SOLAR GRINDING MACHINE

Abstract

The Machine we designed and fabricated is used for grinding any shape of object like Circular,
Rectangular, and Polygon. In our project grinding machine is used to grinding the different
types of material. The grinding machine is rotated by the single phase induction motor. Hence
our project namely solar powered auto charging grinding machine is a Special type of Machine.
According to the type of material to be grind, the grinding tool can be changed.

This project gives details of grinding various shapes and sizes of components. This
machine can be widely applied in almost all type of industries. By varying the pulley sizes I can
get a high end speed of over 10,000 rpm if needed. The only change I would make is to have a
totally enclosed motor to keep out the grit.

Introduction

Our project is design and fabrication of auto charging grinding machine. It is used to
grind the machining surfaces to super Finish and accuracy. The principle parts of this
attachment are main body, motor with pulley, bearings, rope pulley and alternator etc.
Manufacturing is derived from the Latin word manufactus, means made by hand. In
modern involves making products from raw material by using variousprocesses, by
 making use of hand tools, machinery oreven computers. It is therefore a study of the
processesrequired to make parts and to assemble them in machines.The study of
manufacturing reveals those parameterswhich can be most efficiently being influenced to
increaseproduction and raise its accuracy.

Grinding is a metal removal process that employs an abrasivGW

whose cutting elements are grains of abrasive materials of high hardness and high
refractoriness The sharp-edged and hard grains are held together by bondingmaterial.
Projecting grains (Figure 1) abrade layers ofmetal from the work in the form of very
minute chips as the
wheel rotes at high speeds of up to 60 m/s.

Figure 1. Cutting Principles and Main Variables of a Surface

Grinding Process

System Elements - The system elements consist of inputs,disturbances,

productive outputs, and non-productive outputs. The elements of a grinding system are
illustrated in figure. Work piece material, Shape, hardness, stiffness, thermal.
Properties.
  Grinding machine: Type, control system, accuracy, stiffness, temperature
stability, vibrations.

 Kinematics: The geometry and motions governing the engagement between the grinding
wheel and the workpiece.

 Grinding wheel: Abrasive, grain size, bond, structure,

hardness, speed, stiffness.

 Dressing conditions: Type of tool, speeds and feeds,

cooling, lubrication.

 Grinding fluid: Flow rate, velocity, pressure, physical,

chemical properties.

 Atmospheric environment: Temperature, humidity, and

effect on environment.

 Health and safety: Risks to the machine operators and

the public.

 Waste disposal.

 Costs.

Dry-machining - some Factors for Consideration [7]

• Adopting a ‘dry machining’ strategy will only make sense,if all the cutting processes in the
part’s manufacture canbe performed without coolant,
• Only by utilizing specialized cutting tool geometries, can‘dry-machining’ be possible and
effective,

• Tooling typically having special hard multi-layered, ordiamond-like coatings, etc., to isolate
heat and createminimal thermal conduction across the tool/chip interface,

• Employing cutting tool materials producing sharp edgegeometries – to reduce heat,

• For drilling operations, utilize ‘soft-glide’ coatings –forlubrication, with the necessary and
appropriate efficientchip transportation geometries,

2.3 THE TAGUCHI SYSTEM OF QUALITY ENGINEERING

The major steps of implementing the Taguchi method are:

1)to identify the factors/interactions,

2) to identify the levelsof each factor,
3) to select an appropriate orthogonal array(OA),
4) to assign the factors/interactions to columns of theOA,
5) to conduct the experiments,
6) to analyze the dataand determine the optimal levels, and
7) to conduct the confirmationexperiment.

CONSTRUCTION OF A GRINDING WHEEL

• In order make the grinding wheel suitable for different work situations, the features such
as abrasive, grain size, grade, structure and bonding materials can be varied.
 • A grinding wheel consists of an abrasive that does the cutting, and a bond that holds the
abrasive particles together.

• Abrasives can be natural or manmade.

– Natural include:

• Sand stone

• Emery

• Diamond

• Garnet

• Quartz

Manmade (1891 time frame most commonly used today)

• Silicon Carbide

• Aluminum Oxide

• Cubic Boron Nitride

3.3 Bonding materials

 Vetrified bonds

 Mineral bonds

 Organic bond

3.4 Types of grinding wheels

Acco. To bonding material:

a) Vitrified grinding wheel

 b) Silicate grinding wheel

c) Elastic grinding wheel

d) Resiniod grinding wheel

e) Welkenize grinding wheel

f) Oxy chloride grinding wheel

3.5 Acco. to wheels grade:

a) Soft grade wheel

b) Hard grade wheel

Acco.to structure:
a) Open structure wheel

b) Closed structure wheel

c) Acco.to shape of grinding wheel

Selection of grade depends on hardness of workpiece material, grinding speed,

contact area of grinding wheel with the workpiece, capability of grinding machine.
Grinding wheels are named as soft, hard or medium hard wheels depending on their
grade. Abrasives of hard grinding wheels get blunt quickly so these are recommended to
grind workpiece of low hardness and soft grinding wheels are recommended for hard
material workpieces.
3.6 Wheel Forms

3.7 Different shape of grinding wheel

3.8 STRUCTURE

• This indicates the amount of bond present between the individual abrasive grains, and the
closeness of the individual grain to each other. An open structured wheel will cut more
freely. That is, it will remove more metal. In a given time and produce less heat.

3.9 BOND

A bond is an adhesive material used to held abrasive particals together;

relatively stablethat constitute a grinding wheel. Different types of bonds are :

Vitrified bond (V) Silicate bond (S)

Shellac bond (E) Rubber bond (R)

Resinoid bond (B)

 These bonds are being explained here in brief.

Vitrified Bond
 This bond consists of mixture of clay and water. Clay and abrasives are
thoroughly mixed with water to make a uniform mixture. The mixture is mouldedto shape
of a grinding wheel and dried up to take it out from mould. Perfectlyshaped wheel is
heated in a kiln just like brick making. It this way clay vitrifiesand fuses to form a
porcelain or glass grains. High temperature also doesannealing of abrasive. This wheel
posses a good strength and porosity to allowhigh stock removal with coal cutting.
Disadvantage of this type of wheel are, it issensitive for heat, water, oil and acids. Their
impact and bending strengths are alsolow. This bond is denoted by symbol ‘V’ in
specification.

Silicate Bond

Silicate bonds are made by mixing abrasive particals with silicate and soda
orwater glass. It is moulded to required shape, allowed to dried up and then takenout of
mould. The raw moulded wheel is baked in a furnace at more than 200oCfor several days.
These wheel exhibits water proofing properly so these can beused with coolant. These wheels
are denoted by ‘S’ in specification.

Shellac Bond

These are prepared by mixing abrasive with shellac than moulded by rolling
andpressing and then by heating upto 150oC for several hours. This bond exhibitgreater
elasticity than other bonds with appreciable strength. Grinding wheelshaving shellac
bond are recommended for cool cutting on hardened steel and thin sections, finishing of
chilled iron, cast iron, steel rolls, hardened steel cams and aluminium pistons. This bond
is denoted by ‘E’ in specifications.

Resinoid Bond
 These bonds are prepared by mixing abrasives with synthetic resins like backelite
and redmanol and other compounds. Mixture is moulded to required shape and baked upto
200oC to give a perfect grinding wheel. These wheels have good
grinding capacity at higher speed. These are used for precision grinding of cams, rolls and
other objects where high precision of surface and dimension influence the performance of
operation. A resinoid bond is denoted by the letter ‘B’.

Rubber Bond

Rubber bonded wheels are made by mixing abrasives with pure rubber and
sulpher. After that the mixture is rolled into sheet and wheels are prepared by
punching using die and punch. The wheels are vulcanized by heating then in furnace for short
time. Rubber bonded wheels are more resilient and have larger abrasive density. These are
used for precision grinding and good surface finish. Rubber bond is also preferred for making
thin wheels with good strength and toughness. The associated disadvantage with rubber bond
is, these are lesser heat resistant. A rubber wheel bonded wheel is denoted by the letter ‘R’.

Oxychloride Bond
These bonds are processed by mixing abrasives with oxides and chlorides of
magnesium. The mixture is moulded and baked in a furnace to give shape of a grinding
wheel. These grinding wheels are used for disc grinding operations. An oxychloride bonded
wheel is specified the letter ‘O’.

3.10 SURFACE GRINDING OPERATIONS

 Rough grinding

 Precision grinding

 Surface grinding

 Cylindrical grinding
  Centreless grinding

 Form grinding & Profile grinding

 Plunge cut grinding

3.11 GENERAL SAFETY

• Keep the floor and gangways clean and clear.

• Don’t touch or handle any equipment/machine unless authorized to do so.

• Don’t walk under suspended .

• Use the correct tools for the job.

• Keep the tools at their proper palace.

• Wipe out split oil immediately.

• Ensure adequate light in the workshop.

3.12 Grinding Wheel Operating Procedures

3.13 Wheel Classification,

Nomenclature of grinding wheel

• Manufacturer symbol

• Types of abrasive

• Grain size

• Grade

• Structure

• Types of bonds

• Manufacturer Marko

4. Details Description of IDP

4.1 Analysis of grinding wheel with different speed

PERIPHERICAL SPEED OF GRINDING WHEEL

When the rotation speed decreases, the grinding wheel behaves as if it were
softer, thus improving its grinding capacity. As a general guide, with every 5-8 mt/sec
reduction in peripheral speed the grinding wheel loses approximately 1 degree of
hardness. In contrast, if we need the grinding wheel to retain its profile or to produce a
better finish (i.e. behave as if it were harder) the peripheral speed should be increased.
Within reason, however: a grinding wheel that turns too slowly tends to lose its grains
before the abrasive granules have the chance to work. Conversely, when increasing the
speed, the limit is the maximum allowable speed indicated on the label of the grinding
wheel, which absolutely must not be exceeded to avoid the risk of the tool exploding.
Normally the recommended peripheral speed is slightly lower than the maximum
indicated on the grinding wheel.

SPEED OF WORKPIECE

When the speed of the workpiece is reduced, each granule has to remove a larger
quantity of material and is therefore subjected to greater pressure, meaning that the
grinding wheel self-dresses more easily, and so behaving as if it were softer. The desired
effect is not always achieved, however. Often on grinding wheels of medium-to-high
hardness the greater stress to which they are subjected cancels out the self-dressing action
of this expedient. As a rule, the speed of the workpiece can range between 10 and 20
metres per minute. For surfaces grinding this value corresponds to the table speed.

4.2 PARAMETERS OF GRINDING OPERATION

Normal parameters used in grinding operation are cutting speed, feed rate and
depth ofcut. These parameters are described below.
Cutting Speed

Cutting speed is grinding wheel is the relative peripheral speed of the wheel with
respectto the workpiece. It is expressed in meter per minute (mpm) or meter per second
(mps).The cutting speed of grinding wheel can be calculated as mpm

where, D is diameter of grinding wheel in mm. N are the number of revolution of

grinding wheel if N is expressed in number of revolutions per minute, V will be in mpm,if
N is expressed in number of revolution per second, V will be in mps.

Feed Rate

Feed rate is a significant parameter in case of cylindrical grinding and surface

grinding. Feed rate is defined as longitudinal movement of the workpiece relative to axis
of grinding wheel per revolution of grinding wheel. Maximum feed rate should be upto
0.9 time of face width of grinding wheel for rough grinding and upto 0.6 times of face
width of grinding wheel for finish grinding. Feed can not be equal to or more than the
width of grinding wheel. Feed is used to calculate the total grinding time as given below.

where T is the grinding time (min) L is the required longitudinal travel in mm. i is
the number of passes required to cover whole width S is the longitudinal feed rate
(mm/rev.). N is the rpm and K is the coefficient depending on the specified grade of
accuracy and class of surface finish for rough grinding K = 1 to 1.2 and for finish grinding
K = 1.3 to 1.5.
Depth of Cut

Depth of cut is the thickness of the layer of the metal removal in one pass. It is
measured in mm. normally depth of cut is kept ranging 0.005 to 0.04 mm. Smaller depth
of cuts are set for finish and precision grinding. The table given below shows
recommended bonds and cutting speed for type of a workpiece.

TYPE OF BOND CUTTING SPEED

WORKPICE

Tool Steel Vitrified 15 TO 25 PRECISION

High Speed Steel Vitrified 15 TO 25 GRINDING

Cemented Resin or Rubber 15 TO 25

Carbide

CAST IRON Resin or Rubber UP TO 30 ROUGH

or
STEEL Vitrified UP TO 25 GRINDING

Bronze UP TO 20

Soft Iron UP TO 20

4.2 GRINDING FLUIDS

Application of grinding fluids has been found to be effective in reducing the adverse
thermal effects and high work surface temperature. All cutting fluids can be used as
coolant in grinding operations and so these can also be named as grinding fluids.
 Normally grinding fluids remove heat from grinding zone and wash the clips away.
Generally two types of grinding fluids are used :
(a) Water based fluids, and
(b) Oils based fluids.

Water based fluids remove heat from grinding zone but these do not provide any
lubrication to the grinding zone. However, oil based fluids provides lubrication properties
also. Heat removing capability of oil base fluid is more due to their high specific heat.
Examples of water based fluids are dissolved chemicals into water like sulfur chlorine,
phosphorus, etc. Examples of oil based fluids are oils originated from petroleum, animals
and vegetables. They can be emulsified oils suspended in water in the form of droplets.
Cutting fluids can be recycled in flow after filtering them by separating out chips and dirt.

4.3 DEFECTS AND REMEDIES IN GRINDING

Major and inevitable defects in grinding are glazing of grinding wheels. Its
remedy will be discussed later. After the continuous use grinding wheel becomes dull or
glazed. Glazing of the wheel is a condition in which the face or cutting edge acquires a
glass like appearance. That is, the cutting points of the abrasives have become dull and
worn down to bond. Glazing makes the grinding face of the wheel smoother and that
stops the process of grinding. Sometimes grinding wheel is left ‘loaded’. In this situation
its cutting face is found being adhering with chips of metal. The opening and pores of the
wheel face are found filled with workpiece material particals, preventing the grinding
action. Loading takes place while grinding workpiece of softer material.

Dressing
The remedies of glazing and loading is dressing of grinding wheels. Dressing
removes the loading and breaks away the glazed surface so that sharp abrasive particals
can be formed again ready for grinding. Different type of dressing operations are done on
a grinding wheel. One of them is the dressing with the help of star dresser. It consists of a
number of hardened steel wheels with sharp points on their periphery. The total is held
 against the face of revolving wheel and moved across the face to dress the whole surface.
Another type of wheel dresser consists of a steel tube filled with a bonded abrasive. The
end of the tube is held against the wheel and moved across the face.

Truing
Truing is the process of restoring the shape of grinding wheel when it becomes
worn and break away at different points. Truing makes the wheel true and concentric
with the bore.

4.4 BALANCING OF GRINDING WHEEL

Due to continuous used a grinding wheel may become out of balance. It con not
be balanced either by truing or dressing. Here it is important to explain the meaning of a
balanced wheel. It is the coincidence of centre of mass of wheel with it axis of rotation.
Wheels which are out of balance produce poor quality of surface and put undue strains on
the grinding machine. Balancing of wheel is normally done at the time of its mounting on
the grinding machine with the help of
moving weights around a recessed flange.

4.5 SURFACE CONTACT AREA

The surface contact area between grinding wheel and workpiece is very
important. The smaller it is, the more the grinding wheel cuts and does not become
clogged. If greater grinding capacity is required, reducing the surface contact area is
strongly recommended, especially when grinding using vertical-axis wheels, for example
cup or segmented wheels. In this case simply executing a chamfer on the edge of the cup
wheel of reducing the number of segments fitted on the head of the grinding machine
solves a lot of problems.
 The following table summarises the effect of changing operating parameters on the
behaviour of the grinding wheel.

4.6 INFLUENCE OF OPERATING PARAMETERS ON GRINDING WHEEL

BEHAVIOUR

PARAMETERS HARDNESS CAP.ASP. FINISH

> > < >

peripheral speed of wheel
< < > <

> < > <

feed rate
< > < >

> < > <

depth of cut per pass
< < < >

It is clear that by varying the operating parameters appropriately it is possible to

use the same grinding wheel for more than one kind of machining process. Of course,
when large numbers of pieces need to be produced it is always advisable to use a
dedicated grinding wheel.
Block Diagram
BLOCK DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION

VICE

It is a device consisting of two parallel jaws for holding a work piece; one of
the jaws is fixed and the other movable by a screw, a lever, or a cam. When used
for holding a work piece during hand operations, such as filing, hammering, or
sawing, the vise may be permanently bolted to a bench. In vises designed to hold
metallic work pieces.

The active faces of the jaws are hardened steel plates, often removable, with
serrations that grip the work piece to prevent damage to soft parts; the permanent
jaws can be covered with temporary jaws made from sheet copper or leather. Pipe
vises have double V-shaped jaws that grip in four places instead of only two.
Woodworking vises have smooth jaws, often of wood, and rely on friction alone
rather than on serrations.

SPRING

The automobile chassis is mounted on the axles not direct but through some
form of springs. This is done to isolate the vehicle body from the road shocks
which may be in the form of bounce, pitch, roll or sway. These tendencies give rise
to an uncomfortable ride and also cause additional stress in the automobile frame
and body. All the parts which perform the function of isolating the automobile
from the road shocks are collectively.

CAM PLATE

A cam plate is a projecting part of a rotating wheel or shaft that strikes a

lever at one or more points on its circular path. The cam plate can be a simple
tooth, as is used to deliver pulses of power to a steam hammer, for example, or
an eccentric disc or other shape that produces a smooth reciprocating (back and
forth) motion in the follower which is a lever making contact with the cam.

The reason the cam acts as a lever is because the hole is not directly in the
centre, therefore moving the cam rather than just spinning. On the other hand,
some cams are made with a hole exactly in the centre and their sides act as cams
to move the levers touching them to move up and down or to go back and
forth.

BEARING

A bearing is a device to permit constrained relative motion between two

parts, typically rotation or linear movement. Bearings may be classified broadly
according to the motions they allow and according to their principle of operation.
Low friction bearings are often important for efficiency, to reduce wear and to
facilitate high speeds. Essentially, a bearing can reduce friction by virtue of its
shape, by its material, or by introducing and containing a fluid between surfaces.
By shape, gains advantage usually by using spheres or rollers. By material, exploits
the nature of the bearing material used. The Sliding bearings, usually called bushes
bushings journal bearings sleeve bearings rifle bearings or plain bearings. Rolling-
element bearings such as ball bearings and roller bearings.

The Jewel with bearings, in which the load is carried by rolling the axle
slightly off-center. fluid bearings, in which the load is carried by a gas or liquid
magnetic bearings, in which the load is carried by a magnetic field Flexure
bearings, in which the motion is supported by a load element which bends.
Bearings vary greatly over the forces and speeds that they can support. Forces can
be radial, axial (thrust bearings) or moments perpendicular to the main axis.
 A linear-motion bearing or linear slide is a bearing designed to provide free
motion in one dimension. There are many different types of linear motion bearings
and this family of products is generally broken down into two sub-
categories: rolling-element and plane.

Motorized linear slides such as machine slides, roller tables and some
dovetail slides are bearings moved by drive mechanisms. Not all linear slides are
motorized and non-motorized dovetail slides, ball bearing slides and roller slides
provide low-friction linear movement for equipment powered by inertia or by
hand.

All linear slides provide linear motion based on bearings, whether they are
ball bearings, dovetail bearings or linear bearings. Linear stages, machine slides
and other advanced slides use linear motion bearings to provide movement.

Friction

Reducing friction in bearings is often important for efficiency, to reduce

wear and to facilitate extended use at high speeds and to avoid overheating and
premature failure of the bearing. Essentially, a bearing can reduce friction by virtue
of its shape, by its material, or by introducing and containing a fluid between
surfaces or by separating the surfaces with an electromagnetic field. By shape,
gains advantage usually by using spheres or rollers, or by forming flexure bearings.
By material, exploits the nature of the bearing material used. (An example would
be using plastics that have low surface friction.)

By fluid, exploits the low viscosity of a layer of fluid, such as a lubricant or

as a pressurized medium to keep the two solid parts from touching, or by reducing
the normal force between them. By fields, exploits electromagnetic fields, such
as magnetic fields, to keep solid parts from touching. Combinations of these can
even be employed within the same bearing. An example of this is where the cage is
made of plastic, and it separates the rollers/balls, which reduce friction by their
shape and finish.

Stiffness

A second source of motion is elasticity in the bearing itself. For example, the
balls in a ball bearing are like stiff rubber, and under load deform from round to a
slightly flattened shape. The race is also elastic and develops a slight dent where
the ball presses on it.

The stiffness of a bearing is how the distance between the parts which are
separated by the bearing varies with applied load. With rolling element bearings
this is due to the strain of the ball and race. With fluid bearings it is due to how the
pressure of the fluid varies with the gap (when correctly loaded, fluid bearings are
typically stiffer than rolling element bearings).

Rolling Element Bearings

Rolling element bearing life is determined by load, temperature,

maintenance, lubrication, material defects, contamination, handling, installation
and other factors. These factors can all have a significant effect on bearing
life. For example, the service life of bearings in one application was extended
dramatically by changing how the bearings were stored before installation and use,
as vibrations during storage caused lubricant failure even when the only load on
the bearing was its own weight; the resulting damage is often false brandling.
Bearing life is statistical: several samples of a given bearing will often exhibit a
bell curve of service life, with a few samples showing significantly better or worse
life. Bearing life varies because microscopic structure and contamination vary
greatly even where macroscopically they seem identical.

Plain Bearings

For plain bearings some materials give much longer life than others. Some
of the John Harrison clocks still operate after hundreds of years because of the
lignum vitae wood employed in their construction, whereas his metal clocks are
seldom run due to potential wear.

Flexure Bearings

Flexure bearings rely on elastic properties of material. Flexure bearings bend

a piece of material repeatedly. Some materials fail after repeated bending, even at
low loads, but careful material selection and bearing design can make flexure
bearing life indefinite. Bearing life is statistical: several samples ofa given bearing
will often exhibit a bell curve of service life, with a few samples showing
significantly better or worse life.

Short-life Bearings

Although long bearing life is often desirable, it is sometimes not necessary.

Tedric, Harris describes a bearing for a rocket motor oxygen pump that gave
several hours life, far in excess of the several tens of minutes life needed.

Maintenance and Lubrication

Many bearings require periodic maintenance to prevent premature failure,

but many others require little maintenance. The latter include various kinds of fluid
and magnetic bearings, as well as rolling-element bearings that are
described with terms including sealed bearing and sealed for life. These contain
seals to keep the dirt out and the grease in. They work successfully in many
applications providing maintenance-free operation. Some applications cannot use
them effectively.

No sealed bearings often have a grease fitting, for periodic lubrication with a
grease gun, or an oil cup for periodic filling with oil. Before the 1970s, sealed
bearings were not encountered on most machinery, and oiling and greasing were a
more common activity than they are today. For example, automotive chassis used
to require "lube jobs" nearly as often as engine oil changes, but today's car chassis
are mostly sealed for life. From the late 1700s through mid 1900s, industry relied
on many workers called oilers to lubricate machinery frequently with oil cans.

Splash Lubrication

Some machines contain a pool of lubricant in the bottom, with gears

partially immersed in the liquid or crank rods that can swing down into the pool as
the device operates. The spinning wheels fling oil into the air around them, while
the crank rods slap at the surface of the oil, splashing it randomly on the
interior surfaces of the engine. Some small internal combustion engines
specifically contain special plastic flinger wheels which randomly scatter oil
around the interior of the mechanism.

Pressure Lubrication

For high speed and high power machines, a loss of lubricant can result in
rapid bearing heating and damage due to friction. Also in dirty environments the
oil can become contaminated with dust or debris that increases friction. In these
applications, a fresh supply of lubricant can be continuously supplied to the
bearing and all other contact surfaces, and the excess can be collected for filtration,
cooling, and possibly reuse. Pressure oiling is commonly used in large and
complex internal combustion engine in parts of the engine where directly splashed
oil cannot reach, such as assemblies.

Working Principle

This concept contains simple arrangements. It consists of grinding wheel, solar panel,

battery, motor etc. The grinding wheel is fixed on a motor shaft. The battery, solar panel and

grinding wheel arrangements are mounted on assembly box. The solar panel generates the power

supply from direct sunlight. Then the generated energy is stored in the batteries. The store energy

in the battery is used to run the motor. The grinding wheels are fixed at the motor shaft. The

motor shaft rotates the grinding wheel. A handle is placed with spring arrangement to move the

grinding wheel up and down. In idle time the motor is switch off by the manual process.
VICE

FigureNo.3.1 Bench Vice

It is a device consisting of two parallel jaws for holding a work piece; one of
the jaws is fixed and the other movable by a screw, a lever, or a cam. When used
for holding a work piece during hand operations, such as filing, hammering, or
sawing, the vise may be permanently bolted to a bench. In vises designed to hold
metallic work pieces, the active faces of the jaws are hardened steel plates, often
removable, with serrations that grip the work piece to prevent damage to soft parts,
the permanent jaws can be covered with temporary jaws made from sheet copper
or leather. Pipe vises havedoubleV-shaped jaws that grip in four places instead of
only two. Woodworking vises have smooth jaws, often of wood, and rely on
friction alone rather than on serrations.

For holding work pieces on the tables of machine tools, vises with smooth
hardened-steel jaws and flat bases are used. These machine vises are portable but
may be clamped to the machine table when in use means may also be provided for
swiveling the active part of the vice so that the work piece can be held in a variety
of positions relative to the base. For holding parts that cannot be clamped with flat
jaws, special jaws can be provided. Traditional workbench vises are commonly
either face vises, attached to the front of the workbench, near the left end (for a
right-handed worker) or end vises, attached to or forming part of the right end of
the bench.

Types of Vice
Woodworking Vice

Figure No.3.2.1 Woodworking Vice

Woodworking vises are attached to a workbench, typically flush with its

work surface. Their jaws are made of plywood or metal but mostly metal, the latter
usually faced with wood, called cheeks, to avoid marring the work. The movable
jaw may include a retractable dog to hold work against a bench dog."Quick-
release" vises employ a split nut that allows the screw to engage or disengage with
a half turn of the handle. When disengaged the movable jaw may be moved in or
out throughout its entire range of motion, vastly speeding up the process of
adjustment. Common thread types are Acme and buttress. Traditional workbench
vises are commonly either face vises, attached to the front of the workbench, near
the left end (for a right-handed worker) or end vises, attached to or forming part of
the right end of the bench.

One common variety of face vises is the leg vise, which has a long extension
down to the floor, with a provision to adjust the spacing of the bottom of the leg, to
keep the clamping surfaces of the jaws approximately parallel, even though the
work to be clamped may be of various thicknesses.

These vises are portable but may be clamped to the machine table when in
use means may also be provided for swiveling the active part of the vice so that the
work piece can be held in a variety of positions relative to the base. For holding
parts that cannot be clamped with flat jaws, special jaws can be provided the vice.
When used for holding a work piece during hand operations, such as filing,
hammering, or sawing, the vise may be permanently bolted to a bench. In vises
designed to hold metallic work pieces, the active faces of the jaws are hardened
steel plates, often removable, with serrations that grip the work piece to prevent
damage to soft parts, the permanent a bench.

Machine Vice
 Figure No.3.2.2 Machine Vice

Machine vise an also known as a metalworking vise or fitter's vise, is used to

clamp metal instead of wood. It is typically made of cast steel or malleable cast
iron. Cheaper vises may be made of brittle cast iron. The jaws are often separate
and replaceable, usually engraved with serrated or diamond teeth. Soft jaw covers
made of aluminum, lead, or plastic may be used to protect delicate work. An
engineer's vise is bolted onto the top surface of a workbench, with the face of the
fixed jaws just forward of its front edge. The vise may include other features such
as a small anvil on the back of its body. For holding work pieces on the tables of
machine tools, vises with smooth hardened-steel jaws and flat bases are used.
These machine vises are portable but may be clamped to the machine table when in
use means may also be provided for swiveling the active part of the vice so that the
work piece can be fixing to vice.

LINKAGE

Linkage is made-up of mild steel. It is connect to cam shaft and rack.

Linkages are an essential part of many mechanisms. They can be used to change
direction, alter speed and change the timing of moving parts. In this example two
linked linkages are used to convert the small linear movementof the drive shaft
(bottom left) into first a rotational body movement and secondly a fast hammer
movement. Compare the speed of the hammer with the speed of the drive shaft.

Linear motion is the most basic of all motions. Uninterrupted objects will
continue to move in a straight line indefinitely. Under every day circumstances
gravity and friction conspire to bring objects to rest. Linear motion is measured in
two parts. Together these make up the velocity. Linear motion is not often used as
a starting point for mechanisms.

SPRING

Figure No.3.8Spring

The automobile chassis is mounted on the axles not direct but through some
form of springs. This is done to isolate the vehicle body from the road shocks
which may be in the form of bounce, pitch, roll or sway. These tendencies give rise
to an uncomfortable ride and also cause additional stress in the automobile frame
and body. All the parts which perform the function of isolating the automobile
from the road shocks are collectively.

A Springing device must be a compromise between flexibility and stiffness.

If it is more rigid,it will not absorb road shocks efficiently and if it is more flexible
it will continue to vibrate even after the bump has passed so we must have
sufficient damping of the spring to prevent excessive flexing.

3.8.1 Return Spring

A spring is a flexible elastic object used to store mechanical energy. Springs

are usually made out of hardened steel. Small springs can be wound from pre-
hardened stock, while larger ones. A spring is a mechanical device, which is
typically used to store energy and subsequently release it, to absorb shock, or to
maintain a force between contacting surfaces. They are made of an elastic material
formed into the shape of a helix which returns to its natural length when unloaded
this is called return spring. Springs are placed between the road wheels and the
vehicle body. When the wheel comes across a bump on the road, it rises and
deflects the spring, thereby storing energy therein. On releasing, due to the
elasticity of the spring, material, it rebounds thereby expending the stored energy.

In this way the spring starts vibrating, with amplitude decreasing gradually
on internal friction of the spring material and friction of the suspension joints till
vibrations die down.

3.9 Types of Spring

3.9.1 Compression Spring

 Figure No.3.9.1 Compression Spring

A spring is an elastic object used to store mechanical energy. Springs are

usually made out of spring steel. There are a large number of spring designs in
everyday usage the term often refers to coil springs. Small springs can be wound
from pre-hardened stock, while larger ones are made from annealed steel and
hardened after fabrication. Some non-ferrous metals are also used
including bronze and titanium for parts requiring corrosion resistance and
beryllium copper for springs carrying electrical current (because of its low
electrical resistance).

A Springing device must be a compromise between flexibility and stiffness.

If it is more rigid, it will not absorb road shocks efficiently and if it is more
flexible it will continue to vibrate even after the bump has passed so we must have
sufficient damping of the spring to prevent excessive flexible.

They are made of an elastic material formed into the shape of a helix which
returns to its natural length when unloaded this is called return spring. Springs are
placed between the road wheels and the vehicle body. They are made of an elastic
material formed into the shape of a helix which returns to its natural length when
unloaded this is called return spring. Springs are placed between the road wheels
and the vehicle body. When the wheel comes across a bump on the road, it rises
and deflects the spring, thereby storing energy spring.

3.9.2 Extension Spring

Figure No.3.9.2Extension Spring

 When a Heavy duty spring is compressed or stretched slightly from rest,
the force it exerts is approximately proportional to its change in length (this
approximation breaks down for larger deflections). The rate or spring constant of a
spring is the change in the force it exerts, divided by the change in deflection of the
spring. That is, it is the gradient of the force versus deflection curve.
An extension or compression spring has units of force divided by distance, for
example. Torsion springs have units of torque divided by angle, such as degree.

The inverse of spring rate is compliance that is if a spring has a rate of 10

N/mm it has a compliance of 0.1 mm. The stiffness (or rate) of springs in parallel
is additive, as is the compliance of springs in series.

Depending on the design and required operating environment, any material

can be used to construct a spring, so long as the material has the required
combination of rigidity and elasticity technically, a wooden bow is a form of
spring. Springs are usually made out of hardened steel. Small springs can be
wound from pre-hardened stock, while larger ones. A spring is a mechanical
device, which is typically used to store energy and subsequently release it, to
absorb shock, or to maintaina force between contacting surfaces.

FABRICATION

Vice

It is a device consisting of two parallel jaws for holding a work piece; one of
the jaws is fixed and the other movable by a screw, a lever, or a cam. When used
for holding a work piece during hand operations, such as filing, hammering, or
sawing, the vise may be permanently bolted to a bench. In vises designed to hold
metallic work pieces, the active faces of the jaws are hardened steel plates, often
removable,

Motor

An electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical

energy into mechanical energy. The reverse of this is the conversion of mechanical
energy into electrical energy and is done by an electric generator, and generators
and motors have much in common.

Most electric motors operate through the interaction between an electric

motor's magnetic field and winding currents to generate force. In certain
applications, such as in regenerative braking with traction motors in the
transportation industry, electric motors can also be used in reverse as generators to
convert mechanical energy into electric power.

Found in applications as diverse as industrial fans, blowers and pumps, machine

tools, household appliances, power tools, and disk drives, electric motors can be
powered by direct current (DC) sources, such as from batteries, motor vehicles or
rectifiers, or by alternating current(AC) sources, such as from the power
grid, inverters or generators. Small motors may be found in electric watches.
General-purpose motors with highly standardized dimensions and characteristics
provide convenient mechanical power for industrial use.

Spring

A Springing device must be a compromise between flexibility and stiffness.

If it is more rigid, it will not absorb road shocks efficiently and if it is more flexible
it will continue to vibrate even after the bump has passed so we must have
sufficient damping of the spring to prevent excessive flexing.

Saw

A saw is a tool consisting of a tough blade, wire, or chain with a hard toothed edge.
It is used to cut through material, very often wood. The cut is made by placing the
toothed edge against the material and moving it forcefully forth and less forcefully
back or continuously forward. This force may be applied by hand,
or powered by steam, water, electricity or other power source. An abrasive saw has
a powered circular blade designed to cut through metal.

Cam Plate

A cam is a projecting part of a rotating wheel or shaft that strikes a lever at

one or more points on its circular path. The cam can be a simple tooth, as is used to
deliver pulses of power to a steam hammer, for example, or an eccentric disc or
other shape that produces a smooth reciprocating (back and forth) motion in the
follower which is a lever making contact with the cam.
COST ESTIMATION

4.5.1 LABOUR COST

Lathe = Rs 300

Drilling = Rs 250

Welding = Rs 500

Gas cutting cost = Rs450

TOTAL LABOUR COST = Rs 1500/-

4.5.2 MATERIAL COST

S. No. MATERIAL COST

(Rs.)
1 Hacksaw Blade 20
2 Spring 40
3 Hacksaw Frame 140
4 Solar panel 1200
5 Bearing 350
6 Bench Vice 1200
7 Linkages 620
8 Battery 900
9 Inverter 600
TOTAL Rs.5070
 Table No.4.5.2 Material Cost

Advantages

 Cheapest method

 Usage of solar energy

 Low power consumption

 Available source

Disadvantage

 Solar energy is only available in day time.

Applications

 Used small scale industries

 Pattern shops

 Lathe workshops for make surface finish in specimens

 CONCLUSION

6.1 Conclusion

The solar grinding machine is designed, fabricated and tested. This machine does
not employees any use of power equipments such as DC motors and it is fully
human operated . The use of this machine makes the grinding process faster hence
reduce most of the time and labour required to operate the machine is also less.
This machine is helpful for small as well as big firms. This human powered
machine will help to improve an economical condition. This is new type of
machine which is different to the other grinding machine which are used for
grinding purpose till now.

6.2 Scope for future work

 The objective of this project is to design and fabricate a low cost multi crop
cutting machine based on the need of farmers.
 To minimize time of harvesting
 To minimize the human effort.
BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Design data book -P.S.G.Tech.

2. Machine tool design handbook –Central machine tool Institute,

Bangalore.

3. Strength of Materials - R.S.Kurmi

4. Manufacturing Technology - M.Haslehurst.

5. Design of machine elements - R.S.Kurmi

PHOTOGRAPHY