Chapter 15

Effects and Uses of

Radiation

Introduction to Energy Technology 1

A. Introduction
 Radiation (electromagnetic, EM) is present
everywhere
 Radiation comes in many forms
 Artificial radiation: nuclear power plants, X-ray tube, A-bomb,
microwaves, radio and TV signals are transmitted using EM.
 It is impossible to avoid some exposure to radiation. Yet
radiation comes in many forms, as both waves and particles,
and it can have both beneficial and harmful effects.
 Our earth has been subject to radiation from cosmic rays since
it was formed. In fact, this background radiation probably has
played an important role in the development of living systems,
form simple cells on up.

Introduction to Energy Technology 2

  Only since the discovery of X rays in 1895 has artificial
radiation come to play a role in modern society.
 We only focus on those types of radiation that can
produce harmful biological effects in animals.
 Such forms of radiation as radiowaves and visible light carry
small concentrations of E.
 When absorbed by living tissue, the E in these radiation is
converted into heat. The UV component of solar radiation
carries more E and can cause skin cancer if overexposure
occurs.
 Ionizing radiation: more energetic EM and particle radiation can
provide the E necessary to break up a molecule. It is the most
important type to consider in radiation effects.

Introduction to Energy Technology 3

B. Radiation Dose
 Types of ionizing radiation
 Ionizing
radiation comes from gamma rays, X rays and
charged particles (electrons, alpha particles).
 Table 13.1 lists the properties of these radiations, including their
abilities to penetrate matter.
 Gamma (γ) rays and X rays are not charged, so they can not
ionize an atom directly through electrical interactions. However
they produce electrons indirectly through other interactions with
matter.
 Radiation dose: measuring the radiation amount.
 For many years after the discovery of X rays, there was no
adequate way to measure the amount delivered. Early X-ray
workers noticed that hair fell out or that their skin became
ulcerated in area exposed to X-rays.
Introduction to Energy Technology 4
Introduction to Energy Technology 5
  A “suitable” exposure in the early 1900s was that amount of X
rays that would just produce a detectable reddening of the skin.
 By today’s standards this is much too great, especially when
observable effects do not develop for weeks to years.
 Many of the 1st radiation workers suffered radiation burns or
died prematurely of cancer.
 Common radiation units
 Roentgen (R): a measurement of radiation exposure and is a
unit proportional to the amount of ionization produced in air by
X rays or γ rays. It has been replaced by Coulomb/kg, 1
C/kg=3876 R.
 rad: it is that quantity of radiation that delivers 100 erg (1
erg=10-7 J) of E to 1 gram of tissue. It is often referred as the
biological dose.
 Gy: in SI, the unit for radiation dose is the gray (Gy), 1 Gy=100
rad.

Introduction to Energy Technology 6

 Some radiation types are more effective than others at
producing ionization.
 One rad of α particles produces 10-20 times as much biological
effects as one rad of X rays or electrons of same E.
 α particles have a much shorter range and so concentrate their
damage within a much smaller volume.
 This is analogous to the differences in damage that would
occurs if a person was struck by a 20-g sponge or a 20-g razor
blade.
 Taking these differences into account, we introduce the
biological unit of radiation damage, the rem (for “roentgen
equivalent man”).
Dose in rems = absorbed does in rads x quality factor
 The ratio of rems to rads is called the “quality factor” (QF).
 Most radiation doses are fairly small, so the unit “millirem” (0.01
rem, mrem) is commonly used.

Introduction to Energy Technology 7

 The equivalent does unit is the sievert (Sv), 1 Sv=100 rem.
 Table 15.2 summarizes both sets of radiation units.

Introduction to Energy Technology 8

C. Biological Effects of Radiation
 Cell and radiation
 Function of cell
 The cell is the fundamental unit of life. The average adult
human has about 50 trillion (50x1012) cells.
 A simplified diagram of a cell is shown in Fig. 15.1. The nucleus
is the control center of the cell. Here reside the chromosomes,
which carry the “instructions” for cell developments, reside in
the nucleus.
 A normal human cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes. In cell
division, each chromosome duplicates itself so that new cell will
be an exact copy of the first chromosomes.
 The “instructions” for cell development and duplication are
found in the long molecular chains of DNA located within the
nucleus.
Introduction to Energy Technology 9
 Ionizing radiation
 It is energetic enough to displace atomic electrons and break
the bonds that hold molecules together. It causes a number of
chemical reactions to take place that precede the biological
effects.
 Some of the most important chemical events occur with water.
The water molecule can be ionized, forming what is called a
“free radical.” It is extremely reactive chemically and can attack
molecules in the cell leading to biological damage.
 Damage of a cell by radiation can induce somatic effects (those
that affect the individual receiving the radiation) or genetic
effects (those that affect the individual’s offsprings)
 Radiation damage to a cell can inhibit cell repair, because the
cell has to “read” the instructions contained in the DNA coding.
A damaged cell might grow in a new uncontrolled manner and
invade and destroy the surrounding host cells, becoming a
harmful cancer.
Introduction to Energy Technology 10
Fig. 15.1 Diagram of a cell.

Introduction to Energy Technology 11

  One factor in the production of cancers might be a virus that
attacks normal cells, causing them to reproduce wildly.
Radiation and other carcinogenic agents might interfere with a
healthy cell’s resistance to this virus.
 Genetic damage in gender cells produces mutations that will be
passed along to offspring, although in many cases they do not
become visible for several generations.
 Effect of high radiation doses
 It may appear within hours or days in such ways as nausea,
vomiting, and death. However, small radiation doses, like
cancers are not seen for 20 years or more, so it is difficult to
establish good quantitative relationships between cause and
effect.
 Fig. 15.2 shows a curve of the percentage of survivors as a
function of radiation dose for mice. The death rate increases
with increasing radiation dose until finally 100% of the mice are
affected by the large doses.

Introduction to Energy Technology 12

Fig. 15.2 Dose-effect distribution curve for mice. The point at which 50% of the population
dies is called the lethal-dose-50.

Introduction to Energy Technology 13

  The point at which 50% of the population is affected and die (in
weeks) is called the “lethal dos-50%” (LD-50).
 For humans, the LD-50 is 300-500 rads dose over the whole
body. This will produce an alteration or reduction in the blood
cells and blood-forming organs, leading to nausea, vomiting,
and to infection, and death to 50% of the people within 30 days.
 Dose>2000 rads will damage the central nervous system and
lead to death within a few days (Table 15.3). Smaller doses on
the order of 100 rads or less can cause nausea, hair loss, skin
sores, and immune system compromise.
 Level of irradiated in body.
 Biological effects of radiation depend on what part of the body
is irradiated. The most sensitive tissues are the intestinal wall,
the spleen, the gonads, and bone marrow.
 The intestinal wall is important because it is the chief barrier to
infection from bacteria that reside in the gut. If it is adversely
affected, intestinal bacteria can enter the blood stream directly.

Introduction to Energy Technology 14

Introduction to Energy Technology 15
  The whole blood cells of the irradiated person also have been
reduced, then infection might be fatal.
 Human exposure level to artificial radiation
 It is important to know the effects on human populations of low
and high levels of radiation.
 The health effects of high levels of radiation are well know, but
information on low-level radiation is difficult to obtain.
 The only complete study of the effects of radiation on humans
comes from the Hiroshima and Nagasaki tragedies. 24,000
survivors received an averaged exposure of 130 rem, with
about 120 additional cancers developing among them in the
next 27 years.
 The 40-year study of the A-bomb survivors and their offspring
has yield many somatic and genetic dose-response curves.
One such radiation effect curve (Fig. 15.3) shows the annual
incidence rate of leukemia as a function of total dose.

Introduction to Energy Technology 16

 Fig. 15.3 Leukemia mortality dose-
response curves for Hiroshima
and Nagasaki.

Introduction to Energy Technology 17

  Based on these data, the incidence rate of leukemia is
determined to be about 2 cases/million people/year/rem of
radiation.
 Other evidences of the carcinogenic nature of radiation are
found in studies of uranium miners, early medical and dental
users of X rays, and workers who painted luminous watch
dials. The painters showed a marked increase in bone cancer
in later years.
 linear response of radiation dose
 Such studies of radiation dose effects generally assume that a
linear response to radiation occurs, i.e., a dose-response curve
can be extrapolated from experimental data on high doses
back to zero dose and zero effect.
 This assumes that no threshold exists for radiation damage:
any radiation will have a harmful effect, no matter how little
(Fig. 15.4).

Introduction to Energy Technology 18

Fig. 15.4 Dose-response curves for low doses of radiation are based on the assumption
of a linear response.

Introduction to Energy Technology 19

 There is debate on the validity of this linear hypothesis,
especially for somatic damage. It is known that small damage in
a localized region can be repaired by the replacement of dead
cells by new ones.
 It is difficult to gather data on the effects of low levels of
radiation in a population. One would have to separate out the
effects from naturally occurring radiation and other
environmental effects.
 Also, such low-level effects might not be observable for years,
or generations.

Introduction to Energy Technology 20

D. Background Radiation, Including
Radon
 Background radiation
 Radon gas
 The most important source of natural radiation comes from
radon and its decay products (call radon daughters).
 It is a naturally occurring radioactive element found in soils and
rocks that make up the earth’s crust. It comes from the decay of
radium (from the decay of uranium).
 Fig. 15.5 shows the decay scheme of radon. The decay of
radon and its daughters occurs within a relatively short time,
with the release of alpha radiation that is very harmful in tissue
because of its short range.
 Radon is a major cause of lung cancer, with estimates ranging
5000-30,000 deaths/year.
Introduction to Energy Technology 21
Fig. 15.5 Radon decay scheme, starting with radioactive radium-226.

Introduction to Energy Technology 22

 Fig. 15.6 show the risk of lung cancer from radon exposure
compared with the risk incurred by smoking.
 Radon gas can enter a house through cracks in concrete floors
and walls of a basement, floor drains, sump pumps, and the
water supply within private wells.
 The main cause of radon entry from soils is pressure-driven air
flow. In some unusual situations, radon may be released from
the materials used in the construction of a home, e.g. stone
fireplaces.
 These problems are especially great if the exchange of indoor
air with the outside is poor. Thus radon concentrations can vary
drastically from house to house in the same neighborhood.
 Indoor levels of radon are measured in units of the activity per
standard volume of air. The units used are picocurie (pCi) per
liter. The EPA has set a standard of 4 pCi/l. House levels above
this should call for immediate attention.

Introduction to Energy Technology 23

 Fig. 15.6 Comparable
risks from exposure to
radon gas.

Introduction to Energy Technology 24

  Radon levels vary dramatically from location to location. The
level within a particular home seems to depend as much on the
microgeology of the area as on the airtightness of the home.
 Radon concentrations in a house can be reduced inexpensively
by sealing the cracks in the basement floor and walls, and
introducing an air-to-air heat exchanger.
 Fig. 15.7 shows major radon entry routes into a house. You can
reduce the infiltration of radon gas from soil by locating a
ventilation drain around the perimeter of the house or under a
basement slab that is ventilated to the outside.
 Cosmic rays
 They are high-E particles and gamma rays from outer space.
The dose rate from this source depends on altitude and
latitude.
 Air acts as an attenuator (reduce the intensity) for cosmic rays,
so people living in mountainous regions will receive more
radiation than those at sea level.
Introduction to Energy Technology 25
 Fig. 15.7 Key to major radon entry
routes.

Introduction to Energy Technology 26

  There is an increase by a factor of 3 in cosmic radiation
between sea level and 3,300 m.
 Radiation exposure has been measured on airplane flights. A
dose rate of 1/3 mrem/h has been found.
 Foods and liquids we ingest
 Fertilizers containing phosphates have potassium (which
contain radioisotope 40K) and uranium.
 Some cereals and teas have radiation levels of almost 1 pCi/g.
Brazil nuts have high concentrations of radium (14 pCi/g),
radioactive enough to qualify as low-level radioactive waste.
 On the average, our internal radiation dose is 40 mrem/y.
 External doses from the earth
 It varies greatly depend on location, some places have such
great natural concentrations of thorium and U that background
radiation is 10 times as high as the average value.

Introduction to Energy Technology 27

  Because of radiation from the earth and its materials, the
external radiation you receive also depends on the type of
house in which you live.
 A brick house will expose the occupant to 40 mrem/y radiation
more than if the house were made of wood.
 The average dose from the earth’s external radiation is about
30 mrem/y.
 Radiation cause by medical and dental
 The medical and dental use of X rays and radioisotopes is
widespread and important. Such radiation is used for diagnostic
and therapeutic purposes.
 Medical exposures are the largest component of artificial
radiation. The dose received depends on the specific type of
examination.
 Genetic effects may occur with any radiation that reaches the
reproductive organs (the gonads).

Introduction to Energy Technology 28

 Since X rays are scattered by matter, even radiation to the
head will result in some dose to the gonads. Lower body
examinations have increased gonad doses.
 To formulate an average dose for the entire US population from
medical diagnostic radiology and nuclear medicine, a
genetically significant dose (GSD) is used. The average GSD
for entire US is about 20 mrem/y per person.
 Mean exposures from some X-ray examinations are given in
Table 15.4. While the average total body dose from a dental X-
ray exam is only 1 mrem/film, the skin or entrance dose is
about 150 mrem.
 The average components for all forms of radiation exposure in
US are summarized in Table 15.5.

Introduction to Energy Technology 29

Introduction to Energy Technology 30
Introduction to Energy Technology 31
E. Radiation Standards
 Establishing radiation standard
 Weights between the potential risks and benefits
 Attitude of establishing and maintaining radiation standard is
that no exposure to ionizing radiation should be permitted
without an evaluation of expected benefits.
 A comparison should be made between the potential risks and
attainable benefits, and risks of alternative options if no
radiation is allowed.
 The present radiation guide for the general population in US is
based on genetic effect risks. The Federal Radiation Council
recommended, in 1960, that a guide or max. exposure limit of 5
rem (above background radiation) be adopted. Such a standard
is now felt to be much too high by most experts.

Introduction to Energy Technology 32

 To reexamine the basis for these standards and to make risk-
benefit comparisons, we must work with data that relate risk to
radiation exposure.
 This task was carried out by the National Academy of Science
committee in US on the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation
(BEIR).
 The committee estimated the genetic doubling dose to be 100
rem. As for the excess mortality rate is 560 cancer deaths per
million people per rem of annual dose to the whole body.
Normally, about 18,000 cancer deaths/million people/year in
US.
 Using these numbers, an exposure of 170 mrem/year above
the background level to the entire US population would cause
about 24,000 extra cancer deaths/year, an increase of about
6% in the spontaneous cancer death rate.
 In 1994, NRC (Nuclear Regulatory Commission) set the limit on
the max. permissible dose.

Introduction to Energy Technology 33

  a member of the public could receive in one year above
background at 100 mrem (1 mSv).
 In other activities, the public should receive no more than 25
mrem/y from all phases of the nuclear cycle. The dose limit for a
person living at the boundary of a nuclear power plant is 5
mrem/y.
 Radiation workers are allowed to receive upto 5,000 mrem/y
whole body exposure, although many nuclear plants have set
lower limits.
 The latest BEIR report came out in 2005. In a new observation,
the report noted that cancer risks for women due to radiation
exposure were 37% higher than for men. The report also
continued to support the linear, no threshold, relationship
between radiation dose and effect.

Introduction to Energy Technology 34

F. Medical and Industrial Uses of
Radiation
 Medical uses
 One of the most important therapeutic uses of radiation
is the treatment of cancer.
 Cancer cells usually divide rapidly, so that they are expected to
be more sensitive to radiation than normal cells. One has to be
careful about inducing harmful effects in the surrounding good
tissue when irradiating the bad tissue.
 One procedure to reduce damaging effects of radiation
treatment is illustrated in Fig. 15.8. The γ-ray sources are quite
intense (10,000 curies), providing a dose of about 100 rem. The
total dose to the cancer is divided into smaller doses given
periodically.

Introduction to Energy Technology 35

Fig. 15.8 A cobalt-60 unit for radiation therapy. The machine allows the radioactive source
to rotate around the stationary patient. The tumor being treated is placed exactly at the
center of rotation, so that damage to good tissue is minimized.

Introduction to Energy Technology 36

  Another method for tumor treatment uses particles from an
accelerator. Charged particles have the advantage that cell
destruction can be localized at a particular region inside the
body, thus killing an internal tumor with little damage to the
surrounding cells.
 Radioisotopes have many uses today, from clinical
medicine to industry. In medicine, radioisotopes are
used for both diagnostic and therapeutic purpose (Table
15.6).
 They have the advantages that only small amounts are needed,
and they can be directed to specific parts of the body.
 In diagnosis, radioisotopes are used as “tracer atoms” to
determine flow and absorption of elements in animals and
plants.

Introduction to Energy Technology 37

Introduction to Energy Technology 38
 To trace the flow of a particular element, some of the atoms can
be tagged by using a radioactive isotope of that element and
then using a radiation detector to determine its location in the
body at intervals of time after injection.
 The most commonly used tracer radioisotopes: 131I, 51Cr.
 We can take picture of how a radioisotope is distributed within
an organ. The organ is scanned with a γ-ray camera to provide
an image. One radioisotope commonly used is 99Tc. It is used
for imaging bone, heart, kidneys, and brain. A tumor can be
identified because some elements are taken up better by tumor
issue than by the surrounding normal tissue.
 In selecting radioisotopes to be used for diagnostic purposes,
the half-life of the isotope is important,; it should not be too
short (less than a few seconds) or too long (more than a few
weeks). Also, the radiation emitted must be observable by a
detector outside the body.

Introduction to Energy Technology 39

 CT (computed tomography)
 This equipment (Fig. 15.10) uses X rays to produce images of
cross-sections or slices of body tissues and organs.
 The CT-scan can show lung or soft tissue or blood vessels very
clearly. There is a radiation dose from this procedure.
 A single full body CT-scan give about 1200 mrem (12 mSv).
Since this is about half of the dose linked to cancer in the
Hiroshima survivors, routine scanning of healthy people might
have a risk that outweighs the benefits.
 MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
 It can also give detailed images of organs and tissue without
the need for X rays. It uses a strong magnetic field and radio-
frequency waves (RF).
 The RF signal causes hydrogen nuclei to make a transition to a
higher E level. As the hydrogen nuclei de-excites down to its
ground state, the emitted radiation is detected.

Introduction to Energy Technology 40

Fig. 15.10 Computed tomography (CT scan or CAT scan) equipment.

Introduction to Energy Technology 41

  MRIs can pinpoint tumors (Fig. 15.11) and are also useful for
studying disorders of the central nervous system.
 PET (positron emission tomography)
 It is a technique that uses injected radioisotopes that emit
positrons. When the radioisotope decays, the emitted positron
collides with an electron, producing 2 gamma rays that travel in
opposite directions.
 The detection of 2 gamma rays establishes a line along which
the emission took place. Location along that line is determined
by measuring the difference in arrival times between 2 gamma
rays.
 PET shows how body tissues are working, not just what they
look like. They can detect cancers by characterizing
biochemical changes.
 The radioisotopes used have short half-lives and so the
radiation dose is low-equivalent to about 2 chest X rays.

Introduction to Energy Technology 42

Fig. 15.11 MRI image of a head. A tumor appears as a white spot.

Introduction to Energy Technology 43

 Industrial uses
 In the production of sheets of metal, radiation can be used to
measure the thickness of the stock (Fig. 15.9). The
transmission of radiation through the material will change if the
thickness varies.
 Radioisotopes can be used to measure piston ring wear in an
automobile engine. The piston ring can be made radioactive by
neutron, and then the wear can be measured by observing the
increasing concentration of radioactive material in the
lubricating oil.
 An E-related use of radioisotopes is the identification of oil from
different companies that is sent through the same pipeline.
Different shipments can be separated by adding a radioactive
tracer to each batch and detecting it at the end of the pipeline.

Introduction to Energy Technology 44

Fig. 15.9 Radioisotope use in industry. An increase or reduction in the intensity of
gamma rays transmitted through the sheet metal indicates a thinner or thicker
sheet, respectively. This is used as a thickness gauge.
Introduction to Energy Technology 45
G. Radiation Protection
 Radiation protection in real life
 The best radiation dose is the least dose, preferably
zero. Especially true with regard to the gender cells.
 When radiation is present, some procedures can be
followed to minimizes exposure.
 Keep distance: As radiation expands outward from a point
source, its intensity at any one point is  1/x2. The radiation
received at 2 m will be four times less than received at 1 m.
 Use of appropriate shielding:
 For α rays, air itself provides sufficient shielding. Shielding for
radiation is expressed in terms of half-value thicknesses for a
particular radiation, i.e., the thickness that will reduce the incident
radiation intensity by a factor of 2.
Introduction to Energy Technology 46
  For X rays and γ rays, the best type of shielding is lead.
 Since the radiation intensity is reduced exponentially with
increased shielding thickness, each half-value thickness will
reduce the intensity by another factor of 2.
 For neutrons, the best shield is material with a small atomic
number; the neutron will lose a good deal of its E in its collisions
with the hydrogen nuclei in the shielding. Water, paraffin, and
concrete are good shields.
 Reduce time of exposure:
 It is the cumulative dose that counts, so expose should be kept to
a minimum. Radiation workers wear film badges (Fig. 15.12),
which record the radiation received during a particular time
interval.
 Another device for the measurement of personal exposure is a
thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD), which is more sensitive than
film badges and provides for periodic evaluation of cumulative
exposure.

Introduction to Energy Technology 47

 Another device worn by workers in radiation areas to measure
total dose (not dose rate) is a pocket dosimeter. This instrument is
an ionization chamber that responds to electrons created by the
interaction of γ rays with the metal case.
 External contamination can be measured with other types of
detectors.
 The cleanup radiation workers at the Fukushima Daiichi complex
in Japan needed to continually monitor the dose rate in the area
with Geiger counters. They also needed to be aware of
radioactive material they might have picked up on their clothing or
body during their time in that area.

Introduction to Energy Technology 48

Fig. 15.12 Radiation detection devices. (a) The film badge
on the person’s left side consists of photographic film,
which darkens as a function of the amount of ionizing
radiation received. The film must be developed. The
pocket dosimeter on the person’s right side can be read
at any time to see how much radiation has been received
up to that time. (b) The Geiger counter is used with a
meter to measure radiation intensity (mrem/h).

Introduction to Energy Technology 49