Industrial Hygiene Evaluation Methods

Ionizing Radiation

Bibhuti Bhusan Mandal, Ph.D.

Associate Professor
Department of Mining Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
IONIZING RADIATION

The health and safety professional should have general knowledge of the nature of

radiation, the detection of radiation, permissible exposure limits (PELs), biological

effects of radiation, monitoring techniques, procedures, and control measures.

Facility personnel need to be properly advised of radiation hazards and safe procedures.

The health and safety professional should ensure that health physicists review or oversee

radiation installations to ensure compliance with federal, state, and local regulations and

company policies. Medical and emergency plans must be in place.

IONIZING RADIATION

Ionizing radiation including nuclear radiation, consists of

subatomic particles or electromagnetic waves that have
sufficient energy to ionize atoms or molecules by detaching
electrons from them
TYPES OF IONIZING RADIATION
Ionizing radiation is a type of energy released by atoms that travels
in the form of electromagnetic waves (gamma or X-rays) or particles
(neutrons, beta or alpha). The spontaneous disintegration of atoms is
called radioactivity, and the excess energy emitted is a form of
ionizing radiation.
Radiation is a form of energy.
Familiar forms of radiation energy include light (a form of radiation
we can see) and infrared (a form of radiation we can feel as heat).
Radio and television waves are forms of radiation that we can neither
see nor feel.
All radio-nuclides are uniquely identified by the type of radiation
they emit, the energy of the radiation, and their half-life.
The activity - used as a measure of the amount of a radionuclide
present - is expressed in a unit called the becquerel (Bq): one
becquerel is one disintegration per second. The half-life is the time
required for the activity of a radionuclide to decrease by decay to
half of its initial value. The half-life of a radioactive element is the
time that it takes for one half of its atoms to disintegrate. This can
range from a mere fraction of a second to millions of years (e.g.
iodine-131 has a half-life of 8 days while carbon-14 has a half-life
of 5730 years).
Radiation sources

• People are exposed to natural radiation sources as well as human-

made sources on a daily basis.
• Natural radiation comes from many sources including more than
60 naturally-occurring radioactive materials found in soil, water
and air.
• Radon, a naturally-occurring gas, emanates from rock and soil and
is the main source of natural radiation.
• Every day, people inhale and ingest radio-nuclides from air, food
and water.
Radiation sources

• People are also exposed to natural radiation from cosmic rays,

particularly at high altitude.
• On average, 80% of the annual dose of background radiation that
a person receives is due to naturally occurring terrestrial and
cosmic radiation sources.
• Background radiation levels vary geographically due to geological
differences.
• Exposure in certain areas can be more than 200 times higher than
the global average.
Radiation sources

Human exposure to radiation also comes from human-made sources

ranging from nuclear power generation to medical uses of radiation
for diagnosis or treatment.
 Today, the most common human-made sources of ionizing
radiation are medical devices, including X-ray machines, CT,
HRCT etc..
Exposure to ionizing radiation

Radiation exposure may be internal or external, and can be acquired through

various exposure pathways.

Internal exposure to ionizing radiation occurs when a radio-nuclide is

inhaled, ingested or otherwise enters into the bloodstream (for example, by
injection or through wounds). Internal exposure stops when the radionuclide is
eliminated from the body, either spontaneously (such as through excreta) or as
a result of a treatment.

External exposure may occur when airborne radioactive material (such as

dust, liquid, or aerosols) is deposited on skin or clothes. This type of
radioactive material can often be removed from the body by simply washing.
Exposure to ionizing radiation

Exposure to ionizing radiation can also result from irradiation

from an external source, such as medical radiation exposure from
X-rays. External irradiation stops when the radiation source is
shielded or when the person moves outside the radiation field.

People can be exposed to ionizing radiation under different

circumstances, at home or in public places (public exposures), at
their workplaces (occupational exposures), or in a medical setting
(as are patients, caregivers, and volunteers).
Exposure Classification

Exposure to ionizing radiation can be classified into 3 exposure situations.

 The first, planned exposure situations, result from the deliberate introduction and
operation of radiation sources with specific purposes, as is the case with the
medical use of radiation for diagnosis or treatment of patients, or the use of
radiation in industry or research.
 The second type of situation, existing exposures, is where exposure to radiation
already exists, and a decision on control must be taken – for example, exposure to
radon in homes or workplaces or exposure to natural background radiation from the
environment.
 The last type, emergency exposure situations, result from unexpected events
requiring prompt response such as nuclear accidents or malicious acts.
Exposure from Medical use

Medical use of radiation accounts for 98 % of the population

dose contribution from all artificial sources, and represents
20% of the total population exposure.
Annually worldwide, more than 3600 million diagnostic
radiology examinations are performed, 37 million nuclear
medicine procedures are carried out, and 7.5 million
radiotherapy treatments are given.
Key facts
Ionizing radiation is a type of energy released by atoms in the form of
electromagnetic waves or particles.
People are exposed to natural sources of ionizing radiation, such as in soil, water, and
vegetation, as well as in human-made sources, such as x-rays and medical devices.
Ionizing radiation has many beneficial applications, including uses in medicine,
industry, agriculture and research.
As the use of ionizing radiation increases, so does the potential for health hazards if
not properly used or contained.
Acute health effects such as skin burns or acute radiation syndrome can occur when
doses of radiation exceed certain levels.
Low doses of ionizing radiation can increase the risk of longer term effects such as
cancer.
Ionization

Ionization is an energy transfer process that changes the normal electrical

balance in an atom.
If a normal atom (electrically neutral) were to lose one of its orbiting
electrons (one negative charge), the atom would no longer be neutral. It
would have more positive charges than negative charges, making it a
positive ion. Electrons thus removed are called free electrons. If the free
electron then attaches to another atom, that atom would become a negative
ion. The positive and negative ions thus produced are known as an ion pair.
Nuclear Radiation

The term nuclear radiation describes all forms of radiation energy that

originate in the nucleus of a radioactive atom.

In addition to gamma-rays, fast-moving particles are sometimes emitted

from radioactive atoms.

Nuclear Radiation

Some materials are naturally radioactive; others can be made radioactive

in a nuclear reactor or accelerator. Some non-radioactive atoms can be

converted to radioactive atoms when an extra neutron is captured by a

nucleus. The resulting radioactive atom is unstable because of the extra

energy that the neutron added to the nucleus. The excited, or radioactive,

atoms get rid of their excess energy and return to a stable state by emitting

subatomic particles and gamma rays from the nucleus. The most important

of these particles are alpha-particles, beta-particles, and neutrons.

Radiation Hazards

The hazardous properties of radioactive materials are usually thought of in

terms of nuclear radiation. All types of radiation share the common

properties of being absorbed and transferring energy to the absorbing body.

The most commonly encountered types of ionizing radiation are

alpha-,beta-, and neutron particles and x- or gamma-electromagnetic

radiation. Other types of ionizing radiation are encountered in specialized

facilities.
Alpha-particle (alpha-radiation, α)

Alpha decay typically occurs in the heaviest nuclides. Theoretically, it can occur only

in nuclei somewhat heavier than nickel (element 28), where the overall binding

energy per nucleon is no longer a minimum and the nuclides are therefore unstable

toward spontaneous fission-type processes. In practice, this mode of decay has only

been observed in nuclides considerably heavier than nickel, with the lightest known

alpha emitters being the lightest isotopes (mass numbers 104–109) of tellurium

(element 52). Exceptionally, however, beryllium-8 decays to two alpha particles.

Alpha-particle (alpha-radiation, α)

To detect alpha-particles with a radiation survey meter, the instrument probe must be held close to

the source, and the window on the probe must be very thin and designed specifically for alpha-

detection. WHY ?

The mass and electrical charge characterize the hazardous properties of alpha-particles. They have a

positive charge of 2 units and interact electrically with human tissues and other matter. Alpha-

particles range in energy to over 7 MeV (Mega electron-volt). Because of their large mass and the

dense ionization along their path through a material, they travel only a short distance. Their range

is at most about 4 in. (10 cm) in air. They are stopped by the dead, outer layer of the skin, a film of

water, a sheet of paper, or other paper-thin material.

Alpha-particle (alpha-radiation, α)

Alpha-emitters are hazardous when taken into the body. Because they
are chemically similar to calcium in their action within the body, some
alpha-emitters are absorbed into the bones, where they remain for long
periods of time. As they disintegrate, they emit alpha-particles, which
can damage tissue. Other alpha-emitters are not bone seekers but
concentrate in body organs such as the kidney, liver, lungs, and spleen.
Alpha-particle (alpha-radiation, α)

If the alpha-emitting material is kept outside the body, little damage results
because generally alpha-particles cannot penetrate the outermost, dead layer
of skin.

Care is needed to avoid inhalation or ingestion of alpha-radioactive materials

and to avoid puncture wounds by items contaminated with alpha radioactivity.

Alpha-emitters are considered to be only internal radiation hazards.

Beta-particle (beta-radiation, β)

Beta-particles are electrically charged particles ejected from

the nuclei of radioactive atoms during disintegration.

They have a negative electrical charge of 1 unit and the same

mass as an electron.
Negative beta-particle emission causes the disintegrating atom
to change into an element of a higher atomic number. Thus,
strontium-90 changes to yttrium-90 on disintegration with
ejection of a beta-particle (electron) from a neutron in the
nucleus.
Beta-particle (beta-radiation, β)

Beta-particles do not penetrate to the depth that x rays or

gamma-radiation of similar energy do. Their

maximum range in wood is about 1.5 in. (4 cm).

They can penetrate the human body to a depth of 0.1–0.5 in.

(0.2–1.3 cm).
Beta-particle (beta-radiation, β)

Skin burns result from extremely high doses of beta radiation,

because it requires only about 70 keV (1 keV = 0.001 MeV) of energy

for a beta-particle to penetrate the dead, outer layer of skin.

Beta-emitters are internal radiation hazards when taken into the

body.

The maximum range in air of the beta-particles emitted from one

radionuclide may be 6 in. (15 cm), and the maximum range of
emissions from another radionuclide may be 60 ft (18 m).
X Radiation

X-radiation is commonly thought of as electromagnetic radiation

produced by an x-ray machine. When high-speed electrons

are suddenly slowed down when they strike a target,

they lose energy in the form of x-radiation.

In an x-ray machine, the voltage across the electrodes of the vacuum
tube determines the energy of the electrons, which principally
determines the wavelength and penetrating quality of the resulting x
rays.
X Radiation

The character of x-radiation is also affected by the target

material inside the x-ray tube. That is, the wavelength of a

portion of the x-radiation is affected by the kind of material

composing the target.

X Radiation

The x rays of short wavelength are called hard, and they penetrate several
cm of steel. The x rays of long, or soft, wavelengths are less penetrating.
The power to penetrate through matter is called the quality. Intensity is the
energy flux density. The physical properties of a beam of x or gamma-rays
are often summarized by the two concepts of intensity and quality.

The range of penetration can be expressed in terms of half-value layer.

This is the thickness of material necessary to reduce the incident radiation
by one-half. The half-value layers for x-radiation range up to several
centimeters of concrete.
X Radiation
Gamma Radiation

Gamma-radiation is similar to x-radiation in that it is also

electromagnetic and ionizing. In fact, it is identical to x-radiation

except for its source being the nucleus of an atom.

X-radiation is electromagnetic radiation that originates outside

the nucleus.

They present an external exposure problem because of their deep penetration. The
half-value layer of shielding for 1.0 MeV gamma- or x-radiation is

slightly more than 0.5 in. (1.3 cm) of steel.

Alpha-particle (alpha-radiation, α)
Beta-particle (beta-radiation, β)
Gamma-rays (Gamma-radiation, γ)
X ray

Disintegration: when a radioactive atom disintegrates, it emits a particle from its nucleus.
What remains is a different element. For example, when an atom of Polonium 210
disintegrates, it ejects an alpha-particle and changes to a Lead 206 atom by this process.
When an atom of Bismuth 210 disintegrates, it changes to an atom of Polonium 210 by
beta-particle emission.
Becquerel (Bq): One disintegration per second (dps). This unit is used in measuring the
rate of radioactive disintegration. There are 3.7 × 1010 becquerels per curie of
radioactivity.
Curie (Ci): A measure of the rate at which a radioactive material emits particles. One
curie corresponds to 3.7x1010 becquerels (disintegrations per second).

Half-life: A means of classifying the rate of decay of radioisotopes according to the

time it takes them to lose half their strength (intensity). Half-lives range from fractions
of a second to billions of years. Cobalt-60, for example, has a half-life of 5.3 years.

Roentgen (R): The amount of x- or gamma-radiation that produces ionization resulting

in one electrostatic unit of charge in one cubic centimeter of dry air at standard
conditions.
Quality factor (Q): A function of the linear collision stopping power in water at the
point of interest and with a specified energy dependence. It weights the absorbed
dose for the biological effectiveness of the charged particles producing the absorbed
dose.

Roentgen absorbed dose (rad): The mean energy per unit of mass imparted by
ionizing radiation in a mass. One rad is 100 ergs absorbed per gram. 1 rad = 0.01 Gray.

Roentgen equivalent man (rem): A unit of absorbed dose (in rad) times a quality
factor that is used to express the relative biological effect of the particular radiation as
compared to gamma-radiation. Personnel exposure limits areoften expressed in rem.
Health effects of ionizing radiation

Radiation damage to tissue and/or organs depends on the

dose of radiation received, or the absorbed dose which is
expressed in a unit called the Gray (Gy). The potential
damage from an absorbed dose depends on the type of
radiation and the sensitivity of different tissues and
organs.
Health effects of ionizing radiation: Effective dose

The effective dose is used to measure ionizing radiation in terms of the potential for
causing harm. The sievert (Sv) is the unit of effective dose that takes into account the
type of radiation and sensitivity of tissues and organs. It is a way to measure ionizing
radiation in terms of the potential for causing harm. The Sv takes into account the
type of radiation and sensitivity of tissues and organs.

The Sv is a very large unit so it is more practical to use smaller units such as
millisieverts (mSv) or microsieverts (μSv). There are one thousand μSv in one mSv,
and one thousand mSv in one Sv. In addition to the amount of radiation (dose), it is
often useful to express the rate at which this dose is delivered (dose rate), such as
microsieverts per hour (μSv/hour) or millisievert per year (mSv/year).
Health effects of ionizing radiation

Beyond certain thresholds, radiation can impair the functioning of

tissues and/or organs and can produce acute effects such as skin
redness, hair loss, radiation burns, or acute radiation syndrome.
These effects are more severe at higher doses and higher dose rates.
For instance, the dose threshold for acute radiation syndrome is
about 1 Sv (1000 mSv).
Health effects of ionizing radiation

If the radiation dose is low and/or it is delivered over a long period of time

(low dose rate), the risk is substantially lower because there is a greater

likelihood of repairing the damage. There is still a risk of long-term effects

such as cancer, however, that may appear years or even decades later.

Effects of this type will not always occur, but their likelihood is

proportional to the radiation dose. This risk is higher for children and

adolescents, as they are significantly more sensitive to radiation exposure

than adults.
Health effects of ionizing radiation

Epidemiological studies on populations exposed to radiation, such as atomic bomb

survivors or radiotherapy patients, showed a significant increase of cancer risk at

doses above 100 mSv. More recently, some epidemiological studies in individuals

exposed to medical exposures during childhood (paediatric CT) suggested that cancer

risk may increase even at lower doses (between 50-100 mSv).

Epidemiology: Epidemiology is the method used to find the causes of health outcomes

and diseases in populations.

Epidemiology is the study and analysis of the distribution, patterns and determinants

of health and disease conditions in defined population.

Health effects of ionizing radiation

Prenatal exposure to ionizing radiation may induce brain damage in

foetuses following an acute dose exceeding 100 mSv between weeks

8-15 of pregnancy and 200 mSv between weeks 16-25 of pregnancy.

Before week 8 or after week 25 of pregnancy human studies have

not shown radiation risk to fetal brain development. Epidemiological

studies indicate that the cancer risk after fetal exposure to radiation

is similar to the risk after exposure in early childhood.

BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION

The human body can apparently tolerate a certain amount of

exposure to ionizing radiation without its overall functions
being impaired as a result. We are continuously
exposed to ionizing radiation from natural sources such as
cosmic radiation from outer space and from radioactive
materials in the earth and materials around us and in us.
This “background radiation” is part of our normal environment;
we have evolved under its effects and are continuously exposed
to it. The average annual dose from background radiation varies
across the country, but it is commonly around 300 mR/y.
BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION

One fundamental property of ionizing radiation is that when it passes into or

through a material, it transfers energy by the ionization process. The intensity
of radiation to which a material is subjected is known as the radiation field.
The term dose is generally used to express a measure of radiation that a body
or other material absorbs when exposed to a radiation field.

The effect of ionizing radiation on living tissue is generally assumed to be

almost entirely due to the ionization process, which destroys the capacity of
reproduction or division in some cells and causes mutation in others.
BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION

There are two points of view for consideration of the injurious effects of
ionizing radiation: the somatic effects (injury to individuals) and the genetic
effects, which are passed on to future generations.
The degree of injury inflicted on an individual by radiation exposure depends
on such factors as the total dose, the rate at which the dose is received, the
kind of radiation, and the body part receiving it.
Tissues such as the bone marrow, where blood cells are produced, the lining
of the digestive tract, and some cells of the skin are more sensitive to
radiation than those of bone, muscle, and nerve.
Ionizing radiation is measured in terms of:

• the strength or radioactivity of the radiation source,

• the energy of the radiation,
• the level of radiation in the environment, and
• the radiation dose or the amount of radiation energy absorbed by the
human body.

From the point of view of the occupational exposure, the radiation dose is the

most important measure. Occupational exposure limits like the ACGIH TLVs are

given in terms of the permitted maximum dose. The risk of radiation-induced

diseases depends on the total radiation dose that a person receives over time.
The Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) published by the ACGIH (American
Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists) are occupational
exposure limits adopted by many jurisdictions as guidelines or legal limits:
20 mSv - TLV for average annual effective dose for radiation workers, averaged
over five years
In Canada, the Radiation Protection Regulations set radiation exposure limits
for the public and nuclear energy workers.
The annual effective dose limit is 1mSv for the Canadian public. This dose limit
aligns with the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP)
recommended annual dose limit of 1 mSv for the general public.
Based on information from regular monitoring of the most exposed workers,
such as a radiographer, shows that the average annual doses are 5 mSv per
year.
Equivalent dose is often referred to simply as "dose" in every day use of

radiation terminology. The old unit of "dose equivalent" or "dose" was rem.

Dose in Sv = Absorbed Dose in Gy x radiation weighting factor (W R)

Dose in rem = Dose in rad x QF

1 Sv = 100 rem

1 rem = 10 mSv (millisievert = one thousandth of a sievert)

1 Gy air dose equivalent to 0.7 Sv tissue dose (UNSEAR 1988 Report p.57)

1 R (roentgen) exposure is approximately equivalent to 10 mSv tissue dose