Substation

Operation and
Maintenance

i
 Table of Contents

C ontents
1 Substations and Switchyards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Introduction to Substations and Switchyards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Basic Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Substations: Protective Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Regulation, Monitoring, and Communication Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Switchyards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Switchyard Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2 Safety in Substations and Switchyards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Hazards and Safety Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Safety Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Electrical Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Chemical Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Personal Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Using Support Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Dangers and Accidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Safety Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

3 Power Transformers, Part 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Transformer Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Power Transformers, Current Transformers, and Potential Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Power Transformer Cooling Systems, Self-Cooled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Power Transformers Cooling Systems, Forced Air/Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

4 Power Transformers, Part 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Visual Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Inspection of a Transformer’s Exterior Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Inspection of a Transformer’s Sealing System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Inspection of a Transformer’s Cooling System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Gas and Oil Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Testing for Combustible Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Testing for Oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Testing Oil Insulating Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Tap Changers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
No-Load Tap Changers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Load Tap Changers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Tap Changer Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
De-Energizing, Isolating, and Grounding a Power Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Tap Changer Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Physical Condition of the Tap Changer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Mechanical Operation of the Tap Changer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Electrical Operation of the Tap Changer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Turns Ratio Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Calculating the Turns Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Identifying Bushing Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Performing the Turns Ratio Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Insulation Resistance Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

iii
Substation Operation and Maintenance

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Test Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

5 New Power Transformer Inspection and Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

‘’On-Car’’ Inspections and Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Moving a New Power Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
‘’On-Site’’ Inspections and Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

6 Power Transformer Turns Ratio Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

The Purpose of Transformer Turns Ratio Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Test Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Test Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Test Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Evaluating Test Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

7 Power Transformer Oil Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

The Purpose of Transformer Oil Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Oil Dielectric Test Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Dielectric Breakdown Strength Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Oil Sample Taking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Lab Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

8 Power Transformer Insulation Resistance Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

The Purpose of Insulation Resistance Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Test Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Test Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Test Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Evaluating Test Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

9 Power Transformer Temperature Indicator Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

Temperature Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Temperature Indicator Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Heater Circuit Testing, Part 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Heater Circuit Testing, Part 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

10 Power Transformer Pressure Relay Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

Sudden Pressure Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Fault Pressure Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Testing a Sudden Pressure Relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Testing a Fault Pressure Relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

11 Circuit Breaker Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

Introduction to Circuit Breakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Air-Magnetic and Air-Blast Circuit Breakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Oil and Vacuum Circuit Breakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Gas-Blast and Gas-Puffer Breakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Solenoid and Motor/Spring Operating Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Pneumatic and Hydraulic Operating Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

12 Circuit Breaker Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

General Circuit Breaker Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Operating Mechanism Maintenance, Part 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

iv
 Operating Mechanism Maintenance, Part 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Air-Magnetic and Vacuum Breaker Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Oil Circuit Breaker Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

13 New Circuit Breaker Inspections and Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

Receiving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Post-Installation Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Proof Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

14 SF6 Gas Properties and Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

Properties of SF6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Personal Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Handling SF6 Gas and Its Decomposition Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Cleanup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

15 Vacuum Bottle Hi-Pot Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

Vacuum Interrupter Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Test Principles, Precautions, and Preparations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Hi-Pot Test Setup and Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Watching for Signs of Breakdown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

16 Circuit Breaker Time-Travel Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

Purpose and Principles of Time-Travel Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Circuit Breaker Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Circuit Breaker Time Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Circuit Breaker Travel Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

17 Circuit Breaker Time-Travel Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

Time-Travel Test Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Drop-Bar Recorder Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Light-Beam Recorder Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Digital Timer/Analyzer Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

18 Circuit Breaker Time-Travel Test Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267

Time-Travel Recordings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Electrical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Mechanical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

19 Contact Resistance Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

The Purpose of Contact Resistance Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Test Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Test Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Test Procedures and Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

20 Capacitors and Reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

Function of Capacitors and Reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Clearing Capacitor Banks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Capacitor Bank Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Capacitor Resistor and Insulator Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Capacitor Capacitance Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302

v
Substation Operation and Maintenance

Shunt Reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305

Series Reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309

21 Voltage Regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313

Voltage Regulator Operation, Part 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Voltage Regulator Operation, Part 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Voltage Regulator Control, Part I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Voltage Regulator Control, Part 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Field Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Field Control Checks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
Regulator Replacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329

22 Protective Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333

Introduction to Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Overcurrent Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Directional Overcurrent Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
Reclosing Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Voltage Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Auxiliary Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Solid-State Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348

23 Protective Relays, Transmission Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

Introduction to Protective Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Differential Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Transfer Tripping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Distance Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
Zoned Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Pilot Wire Relaying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
Breaker Failure Relaying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369

24 Control Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373

Control Functions, Modes, and Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Voltage Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Distribution Feeder Fault Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Transmission and Subtransmission Feeder Fault Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Station Fault Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Source Circuit Fault Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Routine Checks of Control Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387

25 Substation Batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391

Substation DC Control System Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Cell Components and Electrochemical Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
Cell and Battery Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
Battery Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401

26 Substation Battery Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405

Voltage and Resistance Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Specific Gravity Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Integrity and Capacity Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
Impedance Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415

vi
27 Substation Battery Chargers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Charger Functions and Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
DC Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Freshening Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Float and Equalizing Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Charger Inspection and Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426

28 Substation Battery, Cell and Charger Replacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429

Cell Replacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Replacing Battery Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Battery Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
Auxiliary Battery and Auxiliary Battery Trailer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
Battery Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
Inspecting New Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
Placing New Cells on the Battery Rack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
Preparing Electrical Contact Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
Making Intercell Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
Battery Charger Replacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
Taking the Existing Charger Out of Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
Installing a New Charger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441

vii
 Substations and Switchyards

C hapter
1
Substations and Switchyards

Electricity is a necessity of modern life. Transmission and distribution (T&D) systems provide electricity
to consumers wherever and whenever it is needed. Two of the major components of a typical T&D system
are substations and switchyards.
This chapter examines the role that substations and switchyards play in a T&D system and discusses some
of the equipment that is commonly used in substations and switchyards. Security and safety precautions
associated with substations and switchyards are also covered when appropriate.

Introduction to Substations and Switchyards

Major Components of a Transmission and Distribution System
The major components of a transmission and
distribution system typically include transmission
lines, distribution lines, substations, and switch-
yards. Transmission lines carry electricity from the
generating plant where it is produced, and distri-
bution lines carry electricity to the houses, offices,
and industries where it is used.
The distances between generating plants and
consumers are often too great to allow electricity
to be carried directly from the plants to the
consumers. To carry electricity over long distances, Figure 1-1. Substation.
transmission and distribution systems need voltage
changing substations, which are referred to in this
program as substations. An example of a substa-
tion is shown in Figure 1-1. At substations, voltage
is increased for efficient transmission over long
distances or decreased for distribution to nearby
customers.
Besides changing voltage for transmission or
distribution, a transmission and distribution
system must also be able to ensure that users will
continue to receive electricity even if part of the
system fails. To meet this rquirement, circuits Figure 1-2. Switchyard.

1
 Substations and Switchyards

Shunt reactors are used to improve substation

efficiency by adding inductive load to counterbal-
ance capacitive loads. A shunt reactor, like the one
shown in Figure 1-33, looks like a power trans-
former, except that the bushings on a shunt reactor
are connected with the source circuit; there are no
major connections leading out of a shunt reactor
(such as the secondary connections on a power
transformer).

Monitoring Equipment Figure 1-32. Capacitor bank.

Monitoring equipment is used to provide a means
of “watching” substation equipment and systems Bushings
for problems so that they can be limited and
corrected. Commonly used types of monitoring
equipment include potential transformers, current
transformers, meters, and relays. Source circuit

Potential transformers
Potential transformers are devices that reduce line
voltage to a proportionally lower and safer voltage
for metering and relaying. A potential transformer, Shunt reactor
like the one shown in Figure 1-34, normally has a Figure 1-33. Shunt reactor.
large porcelain bushing that insulates the higher
voltage conductor going into the transformer. The
transformer itself is usually enclosed in a metal
housing. The output wires of the transformers are
enclosed in conduit to protect them. These wires Bushing
connect to meters or relaying equipment in a
control house.
Potential transformers come in many shapes
and sizes. They are sometimes difficult to distin-
guish from other devices such as some current
transformers and surge arrestors. For this reason,
potential transformers are often identified in Transformer housing

substations by signs like the one shown in Figure

1-35.

Current Transformers
In contrast to potential transformers, which Conduit
reduce line voltage, current transformers reduce Figure 1-34. Potential transformer.
line current to a proportionally lower current
for metering or relaying. Current transformers
can look like potential transformers or surge arrestors. One identifying feature on the current
transformer shown in Figure 1-36 is a large canister on top of the bushing with a conductor

11
 Power Transformers, Part 1

are not always forced-oil/forced-air cooled.

Power transformers with other kinds of cooling
systems can also be gas sealed. Figure 3-36 shows
Guage
a gas-sealed, self-cooled/forced-air-cooled power
transformer. The cooling system is recognizable by
the combination of the radiator and the fan. Regulators

Regardless of the type of cooling system that a

gas-sealed power transformer has, the gas seal
system works in basically the same way. The simpli- Gas
fied illustration in Figure 3-37 represents the cylinder
sealing system of a gas-sealed power transformer.
Figure 3-35. Gas cylinder, regulators, gauges,
The components of the sealing system are a gas and pressure relief device.
cylinder, two pressure regulators, two gauges, and a
pressure relief device.
The windings in a gas-sealed power transformer
are completely covered by oil. The rest of the Guage
enclosure is filled with gas, which is supplied
through tubing from the cylinder. The regulators
ensure that gas is supplied at a pressure slightly Radiators
above atmospheric pressure. This slight positive
pressure keeps air and moisture from leaking into
the enclosure.
Gas
cylinder
When the transformer is operating, the windings
heat the oil, causing it to expand. As the expanding Figure 3-36. Gas-sealed power transformer,
oil compresses the gas, the pressure inside the Example 2.
enclosure increases. If the pressure rises enough
to exceed a predetermined high value, the relief Tubing
device releases gas from the transformer enclosure
to atmosphere. The release of gas continues until
pressure returns to an acceptable value. Guage
Oil Windings
When the transformer becomes cooler, for Regulators
example, during a period of reduced load, the
oil also becomes cooler, and it contracts. As the
oil contracts, the pressure inside the transformer Gas
enclosure drops. If the pressure falls below a prede- cylinder

termined low value, a regulator adds gas from the

Pressure relief device
cylinder to the enclosure until the pressure returns
Figure 3-37. Simplified representation of a
to an acceptable value.
gas-sealed power transformer.
The regulators and the relief device in a gas-sealed
power transformer regulate gas flow. The gauges indicate pressure. For example, the gauge
shown in Figure 3-38 indicates the pressure inside the gas cylinder. As gas in the cylinder is used,
the cylinder pressure drops. A low pressure reading means that the gas is running out, and the
cylinder may need to be replaced.

49
 Power Transformers, Part 2

Next, both selector switch A and selector switch B are rotated clockwise, so that selector switch
B slides over to tap 2, and selector switch A slides across tap N to the opposite end of the tap.
(Selector switch A remains on tap N.) Since current is not flowing through selector switch B,
there is no arcing as the switch changes taps.
Then, transfer switch B is closed, so that current flows across the reversing switch and the raise
tap, labeled R, from left to right through a portion of the tapped winding, across tap 2 and
selector switch B, across transfer switch B, and out lead X0. Current continues to flow across the
neutral tap, across selector switch A, across transfer switch A, and out lead X0.
Transfer switch A is then opened to interrupt current flow through selector switch A. Both
selector switch A and selector switch B are rotated clockwise, so that selector switch A slides over
to tap 2, and selector switch B slides across tap 2 to the opposite end of the tap.
Once selector switch A is on tap 2, transfer switch A is closed, so that current again flows across
selector switch A and transfer switch A and out lead X0. This completes the tap change. The
new tap position is shown in Figure 4-18. With
the reversing switch in the Raise position and the
selector switches on tap 2, a portion of the tapped
winding is added to the secondary winding. This
changes the ratio of secondary turns to primary
turns and effectively raises the secondary voltage.
The first tap position that adds turns to the
secondary winding is called one-raise.
As the selector switches are moved clockwise to
the other taps, turns are added to the secondary to
raise the secondary voltage. When all of the tapped Figure 4-18. Tap changer at one-raise position.
windings are added, the tap changer is at the full-
raise position.
Figure 4-19 shows the tap changer at full-raise.
To lower the secondary voltage, the selector
switches are rotated counterclockwise back to the
neutral tap. Then, the reversing switch slides from
the Raise position (R) to the Lower position (L),
and the selector switches rotate counterclockwise
from tap N to tap 4.
Figure 4-20 shows the new tap position called:
on-lower. Figure 4-19. Tap changer at full-raise position.

When the reversing switch is in the Lower position, and the selector switches are on tap 4,
current flows from left to right across the secondary winding, across the reversing switch and the
Lower tap, from right to left through part of the tapped winding, across tap 4 and the selector
switches, across the transfer switches, and out lead X0.

65
 Power Transformer Insulation Resistance Testing

between the high voltage winding and ground to be tested. Although the low voltage winding
is not included in this test, current leakage to the low voltage winding could affect the resis-
tance measurement. To avoid this problem, a lead is connected to the guard (G) terminal of the
megohmmeter and the low voltage (X) terminal of the transformer. The guard diverts current
that leaks to the low voltage windings so that this leakage current is not included in the test
measurement.

Connections for Testing the Resistance Between the Low Voltage Winding and Ground
The connections for testing the insulation resis-
tance between the low voltage winding and
ground are illustrated in Figure 8-18. One test
lead is connected to the earth (-) terminal of the
megohmmeter and to a transformer case ground.
Another test lead is connected to the line (+)
terminal of the megohmmeter and to the low
voltage (X) terminal of the transformer. A lead is
also connected between the guard (G) terminal
of the megohmmeter and the high voltage (H)
terminal of the transformer to divert current Figure 8-18. Connections for testing insulation
that leaks to the high voltage winding so that this resistance between the low voltage winding
leakage current is not measured. and ground.

Connections for Testing the Resistance Between the

Low Voltage Winding and the High Voltage Winding
The connections for testing the resistance between
the low voltage winding and the high voltage
winding are illustrated in Figure 8-19. One test
lead is connected to the earth (-) terminal of
the megohmmeter and to the high voltage (H)
terminal of the transformer. Another test lead is
connected to the line (+) terminal of the megohm-
meter and to the low voltage (X) terminal of the
transformer. A lead is also connected between the Figure 8-19. Connections for testing insulation
guard (G) terminal of the megohmmeter and a resistance between the low voltage winding
and the high voltage winding.
transformer case ground to divert current that
leaks to ground so that this leakage current is not
measured. Core ground

Connections for Testing the Insulation Resistance

Between the Transformer Core and Ground
A transformer core to ground test is a type of
insulation resistance test that is typically performed
after a transformer has been moved or after any
work has been done inside a transformer. As illus-
Tank, or case
trated in Figure 8-20, a core ground connects the ground
Core
core that the windings are wound around to the
Figure 8-20. Transformer core and core ground.

121
 Circuit Breaker Operation

is no current flow. Circuit breakers are designed

to take advantage of these momentary absences of
current flow to help extinguish arcs.

Classification of Circuit Breakers

Circuit breakers are generally classified according
to the dielectric mediums they use to help extin-
guish arcs. Four mediums that are commonly used
for this purpose are air, oil, vacuum and gas.
Figures 11-4 and 11-5 show two types of Figure 11-4. Air-magnetic breaker.
breakers that use air as a dielectric medium. The
air-magnetic breaker (Figure 11-4) uses air and a
magnetic field to help extinguish arcs.
The air-blast breaker (Figure 11-5) uses a high-
pressure blast of air.
Figure 11-6 shows an oil breaker. In an oil breaker,
the contacts are submerged in insulating oil, which
helps extinguish the arc.
Figure 11-7 shows a vacuum breaker. A vacuum
breaker encloses its contacts in a vacuum, which Figure 11-5. Air-blast breaker.

Figure 11-6. Oil breaker. Figure 11-7. Vacuum breaker.

Figure 11-8. Gas-blast breaker. Figure 11-9. Gas-puffer breaker.

161
 Circuit Breaker Operation

As illustrated in Figure 11-21, a gas-puffer breaker interruptor is enclosed in a pipe-like tank,

which is filled with low-pressure SF6 gas. The Bushings
interruptor is an insulated tube that houses the
breaker’s interrupting mechanisms and insulates Interruptor
them from the outer tank.
Tank
The interruptor’s main features (Figure 11-22) Low pressure
SF6 gas
include a stationary contact assembly, a moving
contact assembly with a non-conducting nozzle,
and a chamber where gas is compressed during
the operation of the breaker. Each of the contact
assemblies includes main contact fingers and
Figure 11-21. Gas-puffer breaker.
arcing contact fingers.
When the circuit breaker is closed, the current Nozzle
path is through the stationary contact assembly, Main contact
the main contact fingers and the moving contact fingers
assembly. When the breaker trips (Figure 11-23),
the moving contact assembly moves away from the Moving contact
stationary assembly and the main contact fingers Stationary assembly
contact assembly
separate. Arcing does not occur, however, because
the circuit is still complete through the arcing Arcing contact
fingers Compression
contacts. chamber

As the moving contact assembly moves away Figure 11-22. Gas-puffer breaker interruptor –
from the stationary assembly, the SF6 gas in the closed.
compression chamber is compressed. Compressing
Main contacts
the gas increases its dielectric strength. Eventually, separate
Gas
the moving contact assembly moves so far that the comnpressing
arcing contact fingers separate, and an arc forms in chamber

(Figure 11-24).
When the arcing fingers separate, the compres-
sion chamber opens, and thehigh-pressure gas Arcing contacts
still meet
flows through the arc to the low pressure areas
of the interruptor. The dielectric strength of the
high-pressure gas weakens the arc. As the gas flows
Figure 11-23. Gas-puffer breaker interruptor –
through the arc, the arc is lengthened and cooled, main contacts open.
until it eventually extinguishes at a current zero.

Arc

Figure 11-24. Gas-puffer breaker interruptor -

arcing contacts open.

167
 New Circuit Breaker Inspections and Tests

rod travel velocity, and a variety of other circuit

breaker operating characteristics. Figure 13-27 is
an illustration of typical time-travel traces.
The time-travel test is typically performed for
several types of breaker operations. The traces for Timing rod
each operation can be analyzed to determine how
the breaker is performing in comparison with
the manufacturer’s specifications. If the breaker’s
performance does not fall within acceptable ranges, Transducer

the breaker must be properly adjusted before it can

be put in service. Figure 13-26. Transducer and timing rod on an oil
circuit breaker.
Contact Resistance Test
Resistance in the closed contacts of a circuit
breaker can have a number of causes, including
arcing deposits, a loose or incomplete connection,
or pitting from repetitive arcing. Contact resistance
creates heat that can reduce the life of the contacts
and possibly even lead to breaker failure.
The purpose of contact resistance testing is to
detect unacceptably high contact resistance levels Figure 13-27. Time-travel traces.
before failure occurs.
In principle, the test is performed by passing a
direct current through the closed contacts of the
breaker and measuring the voltage drop across the
contacts (Figure 13-28). The test instrument uses
the current and voltage values to calculate and
display the contact resistance.
If the contact resistance exceeds an acceptable limit,
the contacts may have to be cleaned or replaced. Figure 13-28. Performing a contact resistance
test.
Insulation Resistance Test
When a circuit breaker’s contacts are open, the
breaker’s insulation should provide a high resis-
tance to prevent current from flowing.
The purpose of insulation resistance testing is to
detect unacceptably low levels of insulation resis-
tance before poor or weakened insulation results in
failure.
In principle, the test is performed by applying a
high DC voltage to one of the breaker’s bushing
terminals with the breaker’s contacts open (Figure
Figure 13-29. Performing an insulation resistance
13-29). Then, leakage current is measured either to test.

211
Substation Operation and Maintenance

the power factor in this case by using capacitor

banks, such as the one shown in Figure 20-8. The
capacitor banks offset the excessive demand for
inductive power, and thus bring the power factor
closer to unity.
Excessive demand for non-working capacitive
power also results in a lower power factor than
desirable. In this case, instead of increasing power
output to meet the demand for capacitive power,
the utility can improve the power factor by using
shunt reactors. The shunt reactors offset the
excessive demand for capacitive power. Figure 20-9 Figure 20-8. Capacitor bank.
shows an example of a typical shunt reactor.

Clearing Capacitor Banks

The main steps for safely clearing a capacitor bank
for maintenance are similar to the steps taken to
clear any other device in a substation. These steps
include de-energizing, isolating, testing for dead,
and grounding. However, a capacitor bank is
different from other devices in a substation in that
it stores an electrical charge even after the bank has
been separated from its source of energy. Because
of this ability to store a charge, some special safety
Figure 20-9. Shunt reactor.
precautions are required when clearing a capacitor
bank.

De-Energizing and Isolating a Capacitor Bank

A capacitor bank is de-energized by electrically
Capacitor
separating the bank from its source of energy. bank
Figure 20-10 is a simplified illustration of a section Disconnect
of a substation that includes an energized three- switches
phase bus, a three-phase circuit breaker, three
single-phase disconnect switches, and a three-phase
capacitor bank. In this example, the capacitor bank
is de-energized by opening the circuit breaker.
A capacitor bank is isolated by physically
separating the bank from its source of energy. As Circuit
breaker
illustrated in Figure 20-11, the capacitor bank in
this example is isolated by opening the three single- Figure 20-10. Substation capacitor bank.
phase disconnect switches. Opening these switches
provides a visible break between the source of energy and the capacitor bank.
The actual switching devices that are operated and the sequence in which they are operated
vary with the design of the substation. In general, a capacitor bank is switched out only after

294
 Voltage Regulators

Isolating the Regulator Bypass switch

After the bypass switch is closed, the regulator

can be isolated from the circuit. This is done by
opening the regulator source and load disconnect Source Load
disconnect
switches. The disconnect switch that is opened switch disconnect
switch
first depends on the design of the system and on
company procedures.
The specific procedure for switching a regulator
out of service may vary. For example, the type of
switch shown in Figures 22-47 and 22-48 enables Figure 21-46. Regulator bypass switch closed.
the regulator to be both bypassed and isolated in
one switch operation. The switch in this example
is made up of two bars. When the switch is closed, Source Load
one bar connects the source circuit to the source circuit circuit

lead of the regulator. The other bar connects the Bars

load lead of the regulator to the load circuit. The separated by
insulators
two bars are separated by insulators.
By opening the switch, three switching operations
are completed in one action. The first operation Regulator Regulator
is bypassing the regulator. When the switch is source lead load lead
opened, a spring operated plate (Figure 21-48)
moves into the space where the switch was. The Figure 21-47. Disconnect switch.
plate connects the source circuit to the load circuit,
and the regulator is bypassed. Load circuit
contact

For the second operation, the regulator is isolated

from the source circuit. When the switch is opened,
there is a visible separation between the source
circuit and the regulator source lead.
For the third operation, the regulator is isolated Plate
Source
circuit
from the load circuit. When the switch is opened, contact
there is a visible separation between the regulator
load lead and the load circuit. Figure 21-48. Disconnect switch opened.

Physically Disconnecting the Regulator

Generally, single-phase regulators in a substation
are grouped in three-phase banks, as shown in
Figure 21-49. To remove one of the regulators,
all three units must be taken out of service. After
the regulators have been switched out of service,
they are tagged, tested for dead, and grounded
according to company procedures.
To remove the regulator, its conductors are discon-
nected from the regulator terminals. In Figure
21-50, one of the conductors has been marked Figure 21-49. Three single-phase regulators.

333
 Protective Relays, Transmission Systems

The specific voltage-to-current ratio setting for a

distance relay is affected by several considerations.
For example, a distance relay in substation A can be
set for a voltage-to-current ratio that would cause
the relay to operate for a fault anywhere on the
section of line between substations A and B. With
this setting, however, the relay might trip for a fault
near substation B but between substations B and
Figure 23-37. Fault between substations B and C.
C (Figure 23-37). This type of relay operation is
undesirable, because the basic approach to trans-
mission line protection is to isolate only the section of line in which a fault occurs. For a fault
between substations B and C, a relay in substation B should open a breaker in substation B, and,
possibly by transfer tripping, also open a breaker in substation C to isolate the fault. If a distance
relay in substation A operates, it would isolate the
section of line between substations A and B, even
though that section of line does not have to be
isolated to remove the fault from the system.

Zoned Protection
To prevent undesirable operations, a distance relay Figure 23-38. Zone 1 protection.
is generally set to protect approximately 90% of
Unprotected line
a line section. This protected section is typically sections
referred to as Zone 1 (Figure 23-38).
To protect line sections between substations,
additional Zone 1 sections can be set up (Figure
23-39). However, with this type of protection,
approximately 10% of each line section is left
unprotected. Figure 23-39. Multiple Zone 1 protection.

A common way to provide complete protection

for line sections is to use a distance relay in each
substation that provides Zone 1 protection in the
opposite direction (Figure 23-40). This arrange-
ment provides overlapping protection for each line
section between substations.
= Overlapping protection
In addition to Zone 1 protection, a distance relay Figure 23-40. Overlapping Zone 1 protection.
may also provide Zone 2 and Zone 3 protection.
For example, as illustrated in Figure 23-41, Zone
2 protection from substation A covers the line
section between substations A and B, as well as
part of the line section between substations B and
C. Zone 3 protection from substation A covers the
line sections between substations A and B, substa-
tions B and C, and part of the line section beyond
substation C. Figure 23-41. Zone 2 and Zone 3 protection from
substation A.

365
Substation Operation and Maintenance

Sensing Equipment
Sensing equipment is equipment that changes a condition such as voltage or current to a value
or signal that can be measured. For example, potential transformers (Figure 24-1) change, or
transform, line voltage to a proportionally lower voltage for measurement.
Another example of sensing equipment is a current transformer. Current transformers (Figure
24-2) transform line current to a proportionally lower current for measurement.

Figure 24-1. Potential transformer. Figure 24-2. Current transformer.

Measuring Equipment
The signals from sensing equipment are typically sent to measuring equipment and control-
ling equipment. Measuring equipment measures the signal provided by sensing equipment and
indicates the value of the condition being sensed. For example, a meter such as the ammeter
shown in Figure 24-3 indicates the value of current it receives from a current transformer.
Another example of measuring equipment is a recording meter, such as the one shown in Figure
24-4. A recording meter measures signals from sensing equipment and records the values of the
signals over a period of time.

Figure 24-3. Ammeter. Figure 24-4. Recording meter.

Controlling Equipment
Controlling equipment detects the signals it gets from sensing equipment, and, if a signal is
different from a preset value, provides a signal that operates various other equipment. An
example of controlling equipment is an overcurrent relay, such as the one shown in Figure 24-5.
An over current relay detects current that it receives from a current transformer. If the current

376
Substation Operation and Maintenance

If alternating current to the charger is interrupted for any reason, the battery will instantly
provide direct current to the steady, continuous loads and, as required, to the intermittent loads.
It will continue to supply the loads until alternating current is restored or until the battery is
fully discharged.

Cell Components and Electrochemical Action

Substation battery maintenance and testing are more likely to be performed properly when the
worker knows the construction of the battery cells, how the cells work, and what can go wrong
with the cells and why. This section describes the components and electrochemical action of a
typical lead-acid substation battery cell.

Components of a Lead-Acid Cell

Battery cells used in substations are typically
lead-acid cells. The external components of a
typical lead-acid cell (Figure 25-10) include a
container, which is often called a jar, positive and
negative terminal posts, and a vent with a flame
arrestor. The flame arrestor shields explosive
gases at the vent from external sparks or flames.
The internal components include a liquid called
an electrolyte, conductive lead-based plates, and
non-conductive separators. The electrolyte is
composed of sulfuric acid and water. Figure 25-10. Components of a lead-acid cell.

Figure 25-11 shows a cell that has been disas-

sembled so that the plates and separators can be
seen. The plates are arranged so that the negative
plates and the positive plates alternate. A cell always
has one more negative plate than positive, and the
plates at each end of the cell are negative. This is
because each positive plate needs a negative plate
on each side of it in order to function efficiently.
All the positive plates are mechanically and electri-
cally linked together by a bus bar and connected to
one of the terminal posts. The negative plates are Figure 25-11. Disassembled lead-acid cell.
also linked together, and they are connected to the
other terminal post. The non-conductive separa-
tors insulate the negative and positive plates from
each other.
The most widely used cell plate design is a type
called the pasted plate, although there is a variety
of other designs. The pasted plate uses porous lead
compounds for the chemically active portions of
the plate. This material is too soft to hold together
by itself, so it is typically “pasted” onto a metal grid
(Figure 25-12). Figure 25-12. Plate grid and lead.

396
Substation Operation and Maintenance

terminal of cell 7 is connected to the positive Negative terminals Positive terminals

terminal of cell 8.
To begin the cell replacement procedure, the
jumpers are connected to cells 6 and 8 and to
the new cell (Figure 28-3). One end of a jumper
is connected to the negative terminal of cell 6, Bad cell

and the other end of the jumper is connected to

the positive terminal of the new cell. One end
of a second jumper is connected to the positive Figure 28-2. Typical cell arrangement - one bad
terminal of cell 8, and the other end of that jumper cell.
is connected to the negative terminal of the new
cell. The jumpers are connected to the terminal so
Positive
that they will not interfere with the removal and Negative
reinstallation of the intercell connecting straps.
With the jumpers in place, the bad cell is then
disconnected from the battery by removing the
intercell connecting straps between cells 6 and 7
and between cells 7 and 8. Because the new cell is
connected in parallel, no arcing occurs when the
New cell
intercell connecting straps are disconnected from
the bad cell. Figure 28-3. Jumper connections to bypass bad
cell.
Next, the bad cell is removed from the battery rack,
and the new cell is put in its place (Figure 28-4).
Once the new cell is in place, it is connected to
the adjacent cells in the battery. The intercell
connecting straps are reinstalled, connecting the
negative terminal of cell 6 to the positive terminal
of the new cell, and the positive terminal of cell 8
to the negative terminal of the new cell. Then, both
jumper cables are removed. Connecting a new cell
in parallel with the old cell makes it possible to
remove and replace a bad cell on a battery that is Figure 28-4. New cell installed between cells 6
still in service. and 8 with temporary jumper connections only.

Bypassing a Cell Using a Diode and Jumpers New cell

As shown in Figure 28-5, the equipment required
Combustible
for bypassing a cell using a diode and jumpers gas detector
includes a jumper with a diode that is connected Jumber with Ohmmeter
diode
in line with the jumper, and two jumpers without
diodes. Also shown in Figure 28-5 are a combus- Diode

tible gas detector, an ohmmeter, and the new cell to

be installed in place of the bad cell.
Jumpers
without
Some companies require that a combustible gas diodes
detector be used whenever work is performed on Figure 28-5. Equipment for bypassing a cell using
a diode and jumpers.

432