Proof of the Binomial Theorem 12.3.

The Binomial Theorem says that: For all real numbers a and b and non-negative integers n,
n  
n
X n r n−r
(a + b) = ab .
r=0
r

For example,

(a + b)0 = 1,
(a + b)1 = a + b,
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 ,
(a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3 .

Proof. Let P (n) be the statement that for all real numbers a and b, (a + b)n = nr=0 nr ar bn−r .
P

The Base Case is easy to establish.

Now we prove the Inductive Step.
Suppose that k ∈ Z≥ is such that ‘inductive hypothesis’ (the formula for n = k, i.e., the statement
P (k))
k  
k
X k r k−r
(a + b) = ab . (1)
r=0
r
We want to prove that ‘inductive conclusion’ (the formula for n = k + 1, i.e., the statement P (k + 1))
k+1  
k+1
X k+1
(a + b) = ar bk+1−r . (2)
r=0
r

We compute that

(a + b)k+1 = (a + b)k · (a + b) (3)

k  
X k r k−r
= ab · (a + b) by the inductive hypothesis
r=0
r
k   k  
X k r+1 k−r X k r k+1−r
= a b + ab by the distributive property;
r=0
r r=0
r

indeed, when we multiply ar bk−r in line 2 by a, the power of a increases by 1 to get ar+1 bk−r in the
first term in line 3. Similarly, when we multiply ar bk−r by a, we get ar bk+1−r in the second term in
line 3.
Now ar bk+1−r in line 3 of (3) matches the form of the right-hand side of (2). To make the term
ar+1 bk−r in line 3 of (3) also match, we shift the variable r down by 1 as follows.
Define s = r + 1. Then r = s − 1. Moreover, when r is summed from 0 to k, we then have that s
is summed from 1 to k + 1. So the first term in line 3 of (3) may be rewritten as
k   k+1  
X k r+1 k−r X k
a b = as bk+1−s
r=0
r s=1
s − 1

1
(since k − (s − 1) = k + 1 − s). But s is just a name. So we can replace s by r to get
k   k+1  
X k r+1 k−r
X k
a b = ar bk+1−r .
r=0
r r=1
r−1

Thus (3) implies that

k+1   k  
k+1
X k r k+1−r
X k r k+1−r
(a + b) = ab + ab .
r=1
r − 1 r=0
r

We would like to combine the two sums on the right-hand side into one sum. But we have a slight
mismatch in that the first sum is from 1 to k + 1 whereas the second sum is from 0 to k.
So take out the r = k + 1 case from the first sum and we take out the r = 0 case from the first
sum from the second sum and combine things in the following way:
  k   k    
k+1 k (k+1) k+1−(k+1)
X k r k+1−r
X k r k+1−r k 0 k+1−0
(a + b) = a b + ab + ab + ab .
(k + 1) − 1 r=1
r − 1 r=1
r 0

k k k




Since (k+1)−1
= k
= 1 and 0
= 1, we have

k    
k+1 k+1
X k k
(a + b) =a + + ar bk+1−r + bk+1 .
r=1
r − 1 r

Since 1 ≤ r ≤ k, by Proposition 12.2.8 we have

     
k k k+1
+ = .
r−1 r r

Hence
k  
k+1 k+1
X k+1
(a + b) =a + ar bk+1−r + bk+1 .
r=1
r
k+1 k+1

k+1 0
k+1


But noting that a = a b (is the r = k + 1 case in the sum) and bk+1 =
k+1 0
a0 bk+1 (is the
r = 0 case in the sum), we see that
k+1  
k+1
X k+1
(a + b) = ar bk+1−r .
r=0
r

This is the desired inductive conclusion (2).

By mathematical induction, the proof of the Binomial Theorem is complete.