Radioactive Waste Management

Is Anything We Use in Everyday Life Radioactive?*

Everything we encounter in our daily lives contains some radioactive material, some naturally occurring and some man-made: the air
we breathe, the water we drink, the food we eat, the ground we walk upon, and the consumer products we purchase and use.
Although they might be familiar with the use of radiation to diagnose disease and treat cancer, many people, when they hear the
terms "radioactive" and "radiation," tend to think of mushroom clouds and the monster mutants that inhabit the world of science
fiction movies and comic books. Careful analyses can identify and quantify the radioactive material in just about anything.
 Smoke Detectors - Most residential smoke detectors contain a low-activity americium-241 source. Alpha particles emitted
by the americium ionize the air, making the air conductive. Any smoke particles that enter the unit reduce the current and
set off an alarm. Despite the fact that these devices save lives, the question "are smoke detectors safe?" is still asked by
those with an inordinate fear of radiation. The answer, of course, is "yes, they are safe." Instructions for proper installation,
handling, and disposal of smoke detectors are found on the package.
 Watches and Clocks - Modern watches and clocks sometimes use a small quantity of hydrogen-3 (tritium) or promethium-
147 as a source of light. Older (for example, pre-1970) watches and clocks used radium-226 as a source of light. If these
older timepieces are opened and the dial or hands handled, some of the radium could be picked up and possibly ingested.
As such, caution should be exercised when handling these items.
 Ceramics - Ceramic materials (for example, tiles, pottery) often contain elevated levels of naturally occurring uranium,
thorium, and/or potassium. In many cases, the activity is concentrated in the glaze. Unless there is a large quantity of the
material, readings above background are unlikely. Nevertheless, some older (for example, pre-1960) tiles and pottery,
especially those with an orange-red glaze (for example, Fiesta® ware) can be quite radioactive.
 Glass - Glassware, especially antique glassware with a yellow or greenish color, can contain easily detectable quantities of
uranium. Such uranium-containing glass is often referred to as canary or Vaseline glass. In part, collectors like uranium glass
for the attractive glow that is produced when the glass is exposed to a black light. Even ordinary glass can contain high-
enough levels of potassium-40 or thorium-232 to be detectable with a survey instrument. Older camera lenses (1950s-
1970s) often employed coatings of thorium-232 to alter the index of refraction.
 Fertilizer - Commercial fertilizers are designed to provide varying levels of potassium, phosphorous, and nitrogen. Such
fertilizers can be measurably radioactive for two reasons: potassium is naturally radioactive, and the phosphorous can be
derived from phosphate ore that contains elevated levels of uranium.
 Food - Food contains a variety of different types and amounts of naturally occurring radioactive materials. Although the
relatively small quantities of food in the home contain too little radioactivity for the latter to be readily detectable, bulk
shipments of food have been known to set off the alarms of radiation monitors at border crossings. One exception would
be low-sodium salt substitutes that often contain enough potassium-40 to double the background count rate of a radiation
detector.
 Gas Lantern Mantles - While it is less common than it once was, some brands of gas lantern mantles incorporate thorium-
232. In fact, it is the heating of the thorium by the burning gas that is responsible for the emission of light. Such mantles are
sufficiently radioactive that they are often used as a check source for radiation detectors.
 Antique Radioactive Curative Claims - In the past, primarily 1920 through 1950, a wide range of radioactive products were
sold as cure-alls, for example, radium-containing pills, pads, solutions, and devices designed to add radon to drinking water.
The states generally have regulatory authority over these devices. In some cases, a state might even require that these
devices be registered or licensed. Most such devices are relatively harmless, but occasionally one can be encountered that
contains potentially hazardous levels of radium. If there is any question about the safety of such devices, the public is
strongly encouraged to contact the state radiation-control program for advice.
*Information taken from a Health Physics Society fact sheet, "Consumer Products Containing Radioactive Materials," published in
November 2002.
SOURCE: https://hps.org/publicinformation/ate/faqs/consumerproducts.html
• Radioactivity is referred to as the decay or nuclear disintegration of isotopes.
• Isotopes decay by emitting protons, neutrons or electromagnetic radiation to carry off energy
• The isotopes that decay in this manner are called radioisotopes and the energy emitted is called ionizing radiation.

FOUR BASIC TYPES OF RADIATION

1) Alpha Particles – hazards: ingestion and inhalation.
• The least penetrating but most energetic of all radiation types, easily stopped in a few centimeters of air, requires no
shielding.
2) Beta Particles – hazards: ingestion and inhalation.
• Charged electrons, more penetrating than alpha particles, requires some level of shielding
3) Gamma radiation – pose hazards, internal and external.
• Most penetrating of the radiation types, similar to X – rays but more energetic, requires some shielding.
4) Neutron radiation – hazard: external exposure
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• High energy neutral particles, can travel long distances in air and other materials, present the greatest hazard.

RADIATION MEASUREMENTS / UNITS

1) Roentgen – exposure to gamma or X – ray radiation equal to a unit quantity of electrical charge produced in air. This
measure is purely physical quantity, has nothing to do with absorption or effect of the radiation.
2) Rem (roentgen equivalent man) – measure the biological injury that would result from the absorption of nuclear radiation.
3) Gray (Gy) – quantity of ionizing radiation that results I the absorption of 1 Joule/kg of absorbing material. Absorption may
be the same but the damage is different.
4) Sievert (Sv) – absorbed radiation dose that does the same amount of biological damage to tissue as 1 Gy of gamma
radiation or X – ray. (1 Sv = 100 rem)

SOURCES AND EFFECTS

1) Background radiation – due mostly to cosmic radiation from space, natural decay of RA materials (Radon 222, radium)
2) Voluntary radiation – diagnostic x – rays exposure from high – altitude flights.
3) Involuntary incidental radiation – nuclear powerplants, weapon facilities, industries
4) Accidents (Chernobyl, Ukraine and Three Mile Island Nuclear Power Facility in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania)

SOME BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION

 75 rem – exposure is likely to cause nausea in 10% of people
 100 rem – exposure is likely to cause depilation in 10% of people
 200 rem – exposure can cause disabling sickness in 90% of people
 400 – 500 rem – median lethal exposure
 >600 rem – lethal in 3-5 days from intestinal damage
 >10,000 rem – lethal in 24 hours from central nervous system damage

LOCALIZED EFFECT
 Fetus : 10 – 20 rads – significant probability of malformation if irradiated early in pregnancy
 Gonads: 50 rads – brief functional sterility
 250 rads – sterilty for 1 – 2 years
 600 rads – permanent sterility
 Eye: 200 rads – change in optic lens
 600 rads – clinically significant cataract
 Skin: 300 rads – threshold erythema
 1000 rads – erythema
 5000 – 7000 rads – ulceration, slow healing
Stages of Damage are as follows:
1) Physical – 10 -17 to 10 -15 s, ionizations and excitations
2) Chemical – 10 -14 to 10 -13 s, creation of free radicals and excited molecules yielding biologically harmful products and
damaging chain reactions
3) Biomolecular – s to hrs – damage to proteins, nucleic acids, etc.
4) Biological – hrs to decade – cell death or prevention or delay in cell division; permanent modification which can be passed
to daughter cells.
LEVEL OF BIOLOGICAL DAMAGE
a) Molecular – damage to enzymes, DNA, etc. and interference to biological pathways.
b) Subcellular – damage to cell membranes, nucleus, chromosomes etc.
c) Cellular – inhibition of cell division, cell death, transformation to malignant state
d) Tissue, organ – disruption to central nervous system, bone marrow, intestinal tract; induction of cancer
e) Whole animal – death
f) Populations – changes in genetic characteristics of individual members

CATEGORIES OF RADIATION EFFECTS

1) Acute Somatic effects – include skin burns, vomiting (intestinal cells), hair loss, temporary sterility or sub-fertility in men
(sperm cells), and blood changes (bone marrow cells, depression of white cell count0
2) Chronic somatic effects – include development of eye cataracts and cancers. (DNA changes within cells). Cancer is the most
notable long – term somatic effect. (non – heritable effects)
3) Genetic effects – those expressed in the future generations (heritable effects)
4) Bystander effect
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SUSCEPTIBLE TISSUES
1) Blood Cells (bone marrow) – immature cells
2) Gonads – rapidly dividing cells
3) Eye lens – no cell replacement
4) Nerve tissue – no cell division of tissues

EXPOSURE LIMITS
• Whole body – 5 rems/year ; Eye – 15 rem ; Skin or Extremities – 50 rem (shallow dose)

RADIATION PROTECTION METHODS

1) Time of exposure – needs monitoring
Use of PDM (pocket dosimeter), film badge, TLD (thermoluminescent dosimeter); these are commonly used in occupational
exposure
2) Distance from the source: radiation levels decrease proportionally with the square of the distance
3) Amount of shielding present – shielding is used to absorb or scatter the radiation before it reaches the receptor.

TREATMENT OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES

1) Sorting – separation from other wastes
2) Compaction – volume reduction
3) Decontamination – co – precipitation of contaminated liquids, metallic wastes soaked in a chemical bath, elimination of
surface contamination in metals by sanding, etc.
4) Reuse or Recycling – recycling of spent fuels in nuclear power plants
5) Thermal treatment – melting, evaporation, incineration, other thermal methods.

IMPORTANT MEASUREMENTS
1) MPC – maximum permissible concentration
a) Air – MPC is based on 40 hours work/wk
b) Water – MPC is based on a normal consumption of 2 liters in a day (drinking water)
2) MPBB – maximum permissible body burden – amount of isotope maintained in the body which will result in the
bloodstream and deposit in the body.
3) ICRP – International Commission on Radiation Protection

DISPOSAL OF RA WASTES
1) High Level Wastes (HLW) – curies/L ; requires long term storage
2) Low Level Wastes (LLW) – microcuries/L ; can be handled by direct contact and be disposed to a secure landfill
3) Intermediate Level Wastes – millicuries/L ; requires long term storage

Radiation protection guideline:

ALARA – as low as reasonably allowable/acceptable