this disc walks along the radius away from the centre. In the right part of this gure the
velocity is drawn in radial and angular directions at two moments in time with a small time-dierence. The
dierence between the two velocities is caused by the acceleration. This gure shows all contributions to
the acceleration, including the contributions that can easily be explained. The Coriolis acceleration has two
dierent contributions, this makes it diÆcult to visualize. First the radial velocity changes direction. From the
gure it can be seen that the change of velocity is vr d = r_d, so its contribution to the acceleration becomes
_ _
dt r_ . Secondly the magnitude of the velocity in angular direction changes by d(r ). Its contribution to the
r_ d =
acceleration becomes d dtr = r + r__. The second term is the second contribution to the Coriolis acceleration.
( _)
This last term can be easily understood. If the person walks away from the centre, the radius becomes larger
resulting in a larger absolute velocity in angular direction. So in fact he experiences an absolute acceleration
perpendicular to his velocity relative to the disc.
The centrifugal acceleration is:
acf = (x; y; z )[
][
]fE g =
(x; y; z )[
]fE g =
(
r) (4.41)
dvθ
vθ’
d(rθ)
Ω rθdθ
dθ vθ = r θ
a cor
r dθ vr’
vr = r
r dθ
dr
dvr
Figure 4.5: Rotating disc with person walking
Again looking at gure 4.5, the centrifugal acceleration can be explained. It is caused by the change in direction
_ . This means that the centrifugal acceleration
of thedvelocity in angular direction. The change is v d = rd
_ _
is r dt = r in negative r-direction. or towards the center of rotation
2
4.3.1 Problem: Accelerations of Rotor

Determine the accelerations of the helicopter blade element shown in gure 4.3.
4.3.2 Problem: Rotating Pipe

A rotating pipe with air ow through it is shown in gure 4.6. This could be a helicopter blade with tip drive,
a rocket nozzle with a pitching movement or a channel of a centrifugal pump. Consider a mass element of
air as shown in the gure. This element has a relative velocity compared to the rotating reference frame
XY Z . The accelerations on the element are related to the forces acting on it according to Newton. There is
an incompressible ow through the pipe. Its velocity is V. What drive moment is needed to keep rotating at
constant
? What is the dierence in pressure between the root and the tip that is needed to maintain the
steady state ow?
4.3. ACCELERATION 35
Figure 4.6: Rotating pipe

Chapter 5
Energy
5.1 Angular Momentum

The momentum of a mass element dm with place vector r is dened as:
dI = dmV = dmr_ (5.1)
The angular momentum dD of a mass element dm of a body about a xed rotation point is dened as:
dD = r dmr_ (5.2)
In gure 5.1 an example is given of the angular momentum of a mass element of a two-dimensional rigid body.
The angular momentum of the mass element is a vector perpendicular to the page, pointing at the reader. The
velocity of the mass element can be written as:
r_ = (x; y; z )[
]fE g = ! r = r ! = (p; q; r)[R ]fE g = (p; q; r)[R ]T fE g (5.3)
where
2
0 z y3
[R] = 4 z 0 x 5 (5.4)
y x 0
Using this matrix notation one can write for the angular momentum:
dD = r dmr_ = (x; y; z )fE g dm(p; q; r)[R ]T fE g
= dm(p; q; r)[2R ]T [R]fE g 3
(5.5)
2
y +z
2
xy xz
= dm(p; q; r) 4 xy x + z 2 2
yz 5 fE g
xz yz x + y
2 2
The angular momentum for a mass element as dened in Eq. (5.2) can be dierentiated in time:
d
dD = r_ dmr_ + r dmr = r F =M (5.6)
dt 0
The rst term is a cross product of one vector with itself. This is always equal to zero. The second term can
be rewritten using Newton. This results in a cross product of the place times the force working on the mass
element. This is the same as the moment about the rotation point.
37
38 CHAPTER 5. ENERGY
dI=dmV
dD=r x dmV
dm
ω
r
Figure 5.1: Angular momentum, two dimensional
The angular momentum for a three dimensional body is dened as:

ZZZ
D= r dmr_ = (p; q; r)[J ]fE g (5.7)
Where the integration is over all mass elements of the body. In this equation [J] is the inertia matrix, dened
as:
2 3
Ix Cxy Cxz
[J ] = 4 Cxy Iy Cyz 5 (5.8)
Cxz Cyz Iz
Where the moments of inertia are dened as:
ZZZ
Ix = (y + z )dm
2 2
ZZZ
Iy = (x + z )dm
2 2
(5.9)
ZZZ
Iz = (x + y )dm
2 2
and the products of inertia are dened as:

ZZZ
Cxy = xydm
ZZZ
Cxz = xzdm (5.10)
ZZZ
Cyz = yzdm
The inertia matrix is discussed in more detail in Appendix A.

If the rotation is about one of the principal axes, the angular momentum is parallel to the rotation. As an
example look at a rotation about the x-axis:
! = (p; 0; 0)fE g (5.11)
5.1. ANGULAR MOMENTUM 39
If the reference frame used is in the directions of the principal axes then the inertia matrix has the following
form:
2 3
Ix 0 0
[J ] = 4 0 Iy 0 5 (5.12)
0 0 Iz
This results in the following for the angular momentum:
D = (p; 0; 0)[J ]fE g = Ix (p; 0; 0)fEg (5.13)
This is indeed parallel to the rotation vector.
Similarly as shown for the mass element the angular momentum of a body can also be dierentiated in time:
ZZZ
d
D= M 0 = M ext (5.14)
dt
Where M ext is the sum of all external moments on the body about the rotation point, as all internal moments
will cancel each other out. This shows the use of the angular momentum; for bodies that are xed in one
point, the angular momentum can be used to derive the equation of motion in a rather simple manner.
5.1.1 Example Helicopter Blade

As an example look at a helicopter blade that rotates at constant speed
and aps with a velocity _ . Line
distribution of mass is assumed for the blade and it is drawn in gure 5.2
Ω
Figure 5.2: Helicopter blade rotating at constant
The total angular velocity of the blade can be calculated using the method discussed in chapter 4. Using the
reference frame drawn in gure 5.3 this results in:
! = (p; q; r)fE g (5.15)
with
p =
sin
q = _ (5.16)
r =
cos
As the blade is assumed to have a line distribution of mass the inertia matrix will be:
2 3 2
Ix Cxy Cxz 0 0 03
[J ] = 4 Cxy Iy Cyz 5 = 4 0 I 0 5 (5.17)
Cxz Cyz Iz 0 0 I
where I is the moment of inertia about the apping hinge:
Z R
I= x2 dm (5.18)
0
X
Ω
β
β
Figure 5.3: Reference frame attached to the blade
As dened the angular momentum is:

D = (p; q; r)[J ]fE g (5.19)
For a given
, and _ the external moment working on the blade is:
d
M ext = D = (p;_ q;_ r_ )[J ]fE g + (p; q; r)[J ][
]fE g (5.20)
dt
where [
] is the rotation operator discussed the previous chapter. Doing the matrix multiplications results
in:
M ext = I (0; q_ pr; r_ + pq)fE g = I (0;
sin cos ; 2
sin _ )fE g
2
(5.21)
From this it can be concluded that the apping moment due to lift is:
M flap = My = I ( +
sin cos )
2
(5.22)
The aerodynamic moment can be written as a function of
and _ , resulting in a dierential equation for
determining the apping movement of the blade.
The moment in lag direction due to the Coriolis force is:
M lag = Mz = 2
sin _ (5.23)
Usually lag hinges are included in the construction to relieve it from the stress due to this moment.
Figure 5.4: Ballerina doing a pirouette
5.1.2 Problem: Ballerina

Everyone has seen a ballerina make a pirouette and it is known that by raising her arms starting from a
horizontal position, her angular velocity increases. Looking at a simple model of a ballerina making a pirouette
this can be explained. In gure 5.5 this simple model existing of only one arm is shown with the reference
frames. To nd the equation that determines the angular velocity
of the ballerina as a function of the angle
of her arm rst give the transformation matrix of the reference frame of the arm compared to the reference
frame of the body. Find the external moment on the arm in the reference frame of the body, by determining
the total rotation of the arm and the angular momentum. Assume that there is no friction on the oor, what
does this mean for the external moment about the z axis? The answer to this problem can be found in
0
appendix B.
5.1.3 Example Dutch Dakota
The blade of the propeller drawn in gure 5.6 can be modelled as an innitely thin plate, giving the following
inertia matrix:
2
Ix 0 Cxz 3
[J ] = 4 0 Iy 0 5 (5.24)
Cxz 0 Iz
Following the same method as in the previous example it can be shown that there must be an external moment
on the blade in steady state circumstances that is equal to:
M ext = (
sin Cxz ; 0;
sin cos (Iy Ix ))fE g
2 2
0 (5.25)
The hub must hold theZZ
blade with this moment. With
Iy Ix = x dm > 0
2
(5.26)
all blade elements
Z0
Z
Ω
β β
X0
Y=Y0
Figure 5.5: Model of ballerina doing a pirouette
Figure 5.6: Model of the propeller and the hub

it shows that the blade would turn to ne pitch if it was not held in place. This would mean that it would
be at in the plane of rotation of the propeller and cause a lot of drag. To prevent this the propellers of the
Dakota have a counter balance near the root, as shown in gure 5.7.
Figure 5.7: Model of the counter balance weight
The in uence of this counter balance weight on the inertia term is:
ZZ
Iy Ix = x2 dm Ml2 < 0 (5.27)
In this equation M is the mass of the counter balance weight and l is the eccentricity of this weight.
It is a fail-safe situation. If the hydraulic pressure in the cylinder that adjusts the blade pitch angle would be
lost, the blade will turn to the feathering angle due to this counter balance. Of course the oil must be able to
leave the cylinder. If the oil drain does not open, the cylinder will be locked and the blade will not turn to the
feathering angle. This is what went wrong with the DDA-Dakota.
5.1.4 Accelerated Point of Rotation

What happens if the rotation point is not xed relative to the inertial reference frame but it accelerates? The
principle of the general theory of relativity:
The eects of an acceleration cannot be distinguished (with no experiment whatsoever) from the eect of
gravity. The man drawn in gure 5.8 cannot distinguish between the two dierent situations. From this it
can be concluded that it is possible to replace the acceleration by an extra gravitation eld. This results in an
extra moment about the point of rotation:
M = rcg mg = ma rcg
0 (5.28)
where m is the mass of the body and a the acceleration of the point of rotation. Notice that if the point of
rotation is the centre of gravity there is no extra moment. The equations that were found earlier are still valid:
0
d
D = M extcg (5.29)
dt cg
Figure 5.8: Gravity and acceleration
Figure 5.9: Accelerating point of rotation

5.2. KINETIC ENERGY 45
macg = F (5.30)
5.2 Kinetic Energy

A mass element has kinetic energy. This is a scalar! The kinetic energy of a particle is dened as:
1
T = mv v (5.31)
2
This means that for a mass element that is part of a body with a fixed point of rotation the kinetic energy
is:
1
dT = dmr_ r_
2 8 9
< p =
1
= 2 dm(p; q; r)[R ]T fE g (E )[R] : q ; (5.32)
r
8 9
p
= 21 dm(p; q; r)[R ]T [R ] :
< =
q
;
r
where
2 3
0 z y
[R] = 4 z 0 x 5 (5.33)
y 0 x
is the cross product matrix notation of the place vector from the point of rotation to the mass element.
Using Eq. (5.31) one can nd for the kinetic energy of the complete body with a fixed point of rotation:
8 9
ZZZ
1 1 < p =
T = 2 dmr_ r_ = 2 (p; q; r)[J ] : q
;
(5.34)
r
with
8 9
< p =
! = (E ) q (5.35)
: ;
r
gives:
T = 21 D ! (5.36)
If a body does not have a xed point of rotation, the kinetic energy is:
T = 12 mvcg vcg + 21 Dcg ! (5.38)

In this equation the rst term is the translational part of the kinetic energy and the second term is the rota-
tional part. Notice that the angular momentum is about the centre of gravity and the velocity in this centre
of gravity is used!
Problem: Kinetic Energy of a Helicopter Rotor Blade
Z 0.5 m
Y Ω
5m
Figure 5.10: Rotor blade with a xed point of rotation
Calculate the angular momentum and the kinetic energy of two dierent rotor blades: one without a ap angle
and one with a ap angle of ten degrees. Investigate if the angular momentum is parallel to the rotor speed
for either of these cases. The two dierent situations are depicted in gures 5.10 and 5.11.
β=10
Figure 5.11: Rotor blade with ap angle of ten degrees
For both blades the following is given:

Rotor speed
= 40 rad/s.
Rotor radius R = 5 m.
Blade chord c = 0:5 m.
Total blade mass Mblade = 50 kg.
The blade can be assumed to be innitely thin in z-direction. This means a plane distribution of mass.
The mass per area is constant: m = MRc
blade = 20 kg/m . 2
5.2. KINETIC ENERGY 47
The rotation point is at the quarter chord line of the blade (for aeroelastic stability).
The answers can be found in appendix B, in section B.4.

Again looking at the robot arm in gure 5.12 it is clear that element 1 has a xed point of rotation, but element
2 and 3 do not. The kinetic energy of element 1 can be calculated using either Eq. (5.36) or Eq. (5.38). For
the other two elements only the last equation can be used. Therefore the rst step in calculating the kinetic
energy is calculating the velocity of the centre of gravity of each element. For the second element this would
be:
vcg2 = (r1x ; r1y ; r1z )[
1 ]fE 1 g + (rcg2x ; rcg2y ; rcg2z [
3 ]fE 3 g (5.39)
where (rcg2x ; rcg2y ; rcg2z )fE g is the vector from the second hinge to the centre of gravity of the second element.
The rotation operators are calculated in chapter 4. The rotation vectors that are also calculated in chapter 4
3
are necessary for the rotational kinetic energy. Please note that ! is the total rotation for the specic element,
meaning that ! for the second element will include terms with q_ as shown in the example of this same robot
1
arm in chapter 4.
3
q
2
y y3
2 y
4
x2 x3
r3 x4
z z3
2
z4
q
3 r4
r
1
B
x1 R
A z1
y
q 1
1
x0
z0
y
0
The inertia matrix about the centre of gravity must also be calculated, choosing a reference frame that is xed
to the element. It is very important to make sure that the rotation vector and the inertia matrix are written in
the same reference frame. A mistake is easily made, for instance using reference frame 2 for the inertia matrix
of the rst element and using the rotation vector of reference frame 1. It is not very diÆcult to check the
answers. From looking at the gure it is easy to estimate some of the terms of the rotational kinetic energy.
5.3 Potential Energy

Potential energy is usually due to gravity and springs. The potential energy of an element due to gravity can
be calculated by vector multiplication:
V = mg rcg (5.40)
It is important that both vectors, the position vector and the gravity vector, are in one reference frame. This
means that one can write the position vector in the inertial reference frame or transform the gravity to the
local reference frame. The position vector of the centre of gravity must be from some xed point to the c.g.,
for the robot arm in the previous paragraph this means that the position vector for the c.g. of the last element
can start in A. The method to calculate this vector is described in chapter 3.
For springs the potential energy is the energy that is stored in the spring due to the deformation. Two dierent
types of springs are often used: torsional springs and translational springs. Calculating the work done by the
force or the moment on the spring gives the potential energy that is stored in the spring. For a torsional spring
this will be:
1
V = k 2
(5.41)
2
And for a translational spring:
V = ku
1 2
(5.42)
2
Where k is the spring stiness.
5.4 Gyroscopic Motion

When a body that is spinning about one axis and this axis is rotating about another axis gyroscopic motion
will occur. A special case is the steady precession, this is when a body is spinning at a constant angular
velocity precesses about another axis at a steady rate.
If the spinning body (gyroscope) is mounted in such a way that it is free to rotate in any direction, there can
be no external moments working on it. This means that the gyroscope will retain a xed direction in space.
The rotation of the structure to which the gyroscope is attached will have no eect on its position. Using this
property the gyroscope can be used as a directional control device. Another application of gyroscopes is as a
stabilizing device in a ship.
5.4.1 Gyroscopic Eects

The angular momentum is a very important vector when looking at gyroscopes. In the previous chapter the
following equation was derived:
ZZZ
d
D= M 0 = M ext (5.43)
dt
This equation can be used to determine the moment on a gyroscope that is needed to cause a certain rotation.
In gure 5.13 a gyroscope is drawn. A wheel rotates with
about its z-axis. To rotate this wheel about the
y-axis a moment is needed, this moment can be calculated using the equation above.
The total rotation for the wheel is:
! = (0; ;_
)fE g
1 (5.44)
5.4. GYROSCOPIC MOTION 49
The inertia matrix will be determined in a reference frame xed to the wheel. Therefore the rotation of the
wheel has to be written in the same reference frame.
Figure 5.13: A rotating wheel
Figure 5.14 illustrates the reference frame that rotates with the wheel. The transformation can be written as:
2
cos sin 0 3
fE g = 4 sin cos 0 5 fE g (5.45)
0 0 1
2 1
Y2 Y1
X2
α
X1
Figure 5.14: Transformation of the reference frame
The rotation vector becomes:

! = (p; q; r)fE g = (p; q; r)[]T fE g
1 2 (5.46)
The inertia matrix is needed. Assuming that the wheel has a mass m per unit length in circumferential
direction the moments of inertia are:
Ix =
ZZZ
(y + z )dm =
2 2
ZZZ
1
y dm = Iz
2
2
Iy =
ZZZ
(x + z )dm =
2 2
ZZZ
1
x dm = Iz
2
(5.47)
ZZZ Z
2
2
Iz = (x + y )dm = R mRd = mR 2
2 2 2 3
0
Y2
R
ϕ
X2
Z2
Figure 5.15: Model of a wheel
For the wheel z = 0 is assumed. According to the symmetry of the wheel it follows that Ix = Iy . From the
equations above with z = 0 it is clear that Ix + Iy = Iz .
The products of inertia can be calculated:
Cxy =
ZZZ
xydm =
Z 2
R cos R sin mRd = mR
1 Z sin 2d = 0 3
2
ZZZ 0 2 0
Cxz = xzdm = 0 (5.48)

ZZZ
Cyz = yzdm = 0
The inertia matrix
2
is: 3 2
Ix Cxy Cxz 1 0 03
[J ] = 4
2 Cxy Iy 5 = mR 4 0 1 0 5
Cyz 3
(5.49)
Cxz Cyz Iz 0 0 2
This can now be used to calculate the angular momentum of the wheel:
D = (p; q; r)[]T [J ]fE g = (p; q; r)[]T [J ][]fE g = (p; q; r)[J ]fE g
2 2 2 1 2 1(5.50)
In appendix A it is shown that [J ] = []T [J ][], but in this special case the moments of inertia in reference
1 2
frame 1 are equal to the moments of inertia in reference frame 2, which means that []T [J ][] = [J ]. 2 2
To nd the external moment that is needed to turn the wheel about the y axis the expression for the angular
1
momentum must be dierentiated:
M ext = D_ = (p;_ q;_ r_ )[J ]fE g + (p; q; r)[J ]fE_ g
2 1 2 1
8
<
2
1 0 03 2
1 0 0 3 2 0 0 _ 3 9 =
= mR :(p;_ q;_ r_) 4 0 1 0 5 fE g + (p; q; r) 4 0 1 0 5 4 0 0 0 5 fE g; (5.51)
3
0 0 2 0 0 2 _ 0 0
1 1
Notice that this equation is written in reference frame 1, this reference frame does not rotate with
, only
with _ . This results in:
M ext = mR ( 2
;_ ; 2
)
3 _ fE g 1 (5.52)
If the wheel is free to rotate about the z -axis the moment about this axis Mz must be equal to zero. For this
1 1
to be true
must be constant. For a constant angular velocity about the y -axis the external moment must 1
be:
M ext = mR ( 2
;_ 0; 0)fE g
3
1 (5.53)
This means that in order to let the wheel turn about its y -axis it is necessary to exert a moment about the
1
x axis!
1
5.4.2 Problem: Wheel

It is possible to get the same result as in the previous paragraph by dierentiating the expression for the
angular momentum of the wheel in the reference frame that rotates with the wheel, fE g. Calculate the
external moment in this reference frame and transform it to fE g. Compare the two results and the amount
2
of work that was necessary to reach the same result. In Appendix B, section B.5 this is done in some detail.
1
5.4.3 Gyroscopic Behaviour

A more qualitative explanation of gyroscopic movements can be given. In gure 5.16 a gyroscope is depicted.
To change the angular momentum in the direction shown in the gure a change in the momentum is needed
in the direction of the external moment. As shown in the gure, this is a moment about the x-axis. The
rotation about the y-axis as a result of the moment about the x-axis is called the precession movement of the
gyroscope.
∆D
D
∆β ∆β X 1
Figure 5.16: Gyroscopic behaviour
The equation derived for the external moment on the wheel in paragraph 5.4.1, Eq. (5.52) shows that if there
is no moment on the wheel _ = 0 ! This means that the gyroscope will keep its orientation in space relative
to an inertial system. This is quite dierent from a normal, non-rotating mass where the angular velocity _
would be constant if there is no external moment. This means that will get larger or smaller and a normal
mass will not keep its orientation.
5.4.4 Example Spin

Assume that the body axes are chosen in such a way that they correspond to the principal axes.
Figure 5.17: Body axes identical to principle axes
The inertia matrix of the airplane is:

2 3
Ix 0 0
[J ] = 4 0 Iy 0 5 (5.54)
0 0 Iz
Assume an angular velocity about all axes. The total angular velocity is:
! = (p; q; r)fE g (5.55)
and
Dcg = (p; q; r)[J ]fE g (5.56)
M = D_ cg = (p;_ q;_ r_ )[J ]fE g + (p; q; r)[J ][! ]fE g (5.57)
where
2
0 r q3
[! ] = 4 r 0 p 5 (5.58)
q p 0
Eq. (5.57) gives the following three equations:
Mx = pI _ x + qr(Iz Iy )
My = qI _ y + pr(Ix Iz ) (5.59)
Mz = r_ Iz + pq(Iy Ix )
Consider a vertical spin: the velocity V is vertical and there is a large angle between the velocity and the
X -axis. There is an angular velocity ! about the same vertical axis. This implies that the roll and yaw velocity
are not zero, the pitch velocity is zero. First analyse what aerodynamic moments are needed to maintain a
stationary spin.
Figure 5.18: Airplane during spin
Substituting p_ = q_ = r_ = q = 0 into Eq. (5.59) gives:

Mx = 0
My = pr(Ix Iz ) (5.60)
Mz = 0
This shows that a pitch moment is needed to maintain a stationary spin. To nd out the direction of this
moment the mass distribution of the airplane is modelled using four discreet masses, as shown in gure 5.19.
Figure 5.19: Mass distribution model for the airplane

For this model Iz = Ix + Iy .

The moment that is needed to maintain the spin must be less than zero: My = prIy . This means that the
tail has to generate a nose down moment.
If the tail is stalled no moment can be generated. In this case Eq. (5.59) gives:
p_ = qr
q_ = pr (5.61)
I I
r_ = pq y x
Iz
At rst q = 0 thus p_ = r_ = 0. But q_ > 0, this gives a nose up angular acceleration. The airplane tends to
change over into a plane spin. This is a spin mainly about the Z -axis with an angle of attack of 90 degrees.
This is a very dangerous situation! It is best for the pilot to get out.
Figure 5.20: Fighter plane in rolling ight
In case of rolling about the velocity vector V there is similarly to the spin a nose-down moment needed to keep
rolling:
Mx = 0
My = pr(Ix Iz ) (5.62)
Mz = 0
For ghter planes with a very low slenderness and a heavy engine in the fuselage Ix Iy and Iy is almost
equal to Iz . If the rolling velocity is large a very large nose-down moment is needed. If the rolling velocity is
too large the (often very small) tail cannot generate the necessary moment. This leads to further pitch up.
The airplane can spin uncontrollably in all directions. The F-100 Super Sabre had a limit to its rolling velocity
for this reason.
Conventional airplanes have less chance of getting in this dangerous situation. The reasons for this are:
1. As shown in gure 5.19 for conventional airplanes Ix is close to Iy . Thus Iz is close to 2Ix. Therefore
the moment My = pr(Ix Iz ) that is needed is much smaller.
2. With a conventional conguration the rolling velocities are much smaller.
3. The eect on the spin about the Z -axis is much less as r_ = pq IyIzIx is close to zero.
( )
5.4.5 Gyroscopic Eects of an Engine

In this section the gyroscopic eects of the engine on the equations of motion will be discussed. In gure 5.21
an airplane is shown with the engine.
Figure 5.21: Airplane with engine
The dierent reference frames are: Xb, Yb, Zb, the airplane body reference frame and Xe, Ye , Ze the engine
reference frame that rotates with the engine. Thus _ is the angular velocity of the engine relative to the
airplane:
= _ . The transformation matrix from the body to the engine reference frame is:
2
1 0 0 3
fE e g = 4 0 cos sin 5 fE b g (5.63)
0 sin cos
The angular velocity of the airplane:
!b = (p; q; r)fE b g (5.64)
The total angular velocity of the engine is:
!e = (p +
; q; r)fE b g = (p +
; q; r)[]T fE e g (5.65)
The total rotation is expressed in the engine reference frame because the moments of inertia are expressed in
the same reference frame. The engine can be modelled as a cylinder with radius R and length L. The moments
of inertia for such a cylinder about its c.g. are (see appendix A):
Ix = mR
1 2
2
1
Iy = Iz = m(3R + 4L )
2 2
(5.66)
12
Cxy = Cxz = Cyz = 0
The inertia about the c.g. of the aircraft becomes:

1
Ix = mR 2
2
1
Iy = Iz = m(3R + 4L ) + md
2 2 2
(5.67)
12
Cxy = Cxz = Cyz = 0
The angular momentum of the engine is:

De = (p +
; q; r)[]T [Je ]fE e g = (p +
; q; r)[]T [Je ][]fE b g = (p +
; q; r)[Je ]fE b g (5.68)
The moments of inertia about the engine reference frame for this model are equal to those about the airplane
body reference frame, thus []T [Je ][] = [Je ]. The angular momentum of the airplane is:
Db = (p; q; r)[Jb ]fE b g (5.69)
The equation of moments:
d
M= (D + Db ) = (p;_ q;_ r_)[Je ] + [Jb]fEb g + (p; q; r)[Je ] + [Jb ][
b]fEb g + (
; 0; 0)[Je][
b]fE bg
dt e
= + 1 m
R2(0; r; q)fE bg
2 (5.70)
The rst part of this expression contains the 'normal' equations of motion for an airplane. The second part is
the extra contribution due to the gyroscopic eect of the engine.
N.B. Nose-up or nose-down rotation of the airplane results in a yaw moment on the airplane. This is very
annoying for the pilot. It is a well known bad property of the WW I airplanes that had rotary engines. The
Spitre had the same problem in WW II due to the large propeller. All these airplanes had a tail wheel and
had to be rotated over a large angle to lift the tail at the beginning of the start. At that moment due to the
low speed the rudder is not very eective. This resulted in the possibility of a ground-loop.
The airspeed written in the body reference frame:
V = (u; v; w)fE bg (5.71)
Dierentiating gives:
V_ = a = (u;
_ v_ ; w_ )fE bg + (u; v; w)[
b ]fE bg (5.72)
The force equation:
F = mtot(u_ rv + qw; v_ + ru pw; w_ qu + pv)fE b g (5.73)
The kinematic equations are still needed. These can be found by writing the transformation matrices for the
three Eulerian angles , and . This gives the relation between p, q , and r and _ , _ and _ .
5.4.6 Gyrocompass
The principle of a gyrocompass can be explained with gure 5.22.
Spin ϕ
11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
Southpole
Figure 5.22: Gyroscope
The South pole is drawn at the centre of the picture. Consider a gyroscope that is spinning about its axis. The
axis is in the east-west direction. After some time the earth has rotated a little bit further. If the gyroscope
is completely free it would stay in the same position as drawn in dotted lines. Suppose that the gyroscope is
forced to remain horizontal. In that case a moment is needed on the gyroscope. Precession will turn the axis
of the gyroscope away from the east-west direction. If the axis is in north-south direction the precession will
stop because there is no moment necessary anymore to keep the gyroscope horizontal.
Figure 5.23: Gyrocompass

In gure 5.23 a gyrocompass is shown. The gyrocompass is similar to a free gyroscope with the only dierence
being a mass added to the inner gimbal. The rotor can rotate about three Eulerian angles from the local
horizontal plane:
1. The azimuthal angle (precession angle) to X , Y , Z .
1 1 1
2. The angle of pitch (nutation angle) to X , Y , Z .

2 2 2
3. The angle of roll (_ is the spin) Xb , Yb , Zb.
Figure 5.24: Angles of a gyroscope
Reference frame fEg g has its positive Xg -axis in northern direction. The Xg Yg -plane is the local horizon plane.
The moment that is necessary to keep the spin axis horizontal is generated in the way shown in gure 5.25.
Figure 5.25: The moment that keeps the spin axis horizontal
The moment is positive in the direction of the negative Y -axis and is:
M = mgl sin (5.74)
To analyse the gyrocompass in more detail it is necessary to nd the total rotation of the gyroscope in a
stationary condition. In gure 5.26 the dierent reference frames are given that are needed to write the earth's
rotation in the local reference frame.
Figure 5.26: Reference frames
The total rotation is:

! =
(0; 0; 1)fE g + _ (1; 0; 0)fE g = (p; q; r)fE g
0 2 2 (5.75)
with
p = _ +
cos cos cos +
sin sin
q =
cos sin (5.76)
r =
cos cos sin
sin cos
The gyroscope is symmetric thus the X ,Y ,Z are the principal axes:
2 2 2
2 3
Ix 0 0
[J ] = 4 0 Iy 0 5 (5.77)
0 0 Iz
with Iy = Iz .
The angular momentum:
D = (p; q; r)[J ]fE g
2 (5.78)
Again this calculation is simplied because the inertia matrix in reference frame 2 is equal to the matrix in
reference frame that rotates with the rotor:
M ext = D_ = (p;_ q;_ r_ )[J ]fE g + (p; q; r)[J ][
]fE g
2 2 (5.79)
where
2 3
0 r q
[
] = 4 r 0 p _ 5 (5.80)
q (p ) 0 _
Note that this is the rotation operator of fE g, thus the spin of the rotor is not involved! Therefore the term
p _ .
2
The external moment is known:

M ext = (0; mgl sin ; 0)fE g 2 (5.81)
For the stationary equilibrium condition: p_ = q_ = r_ = 0. The angular velocity of the planet
can be assumed
to be small. Thus terms with
can be neglected. Assume to be small: sin = and cos = 1.
2
Eq. 5.79 gives three equations for the dierent components of the moment:
Mx = pI_ x + qr(Iz Iy ) = 0 (5.82)
In the stationary condition p_ = 0 and as mentioned before: Iz Iy = 0. Thus this equation is satised.
Mz = r_ Iz + pq(Iy Ix ) qI _ y = Ix_
cos sin = 0 (5.83)
because r_ = 0.
This shows that the axis of the gyroscope must point north!
My = qI_ y + pr(Ix Iz ) + rI _ z = Ix (_
cos _
sin ) = mgl (5.84)
because q_ = 0.
This gives:
Ix _
sin
= (5.85)
mgl + Ix _
cos
The nutation angle of the gyrocompass is not equal to zero and depends on the latitude. Substitution of
representative values shows that stays small. Thus the assumptions for stationary equilibrium are satised.
This can also be derived using Lagrange's equations, discussed in the next chapter.
Chapter 6
Lagrange's Equations of Motion
6.1 Derivation of Lagrange's Equations of Motion

6.1.1 Hamilton's Principle
In gure 6.1 the path of a particle under the in uence of a force is drawn in the so-called conguration space.
Z
t0
t
1
t2
te
Figure 6.1: Path of a particle
Suppose that the particle will follow a slightly dierent path between the starting point (r ; t ) and the end
0
point (re; te ), as depicted in gure 6.2. An example of this is taking two dierent routes by car from point
0
A to point B, both starting at time t and both arriving together at time te . The forces on the car will be
0
dierent as will the velocities at every time instant. Small dierences in the forces, velocities and place vectors
between the two dierent paths are assumed.
The dierence in position at a certain time is called the virtual displacement Ær. The velocity along the original
path is dened as:
r r1
V = t2lim
!t1 t
2
2
t1
(6.1)
The velocity along the new alternative path has a dierent value: V + ÆV :
V + ÆV = lim
(r + Ær ) (r + Ær ) = V + Ær Ær = V + d (Ær)
2 2 1 1 2 1
(6.2)
t2 !t1 t2 t1 t2 t1 dt
61
62 CHAPTER 6. LAGRANGE'S EQUATIONS OF MOTION
Z
t0
t1 t1
t2
te
t2
Figure 6.2: Variational path of a particle
Thus:
ÆV = dtd (Ær) (6.3)
It appears that Æ and dtd are interchangeable operators (commutative). This expression relates the variation
of the velocity to the virtual displacement.
The variation of the kinetic energy ÆT can similarly be related to the virtual displacement. At a certain
moment in time the kinetic energy of the particle along the original path is:
1
T = mV V (6.4)
2
At the same time, but on the alternative path the kinetic energy will be:
1
T + ÆT = m[(V + ÆV ) (V + ÆV )] = T + mV ÆV (6.5)
2
To get the last expression in this equation a linearisation was done.
ÆT = mV ÆV = mV dtd (Ær) = m dtd (V Ær) ma Ær (6.6)
According to Newton the following is true along the original path of the particle at every moment in time:
F ma = 0 (6.7)
Thus the following must also be true:
F Ær maÆr = 0 (6.8)
The virtual work is dened by:
ÆW = F Ær (6.9)
This is the work that the force F would do if the particle was moved to the corresponding point of the
alternative path. This is the point on the alternative route at the same moment in time. Combining Eqs.
(6.6), (6.8) and (6.9) gives:
d
ÆW + ÆT m (V Ær) = 0 (6.10)
dt
6.1. DERIVATION OF LAGRANGE'S EQUATIONS OF MOTION 63
Integrating this equation from t to te:

0
Z te
(ÆW + ÆT )dt = 0 (6.11)
t0
The third term in Eq. (6.10) becomes zero after the integration because at t and at te the two dierent paths
0
go through the same point, thus for these times Ær = 0.
Eq. (6.11) is known as Hamilton's principle. This equation shows that if the path of a particle is disturbed,
the virtual work done and the dierence in the kinetic energy on average over the entire path is equal to zero.
If all the forces on the particle are assumed to be conservative, meaning that they depend on the place only
and thus can be written as a potential function V (x; y; z), the virtual work due to the virtual displacement of
the particle will be equal to the reduction in potential energy:
Z te Z te Z te
(ÆW + ÆT )dt = (ÆT ÆV )dt = Æ (T V )dt = 0 (6.12)
t0 t0 t0
The last integral is called the action integral:

Z te
(T V )dt (6.13)
t0
This integral must be stationary. In other words: the actual path of a particle in a conservative force eld
diers from all other possible paths by the fact that the above mentioned integral has its minimum value for
this path. It is as if the particle 'knows' at every moment in time to move in a certain way in order to get the
action integral to be minimal over the entire path.
Richard Feynman ( a well-known Nobel price winner) writes in his 'lectures' (vol. II, ch. 19-9):
"How does the particle nd the right path? From the dierential point of view, it is easy to understand. Every
moment it gets an acceleration and knows only what to do at that instant. But all your instincts on cause and
eects go haywire when you say that the particle decides to take the path that is going to give the minimum
action. Does it "smell" the neighbouring paths to nd out whether or not they have more action?"
The explanation is given by Feynman by using quantum mechanics. The principle of least-action in fact gives
the relation between classical mechanics and quantum mechanics.
6.1.2 Generalised Coordinates
Generalised coordinates are the quantities that describe the place and the position or the conguration of a
body or a combination of bodies. To fully describe the path and the position of one single body in time the
Cartesian coordinates of the c.g. can be used in combination with the Eulerian angles all as a function of time.
In total that is six coordinates from which the location of every mass element as a function of time can be
determined.
Figure 6.3: A double pendulum
The double pendulum is a combination of bodies as shown in gure 6.3. The two generalised coordinates
and fully determine the location of all (innitely many) mass elements of the pendulum.
The generalised coordinates can be called q(q ; q ; etc:). Similarly to a point mass a path and the changes
1 2
in position are assumed of a body under the in uence of a set of forces and moments. This is described by
q (t); q (t); : : : qn (t).
1 2
The potential energy of the body at a certain moment in time is a function of the generalised coordinates:
V = V (qi ) (i = 1:::N ) (6.14)
The kinetic energy will depend on the time derivatives of the generalised coordinates as well:
T = T (q ; q_i )
1 (i = 1:::N ) (6.15)
If the path of the body is disturbed by extra forces and moments, this is expressed as variations of the
generalised coordinate: Æq . A disturbance in the path of the body will lead to a disturbance in the path of
1
all mass elements of the body. In a conservative force eld it follows that:
Z te
Æ (T V )dt = 0 (6.16)
t0
In this equation T is the kinetic energy of the body and V is the potential energy of the body.
The combination T V is often called the 'Lagrangian' L, where L = T V . This makes it possible to say
that the true path of a body distinguishes itself from all others by having the minimum value for the 'action
integral'. The true path corresponds to
Z te
min Ldt = 0 (6.17)
t0
Once again, notice that this is only valid in a conservative force eld.
6.1. DERIVATION OF LAGRANGE'S EQUATIONS OF MOTION 65
6.1.3 Lagrange's Equations in a Conservative Force Field

To nd the true path of the element qi(t) must be chosen so that
Z te
Æ Ldt = 0 (6.18)
t0
L is dened as L = T (qi ; q_i ) V (qi ) thus a function of qi and q_i :

X @L @L
ÆL = Æqi + Æq_ (6.19)
i @qi @ q_i i
Thus
Z te Z te
Æ Ldt = ÆLdt
t0 t0
XZ te
@L te @L Z
= Æqi dt + Æq_i dt (6.20)
i t0 @qi t0 @ q_i
XZ te @L d @L

@L te

= Æqi dt + Æqi t0
i t0 @qi dt @ q_i @ q_i
The last expression is arrived at by partial integration of the last term in the expression on the second line.
The last part of the nal expression is equal to zero, because Æqi (t ) = Æqi (te ) = 0 as the path was chosen as
0
such.
This means that the integral in the last expression must be equal to zero, for an arbitrary Æqi(t). The only
possible solution is:
d @L @L
dt @ q_i @qi
=0 (i = 1 : : : N ) (6.21)
These are Lagrange's equations in a conservative force eld. Using the fact that the kinetic energy depends
on q_i and qi and the potential energy only depends on qi the equation can be written as:
d @T @T
dt @ q_i @qi
+ @V
@q
=0 (i = 1 : : : N ) (6.22)
i
6.1.4 Generalised Forces

The equation found in the previous section is valid in conservative force elds only. What now if there are
non-conservative forces acting on the body?
First what was found previously for a point mass:
Z te
(ÆW ÆV + ÆT )dt = 0 (6.23)
t0
In this equation ÆW is the contribution to the virtual work of the non-conservative forces and ÆV is the
contribution to the virtual work of conservative forces. And:
ÆW = F dr (6.24)
This means that the virtual work is the work done if the point mass would be moved to the corresponding
point (at the same moment in time) of the disturbed path.
For the entire body this is the summation over all masses:
Z te
(ÆW ÆV + ÆT )dt = 0 (6.25)
t0
Where ÆV and ÆT are integrated over the entire body. Furthermore the following yields:
X
ÆW = F j Ærj (6.26)
all masses j
The virtual displacement Ær can be related to the variations of the generalised coordinates Æqi , so the following
can be written:
X @rj
Ærj = Æq (i = 1 : : : N ) (6.27)
@qi i
i
Using this:
X
ÆW = F j Ærj
all masses j

X X @r
= F j j Æqi
@qi
(6.28)
gen coord i all masses j
X
= Qi Æqi
i
The generalised force Qi is dened as:
X @r
Qi = Fj j (6.29)
@q
all masses j i
This is the formal denition of the generalised force Qi . According to Eq. (6.28) the physical meaning of the
generalised force is very simple: vary one of the generalised coordinates Æqi and analyse the work that is done
by all non-conservative forces (and moments). This virtual work ÆWi can be divided by Æqi resulting in the
generalised force. Similar to the derivation of Lagrange's equation in a conservative force eld, the complete
equation of Lagrange can now be derived using:
Z te Z te X
[ÆL + ÆW ]dt = [ÆL + Qi Æqi]dt (6.30)
t0 t0 i
Using the same method as before this leads to:
d @T @T
dt @ q_i @qi
+ @V
@qi
= Qi (6.32)
This is the complete version of Lagrange's equation.
6.2 Using Lagrange

Three basic steps can be followed using Lagrange to nd the equations of motion:
1. Determine the generalised coordinates. These are not real coordinates but they are dierent quantities
that fully determine the conguration at each moment in time.
2. Determine the total kinetic energy T of the system and the total potential energy of the system, expressing
these in the generalised coordinates and their time derivatives.
3. Use Lagrange's equations to nd the dierent equations of motion.
6.2. USING LAGRANGE 67
6.2.1 Examples
Generalised Forces on a Double Pendulum
In gure 6.4 (a) a double pendulum is drawn. There are two horizontal forces: F and F . 1 2
a δα
α α α
δβ
F1 b
β β β
F2
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 6.4: The generalised coordinates of a double pendulum
In gure 6.4 (b) a virtual displacement Æ, for is constant, is drawn. The virtual work in this case is:
ÆW = (F1 + F2 ) cos aÆ (6.33)
The generalised force:
ÆW
Q = = (F + F ) cos a (6.34)
Æ 1 2
In gure 6.4 (c) a virtual displacement Æ, for is constant, is drawn. The virtual work in this case is:
ÆW = F2 cos bÆ (6.35)
The generalised force:
ÆW
Q = = F cos b (6.36)
Æ 2
Sling Load Attached to a Helicopter
A sling load is swinging under a helicopter, as depicted in gure 6.5. The sling load is a cylinder with radius R
and length l. In the gure the cross-section of the cylinder is shown. The angle between the vertical plane and
the swing load is (t). The sling load is connected to the helicopter by a cable with length L. To simplify this
problem the helicopter is assumed to translate only sideways relative to the inertial reference frame X Y Z . 0 0 0
The lateral force that can be exerted by the rotor through cyclic control is F ext. F s is the force on the sling
in the suspension point.
X Xh
0
Fext
Fs
Y0 rh Yh
Xs
R
α
L
Ys
msg
Figure 6.5: A sling load attached to a helicopter
To nd the equations of motion for this problem Lagrange can be used. The generalised coordinates are rh
and .
To calculate the kinetic and potential energy the following is needed:
The transformation matrix of the helicopter to the sling is:
2
cos sin 0 3
fE s g = 4 sin cos 0 5 fEhg (6.37)
0 0 1
angular velocity of the sling:
! = _ (0; 0; 1)fEs g (6.38)
Inertia matrix of the slingload about its c.g.
2 3
0 0 Ix
[Jcg ] = 4 0 Iy 0 5 (6.39)
0 0 Iz
where
1
Iz = ms R 2
(6.40)
2
To determine the kinetic energy of the sling load due to the translation it is necessary to calculate the velocity
of the c.g. of the sling load. The vector determining the place of the c.g. of the sling load is:
Rcg = rh + rcg = rh (0; 1; 0)fEh g L(1; 0; 0)fEs g (6.41)
Dierentiating this gives the velocity:
R_ cg = r_h (0; 1; 0)fEh g L(1; 0; 0)[
]fE s g (6.42)
where
fE h g = []T fE s g (6.43)
and
2
0 1 03
[
] = _ 4 1 0 0 5 (6.44)
0 0 0
This gives:
R_ cg = r_h (sin ; cos ; 0)fE s g L_ (0; 1; 0)fE s g (6.45)
With this the kinetic energy due to the translation can be calculated:
1 1
Ttrans = ms R_ cg ms R_ cg = ms [_rh 2_rh L_ cos + L _ ]
2 2 2
(6.46)
2 2
The kinetic energy of the sling load due to the rotation is:
1
Dcg = _ (0; 0; 1)[Jcg ]fE s g = _ ms R (0; 0; 1)fEs g
2
(6.47)
2
Thus
1
Trot = Dcg ! = _ ms R
21 2
(6.48)
2 4
The kinetic energy of the helicopter due to translation is:
1
Theli = mhr_h 2
(6.49)
2
The potential energy of the sling load:
V = ms gL cos (6.50)
N.B. If there would have been a torsional spring between the helicopter and the sling load this would give an
extra term: k where k is the spring constant.
1
2
2
As the helicopter is assumed to move horizontally, the potential energy of the helicopter will be constant.
The total KINETIC
energy of the system is:
1 2 2 2 1
T = ms [_rh 2_rh L_ cos + L _ ] + _ ms R + mh r_h
2 2 1 2
(6.51)
2 4 2
To get the equation of motion for rh Lagrange can now be used:
d @T @T @V
dt @ r_h
+ = Qrh
@rh @rh
(6.52)
In this equation Qrh is the generalised force in the direction of rh. To determine this a virtual displacement
Ærh is assumed, while the other generalised coordinates are kept constant. The work done by the dierent
external forces and/or moments must be determined for this displacement, unless their in uence is included
in the potential energy. In this case it is simply:
ÆW = Fext Ærh (6.53)
The corresponding generalised force is:
ÆW
Qrh = = Fext (6.54)
Ærh
If there would have been an external force working on the sling load as well, for instance a horizontal force
due to the wind Fw , where the point of application is the c.g., the generalised force would be:
ÆW = (Fext + Fw )Ærh ) Qrh = Fext + Fw (6.55)
The other terms in the equation of Lagrange:
@T
dr_h
= (ms + mh)_rh ms L_ cos (6.56)

d @T
dt @ r_h
= (ms + mh)rh msL cos + msL_ 2 sin (6.57)
@T
@rh
=0 (6.58)
@V
@rh
=0 (6.59)
The equation of motion for rh can now be determined to be:
(ms + mh)rh msL cos + msL_ sin = Fext
2
(6.60)
To nd the other equation of motion, Lagrange has to be used again, but with as generalised coordinate:
d @T @T
dt @ _ @
+ @V
@
= Q (6.61)
The generalised force in this case is zero:
ÆW = 0 ) Q = 0 (6.62)
Would there have been a force Fw then it would have been:
ÆW = Fw cos LÆ ) Q = ÆW Æ
= Fw cos L (6.63)
The other terms in the equation:
@T
@ _
= msr_hL cos + ms(L + 12 R )_
2 2
(6.64)

d @T
dt @ _
= msrh L cos + msr_h L sin _ + ms(L + 21 R )
2 2
(6.65)
@T
@
= msr_h L_ sin (6.66)
@V
@
= msgL sin (6.67)
The equation of motion is:
1
ms rh L cos + ms (L + R ) + ms gL sin = 0
2 2
(6.68)
2
The benet of using Lagrange's equations of motion is that the coupling forces, such as F s in this example do
not play any role in nding the equations of motion.
Both equations of motion can be checked using Newton's method: The equation of moments about the c.g. of
the sling load:
M = D_ cg (6.69)
where
M = r F s = L(0; Fz :Fy )fE s g (6.70)
1
Dcg = _ (0; 0; 1)[Jcg ]fE s g = _ ms R (0; 0; 1)fE s g (6.71)
2 2
1 2 2 1
D_ cg = ms R (0; 0; 1)fEs g + _ ms R (0; 0; 0)fE s g
2
(6.72)
2 2
where the vector (0; 0; 0) is the result of the multiplication of (0; 0; 1) with the rotational matrix of the reference
frame fE sg. Substituting these expressions in the equation of moments gives:
1
M = D_ cg ) L(0; Fz ; Fy )fE s g = ms R (0; 0; 1)fEs g
2
(6.73)
2
To complete these equations it is necessary to rst determine Fs as a function of rh ; and their time derivatives.
This can be done by determining the equations of motion of the c.g. of the sling load:
F cg = F s ms g(1; 0; 0)fEh g = (Fx ; Fy ; Fz )fE s g ms g(cos ; sin ; 0)fE s g (6.74)
R_ cg = r_h (0; 1; 0)fEh g L(1; 0; 0)[
]fE s g (6.75)
Rcg = rh (0; 1; 0)fEh g L(1; 0; 0)[
_ ]fE s g L(1; 0; 0)[
_ ]2 fE s g
= rh (sin ; cos ; 0)fE sg L(0; 1; 0)fEsg L_ 2( 1; 0; 0)fEs g (6.76)
Newton:
F cg = ms R cg (6.77)
gives
(Fx; Fy ; Fz )fE sg msg(cos ; sin ; 0)fE sg =
= ms rh(sin ; cos ; 0)fE s g msL(0; 1; 0)fEs g msL_ ( 1; 0; 0)fEs g
2
(6.78)
This gives an expression for F s in rh ; and their derivatives. The equation of moments, Eq. (6.69) now gives
1
LFy = ms R 2
(6.79)
2
Substituting the now known expression for Fy gives
2 1
ms gL sin + ms rh L cos ms L = ms R 2
(6.80)
2
This is the same result as was found using Lagrange's equations. The second equation of motion can be
determined by using Newton's equation for the helicopter in translational direction:
F ext F s + T = mh ah (6.81)
In this equation T is the lift on the helicopter rotor. It is controlled in such a way as to result in no vertical
translation of the helicopter. Substituting everything that is already known gives:
Fext (0; 1; 0)fE h g ms g(cos ; sin ; 0)fE s g ms rh (sin ; cos ; 0)fE s g + ms L(0; 1; 0)fE s g
+msL_ ( 1; 0; 0)fEsg + T (1; 0; 0)fEhg = msrh (0; 1; 0)fEhg
2
(6.82)
It is irrelevant whether every term in the the equation is transformed to fE sg or to fE hg, but in this case it
is expected that the latter will be most convenient.
Fext (0; 1; 0)fE h g ms g(1; 0; 0)fEh g ms rh (0; 1; 0)fE h g + ms L( sin ; cos ; 0)fE h g
+msL_ ( cos ; sin ; 0)fE hg + T (1; 0; 0)fEhg = ms rh(0; 1; 0)fEhg
2
(6.83)
The y-component of this equation results in:
Fext mh rh + ms L cos ms L_ sin = ms rh
2
(6.84)
This is again the same result as was found by using Lagrange's equations. The x-component of Eq. (6.83)
gives the value of T.
Appendix A
Inertia
Assume a body rotating with !(t) about an axis, as shown in gure A.1. Every particle in this body will move
in parallel planes that are normal to the rotation axis. The tangent acceleration on the particle with mass dm
is r!_ . Using Newton's second law of motion the tangent force can be written as:
dF t = r!dm
_ (A.1)
The moment about the axis due to the acceleration of this particle is:
dM = r2 !dm
_ (A.2)
For the complete body this will be:
Z
M= _
r2 !dm (A.3)
If the body is rigid, the angular acceleration !_ will be equal for every particle of this body and it can be taken
outside of the integral leaving the moment of inertia:
Z
I= r2 dm (A.4)
This moment of inertia can be seen as a measure of resistance to angular acceleration of the body, just as the
mass of a body can be seen as a measure of resistance to translational acceleration of a body.
If the density of the body is constant this can also be taken out of the integral, leaving a purely geometrical
property:
Z
I = r2 dV (A.5)
The mass moments of inertia should never be confused with the area moments of inertia, used in statics. The
dimensions of the area moments of inertia are m or mm , while the mass moments of inertia have dimensions
4 4
kgm .
2
73
74 APPENDIX A. INERTIA
dm
r
Figure A.1: Rotating body around x-axis
For a 3-D body the mass moments of inertia about the x , y and z axes are dened as:
ZZZ
Ix = (y + z )dm
2 2
ZZZ
Iy = (x + z )dm
2 2
(A.6)
ZZZ
Iz = (x + y )dm
2 2
In the derivation of the angular momentum for a rigid body it is shown that there are extra terms in the inertia
matrix; the products of inertia. These are dened as:
ZZZ
Cxy = xydm
ZZZ
Cxz = xzdm (A.7)
ZZZ
Cyz = yzdm
Notice that the products of inertia can become negative, the moments of inertia cannot. The inertia matrix is
dened as:
2 3
Ix Cxy Cxz
[J ] = 4 Cxy Iy Cyz 5 (A.8)
Cxz Cyz Iz
This matrix depends on the directions of the axes and on the place of the origin!
In gure A.2 a body is drawn with two reference frames. Reference frame 0 has its origin in a xed point of
rotation. This means that the origin does not move relative to the inertial reference frame. The rotation can
be written as:
! = (p; q; r)fE g 0 (A.9)
75
Y Y1
0
X1
Z1
X0
Z0
Figure A.2: Translation of the reference frame
The other reference frame has its origin in the centre of gravity. Both reference frames are xed to the
body,thus:
fE g = fE g
1 0 (A.10)
To calculate the kinetic energy one can use the inertia matrix for reference frame 0:
8 9
< p =
1
T = (p; q; r)[J ] q (A.11)
2 0
:
r ;
It is also possible to calculate the kinetic energy using reference frame 1, the reference frame with its origin in
the centre of gravity. Using Eq. (A.10) the rotation becomes:
! = (p; q; r)fE g
1 (A.12)
The kinetic energy is:
1
T = MV cg V cg + Dcg ! (A.13)
2
The absolute velocity of the centre of gravity is:
V cg = ! rcg = rcg !
2
0 z y3
= (p; q; r) 4 z 0 x 5 fE g (A.14)
x 0 cg
0
y
2 8 9
0 z y 3T < p =
= (E ) 4 z 0 x 5 : q ;
x 0 cg r
0
y
2 8 9
0 z y3 <p=
= (E ) 4 z 0 x 5 : q ;
x 0 cg r
0
y
In this equation the coordinates of the centre of gravity in reference frame 0 are x, y and z.
Using this in the expression for the kinetic energy gives:
2 3 8 9 8 9
1
2
y +z2
xy xz < p =
1 < p =
T = M (p; q; r) 4 xy x + z
2 2
yz 5 q + (p; q; r)[Jcg ] q (A.15)
2 xz yz x + y cg : r ; 2
2 2 :
r ;
The kinetic energy must be the same for every reference frame. This means that for the inertia matrices in
the two dierent reference frames of which one has its origin in the centre of gravity, the following equation
must hold:
2 3
y +z
2 2
xy xz
[J ] = M 4 xy x + z
0
2
yz 5 + [Jcg ]
2
(A.16)
xz yz x + y 2 2
If [J ] is the inertia matrix of the body in gure A.3 for reference frame 0,then it is possible to transform this
0
inertia matrix to reference frame 1. Suppose that:
fE g = [R]fE g
1 0 (A.17)
Where [R] is the transformation matrix. This transformation matrix can consist of several transformations, it
could be that [R] = [][][ ]. Assume an angular velocity:
Y
0
Y1
X1
X0
Z0
Z1
Figure A.3: Rotation of reference frame of a body
8 9
< p =
! = (p; q; r)fE 0 g = (E 0 ) q (A.18)
: ;
r
The rotation is around the origin, thus the origin of the reference frame does not move due to this rotation.
This means that the angular momentum can be written as:
D = (p; q; r)[J ]fE g
0 0 (A.19)
The kinetic energy for this body with a fixed point of rotation is:
8 9
p
= 21 D! = 12 (p; q; r)[J ] :
< =
T 0 q
;
(A.20)
r
For reference frame 1 the rotation would be:
8 9
< p =
! = (p; q; r)[R]T fE 1 g = (E 1 )[R] q (A.21)
: ;
r
The angular momentum can be written using this expression as:
D = (p; q; r)[R]T [J ]fE g
1 1 (A.22)
77
Resulting in the following expression for the kinetic energy:

8 9
< p =
1 1
T = D! = (p; q; r)[R]T [J ][R] q (A.23)
2 2 :
r ;
1
As the kinetic energy must be independent of the reference frame the following must be true:
[J ] = [R]T [J ][R]
0 1 (A.24)
Similarly of course:
[R][J ][R]T = [J ]
0 1 (A.25)
This expression is valid only for inertia matrices about the same point, but with dierent directions for the
axes. If the inertia matrix about a dierent point is needed one can use the Eq. (A.16). Depending on the
reference frame in which the transfers are put this has to be done before or after the multiplication with the
transformation matrices.
It is always possible to turn the reference frame in such a way that the inertia matrix becomes diagonal:
2 3
Ix 0 0
[J ] = [R][J ][R] = 4 0 Iy 0 5
1 0
T (A.26)
0 0 Iz
These axes are the principal axes of the body. The moments of inertia in this matrix are the principal moments
of inertia. For some shapes that are used very often these principal moments of inertia are given below.
1. Beam
Y
X
Figure A.4: Moment of inertia of a beam
Ixx =
1 m(a + b ) 2 2
12
1
Iyy = m(L + b ) 2 2
(A.27)
12
1
Izz = m(L + a ) 2 2
12
2. Cylinder
R
L
X
Figure A.5: Moment of inertia of a cylinder
1
Ixx = mR2
2
Iyy = Izz =
1 m(3R + L )
2 2
(A.28)
12
The moments of inertia for a slender bar can be found by setting the radius of the cylinder equal to zero.
Appendix B
Answers to the Problems
In this chapter the answers are given to all problems, most with a very clear and complete explanation.
B.1 Eulerian Angles

From the gures:
2
cos 0 sin 3
[] = 4 0 1 0 5 (B.1)
sin 0 cos
2
1 0 0 3
[] = 4 0 cos sin 5 (B.2)
0 sin cos
B.2 Robot Arm

As described in the text, the robot is FREE to move in several manners, this means that ", , Æ and are
degrees of freedom. Setting their derivatives equal to zero would be complete nonsense, because then there
would be no movement at all!
The question is to give an expression for the vector from point O to the c.g. of element 4. Some remarks
about this: rstly as the vector from point O is asked for, the origin of the reference frames 0 and 1 are not
important. Secondly the origin of every reference frame is free, therefore is never of any importance. Thirdly,in
the rst step of determining a position vector always use a reference frame that rotates with the same angular
velocity as the element you are describing.
Keeping this in mind, it is very straight forward to calculate the vector from point O to the c.g. Elements 1, 2
and 3 have no rotations relative to each other, therefore the same reference frame can be used for all of them.
Just start from point O and passing the dierent elements one at a time write down their contributions. The
length of the rst element has no in uence on the position of the c.g of element 4:
1
rO cg = (0; 0; L Æ)fE g + (0; L "; 0)fE g + (0; L ; 0)fE g (B.3)
4 2 1 3 1
2 4
To be able to to this addition it is necessary to determine the transformation matrix:

2
1 0 0 3
fE g = 4 0 cos sin 5 fE g (B.4)
0 sin cos
1
79
80 APPENDIX B. ANSWERS TO THE PROBLEMS
The other transformation matrix is not necessary to be determined. It is :

2
cos sin 0 3
fE g = 4 sin cos 0 5 fE g (B.5)
0 0 1
1 0
The position vector can now be written as:

1
rO cg = (0; L "; L Æ)fE g + (0; L ; 0)[R ]fE g
4 3
22 1 4 1
= (0; L "; L Æ) + (0; 2 L cos ; 12 L sin )fE g

3
1 2 4 4 1 (B.6)
= (0; L " + 12 L cos ; L Æ 12 L sin )fE g
3 4 2 4 1 (B.7)
B.3 Ballerina
The answer is:
_ = 2
sin _

cos (B.8)
The way to get to this answer:
fE g = [ ]fE g 0 (B.9)
where
2
cos 0 sin 3
[] = 4 0 1 0 5 (B.10)
sin 0 cos
The rotation of reference frame 0 is:
! = (0; 0;
)fE g
0 0 (B.11)
The total rotation of the arm can be calculated or derived from the gure:
! = (0; 0;
)[ ]T fE g + (0; ;_ 0)fE g = (
sin ; ;
_
cos )fE g (B.12)
The inertia matrix of the arm is simple assuming a line distribution of mass:
2
0 0 03
[J ] = 4 0 I 0 5 (B.13)
0 0 I
Now it is possible to calculate the angular momentum:
D = (p; q; r)[J ]fE g (B.14)
The external moment is equal to the time derivative of this expression.
d
M ext = D = (p;_ q;_ r_ )[J ]fE g + (p; q; r)[J ][
]fE g (B.15)
dt
where
2 3
0 r q
[
] = 4 r 0 p 5 (B.16)
q p 0
B.4. KINETIC ENERGY OF A HELICOPTER ROTOR BLADE 81
Performing the matrix multiplications results in:

M ext = I (0; q_ pr; r_ + pq)fE g = I (0; q_ pr; r_ + pq)[ ]fE g 0
= I ( (_r + pq) sin ; q_ pr; (_r + pq) cos )fE g 0 (B.17)

If there is no friction with the oor, the moment around the z -axis must be zero:
0
Mz0 = I (_r + pq) cos = 0 (B.18)

Using
p =
sin
q = _ (B.19)
r =
cos
and not forgetting that in this case
is not constant results in the following equation:
_ = 2
sin _

cos (B.20)
This equation shows that if the arm is raised ( _ > 0 and > 0) or lowered ( _ < 0 and < 0),
will increase.
B.4 Kinetic Energy of a Helicopter Rotor Blade

The moments of inertia:
Ix =
ZZ
(y + z )mdxdy = m
Z R Z c
y2 dy =
7
48 Mblade c = 1:823kgm (B.21)
4
2 2
dx 2 2
4c
0 3
[ 31 x ]R dy = 13 MbladeR = 416:667kgm
ZZ Z c
Iy = (x + z )mdxdy = m (B.22)
4
2 2 3 2 2
0
4c
3
(x + y )mdxdy = m 3 dy (x + y ) = m 3 [ 31 R + y R]dy
ZZ Z c Z R Z c
Iz =
4 4
2 2 2 2 3 2
4c 0 4c
1 2 7
= 3 Mblade R + 48 Mbladec = 418:49kgm
2 2
(B.23)
This last equation could be solved much easier, because z = 0 the moment of inertia about the z-axis must
be: Iz = Ix + Iy . The products of inertia:
Cxy =
ZZ
xymdxdy = m
Z RZ c
4 1
ydy = Mblade Rc = 15:625kgm 2
(B.24)
0 3c
4
8
Because z = 0 the other products must be zero.
For the rst blade (no ap angle) the rotation vector is:
8 9
< 0 =
! = 40(0; 0; 1)fEg = 40(E ) 0 rad=s (B.25)
:
1;
The angular momentum becomes:
2
1:823 15:625 0 3
D = (p; q; r)[J ]fE g = 40(0; 0; 1) 4 15:625 416:667 0 5 fEg = 40(0; 0; 418:49)fEgkgm =s (B.26)2
0 0 418:49
82 APPENDIX B. ANSWERS TO THE PROBLEMS
This shows that in this case the angular8momentum

9
is parallel to the rotor speed. The kinetic energy:
< 0 =
1 1
T = D ! = 1600(0; 0; 418:49) 0 = 334:792kNm (B.27)
2 2 :
1;
For the blade with a ap angle of ten degrees the rotor speed must be transformed to the reference frame
attached to the blade, because the inertia matrix is known in this reference frame. The transformation matrix
is: 2
cos 0 sin 3
fE g = [R]fE g = 4 0 1 0 5 fE g
1 (B.28)
sin 0 cos
The rotor speed:
! = 40(0; 0; 1)[R]fE g = 40(sin ; 0; cos )fE g (B.29)
Using this to calculate the angular momentum results in:
D = 40(1:823 sin ; 15:625 sin ; 418:49 cos )fE g = 40(0:317; 2:713; 412)fE g (B.30)
The result of this calculation clearly shows that in this case the angular momentum is not parallel to the rotor
speed! The kinetic energy can be calculated:
1
T = D ! = 325kNm (B.31)
2
B.5 Wheel
The angular momentum in reference frame two is given in Eq. (5.50):
D = (p; q; r)[R ]T [J ]fE g
2 (B.32)
This gives:
D = (p cos + q sin ; p sin + q cos ; r)[J ]fE g
2 (B.33)
Replacing p, q and r by the angular velocities for this problem gives:
D = ( _ sin ; _ cos ;
)[J ]fE g
2 (B.34)
Dierentiating this equation gives:
dD
dt
= M ext = ( sin _
cos ; cos + _
sin ;
)[
_ J ]fE g + ( _ sin ; _ cos ;
)[J ][
]fE g
2 2 2
(B.35)
Where 2
0
_ cos 3
[
] = 4
0 _ sin 5 (B.36)
_ cos _ sin
2
0
Doing the multiplications gives:
n o
M ext = mR ( sin 2_
cos ; cos + 2_
sin ; 2
)
3 _ fE g 2 (B.37)
Transforming this equation to reference frame 1 nally results in the same expression for the external moment
as Eq.(5.52).
n o
M ext = mR ( sin 2_
cos ; cos + 2_
sin ; 2
)
3 _ []fE g 1
= mR ( 2
;_ ; 2
)
3 _ fE g
1 (B.38)

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Contents

2.1 De nition of a Vector . . . . . .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 7

3.1 Rotation Transformation Matrices . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 15

4.1 Rotation Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 27

4.3.2 Problem: Rotating Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

5.1 Angular Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 37

6.1 Derivation of Lagrange's Equations of Motion . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 61

B Answers to the Problems 79

B.1 Eulerian Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 79

Vectors and matrices

2.1 De nition of a Vector

Figure 2.1: Point P.

It is also possible to write this in the transposed form:

2.2 Vector Calculus

2.2.1 Dot product

Figure 2.2: Force and displacement

The work done can be written as:

2.2.2 Matrix Multiplication

The following is true for matrix multiplications:

2.2.3 Cross Product

a b = (ay bz az by ; az bx ax bz ; axby ay bx ) (2.10)

Figure 2.3: Cross product

Figure 2.4: Moment of a force

This is because M ? r and M ? F and

Figure 2.5: Robot arm

Similarly for reference frame 3, the vector to point A is:

rA3 = (0; 0; l1)fE3 g (2.28)

The vector for point B is:

rB3 = ( l3 ; l2 ; 0)fE3g (2.29)

This results in the vector from A to B in reference frame 3:

r = (XB XA ; YB YA ; ZB ZA)fE3 g = ( l3 ; l2; l1 )fE3 g (2.30)

= (0; 0; l )fE g + (0; l ; 0)fE g + (0; l ; 0)fE g

This will be further discussed in the next chapter.

3.1 Rotation Transformation Matrices

or written as a matrix multiplication:

3.1.1 Problem: Eulerian Angles

in the airplane body reference frame. This means that:

3.1.2 Example Robot Arm

Figure 3.4: Example of a robot arm

Figure 3.5: reference frames 0 and 1

Figure 3.5 shows:

This can be written as:

This can be written as:

This can be written as:

Figure 3.6: reference frames 2 and 3

This can be written as:

Figure 3.7: reference frames 3 and 4

i4 = cos q3 i3 sin q3 j 3 + 0k3

This can be written as:

Figure 3.8: reference frames 1 and 3

i3 = 0i1 + cos q2 j 1 + sin q2 k1

For reference frame 3 the following can be written:

Transposing this equation results in:

Now multiplying this:

fE i g(E i ) = [Ri ]fE i g(E i )[Ri ]T

The left side of this equation can be worked out:

[I ] = [Ri ][I ][Ri ]T = [Ri ][Ri ]T (3.30)

The conclusion of this is that:

3.2 Writing Vectors in Di erent Reference Frames

Figure 3.9: Robot arm

R = (r x ; r y ; r z )fE g + (r x ; r y ; r z )fE g + (r x ; r y ; r z )fE g

3.2.1 Problem: Quasi Perspective Transformation

Figure 3.10: Quasi perspective transformation

The answer can be found in B.2

2.1 Denition of a Vector . . . . . .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 7

2.1 Denition of a Vector

3.2 Writing Vectors in Dierent Reference Frames

! = _ k = 0i + 0j + _ k = _ (0; 0; 1)fEeg = _ (0; 0; 1)[ ]T fE g = _ (0; 0; 1)[ ]T []T []T fE b g (4.14) 0

Dierentiating this expression will give the velocity of point B.

Dierentiating the velocity vector will give the acceleration of a point:

The angular momentum for a three dimensional body is dened as:

and the products of inertia are dened as:

As dened the angular momentum is:

5.4.1 Gyroscopic Eects

5.4.5 Gyroscopic Eects of an Engine