The effect of ionizing

radiation on living
organisms
 The effect of ionizing radiation on
living organisms
1. What is ionizing radiation?
2. Exposure to ionizing radiation
3. Health Effects of ionizing radiation
4. Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation
5. Radiation Effects on Humans
6. Radiation sources
7. Protection
8. Summary: 1. Fast facts on radiation sickness
2. Reducing exposure to radiation
3. Key facts
8. References
 What is ionizing radiation?

Ionizing radiation is a type of energy released by atoms

that travels in the form of electromagnetic waves (gamma
or X-rays) or particles (neutrons, beta or alpha). The
spontaneous disintegration of atoms is called
radioactivity, and the excess energy emitted is a form of
ionizing radiation. Unstable elements which disintegrate
and emit ionizing radiation are called radionuclides.
All radionuclides are uniquely identified by the type of
radiation they emit, the energy of the radiation, and their
half-life.
 The activity — used as a measure of the amount of a radionuclide
present — is expressed in a unit called the becquerel (Bq): one
becquerel is one disintegration per second. The half-life is the time
required for the activity of a radionuclide to decrease by decay to half
of its initial value. The half-life of a radioactive element is the time
that it takes for one half of its atoms to disintegrate. This can range
from a mere fraction of a second to millions of years (e.g. iodine-131
has a half-life of 8 days while carbon-14 has a half-life of 5730 years).
 Exposure to ionizing radiation
Radiation exposure may be internal or external, and
can be acquired through various exposure pathways.

Internal
Internal exposure to ionizing
radiation occurs when a
radionuclide is inhaled, ingested
or otherwise enters into the
bloodstream (for example, by
injection or through wounds).
Internal exposure stops when the
radionuclide is eliminated from
the body, either spontaneously
(such as through excreta) or as a
result of a treatment.
External
External exposure may occur
when airborne radioactive
material (such as dust, liquid, or
aerosols) is deposited on skin or
clothes. This type of radioactive
material can often be removed
from the body by simply
washing.
Exposure to ionizing radiation can also
result from irradiation from an external
source, such as medical radiation exposure
from X-rays. External irradiation stops when
the radiation source is shielded or when the
person moves outside the radiation field.
Exposure to ionizing radiation can be
classified into 3 exposure situations.
The first, planned exposure situations,
result from the deliberate introduction and
operation of radiation sources with specific purposes, as is the case with the medical use of
radiation for diagnosis or treatment of patients, or the use of radiation in industry or
research.
The second type of situation, existing exposures, is where
exposure to radiation already exists, and a decision on
control must be taken – for example, exposure to radon in
homes or workplaces or exposure to natural background
radiation from the environment. The last type, emergency
exposure situations, result from unexpected events
requiring prompt response such as nuclear accidents or
malicious acts.
Medical use of radiation accounts for 98 % of the
population dose contribution from all artificial sources, and
represents 20% of the total population exposure. Annually
worldwide, more than 3600 million diagnostic radiology
examinations are performed, 37 million nuclear medicine
procedures are carried out, and 7.5 million radiotherapy
treatments are given.
 Health Effects of ionizing radiation
These are divided into two categories:
Threshold effects and non-threshold effects. Threshold effects appear after a certain level of
radiation exposure is reached and enough cells have been damaged to make the effect apparent.
Non-threshold effects can occur at lower levels of radiation exposure.
Threshold effects occur when levels of radiation exposure are tens, hundreds, or thousands of
times higher than background, and usually when the exposure is over a very short time, such as a
few minutes. They do not occur when doses of radiation are smaller than the threshold value.
Dose is measured in rem or millirem (1,000 millirem = 1 rem).
Non-threshold effects can occur at any level of radiation exposure. However, the risk of harmful
health effects generally increases with the amount of radiation absorbed. The most studied non
threshold effect is cancer.
Radiation damage to tissue and/or organs depends on the dose of radiation
received, or the absorbed dose which is expressed in a unit called the gray
(Gy).
The potential damage from an absorbed dose depends on the type of radiation
and the sensitivity of different tissues and organs.
The effective dose is used to measure ionizing radiation in terms of the
potential for causing harm. The sievert (Sv) is the unit of effective dose that takes into
account the type of radiation and sensitivity of tissues and organs. It is a way to measure
ionizing radiation in terms of the potential for causing harm. The Sv takes into account the
type of radiation and sensitivity of tissues and organs.
The Sv is a very large unit so it is more practical to use smaller units such as millisieverts
(mSv) or microsieverts (μSv). There are one thousand μSv in one mSv, and one thousand
mSv in one Sv. In addition to the amount of radiation (dose), it is often useful to express the
rate at which this dose is delivered (dose rate), such as microsieverts per hour (μSv/hour) or
millisievert per year (mSv/year).
 Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation
The amount of damage done by ionizing radiation is determined by how much energy it
deposits per kilogram of living tissue, because that tells us approximately how many chemical
reactions it can cause (of which some small fraction will be dangerous to the living cell).
Cells have long, double-helical DNA molecules containing chemical codes called genetic
codes that govern the function and processes undertaken by the cell.
The rate of DNA repair depends on various factors such as the cell type and age of the cell. A
cell with a damaged ability to repair DNA, which could have been induced by ionizing
radiation, can do one of the following:
1. The cell can go into an irreversible state of dormancy,
known as senescence.
2. The cell can commit suicide, known as programmed
cell death.
3. The cell can go into unregulated cell division leading to
tumors and cancers.
To discuss quantitatively the biological effects of ionizing radiation, we need a radiation dose
unit that is directly related to those effects. All effects of radiation are assumed to be directly
proportional to the amount of ionization produced in the biological organism. The amount of
ionization is in turn proportional to the amount of deposited energy. Therefore, we define a
radiation dose unit called the rad, as 1/100 of a joule of ionizing energy deposited per kilogram
of tissue, which is
1 rad = 0.01 J/kg.
For example, if a 50.0-kg person is exposed to ionizing radiation over her entire body and she
absorbs 1.00 J, then her whole-body radiation dose is
(1.00 J)/(50.0 kg) = 0.0200 J/kg = 2.00 rad.
If the same 1.00 J of ionizing energy were absorbed in her 2.00-kg forearm alone, then the dose
to the forearm would be
(1.00 J)/(2.00 kg) = 0.500 J/kg = 50.0 rad,
and the unaffected tissue would have a zero rad dose. While calculating radiation doses, you
divide the energy absorbed by the mass of affected tissue. You must specify the affected region,
such as the whole body or forearm in addition to giving the numerical dose in rads. The SI unit
for radiation dose is the gray (Gy), which is defined to be
1 Gy = 1 J/kg = 100 rad.
 Radiation Effects on Human
Certain body parts are specifically affected by exposure to different types of radiation sources.
Several factors are involved in determining the potential health effects of exposure to radiation.
These include:
-The size of the dose (amount of energy
deposited in the body)
-The ability of the radiation to harm
human tissue
-Which organs are affected
The most important factor is the amount
of the dose - the amount of energy
actually deposited in your body.
The more energy absorbed by cells,
the greater the biological damage.
 How much radiation is dangerous?
Radiation dosage can measured in various ways.
Below 30 rads: Mild symptoms will occur in the blood
From 30 to 200 rads: The person may become ill.
From 200 to 1,000 rads: The person may become seriously ill.
Over 1,000 rads: This will be fatal.
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(CDC), radiation sickness, or acute radiation syndrome (ARS) is diagnosed when:
A person receives over 70 rads from a source outside their body
The dose affects the whole body, or most of it, and is able to penetrate to the internal organs
The dose is received in a short time, usually within minutes
A person who experiences an atomic explosion will receive two doses of radiation, one during
the explosion, and another from fallout, when radioactive particles float down after the
explosion.
Hair
The losing of hair quickly and in clumps occurs with radiation exposure
at 200 rems or higher.

Brain
Since brain cells do not reproduce, they won't be damaged directly unless
the exposure is 5,000 rems or greater. Like the heart, radiation kills nerve cells and small
blood vessels, and can cause seizures and immediate death.

Thyroid
Certain body parts are more affected by exposure to
different types of radiation sources than others. The
thyroid gland is susceptible to radioactive iodine. In
sufficient amounts, radioactive iodine can destroy all
or part of the thyroid. Taking potassium iodide can
reduce the effects of exposure.
Blood System
When a person is exposed to around 100 rems, the blood's lymphocyte cell count will be
reduced, leaving the victim more susceptible to infection. This is often referred to as mild
radiation sickness. Early symptoms of radiation sickness mimic those of flu and may go
unnoticed unless a blood count is done.According to data from Hiroshima and Nagasaki,
symptoms may persist for up to 10 years and may also have an increased long-term risk for
leukemia and lymphoma. For more information, visit Radiation Effects Research
Foundation.

Heart
Intense exposure to radioactive material at 1,000 to 5,000 rems would do immediate damage
to small blood vessels and probably cause heart failure and death directly.

Reproductive Tract
Because reproductive tract cells divide rapidly, these areas of the body can be damaged at
rem levels as low as 200. Long-term, some radiation sickness victims will become sterile.
 Radiation sources
Exposure to radiation can result from workplace exposure or an industrial accident, radiation
therapy, or even deliberate poisoning, as in the case of the former Russian spy, Alexander
Litvinenko, who was murdered in London by polonium 210 placed in his tea. However, this is
extremely rare.
Most people are exposed to an average of around 0.62 rads, or 620 Gray each year.
Half of this comes from radon in the air, from the Earth, and from cosmic rays. The other half
comes from medical, commercial, and industrial sources. Spread over a year, this is not
significant in terms of health.
• A chest x-ray gives the equivalent of 10 days’ exposure to radiation
• Mammogram gives the equivalent of 7 weeks’ normal exposure
• PET or CT used as part of nuclear medicine exposes a person to the equivalent of 8 years of
radiation
• A CT scan of the abdomen and pelvis gives the equivalent of 3 years’ normal exposure
Nuclear medicine is used to target the thyroid in people with a thyroid disorder. Other types of
medical treatment include radiation therapy for cancer.
Living at a higher altitude, for example, in the plateau of New Mexico and Colorado,
increase exposure, as does traveling in an airplane. Radon gas in homes also contributes.
Food, too, contains small amounts of radiation.
The food and water we drink is responsible for
exposure to around 0.03 rads in a year.
The many activities that can expose people to
sources of radiation include:
-watching television
-flying in an airplane
-passing through a security scanner
-using a microwave or cell phone
Smokers have a higher exposure than non-smokers,
as tobacco contains a substance that can decay to become polonium 210.
Astronauts have the highest exposure of anyone. They may be exposed to 25 rads in one
Space Shuttle mission.
 Protection
Damage by radiation is irreversible. Once the cells are damaged, they do not repair themselves.
Until now, there is no way for medicine to do this, so it is important for someone who has been
exposed to seek medical help as soon as possible.
Possible treatments include:
• Removing all clothing,
• Rinsing with water and soap.
• Use of potassium iodide (KI) to block thyroid uptake if a person inhales or swallows too
much radioiodine
• Prussian blue, given in capsules, can trap cesium and thallium in the intestines and prevent
them from being absorbed. This allows them to move through the digestive system and leave
he body in bowel movements.
• Filgrastim, or Neupogen, stimulates the growth of white blood cells. This can help if
radiation has affected the bone marrow.
Depending on exposure, radiation can affect the whole body. For cardiovascular, intestinal, and
other problems, treatment will target the symptoms.
 Summary
1. Fast facts on radiation sickness
• Radiation is all around us and it is used safely in many
applications.
• Nuclear accidents, the work environment, and some medical
treatment can all be sources of radiation poisoning.
• Depending on the dose, the effects of radiation can be mild or
life-threatening.
• There is no cure, but barriers can prevent exposure and some
medications may remove some radiation from the body.
• Anyone who believes they have been exposed to radiation
should seek medical attention as soon as possible.
Reducing exposure to radiation
• keeping out of the sun around midday and
using a sunscreen or wearing clothes that
cover the skin
• making sure any CT scans and x-rays are
necessary, especially for children
• letting the doctor know if you are or may be
pregnant before having an x-ray, PET, or CT
scan
• It is not possible or necessary to avoid all
exposure to radiation, and the risk posed to
health by most sources is extremely small.
Key facts
• Ionizing radiation is a type of energy released by atoms in
the form of electromagnetic waves or particles.
• People are exposed to natural sources of ionizing
radiation, such as in soil, water, and vegetation, as well as
in human-made sources, such as x-rays and medical
devices.
• Ionizing radiation has many beneficial applications,
including uses in medicine, industry, agriculture and
research.
• As the use of ionizing radiation increases, so does the
potential for health hazards if not properly used or
contained.
• Acute health effects such as skin burns or acute radiation
syndrome can occur when doses of radiation exceed
certain levels.
• Low doses of ionizing radiation can increase the risk of
 References:

1. https://www.nj.gov/dep/rpp/llrw/download/fact07.pdf
2. http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/classes/304/rad_eff.pdf
3. https://www.atomicarchive.com/science/effects/radiation-effects-human.html
4. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/219615#protection
5. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/physics/chapter/32-2-biological-effects-of-ionizing-radiation/
6. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ionizing-radiation-health-effects-and-protective-measures