Equality of Opportunity: Equal Access to Higher Education

A dissertation presented to

the faculty of

the College of Education of Ohio University

In partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree

Doctor of Philosophy

Myriah J. Short

March 2009

© 2009 Myriah Short. All Rights Reserved.

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This dissertation titled

Equality of Opportunity: Equal Access to Higher Education

by

MYRIAH J. SHORT

has been approved for

the Department of Educational Studies

and the College of Education by

_____________________________________

Najee’ E. Muhammad

Associate Professor of Educational Studies

_______________________________________

Renée A. Middleton

Dean, College of Education

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ABSTRACT

SHORT, MYRIAH J., Ph.D., March 2009, Curriculum and Instruction, Cultural Studies

Equality of Opportunity: Equal Access to Higher Education (114 pp.)

Director of Dissertation: Najee’ E. Muhammad

The purpose of this study was to examine whether or not the Athens County

Retention Program (ACRP) at Hocking College, Nelsonville, Ohio assisted students from

low socioeconomic backgrounds in obtaining a college degree. A comparison of students

who participated in ACRP (n=100) and non-eligible students (n=104) was examined to

determine if significant differences existed related to degree attainment,

ASSETT/COMPASS entrance examination placement, and on-campus living status.

A quantitative research design was used to determine relationships, effects, and

causes. The following student-level data was requested from the HP3000 Image Data

Base at Hocking College for students enrolled in the Athens County Retention Program:

(a) student major, (b) county of residence, (c) whether or not graduated, (d) whether or

not on-campus residential, (e) ASSETT/COMPASS placement, and (e) gender. The

following data criteria were used to request data for Hocking College students whose

county of residence was someplace other than Athens County: (a) student major, (b)

county of residence, (c) whether or not graduated, (d) whether or not on-campus

residential, (e) ASSETT/COMPASS placement, (e) gender, and (f) EFC $0.

Results of the study between ACRP participation and non-eligible students

include: no significant difference on entrance examination course placement in math,

writing, and reading entrance assessment placement; males and females do not differ in
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their entry course placement; no significant relationship between ACRP participation and

on-campus residency; non-eligible ACRP student’s graduation rates do differ from the

Hocking College full-time benchmark reported by Ohio Board of Regents Performance

Report for Ohio’s Colleges and Universities 2006 Institutional Outcomes Measures; a

significant difference between ACRP and non-eligible students in the number of quarters

they attended Hocking College; no significant difference between ACRP graduates and

non-eligible student graduates in the number of quarters they attended at Hocking

College; For non-graduates, the results indicated there was a significant difference

between ACRP and non-eligible students in the number of quarters attended at Hocking

College.

Approved: ________________________________________________________

Najee’ E. Muhammad

Associate Professor of Educational Studies

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work would not have been possible without the loving support I received

from my husband Jeff. When I completed my master’s degree and nearly my entire

doctoral program he and I were a family of two. Now that my dissertation journey has

come to an end, a new chapter in our lives is beginning. We have recently been blessed

with the birth of our first child, Kade, a joyful and beautiful spirit. Thank you Jeff for

taking care of the baby and allowing me the time and space I needed to complete my

work. I appreciate this more than I can put into words.

Thankfulness and respect are thoughts that come to mind for the assistance

provided by my dissertation committee: Drs Najee Muhammad, Valerie Martin Conley,

Roy Palmer, and Jaylynne Hutchison. I would never have reached this goal without the

guidance each of you provided. I am eternally grateful.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................ 3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................ 5

LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................. 8

CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................. 9

Introduction ............................................................................................................. 9
Background of the Study ...................................................................................... 12
Statement of the Problem ...................................................................................... 14
Research Questions ............................................................................................... 16
Research Hypothesis ............................................................................................. 16
Significance of the Study ...................................................................................... 17
Limitations of the Study........................................................................................ 17
Delimitations of the Study .................................................................................... 18
Definition of terms ................................................................................................ 18

CHAPTER TWO .............................................................................................................. 23

Literature Review.................................................................................................. 23
Overview of Higher Education in the United States ............................................. 23
Appalachian History and Regional Poverty .......................................................... 33
Access to Higher Education .................................................................................. 46
Effects of Welfare System on Women and Children ............................................ 58
Vincent Tinto and College Student Retention ...................................................... 64
Critical Review of Literature ................................................................................ 69
Summary and Conclusions ................................................................................... 71

CHAPTER THREE .......................................................................................................... 72

Research Design.................................................................................................... 72
Population of Interest ............................................................................................ 74
Sample................................................................................................................... 74
Data Acquisition ................................................................................................... 75
Data Conditioning ................................................................................................. 79
Data Analysis ........................................................................................................ 82
Assumptions.......................................................................................................... 83

CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................. 84

Results of Research Question One ........................................................................ 84
Results of Research Question Two ....................................................................... 90
Results of Research Question Three ..................................................................... 92
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CHAPTER FIVE .............................................................................................................. 99

Data Summary, Suggestions for Further Research and Conclusions ................... 99

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................... 107

APPENDIX A: DATA ACQUISITION PERMISSION ................................................ 113

APPENDIX B: TINTO’S MODEL OF INDIVIDUAL DEPARTURE
MODIFIED FOR ACRP @ HOCKING COLLEGE…………………………………114
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LIST OF TABLES

Table Group 1: Research Question One Data Output Tables ........................................... 84

Table Group 2: Research Question Two Data Output Tables .......................................... 91

Table Group 3: Research Question Three Data Output Tables ........................................ 93

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CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

Identifying and understanding barriers that preclude educational attainment are

some of the greatest concerns within the two-year sector of higher education. The mission

of community colleges has expanded from one of preparing students for transfer into

baccalaureate degree granting institutions to a complex concept recognizing the needs of

diverse student populations (Baker, 1994). Community colleges are adaptive

organizations within a framework of the United States’ higher educational system. These

institutions were founded on a commitment to inventing programs of study designed to

foster the needs and expectations of a particular segment of society. Traditionally,

community colleges have prescribed to an open enrollment philosophy, which means

they are not required to follow the norms of admissions examinations or high school

grades when considering a student for admission. In addition to open admissions

standards, community colleges have stood for geographic proximity and relative financial

affordability to the region being served (Baker, 1994).

Community colleges have transformed themselves since their establishment

beginning in1835 when private academies with elements of both secondary and

postsecondary curricula were created (Boggs & Cater, 1994). These early academies

established an educational foundation by incorporating transfer, vocational, and terminal

degree programs including teachers’ colleges as well as institutions for women and

African Americans (Boggs & Cater, 1994). Curriculum reform became an important

issue for North American educators in the latter part of the nineteenth century in light of a
 10

growing population and increasing demands on the existing system. This concern led a

group (regarded as the founders of the junior college movement - Henry Tappan, W.W.

Folwell, Edmund James, and William Rainey Harper) – to argue that universities should

focus on upper division and professional curricula (Boggs & Cater, 1994).

A significant historical event in the development of community colleges in the

United States began when Joliet Junior College in Joliet, Illinois became the first publicly

funded junior college in 1901. The historical events that led up to this establishment

began with the Panic of 1894, which resulted in a serious decline in U.S. economy

prohibiting the redemption of silver for gold. The recognition of this economic downturn

led many university leaders to consider the notion of two-year colleges (Baker, 1994).

The first leader to do so was Reverend J.M. Carroll, president of Baylor University at a

convention of Baptist Colleges. He insisted that there were too many small Baptist

institutions of higher education in Texas and Louisiana for the limited financial and

student support that was available. Reverend Carroll suggested that the smaller Baptist

colleges should reduce their curriculum to the first two years of study. Under this system,

Baylor would then accept the students by providing years three and four of the

baccalaureate degree (Baker, 1994).

After witnessing the reorganization transpiring in Texas and Louisiana, William

Rainey Harper, president of the University of Chicago, announced formal arrangements

to accept the first two years of study from denominational colleges in the area who

wished to reduce their curriculum to two years and send their students to university.

Founded in 1901 under this influence, Joliet Junior College in Illinois, is credited by the
 11

American Association of Community Colleges as being the oldest public junior college in

the United States (American Association of Community Colleges).

The idea of capitalizing on limited educational resources continued across the

country and extended into Wisconsin in 1904 with the creation of the Wisconsin Idea.

During this period, the University of Wisconsin declared the boundaries of the state as its

service district in an attempt to provide services to the general public. This movement is

typically what is recognized by community college leaders as the formation of

established community college service districts (American Association of Community

Colleges, 2007).

The American Association of Junior Colleges founded in 1920, currently named

the American Association of Community Colleges, continues to provide a countrywide

focus and general leadership for the nation’s plethora of two-year higher education

institutions; community, junior, and technical. In 1930, the association began publishing

its own scholarly journal; known as the Community College Journal (American

Association of Community Colleges).

During the 1940’s significant federal legislation was passed resulting in support

and enrollment growth for the nation’s two-year colleges. The passage of the GI Bill of

Rights in 1944 allowed educational benefits for more than 2.2 million veterans, including

approximately 60,000 women and 70,000 Blacks, many of which enrolled in community

colleges due to their open enrollment admissions policies (Goodchild & Wechsler, 1989).

Then in 1947, President Truman’s Commission on Higher Education, was charged with

the task of defining the responsibilities of colleges and universities in American

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democracy and in international affairs. More significantly, the commission was asked to

reexamine the objectives, methods, and facilities of higher education in the United States

in light of the social role it has to play (Goodchild & Wechsler, 1989). In their report

know as the Truman Commission Report, the commission popularized the phrase

community college, causing hundreds of existing and new public two-year colleges to

include community in their names.

The number of community colleges has steadily grown since the 1960’s. At

present, there are 1,173 public and independent community colleges in the United States.

When the branch campuses of community colleges are included, the number totals about

1,600 (American Association of Community Colleges, 2007). Today, community

colleges educate more than half the United States’ undergraduates. In the 1996-97

academic year, 9.3 million people took courses for academic credit at community

colleges. Another 5 million took non-credit academic courses, the majority of which were

workforce-training courses. According to the American Association of Community

Colleges’ data, at least 100 million people have attended community colleges since 1991

(American Association of Community Colleges, 2007).

Background of the Study

Policies that encourage access to higher education for all students but fail to

recognize the need for guidance and resources that allow students to translate

participation into attainment are in many ways a waste of both public and personal

resources (Bowen, Kurzweil, & Tobin, 2005). Students from low socioeconomic

backgrounds are at a disadvantage when it comes to preparing to enter college. Bowen,

 13

Kurzweil, and Tobin (2005) indicate that students from high-income families are

encouraged to begin thinking about college at an early age. These students have the

financial resources required to participate in ACT/SAT preparation programs designed to

enhance their test scores. Differences in SAT scores associated with socioeconomic status

have widened noticeably over the last 16 years according to the College Board (Bowen et

al., 2005, p. 80). Students whose parents have only a high school diploma earn scores that

are 200 points lower than the scores of students whose parents have earned a graduate

degree (Bowen et al., 2005).

This study will focus on one specific program established on a two-year college

campus as a welfare-to-work program. The reason for selecting this study is to examine

whether or not the Athens County Retention Program (ACRP) at Hocking College in

Nelsonville, Ohio is assisting students from low socioeconomic backgrounds in obtaining

their educational goal. The historical background of community colleges is examined for

the purpose of understanding the conditions and environments that fostered the creation

of the concept of the community college sector within the hierarchy of higher education.

Additionally, the political, social, and economic circumstances are investigated in

relationship to their development of community college policies and their effect on

underprivileged student populations. The appropriateness of this work is congruent with

the overall theme of assessing and evaluating access to higher education for students

from low socioeconomic backgrounds. The Athens County Retention Program at

Hocking College is examined in relationship to its linkage to the overall mission of

community colleges.
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Statement of the Problem

The statement of the problem for this dissertation is that a solution to ensuring equal

access to higher education for all students regardless of socioeconomic status has yet to

be instituted. Present day scholars, such as the 36 participants in The Fulbright New

Century Scholars Program: Higher Education in the 21st Century: Access and Equity, are

still debating how a gateway to higher education should be constructed in the United

States.

The economic status of students remains a powerful barrier to higher education

access; therefore, The Fulbright New Century Scholars Program selected 36 top

academics and professionals to collaborate in 2007-08 on the topic of higher education

access and equity. This significant issue is being examined comprehensively under three

thematic areas of study: the cultural and societal norms that affect access and equity; the

role of K-12 in limiting or advancing access to higher education; the resources and

policies that provide greater access to higher education (Fullbright new century program:

Higher education in the 21st century: Access and equity, 2007).

The key elements of this debate will be examined for the purpose of learning if social

programs designed to increase access to higher education for economically disadvantaged

students has had an impact since President Harry S. Truman placed this issue at the heart

of United States domestic policy in 1946.

In July of 1946, President Harry S. Truman established the President’s Commission

on Higher Education to examine the future of higher education. After a year and a half of

examining key issues such as:

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What policies would be most helpful to the expansion of educational opportunities?

How could higher education most effectively be organized to efficiently serve the

interests of returning World War II veterans?

What institutional forms would be most appropriate for handling the unprecedented

number of students seeking higher education?

The Commission released a landmark six-volume report entitled, Higher Education for

American Democracy. The report was a remarkably liberal document as it took a

populist stance on the fundamental issue of who should enter the Academy in that it

declared:

The Commission does not subscribe to the belief that higher education should be

confined to an intellectual elite, much less a small elite drawn largely from families in

the higher income brackets. Nor does it believe that a broadening of opportunity

means a dilution of standards either of admission or scholarly attainment in college

works (U.S. President's Commission 1948, vol. 3, p. 6).

In addition, the Truman Commission called for full equality of educational opportunity:

If the ladder of educational opportunity rises high at the doors of some youth and

scarcely rises at all at the doors of others, while at the same time formal education is

made a prerequisite to occupational and social advance, then education may become

the means, not of eliminating race and class distinctions, but of deepening and

solidifying them. It is obvious, then, that free and universal access to education, in
 16

terms of the interest, ability, and need of the student, must be a major goal in

American education (U.S. President's Commission 1948, vol. 3, p.6).

Research Questions

1. Are there significant differences in college entrance assessment placement,

between those students who participated in Hocking College’s Athens County

Retention Program and non-eligible students?

2. Are there significant differences in the campus living status of those students

who participated in the Athens County Retention Program and non-eligible

students?

3. Are there significant differences in graduation rates of those students who

participated in the Athens County Retention Program and non-eligible

students?

Research Hypothesis

The purpose of this work is to evaluate degree attainment rates based on the

association between participation and non-participation in the Athens County Retention

Program (hereafter, ACRP) at Hocking College. A comparison will be examined between

the students who participated in ACRP and non-eligible students for the purpose of

examining degree persistence. The research hypothesis for this study is that the Athens

County Retention Program at Hocking College provides a significant difference in degree

attainment for eligible students who partake in the program when compared to those

students who were non-eligible participants.

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Significance of the Study

This study will make an intellectual and practical contribution to the discourse in

higher education in Athens, Ohio and at Hocking College because it is the first research

to analyze the relationship between eligible and non-eligible participation in the ACRP

and degree attainment at Hocking College. The research in this study focuses on

participant and non-participation degree attainment rates for a specific target population,

ASSETT/COMPASS entrance examination placement, and on-campus living status.

Additionally, the significance of this work is to make a contribution to community

college research by examining if programs such as ACRP are contributing to access to

higher education for students from low socioeconomic backgrounds.

Limitations of the Study

The researcher has worked at Hocking College for over eight years, presenting

delimitation with regard to impartiality. Being objective to what this researcher has

worked on related to curriculum modifications and course delivery methods will have

limitations. Additionally, the research and results are specific to Hocking College and not

generalizable to the larger two-year college sector. For the purpose of this research,

degree attainment will be used when analyzing the data. This analysis could lead the

research to assume students not obtaining a degree failed to reach their educational goal.

Students in this research study could have reached their educational goal through

certification completion rather than degree attainment.

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Delimitations of the Study

This research is limited in scope as it examines only one two-year college and the

ACRP which is only available to students residing in Athens Country who are full PELL

Grant eligible. An additional delimitation is that not all students in the two data set

groups completed the entire ASSETT/COMPASS placement test. This resulted in

missing data being defined in SPSS output tables. Missing data was not factored into to

overall analysis.

Definition of Terms

The following terms have a specialized and/or restricted meaning within this

study:

ACRP. Acronym used to identify the Athens County Retention Program at

Hocking College, Nelsonville, Ohio.

ADFP. Acronym used to identify Aid to Dependent Families Program.

AFDC. Acronym used to identify Aid to Families with Dependent Children

Program.

Aid to Dependent Families Program. Aid to Families with Dependent Children

(AFDC) was established by the Social Security Act of 1935 as a grant program to enable

states to provide cash welfare payments for needy children who had been deprived of

parental support or care because their father or mother was absent from the home,

incapacitated, deceased, or unemployed (Aid to families with dependent children (AFDC)

and temporary assistance for needy families (TANF)).

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Aid to Families with Dependent Children Program. Aid to Families with

Dependent Children (AFDC) was the name of a federal assistance program in effect from

1935 to 1997, which was administered by the United States Department of Health and

Human Services. This program provided financial assistance to children whose families

had low or no income. The program was created under the name Aid to Dependent

Children (ADC) by the Social Security Act of 1935 (Aid to families with dependent

children).

Barrier. Barrier refers to any condition that makes it difficult to make progress or

to achieve an objective.

Community College. Community College refers to a two-year traditional school,

offering programs leading to an associate degree and, typically, many noncredit courses

in arts, crafts, and vocational fields for community members not seeking a degree. These

institutions are also called junior colleges, and/or two-year colleges

(www.netnet.org/students/students%20glossary.htm).

Curriculum. A curriculum is composed of those classes prescribed or outlined by

an institution for completion of a program of study leading to a degree or certification.

(www.pueblocc.edu/students/terms.htm).

Educational Attainment. Educational attainment refers to the highest level of

school completed or highest degree received. For persons who attended school beyond

high school, highest degree is recorded, rather than years in college (Federal interagency

forum on aging-related statistics)

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Expected Family Contribution (EFC). Expected family contribution is the amount

of money a student and his or her family is expected to pay toward the cost of attending

college. EFC is determined according to a federal formula that considers family size,

income, assets, and other variables (University of Michigan news service).

Low income. Families and children are defined as low income or poor if family

income is below the federal poverty threshold. The federal poverty level for a family of

four with two children was $21,200 in 2008, $20,650 in 2007, and $20,000 in 2006

(National center for children in poverty).

Pell Grant. The Federal Pell Grant Program provides need-based grants to low-

income undergraduate and certain post baccalaureate students to promote access to

postsecondary education. Students may use their grants at any one of approximately

5,400 participating postsecondary institutions. Grant amounts are dependent on: the

student's expected family contribution (EFC) (see below); the cost of attendance (as

determined by the institution); the student's enrollment status (full-time or part-time); and

whether the student attends for a full academic year or less. The maximum Pell Grant

award for the 2008-09 award year (July 1, 2008 to June 30, 2009) is $4,731. (U.S.

department of education federal pell grant program)

Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act. The 1996

Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act (PRWOR) also known

as the 1996 Welfare Reform Act, was signed in to law on August 22, 1996, by President

Bill Clinton. The Act is described by the U.S. Government as "a comprehensive

bipartisan welfare reform plan that will dramatically change the nation's welfare system
 21

into one that requires work in exchange for time-limited assistance. The law contains

strong work requirements, a performance bonus to reward states for moving welfare

recipients into jobs, state maintenance of effort requirements, comprehensive child

support enforcement, and supports for families moving from welfare to work -- including

increased funding for child care and guaranteed medical coverage (Source watch).

PRWORA. Acronym used to identify Personal Responsibility and Work

Opportunity Reconciliation Act.

Socioeconomic Status. Socioeconomic statue refers to a measure of an individual

or family’s relative economic and social ranking

(http://nces.edu.gov/programs/coe/glossary/s.asp).

TANF. Acronym used to identify Temporary Assistance for Needy Families

program.

Temporary Assistance for Needy Families Act. The Temporary Assistance for

Needy Families (TANF) program provides cash assistance to low-income families with

children while they strive to become self-sufficient. The program's goal is to reduce the

number of families living in poverty, through employment and community resources.

To qualify for TANF, families must have very few assets and little or no income. The

current maximum monthly benefit for a family of three is $528 (Temporary assistance

for needy families (TANF)).

Underprivileged. Underprivileged refers to denied access by restrictive economic

or social conditions to the fundamental privileges or rights to which all members of a

society are entitled (www.embassy.org.nz/encycl/u1ency.htm).

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The aforementioned terms will appear throughout this study. The reader may refer

to this section when clarification and/or understanding the meaning and use of terms is

required.

The organization of this study will begin by a literature review of relevant

writings related to the main topical areas relevant to this research. Next, a theoretical

framework will be presented and explained as it is integrated into the scope of the

research study. Finally, the results of the data will be presented along with a summary,

conclusions, and suggestions for further research.

.
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CHAPTER TWO

Literature Review

The literature review will concentrate on five significant areas:

• Overview of Higher Education in the Unites States

• Appalachian History and Regional poverty.

• Access to Higher Education.

• Effects of the Welfare System on Women and Children in the United States

• Vincent Tinto and College Student Retention

Overview of Higher Education in the United States

A major contributor to research on the history of community colleges in the

United States is the edited work by George A. Baker III; A Handbook on the Community

College in America: Its History, Mission, and Management published in 1994. With

assistance from technical editors, Judy Dudziak and Peggy Tyler, Baker’s legendary 650

page volume enlists the expertise of scholars across the country to devise one of the most

comprehensive historical references on the establishment, operation, and leadership of

community colleges in the United States. Baker’s wide-ranging book is segmented into

ten parts. This design allows the reader to take advantage of the chapters as reference

tools or one may digest the entire volume for the most in-depth analysis available in a

single literary work.

Baker’s work suggests that the two-year sector of higher education is owed a

comprehensive analysis designed to engage considerate dialogue about the existence of

 24

these institutions. A Handbook on the Community College in America: Its History,

Mission, and Management is a well thought-out and important scholarly work due to the

fact that Baker enlisted contributing authors who are considered experts in their

respective fields of study. Baker selected the authors not only as a representation of

community college leadership, but also to ensure voices and opinions from different

cultural and regional perspectives were documented for further intellectual consumption.

An advantage of community college leaders having access to A Handbook on the

Community College in America: Its History, Mission, and Management is that is provides

a guide to understanding how the future of this segment of the higher education system

was predicted and evaluated.

A Handbook on the Community College in America: Its History, Mission, and

Management engages the reader by moving chronologically through the initial

developments of community colleges in the United States to what the authors believe are

future developments for this segment of higher education. This important literature

contribution covers significant topics such as: historical development of the community

college; mission and functions; curriculum and instructional development; leadership and

management; resource development; human resource management; community college

faculty; student development; external forces; the future of community colleges (Baker,

1994).

Lester F. Goodchild and Harold S. Wechsler’s ASHE Reader Series The History

of Higher Education has been cited by scholars as one of the most important literary
 25

reference tools for anyone studying higher education or practicing in the field. This

edited work is the most comprehensive collection of essays devoted to the history of

higher education in the United States. Over 50 professionals contributed their syllabi,

articles, and books for the publication of this books second edition in addition to

contributions from the Association for the Study of Higher Education (ASHE) Reader’s

Advisory Board (Goodchild & Wechsler, 1989).

The scope of historical events that have helped shape American higher education

is as fascinating as it is overwhelming. The History of Higher Education is designed to

introduce readers to the legacy of higher education by guiding their understanding of the

subject through simplistically organizing the edited book in a chronological manner. The

layout and design of essays allows the book to be read cover to cover for a

comprehensive study or used as reference material when precise topical areas are being

researched.

Goodchild and Wechsler begin their in-depth historical study with an examination

of colonial higher education in America, 1539-1789. In this section, the contributing

authors present essays focusing on higher education governance in the mid-eighteenth

century, education for Native Americans, and the transition from tutor to academic

professionals. Additionally, the influence of the Scottish Enlightenment is discussed

primarily associated with the Presbyterian academies and the College of New Jersey

(Sloan, 1989). Concluding part one, Kathryn Moore provides the reader with a glance

into life at Harvard during the eighteenth century. The author states that “life during the

eighteenth century at Harvard was characterized by a developing consciousness of

 26

student freedom on the one hand and by an increasing elaboration of student governance

procedures on the other (Moore, 1989). Her essay allows the reader to understand the

historical circumstances that lead up to Harvard’s campus turmoil of the 1960s and the

rationale behind establishing student government policies.

After the colonial period, the authors present a section of essays devoted to higher

education from 1790-1860, also known as the Antebellum Period in American records.

The antebellum colleges and academies “offered education whose primary function was

to distinguish certain members of the society as superior to the mass” (Church & Sedlak,

1989). Although tuition during this period of time was relatively minimal, students and

their families had to adjust their lifestyles as the student typically refrained from pursing

employment during their years of study. In the antebellum period students did not live on

campus, however, the college and academies closely disciplined their lives by placing

them in boarding houses where what they ate, how they dressed, and what they could do

with their free time was constantly monitored (Church & Sedlak, 1989). One approved

activity that students were required to participate in was attendance at chapel services.

Progressing through the antebellum period, the editors include a contributing

essay on the Dartmouth College Case. The Dartmouth College Case of 1819 was a

historical event in the field of higher education as the decision by the Supreme Court

encouraged the establishment of private colleges by protecting them from state

encroachment (Whitehead & Herbst, 1989). Whitehead and Herbst (1989) argue that at

the close of the case, there was not a clear private/public distinction. After winning the

case, Dartmouth College trustees asked the New Hampshire legislature to pay for the
 27

legal fees they incurred in fighting the state (p. 163). According to Whitehead and Herbst

(1989), throughout the 1820’s Dartmouth offered state representation on its board of

trustees in exchange for financial support (Whitehead & Herbst, 1989). At the conclusion

of the essay, they argue that there was very little evidence that states paid any more

attention or accepted any greater responsibilities for the so-called state universities than

for the denominational colleges in their boundaries (Whitehead & Herbst, 1989).

Patricia A. Palmieri (1989) discusses arguments related to the role of women in

higher education through three periods of America’s history: the Romantic period (1820-

1860), the Reform era (1860-1890), and the Progressive era (1890-1920). Palmieri’s

essay seeks to present evidence toward an answer to the question of why women’s higher

education has perennially been conceptualized as a revolutionary experiment The author

presents a comprehensive contribution to The History of Higher Education as she

transforms the reader back in time to various periods for a greater understanding of the

struggles women have endured in the pursuit of equality of education.

The concluding sections of Goodchild and Wechsler’s edited work focuses on

higher education in the first half of the twentieth century and examines trends that

surfaced related to the educational system following World War II. One notable article

related to this dissertation study and the impact of community college campuses is

presented by Robert T. Pedersen. The author articulates that the community college

campuses are presented with an identity crisis as they struggle to define their institutional

purpose as well as their place in the American higher education system (Pedersen, 1989).

Pedersen states that a lack of consensus from the major stake holders within the
 28

organization regarding its overall mission and purpose, inevitably leads to a conflict

between those in charge of carrying out stated purposes (Pedersen, 1989).

Community college values and purposes have historically been the subject of

debate, which Pedersen clearly articulates for the reader. The author illustrates that

within the last two decades the question of institutional ideology has divided the literature

into two fundamentally opposed sides of the isle. One side of the debate finds those

scholars who are identified as “critics” such as Clark, Zwerling, and Karabel (Pedersen,

1989). For these scholars, “the egalitarian rhetoric of community college leaders only

masks their institutions’ true social mission: the diversion of socially and economically

disadvantaged students away from the baccalaureate and into vocational programs,

leading to careers of inferior status and limited opportunity” (Pedersen, 1989). The

foundational message of this debate position is that community college leadership has

partnered with elite individuals to ensure that access to higher education is designed for

advantaged students rather than disadvantaged students.

The other side of the debate is represented more positively by scholars such a

Medsker, Gleazer, and Parnell (1989). As a group, “they extol its success as a

democratizer of access and as the principle means by which higher education has been

brought within the reach of virtually all Americans”(Pedersen, 1989). The underpinnings

of this argument were formed by the notion that two-year colleges were the best hope the

nation had for providing access to higher education for a much wider segment of society.

Pedersen (1989) lays claim to the fact that the community college system was founded as

a response to “redress the grievances brought about by the practices of elitists or

 29

meritocratic educational systems” (Pedersen, 1989). He reminds the reader that value

conflicts existing on community college campuses are critical issues which must be

addressed by the organizations administration. If such differences are ignored, it is likely

that the students and communities will be directly affected.

Finally, as this dissertation is examining access to higher education for

economically disadvantaged students, an important essay to include in this literature

review is a contribution in The History of Higher Education written by Janet C. Kerr.

From Truman to Johnson: Ad Hoc Policy Formulation in Higher Education examines

what authority and influence ad hoc or task force groups had in influencing higher

education policies in the White House. The focus of her work revolves around the 1946

Commission on Higher Education and the 1956 Committee on Education Beyond the

High School (Kerr, 1989).

The 1946 Commission on Higher Education was the initial idea of Donald

Kingsley and his assistant John Thurston as they began to examine educational needs for

the waves of veterans starting to enroll in college campuses across the country (Kerr,

1989). Membership for the commission was carefully deliberated and approved by the

White House although criticism for the selection, and non-selection process, of some

members reached President Truman’s office. Public outcries were heard over the

nomination of education activist and Washington Post journalist Agnes Meyer as her

strong opinions against Catholic education politics were well-known. Additionally,

critics were angry that only one person of color was offered a seat on the Commission

(Kerr, 1989). One person invited to serve on the Commission declined the invitation,
 30

Harold Dodds, President of Princeton. Eleanor Roosevelt withdrew after six months of

service stating that she “found it…impossible to give adequate time” to the work of the

Commission (Kerr, 1989).

The subcommittee for educational opportunity agonized for eight months over

trying to find a solution to segregation and discrimination in higher education. The main

struggle for the ad hoc committee was in deciding how far they should go in proposing

possible remedies for discriminatory and segregationist practices (Kerr, 1989). Other

subcommittees focused on (a) a general policy statement (b) recommendation for

reorganizing higher education and for developing statewide systems of tuition-free

community colleges (c) proposals for improving the quantity and quality of college

faculty and (d) proposals for a federal role in financing one-third of the capital outlay

needed to expand the public sector (Kerr, 1989).

After eighteen months of the Commission being formally established, Kerr

articulates that President Truman was not prepared to address the growing higher

education crisis facing the nation (p. 631). The Commission had envisioned a federal

program designed to provide scholarships for undergraduate students up to $800 a year

and $1,500 a year for graduate students to help up to 300,000 individuals pursue a college

education (Kerr, 1989). The Budget Office drafted a bill to include loans as part of a

program including scholarships, loans, and fellowship and were directed to keep the

language in the upcoming President’s budget message very general as he was worried

that it would have “adverse implications… upon general aid to education (Kerr, 1989).
 31

Kerr hypothesizes this was the reason that the bill was presented to Congress three

months after it was prepared.

An important statement is made at the conclusion of Kerr’s essay in support of the

initial question asked about the relevance of ad hoc and special task forces. John

Thurston is cited as stating that neither the White House nor the Budget Bureau, on the

President’s behalf, “made any strenuous effort to have the aid bill passed in Congress”

(Kerr, 1989). Kerr shares a final statement with the reader which indicated that the

Commission was created to educate the public, as well as the President, about the need to

provide education for returning veterans.

Another relevant literary work related to the history of community colleges in the

United States is Steven Brint and Jerome Karabel’s 1989 book: The Diverted Dream:

Community Colleges and the Promise of Educational Opportunity in America, 1900-

1985. The authors suggest their work explores not only community college growth, but

also its transformation. Depending on personal beliefs, readers many find the authors

philosophical view a draw back to their work. Brint and Karabel are committed to the

ideal of an educational system that is dedicated to the cultivation of a democratic

citizenry rather than the production of skilled workers for the purpose of economic

growth (Brint & Karabel, 1989). This principle may also be an advantage of the work for

those readers who support the author’s theoretical view.

The authors begin to place the importance of community colleges in perspective

by sharing with the reader that at the time the book was published, over 4 million

students were enrolled in over 900 public two-year colleges among the fifty states (Brint
 32

& Karabel, 1989). Additionally, the authors illustrate that according to U.S. Department

of Education statistics, almost 54 percent of the nation’s first-time college freshmen were

enrolled in a two-year college (p. v.). These two statements are the catalyst for the

authors’ work in which they share with the reader the impact that community colleges

have made on the nation from 1900-1985.

In The Diverted Dream: Community Colleges and the Promise of Educational

Opportunity in America, 1900-1985 Brint and Karabel explore a variety of political,

social, and economic forces that have transformed the two-year sector of postsecondary

education into a viable option. Their work focuses on key concepts and questions that

allow the reader to have a holistic understanding of how both internal and external factors

guided the creation and transformation of these institutions. They investigate the

following intellectual questions in their quest to share their findings: What were the

forces that brought the two-year college into being? What factors explain the initially

regional character of its growth and later its national diffusion? What were the sources of

its transformation in recent years from an institution oriented to the provision of college-

level transfer courses into one that is predominantly vocational in character? What is its

place in the larger system of higher education? What can its development tell us about the

character of the larger society of which it is a part? (Brint & Karabel, 1989).

The next literature being examined following an overview of higher education in

the United States will be relevant literature focusing on Appalachian history and the

symptoms of poverty that have plagued the region. This literature is important to this
 33

study as the Athens County Retention Program was developed to assist students from one

Appalachian area, Athens County, Ohio as they progress toward a college degree.

Appalachian History and Regional Poverty

An important resource for anyone wishing to understand Appalachian history,

economics, education, and regional population data is the Appalachian Regional

Commission Online Resource Center. The Appalachian Regional Commission was

created through the support of two U.S. Presidents, John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B.

Johnson. The movement to bring political attention to the excessive poverty conditions

rampant in the Appalachian region began in 1960 with the establishment of the

Conference of Appalachian Governors (Appalachian Regional Commission online

resource center). Three years after the inaugural meeting, President Kennedy created a

federal-state committee know as the President’s Appalachian Regional Commission

(PARC). PARC was responsible for creating a comprehensive economic development

plan for the Appalachian Region (Appalachian Regional Commission online resource

center).

Subsequent to President Kennedy’s support, President Johnson and the legislature

signed into law the Appalachian Regional Development Act (ARDA) on March 9, 1965

(Appalachian Regional Commission online resource center). The Appalachian Regional

Commission provides funding for projects in the Appalachian Region with goals related

to (1) increasing job opportunities in Appalachia; (2) strengthening the competitive edge

of Appalachian people in the global economy; (3) increasing the regions infrastructures to
 34

make the area economically competitive; (4) building the Appalachian Development

Highway System (Appalachian Regional Commission online resource center).

The Appalachian Regional Commission Online Resource Center provides

researchers with comprehensive detailed information about the region ranging from

geographic data to economic statistics. An overview of the geographic area of Appalachia

is provided on www.arc.gov in the form of maps, charts, and narratives allowing the

reader to select the required data in a form that best serves their purpose. The site

provides the reader with an inclusive geographic depiction of the region. Appalachia is an

area 200,000 square-miles along the base of the Appalachian Mountains from southern

New York to northern Mississippi. According to the Appalachian Regional Commission,

the Region includes the entire state of West Virginia and sections of 12 other states:

Alabama, Georgia, Kentucky, Maryland, Mississippi, New York, North Carolina, Ohio,

Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia. This vast area is comprised of

410 counties where approximately 23 million Americans consider their home

(Appalachian Regional Commission online resource center).

Another important feature of the Appalachian Regional Commission Online

Resource Center is the section dedicated to regional economics. This segment provides

statistical data associated with poverty rates, per capita income, employment, education,

and population trends. According to this source, in 1965, one in three Appalachians lived

in poverty but by 1990 that poverty rate was cut in half. Approximately 42 percent of the

Region’s population is rural and data from the 1990 Census indicates that in the rural

northern and southern Appalachian counties, the poverty rate was 16 percent compared to
 35

the national average of 13.1 percent (Appalachian Regional Commission online resource

center). However, the central section of Appalachia witnesses far worse economic

conditions with the 1990 Census data reporting a 27 percent poverty rate (Appalachian

Regional Commission online resource center).

An important section on the Appalachian Regional Commission Online Resource

Guide that relates to this dissertation is the educational trends information. According to

this report, the Region’s educational levels have improved since the 1960s. Although the

data reflects that in 1990 the share of people age 18-24 with 12 or more years of

schooling was slightly higher in Appalachia (77 percent) than in the U.S. (76 percent)

considerable education deficits remain (Appalachian Regional Commission online

resource center). One example which supports the data is that only 68 percent of central

Appalachian students are receiving their high school diploma and only 68.4 percent of

adults 25 years and older are high school graduates, compared with 75.2 percent for the

United States (Appalachian Regional Commission online resource center).

Additionally, since the focus of this dissertation is to examine a specific

educational program designed to assist students from Athens County in obtaining a

college degree, the Athens County, Ohio socioeconomic data available on the

Appalachian Regional Commission Online Recourse Guide is invaluable. The 1990 and

2000 Census population data including personal income, unemployment percentages,

poverty rates, educational attainment, and economic status data is presented in a clear and

concise manner. The data from the 2000 Census reflects that 82.9 percent of adults in

Athens County have a high school diploma, however only 25.7 percent of adults have
 36

earned college degrees (Appalachian Regional Commission online resource center). A

contributing factor to the 2000 low college graduate rate could be that in Athens County

14,728 people were living below the poverty line with a per capita income of $19,885

(Appalachian Regional Commission online resource center). These figures represent the

need for affordable college education that is accessible to the students and their families

represented in the 2000 Census data.

The study conducted by Dwight Billings, Professor of Sociology and Associate

Director of the Appalachian Center at the University of Kentucky, and Kathleen Blee,

Professor of Sociology and Director of the Women’s Studies Program at the University

of Pittsburg is an important scholarly contribution to the study of Appalachian poverty.

Their book The Road to Poverty: The Making of Wealth and Hardship in Appalachia

engages the reader on a quest as the authors seek to uncover the systematic problems and

patterns of poverty by investigating the political, economic, and social development of

Clay County, Kentucky in Central Appalachia. The authors suggest that capitalist

markets, state coercion, and cultural strategies interact to impact local society. This is an

important work as it illustrates how poverty in one rural Appalachian county develops

and remains. The significance of The Road to Poverty: The Making of Wealth and

Hardship in Appalachia is that it allows the reader to understand the strangle hold

poverty places on rural communities and the impact America’s capitalist society has on

millions of people.

Billings and Blee argue that one in four children in rural America live in poverty,

a rate that is fifty percent higher than in urban areas across the country (Billings & Blee,
 37

2000). The authors chose to focus their study primarily in Central Appalachia because

they believe this section of America illustrates prime examples of public policy

breakdowns allowing them to highlight the abject poverty each failure perpetuates.

According to the authors, the issue of chronic low income is as pervasive today as it was

in 1964, when President Lyndon B. Johnson visited Kentucky and announced his famous

War on Poverty (Billings & Blee, 2000). The Road to Poverty: The Making of Wealth

and Hardship in Appalachia seeks to discover the underlying factors which lead to the

development of poverty. Additionally, the work focuses on unearthing evidence that will

help articulate why poverty remains in this rural Appalachian county.

In order to address the issues of how poverty was developed and why it remains

in Central Appalachia, the authors analyzed the areas historical background in an attempt

to gain a broader perspective of the residents of Clay County. The book is organized in a

manner which allows that reader to understand the transformation that the area has

undergone over the past century. The authors also strive to eliminate certain stereotypical

views of Appalachian people. One such perception is that Appalachia’s chronic poverty

is due to the fact that the area is an isolated and backwards economy (Billings & Blee,

2000). However, Billings and Blee dispel this notion by illustrating that Appalachia was

never isolated from the world market system, rather its integration into the larger

economic systems played a role in maintaining poverty levels (Billings & Blee, 2000).

The Road to Poverty: The Making of Wealth and Hardship in Appalachia

attempts to separate for the reader facts from commonly held opinions regarding the

reasons for chronic poverty in Central Appalachia. In their attempt, the authors examine
 38

industry and commerce of antebellum Clay County in order to prove that the society was

vastly unequal. This finding contrasts the belief that the preindustrial mountain society

was egalitarian and homogeneous (Billings & Blee, 2000). Additionally, the authors

claim that few stereotypes of Appalachia are as entrenched as the notion that the

ineffectiveness and corruption of modern mountain politics are rooted in frontier

lawlessness and individualism (Billings & Blee, 2000). The authors examine how the

connection between commerce and the state led to a stunted civic culture and local

government corruption (Billings & Blee, 2000).

Billings and Blee conclude their work by presenting what they believe to be

critical lessons related to policymaking in rural America. They cite that Appalachia’s

road to rural poverty shows (1) that market-driven development is not a panacea for poor

regions; (2) that even impoverished regions have rich social capital resources that must

be preserved and enhanced; (3) that the local state is not simply a passive reflection of

economic conditions, but a significant factor in its own right in shaping the course of

rural social development; and, most generally, (4) that a long-term viewpoint in

institutional legacies is crucial for understanding the challenge of persistent poverty

(Billings & Blee, 2000).

A significant edited book suitable for an audience of scholars, students, or the

casual reader interested in understanding the Appalachian Region is A Handbook to

Appalachia: An Introduction to the Region edited by Grace Edwards, JoAnn Asbury, and

Ricky Cox (2006). The authors collected essays and photographs from thirteen different

academic perspectives for the purpose of comprising a book that provides introductory
 39

views of the region in a succinct format. Each of the essays may be read independently

as resource material on broader Appalachian studies or the reader may delve into every

chapter for a comprehensive chronological understanding of the history and culture of

Appalachia. This work is important for the reason that the authors recognize no single

book could ever explain every single aspect of Appalachian history and culture.

Therefore, this edited work represents a collection of introductory essays presented by

scholars with varying academic views allowing the reader to sample a plethora of topics

related to understanding the Appalachian Region. The significance of A Handbook to

Appalachia: An Introduction to the Region is that the essays provide just enough

introductory information that the reader is left to wonder how the rest of the story unfolds

prompting further exploration.

A number of essays in A Handbook to Appalachia: An Introduction to the Region

focus on the common misconception that Appalachian people are homogeneous. The

reader discovers that in fact those living in Appalachia are of mixed race and ethnic

backgrounds similar to the diverse populations found in any rural or urban city in the

United States (Edwards, Asbury, & Cox, 2006). Although the regional population shares

similar ethnic backgrounds to other areas of the country, the authors suggest that it is the

Appalachian people’s cultural heritage, characteristics, natural resources, and the

economic conditions of the region that distinguishes Appalachia from any other place on

earth (Edwards et al., 2006). “Appalachia is a place, a people, an idea, a culture, and it

exists as much in the mind and imagination as on the map” (Straw, 2006).
 40

The most relevant essays related to the topic for this dissertation focuses on the

issues of Appalachian history, its economy, and education. In an attempt to place into

perspective the sequence of events that have lead to the development of the Appalachian

Region, Robert Shaw’s essay Appalachian History appropriately sets the stage for the

rest of the topics covered by other contributing authors. Shaw takes the reader back to the

beginning by introducing the notion that Native Americans had been living in the

Appalachian Mountains for about three thousand years (Straw, 2006). The Iroquois

Indians dominated the landscape as early as 1300 B.C. and divided into two tribes who

farmed and hunted off the land, the northern Iroquois and the southern Cherokees (Straw,

2006).

According to Straw, the Indians lifestyle remained largely uninterrupted until the

period 1700 to 1761 when the conflict between the European colonizers accelerated. The

number of Whites on the Appalachian frontier grew rapidly after 1761, when the British

defeated the Cherokees (Straw, 2006). According to Straw, the earliest immigrants from

Europe to the Appalachian Region were from the German and Scot-Irish populations

from eastern Pennsylvania. Descendents of these early families continued to explore

other areas of Appalachia as they settled in western Virginia, western North Carolina,

upper Tennessee, and along the Ohio River (Straw, 2006).

The dominant stereotypes of Appalachia which were formed during the

industrialization era was that mountain people were noble and savage, independent,

proud, rugged, violent, uneducated, yet crafty and practical (Straw, 2006). Additionally,

the men were thought to be lazy drunks who found energy to produce large families
 41

rather than work. Writers who offered a glimpse into a life that was literally exotic, were

largely responsible for the image given to the Appalachian people. Due to the publication

of their stories and newspaper articles, Appalachia began to be seen and thought of as a

region in stark contrast to the progressive, urban culture of the rest of America (Straw,

2006).

The early industrialization of the Region centered on the growing need for coal in

the United States. Although most of the economic problems facing Appalachia were also

being experienced across the country, such as the loss of family farms, some were unique

to the area. The soft-coal mining industry in the coal counties of West Virginia,

Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia set the Region apart from the rest of the country

(Shannon, 2006). In the mid nineteenth century, most families operated farms smaller

than two hundred acres where livestock, corn, oats, and wheat were produced and used in

trade to financially support the family.

A number of technological and economic changes from 1870 – 1930 set the stage

for the economic transformation of much of Appalachia (Shannon, 2006). The improving

railroads were now using powerful steam engines to pull long trains filled with coal and

other bulk commodities, such as timber, up long mountain grades. This allowed a greater

amount of Appalachian goods to reach the East and Midwest where urbanization was

creating a huge market for coal for fuel and timber for construction (Shannon, 2006).

Coal mining technology also improved to the point that large-scale, deep-shaft mining

became possible (Shannon, 2006) . The result in Appalachia was increased railroad
 42

construction and families purchasing land for the purpose of profiting from timber and

mineral rights.

By the beginning of the twentieth century, the economic landscape of Appalachia

had changed dramatically. Coal counties which were once single family plots of land

were now transformed into mining towns established by coal companies. Additionally,

the small family farms and land holdings were virtually eliminated as large corporations

either purchased the land or took over the mineral rights through acquisition (Shannon,

2006). Since the mining industry was subject to extreme boom or bust cycles as demand

for coal increased or decreased in the national economy, the lifestyles of Appalachian

families were constantly affected by these trends.

Shannon illustrates that one of the most important results of industrialization in

Appalachia was its negative impact on the long-term economic health of the Region.

None of the Appalachia industries encouraged rival or spin-off economic development

during their boom years. The effect was sporadic economic growth without real

economic development. Benefits throughout the region were not realized from the

spectacular profits earned by largely absentee-owned corporations; when the boom

periods ended or when technological changed occurred, Appalachia was largely left

wanting for jobs and future economic prospects (Shannon, 2006).

The final essay reviewed in A Handbook to Appalachia: An Introduction to the

Region is Education in Appalachia is by Sharon Teets. Teets begins her essay by

illustrating for the reader that communicating about getting an education can sometimes

lead to misconceptions. Her philosophy is that when people say “it’s important to get a
 43

good education” or “I want to get an education before I start my family” they are

misusing the term education which, literally means “drawing out” (Teets, 2006). The

author states that rather than an end product, education is a lifelong process that allows

individuals to continue to grow in their capacity to reason, analyze, and interpret

situations as they progress thorough life. Teets essay focuses on the foundation of

educational institutions in Appalachia: schools, colleges, and universities.

The formation of early nineteenth century Appalachian schools followed the trend

of the nation where children were home schooled and then transitioned into one room

school houses for elementary school children as the population increased (Teets, 2006).

These small one-room school houses remained integral parts of Appalachian society well

into the twentieth century. For example, in 1904, Wilkes County in North Carolina

reported a total of seventy-four schools for white children and forty for Negro children

(Teets, 2006). Appalachian children were not subject to enforced attendance laws until

after the 1900s, more than fifty years after such laws were enacted in Massachusetts

(Teets, 2006). One of the first published accounts of public education in Appalachia

raised concern in the early 1900s when this published article appeared:

The Kentucky mountaineers are shut off from the inspiration to higher learning

that is found in the world of books. Isolation, poverty, sparsity of population, and

impassability of roads make an education difficult, if not impossible; the effect of

these conditions is to be seen in the large percent of illiterates in this section. Of

the women over twenty-five years old and men over forty, 80 percent can neither
 44

read nor write. It is quite the usual thing to meet men of clear, vigorous intellects

and marked capacity in practical affairs who cannot sign their own names.

(Teets, 2006)

As with other places in the nation, access to education in Appalachia differed for

the elite families and those children from poorer backgrounds. However, Teets states that

the mountain people were offered improved educational opportunities when the

missionary movement began in the early 1920s. The American Missionary Association,

which helped found schools that eventually became Berea College in Kentucky, are

credited with starting the major thrust for education in the Region (Teets, 2006). Also in

the early 1920s several denominations, including Methodists, Southern Baptists,

Presbyterian, Episcopalians, Seventh Day Adventists, and Disciples of Christ, all

supported mountain schools (Teets, 2006). Most of these early established schools were

designed to “save the mountain child from the errors of his background. His ignorance,

his accent and his values were seen as things to be “corrected”; his views “broadened”

under the guidance of books…and worthwhile things dignified by admission to the

curriculum tended to be things of value brought from the outside and imposed

paternalistically” (Teets, 2006).

The missionary movement also established formal educational places known as

settlement schools. These schools were primarily founded by women. Perhaps the best

known of these institutions is the Hindman Settlement School, which was established in

1902 (Teets, 2006). The settlement school was designed to be a community based

institution which provided cultural and educational activities to the entire community, not
 45

just the children (Teets, 2006). Settlement schools by nature sought to preserve

mountain culture by introducing various native cultural symbols in their curriculum. The

mountain dulcimer may be substituted for a banjo in a music class to encourage students

to learn a local instrument.

Settlement school founders often disregarded national issues of social and

economic inequalities. Many of the schools were often supported by the coal companies

and therefore they could not openly be critical of the injustices imposed on the workers in

the mines (Teets, 2006). Even though these schools were content to turn a blind eye to

the negative consequences of industrialization, Teets states that they provided adequate

academic training for children in the Region. The schools that initially provided

kindergarten eventually became boarding schools where older children from greater

distances could study. Settlement schools claimed to have promoted education to

children who would return to their homes to live and work, but in fact, they were the best

escape route for young people who wished to leave the Region (Teets, 2006).

Appalachian students wishing to continue their education beyond the twelfth

grade were likely to attend small private denominational institutions such as Berea

College in Berea, Kentucky; Berry College in Mount Berry, GA; or Alice Lloyd College

in Pippa Passes, Kentucky. The establishment of large, public universities in the

Appalachian region was enhanced by the passage of the Morrill Land Grant College Acts

in 1862 and 1890 (Teets, 2006). Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Clemson, West Virginia

University, West Virginia State, and the University of Tennessee all became beneficiaries

of the Land Grant Colleges Acts (Teets, 2006). The establishment of these institutions
 46

greatly extended educational opportunities for Appalachian children as the curriculum

expanded to eventually include graduate and professional programs.

Teets illustrates that the development of college and universities in the Region

continued to expand with the establishment of institutions designed specifically as normal

schools for the training of teachers. Institutions such as East Tennessee State in

Tennessee, Appalachian State University in North Carolina, and Western Carolina

University in North Carolina, Fairmount State University in West Virginia, Morehead

State University in Kentucky, and Radford University in Virginia. These institutions of

higher education were established specifically for the purpose of training teachers

although they later evolved into comprehensive universities offering both undergraduate

and graduate programs of study (Teets, 2006).

The next literature being examined following Appalachian region and struggles

with poverty will be relevant literature focusing on access to higher education. This

literature is important to this study as the Athens County Retention Program was

developed to provide access to higher education for students from one low-

socioeconomic group.

Access to Higher Education

The topic of access to higher education is widely discussed in a variety of articles,

books, and journals whose themes center around advanced educational opportunities for

students in the United States. One relevant book pertinent to this topic is the edited work

by Donald E. Heller, Conditions of Access: Higher Education for Lower Income

Students. The main foundation of Heller’s work is to illustrate a grave situation facing
 47

millions of students each year. The authors of this edited volume indicate that lower-

income students are graduating from high school academically prepared to enter college

but lack the financial resources to make their dreams of earning a college degree a reality.

This source is important because it forces the reader to recognize there are a

disproportionate number of lower-income students in higher education due to their

barriers being different than those students from more financially stable families. After

captivating the audience with the notion that inequalities exist, Conditions of Access:

Higher Education for Lower Income Students turns to highlighting how federal

committees and legislation have played a significant role in access to higher education.

The Advisory Committee on Student Financial Assistance issued a report entitled Access

Denied: Restoring the Nation’s Commitment to Equal Educational Opportunity (2001).

Heller’s work is significant in that it builds upon this report by examining the challenges

faced by policymakers, higher education institutions, students and their families, and

others in meeting the commitment to providing financial aid and other resources to the

country’s neediest students (Heller, 2002).

There are both advantages and drawbacks to Conditions of Access: Higher

Education for Lower Income Students. A drawback of this work is that the author’s

outlook of policy issues pertaining to higher education finance, access to college, and

overall affordability may be tainted with political bias. It is difficult for the reader to

assess each contributing author’s political views as they are not overtly presented.

However, one must be cognizant that political party affiliation may inadvertently cause

the author to analyze individual legislative policy issues through one particular lens over
 48

another. An advantage of Conditions of Access: Higher Education for Lower Income

Students is that the work concludes by presenting a forecast of demographics in the

United States for a fifteen year period. In the chapter titled The Demographic Window of

Opportunity: College Access and Diversity in the New Century, Anthony Carvevale and

Richard Fry state that the number of 18-24 year-olds, the traditional college age

population, will increase more than 16 percent by 2015, from 26 million to 30 million

youth (Heller, 2002). The purpose of their work is to analyze the potential effects of

increased costs and policy changes on lower-income and minority students entering

college across the nation.

Another source that is relevant to the study of access to higher education focuses

on the challenges of two-year colleges operating as open enrollment institutions. Marlene

Griffith and Ann Connor’s Democracy’s Open Door, The Community College in

America’s Future was published in 1994 because the authors were concerned that open

door policies were in jeopardy. Open enrollment policies within the nation’s two-year

college sector ensure that students regardless of age, gender, academic achievement, and

financial resources are eligible to earn a college degree. Griffith and Connor illustrate

how politics, funding models, and social conditions can have an effect on how two-year

colleges serve their student populations.

The premise for the creation of this source is that the authors are concerned open

door access is slowly slipping away unrecognized by leaders ranging from the higher

education community to those at the federal level. As part of their research, Griffith and

Connor cite examples to support this claim such as the creation of tests devised to restrict
 49

enrollment; increased tuition; request for ability to benefit from students before

enrollments are processed; and that program completion deadlines are shortened (Griffith

& Connor, 1994). The author’s sense of urgency regarding this topic comes from a

combined forty-nine years of experience working within the community college system.

They have witnessed how various political and social changes have affected their

students and decided the world must understand that slowly closing the door to

community college access will have devastating influences as it would undermine the

most democratic achievement of American higher education (Griffith & Connor, 1994).

Democracy’s Open Door, The Community College in America’s Future argues

that it is urgent for those concerned with higher education in the United States to

understand that community colleges are a vital part of the educational system that must

remain multi-functional. Through their work, the authors urge policy makers to recognize

the uniqueness of open door community colleges; urge those involved in community

college education to understand the significance of their roles; urge parents and high

school counselors to be aware of the education opportunities community colleges offer;

urge businesses and industries to collaborate with community colleges in establishing

classes and programs which provide renewable training and education; and urge local

citizens to support community college policymakers who are dedicated to the broad

missions of these college (Griffith & Connor, 1994).

This work is significant because it allows the reader to get to know two-year

college faculty members and students as they seek to justify the importance of

community colleges open door policies. The students represented in Democracy’s Open
 50

Door, The Community College in America’s Future articulate how attending a two-year

college has enhanced their lives while the faculty members experiences allow the reader

to understand the many challenges facing those who choose to enter the faculty ranks.

One of these tests is learning how to survive financially term by term as a part-time

faculty member of an institution striving to keep their overhead low by reducing the

number of full-time faculty contracts awarded (Griffith & Connor, 1994). These faculty

members are often employed at several institutions or are experts in their field of study

employed full-time outside of the college. The advantage that Griffith and Conner present

is that through the voices of two-year faculty and students, they have made a strong case

for the importance of open door policies at the nations two-year colleges.

William Tierney and Linda Serra Hagedorn analyze the topic of access to higher

education by entering into a conversation about increasing the quality of elementary and

secondary education as a pathway to college. In their edited work Increasing Access to

College: Extending Possibilities for all Students the authors’ suggest that a system of

educating secondary school age children in ways that are blind to ethnicity and income

status will directly benefit students as well as the greater society (Tierney & Hagedorn,

2002). This book was written to analyze historical policies and programs designed to

allow students to overcome barriers such as: (a) not having sufficient funds to pay for

college, (b) insufficient academic preparation, and (c) insufficient understanding of the

world of higher education (p.1).

The authors’ argue that the twenty-first century has not witnessed much progress

in moving from the theoretical concept of providing equal access to higher education for
 51

all students progressing from secondary school programs. The academic divide continues

to objectify students based on social class and ethnicity rather than providing an equal

starting point for educational advancement. Tierney and Hagedorn state the status quo is

unacceptable for the following reasons:

Those who would most directly benefit from a postsecondary education – low

income and minority youth are not receiving appropriate services.

Public secondary institutions increasingly are unwilling and/or unable to provide

services for remedial education; of consequence, effective college preparation programs

take on increased importance.

If the United States is to maintain a competitive edge in the present era of the

“global economy”, an educated workforce is more important than at any other time in our

history (p.2).

The collection of scholars contributing to Increasing Access to College:

Extending Possibilities for all Students draw the reader in by presenting comprehensive

historical overviews of a variety of policies and programs designed to better prepare

students for the academic and social challenges of college life. The book is divided into

three segments making the flow of information easy to comprehend as each policy or

program under review is better understood by reading the previous essay. Part I focuses

on the landscape of college access as it examines contributing factors which culminate in

a debate over why the gap is widening between those who go to college and which

college students succeed.

 52

An essay on the national perspective of pre-college outreach programs illustrates

that low-income, African American, and Native American populations continue to be

underrepresented at institutions of higher education relative to their representation in the

traditional college-age population (Swail & Perna, 2002). Swail and Perna argue that

even though billions of federal, state, and private funds have been allocated to minimize

the college degree attainment gap, they believe that a major barrier has been overlooked

resulting in the college enrollment gap sustaining itself. The authors establish that

traditional approaches to increasing college access, such as student financial aid

programs, have focused too narrowly on the issue of college enrollment. This constricted

lens has prevented attention being drawn to the actual steps a student must take in order

to be academically, socially, and psychologically prepared to enter and become

successful in college (Swail & Perna, 2002).

The reader is reminded that stakeholders at a variety of levels are responsible for

improving college-going and completion-rates for the most disadvantaged students. Swail

and Perna begin placing accountability with the elementary and secondary school

systems as this is where educational foundations are established for future nurturing. The

college level is ultimately responsible for cultivating academic achievement and

encouraging its students to dedicate their learning in pursuit of a degree (Swail & Perna,

2002). The authors remind the reader that “success is ultimately dependent upon the

ability of our society at large to address inequalities that affect education and opportunity

for all groups” (Swail & Perna, 2002).

 53

Part II of Increasing Access to College: Extending Possibilities for all Students

allows the reader to become thoroughly engaged in examining college preparation

programs. Patricia Gándara illustrates the need to examine what she refers to as the

pipeline that leads to and through higher education for minority students. Her research

indicates that nationwide, 93.6 percent of Caucasian students in the 25-29 year old

category had received a high school diploma or GED certificate in 1998. However, this

figures was only 88.2 percent for African Americans, and 62.8 percent for Latinos

(Gándara, 2002). Gándara reminds the reader that even though college attendance has

increased from 6.9 million students to 14.3 million students between 1967 and 1997

according to a 1999 National Center for Education Statistics study, there is still progress

to be made. Students from different socioeconomic, racial, and ethnic backgrounds begin

their schooling behind their White classmates, making it difficult to shrink the gap that

has widened by the time they reach college (Gándara, 2002).

Gándara’s research suggests that smaller percentages of Blacks, Latinos, and

Native Americans are going to four year colleges and universities. African Americans

were only 11 percent of all college students in 1997-1998 while they comprised 14.3

percent of the college age population, and Latinos held only 8.6 percent of the seats in

higher education institutions, although they comprised 14.4 percent of the college-age

population (Gándara, 2002). Additionally, the author points out that college enrollment

rates also vary by family income and parents’ level of education. Among high income

students, 77 percent enroll in a four year college or university within two years of

graduating from high school, compared to only 33 percent of low-income students

 54

(Gándara, 2002). Likewise, 71 percent of students whose parents are college graduates

enroll in a four year institution, compared with only 26 percent of students whose parents

have no more than a high school diploma (Gándara, 2002). Gándara’s findings are

important as they illustrate a continuing need to level the educational playing field so

minority and economically disadvantaged students are equally presented a lifetime of

opportunity.

Increasing Access to College: Extending Possibilities for all Students is an

important contribution to the study of college access as demonstrated by the concluding

section. Tierney and Hagedorn’s closing section focuses on suggestions and policies for

the future. The authors in this final segment spotlight how to make secondary school to

college programs work through academics, goals, and student aspirations as well as

suggestions for family involvement in college preparatory programs. The closing essay is

penned by William G. Tierney where he provides suggestions for improving college

preparation programs. The reader is reminded of the repetitive point made throughout

Increasing Access to College: Extending Possibilities for all Students. Despite the

existence of special programs designed to assist urban, rural, and minority youth from

low-income areas to attain college degrees and subsequent occupational success, only a

small number will earn a bachelor’s degree or beyond (Hagedorn & Fogel, 2002).

Tierney concludes his contribution in a summation that encapsulates the essence

of what each contributing author has stated or inferred in their debates. He reminds the

reader the problems outlined in the book appear epidemic to well-intentioned programs

that are frequently underfunded and understaffed. He illustrates ways to improve program
 55

effectiveness by utilizing his five-point evaluation framework: maintain a database of a

constant entering cohort of underachieving students; develop a longitudinal comparative

database across organizations; use multiple measures of effectiveness; conduct one

discrete evaluation project per year; and create an ongoing schema for evaluating cost

and communicating effectiveness (Tierney, 2002).

Another important scholarly work focusing on higher education access is Equity

and Excellence in American Higher Education. This work traces and analyzes the history

of higher education from the American Revolution to the early Cold War years for the

purpose of examining the divide between excellence and equity in higher education. The

authors present empirical data and historical timelines as a holistic outlook on the topic of

equity and excellence across the segregated lines of gender, race, religion, ethnicity, and

socioeconomic status (Bowen, Kurzweil, & Tobin, 2005). Through their study of

nineteen selective colleges and universities Bowen, Kurzweil, and Tobin present their

recommendations for federal, state, and local agency actions designed to provide equity

while preserving excellence in America’s colleges and universities. This work is

significant to the study of access to higher education as it challenges the audience to

debate how the richest country in the world with the highest level of educational

attainment can allow the door to higher education to be shut on America’s poorest

citizens (Bowen et al., 2005).

The authors divide Equity and Excellence in American Higher Education into two

sections designed to provide the reader with a comprehensive historical perspective of the

establishment of American colleges and universities. Beginning with America’s

 56

Founding Fathers, there was a conviction that the stability of a republican form of

government would necessitate an educated society. In alignment with theoretical

concepts, Thomas Jefferson, founder of the University of Virginia, articulated in his

“diffusion bill” his belief that “every citizen should receive an education proportioned to

the condition and pursuits of his life” (Bowen et al., 2005). The assumption that the

laboring class would have little chance for social mobility was inherent in Jefferson’s bill.

However, in contrast to this distinction, the early19th century New England colleges

witnessed a significant number of men in their late 20’s whose fathers were farmers,

leave their family fields in pursuit of education destined to promote their social status and

family well-being. However, these students never represented more than about 1 percent

of college-age youth before the Civil War (Bowen et al., 2005).

The colleges and universities of the 19th century were primarily established to

educate the elite in ministry, law, and medicine. Evidence of this is reflected by selective

admission processes, tuition that was out of reach for working class families, and a rigid

class system. In the 1820s and 1830s, Columbia “remained a bastion of class privilege

catering to the city’s tiny reservoir of property holders, professionals, capitalists, and

creditors” (Bowen et al., 2005). Religious denominations founded nearly all of the

colleges in the first quarter of the 19th century. However, due to the expanse of religious

and ethnic heterogeneity, conflict among denominations, and the financial realities facing

each institution, two policies were introduced in an effort to attract more students:

students and faculty were no longer required to take religious tests, and non-

denominational religious tolerance was implemented (Bowen et al., 2005).

 57

Providing a comprehensive historic perspective of Jefferson’s position on

education and the missions of 19th century institutions is an advantage of Equity and

Excellence in American Higher Education. This groundwork allows the reader to form

an understanding of America’s higher education system from its core foundational

principles. With this perceptive, comes the ability to consider and investigate the

author’s argument related to why the gap between excellence and equity in higher

education is persisting rather than diminishing. Additionally, another advantage of Equity

and Excellence in American Higher Education is that the authors do not profess to have

solved the problem of access to higher education. They remind the reader that although

the American higher education system is envied by many leaders around the world, there

is still much work to be done to ensure students from low-income families have equal

access to college preparation courses. Not until this is achieved will America truly be the

land of opportunity for all regardless of gender, race, or socioeconomic status.

The next literature being examined following access to higher education will be

relevant literature focusing on the effects of the welfare system on women and children in

the United States. This literature is important to this study as the Athens County

Retention Program was developed to assist students from one Appalachian area, Athens

County, Ohio as they progress toward a college degree. Many families in this region

receive federal and/or state welfare assistance.

 58

Effects of the Welfare System on Women and Children in the United States

Trends in Welfare, Work and the Economic Well-Being of Female-Headed

Families with Children written by Thomas Gabe examines tends related to the creation of

Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) program. In 1996 the Personal

Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act (PRWORA) was signed into

law replacing the Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) program which

guided welfare policy for 61 years (Gabe, 2003). Gabe’s work is significant in that it

articulates trends that have affected the lives of women and children in the United States

since the Aid to Dependent Families (ADFP) program was replaced by the Temporary

Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) program.

According to Gabe, the replacement of ADFP with TANF represents a major

welfare policy shift. AFDC was designed to assist low-income single-parent families,

mostly headed by women (Gabe, 2003). Although the federal government established

program eligibility guidelines, each state had the flexibility to institute their own set of

benefit standards. Unlike AFDC, TANF became a federal grant program which provided

resources to the state. TANF also eliminated the federal entitlement to assistance that

existed under AFDC and gave states increased flexibility to run programs to assist needy

families with children (Gabe, 2003). The author points out that a major purpose of TANF

is to end dependence of needy families on government assistance by promoting job

preparation, work, and marriage (Gabe, 2003).

The author presents data from March 1988 to March 2000 obtained from the

Congressional Research Service (CRS) analysis of U.S. Bureau of the Census March
 59

Current Population Survey, the principle source of information for U.S. family income

and poverty statistics (Gabe, 2003). The number of single mothers in families reporting

receipt of cash increased from 2.5 million in 1989, to 3.4 million in 1993, an increase of

900,000 or 36% over a four year period (Gabe, 2003). The data gathered reflects an

increase in cash welfare receipt among single mothers during the late 1980s and early

1990s as well as a decrease in the mid-to-late 1990s. The author shares with the reader

data which reflects a trend in the number is single mothers who worked while receiving

cash welfare payments. According to Gabe’s research, from 1987 to 1993 almost 70% of

single welfare mothers worked during the time studied (Gabe, 2003). However, when the

data is reviewed for the purpose of determining if there was an increase in working single

mothers, CPS data reflects that an increase was present each year beginning in 1993 until

it reached 82% in 1999 (Gabe, 2003).

Trends in Welfare, Work and the Economic Well-Being of Female-Headed

Families with Children is a valuable resource for anyone interested in studying the

relationship between welfare policies and the impact they have on single mothers in the

United States. Gabe states that although poverty rates among single mothers has declined

in recent years, there is a greater chance that a poor single mother will be working, rather

than receiving cash welfare (Gabe, 2003). Data reflected in this work indicates that

participation in welfare status first became evident in the early-to-mid 1990s, with rates

of employment increasing in 1992 and rates of welfare receipt declining after 1993. Gabe

articulates for the reader that pivotal point was reached between 1995 and 1996, when the
 60

chances that a poor single mother would be working exceeded the chances that she would

be receiving welfare (Gabe, 2003).

The conclusion of Gabe’s 13 year analysis of U.S. Census Bureau data indicates

an impressive alteration in terms of welfare, work, and poverty status among single

mothers during the time period studied. There are a number of important characteristics

the author outlines as what he believes are dramatic shifts in policy implications. Gabe

points out single mothers are considerably more likely to be working, and less likely to be

poor or receiving welfare in most recent than in earlier years (Gabe, 2003). Gabe makes

this important statement to the reader which helps put all of his statistical research in

perspective. Finally, he argues the only way for single mothers to work their way off

welfare is to find stable full-time employment at an adequate wage. The significance of

his work is that he challenges policy makers to reexamine welfare to work policy

regulations. In order to reduce poverty and welfare dependency among single mothers,

programs designed to assist mothers in moving to full-time, year round work is a critical

need if there are any hopes in supporting the transition from welfare to sufficient

compensation levels.

The advantages and disadvantages of Trends in Welfare, Work and the Economic

Well-Being of Female-Headed Families with Children appear to be one and the same.

Gabe provides the reader with in-depth statistical data, descriptive charts and graphs and

scientific analysis that are at times overwhelming and difficult to comprehend for

laypersons unfamiliar with this level of statistical analysis. However, an individual well

versed in this area will appreciate the level of detail provided in each analysis.
 61

Another important work in the field of the effects of welfare on women and child

is the edited work by Polakow, Butler, Stormer Deprez, and Kahn Shut Out: Low Income

Mothers and Higher Education in Post-Welfare America. Women in the United States

continue to fight the stigma associated with a perceived place in society. Societal norms

expect women to accept as their primary roles that of caregiver, mother, and wife, placing

all personal ambitions aside. When examined closely, it is clear this is a contradictory

notion because education is synonymous with advanced economic status. A powerful

resource for examining the challenges women in the United States must overcome in

order to earn a college degree is articulated in this significant work by Polakow, Butler,

Stormer Deprez, and Kahn.

These authors along with contributions from their colleagues argue that the

punitive and rigid Work First welfare policies and the ability for low-income mothers to

pursue higher education are in direct conflict. The Work First approach was created out

of the 1996 Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act

(PRWORA) which allows the federal administration, consequently led by the dominant

group, to stigmatize low income mothers as undeserving of benefits, of time to parent

their children, of education, and of general respect (Polakow, Butler, Stormer Deprez, &

Kahn, 2004) By the very creation of PRWORA, the federal government has dictated

that low-income single mothers must take unstable, low wage jobs rather than pursue a

college degree in order to improve their economic status. The opposition to this policy is

evident when economics, educational attainment and socioeconomic status are examined.
 62

Two key work requirements in the PRWORA legislation have a direct impact on

low-income mothers’ ability to pursue higher education: a work requirement imposed on

individual recipients and an aggregate work-participation rate requirement imposed on

the state (Polakow et al., 2004). The work requirements are established by each state and

range from 20 hours a week to 35 hours a week for women who have children under the

age of six. Ohio, Michigan, New York, Massachusetts, and Wisconsin require that

mothers with infants twelve weeks and over enter the work force (Polakow et al., 2004).

The challenge for single mothers to comply with long work hours, provide intensive child

care, and survive on limited economic resources provide primary barriers for access to

higher education. Additionally, the state must ensure that a percentage of their overall

caseload meets the federal definitions of work, which excludes pursuing postsecondary

education.

It is unrealistic for single mothers participating in the Work First program to

fulfill her employment requirements, care for a family, and have time to pursue a college

degree. There are severe flaws in this system. By insisting that low-income mothers take

any job available in order to decrease their reliance on the welfare system, the

government is taking away any hope of obtaining a college degree for this population.

This will set them up for failure by ensuring the perpetual cycle of inequality continues.

Evidently, importance has been placed on production rather that support for the economic

advancement of women.

PRWORA has pulled hundreds of thousands of low-income mothers out of

education programs and pushed them into low-wage work, then consequently off the
 63

welfare system. Although three-quarters of a million recipients, mainly single mothers,

were in college in 1996, decreases in their college enrollment after 1996 ranged from 29

to 82 percent (Polakow et al., 2004). The authors argue that if the federal government

were serious about providing opportunities for economic advancement and breaking the

dependent ties on welfare, then monetary resources would be allocated for such a

purpose. Assistance in the form of financial aid and childcare would be made available

for any woman dedicated to the challenge of obtaining a degree.

A very passionate and significant author on the subject of welfare in the United

States is Ruth Sidel. Two of Sidel’s books are critical contributions on the topics of

equality for women and children in the United States and the impact that welfare reform

has on this sector of society. Published in 1987, Women and Children Last: The Plight of

Poor Women in Affluent America illustrates through personal interviews and statistical

research how women and children in one of the richest nations in the world are struggling

to secure the barest of life’s necessities. Through her work, Sidel demonstrates for the

reader how the rise in single-mother households, discriminatory labor market, and the

severe cutbacks in government support programs negatively impact equality in

everything from access to education to employment opportunities.

In her follow-up book, Keeping Women and Children Last: America’s War on the

Poor, Sidel continues her mission to highlight the relentless struggles that women on

welfare face within the constraints of a political system. In this book, the author examines

the impact of welfare policies on single mothers since the passage of the Personal

Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996. Her mission is to

 64

reveal the real victims of poverty, the millions of children who suffer from societal

neglect, inferior education, inadequate health care, hunger, and homelessness (Sidel,

1998).

Sidel suggests that the widespread campaign against poor single mothers is in

reality a form of scapegoating, the singling out for blame of a group that is particularly

vulnerable because of race, gender, and class (Sidel, 1998).This book attempts to present

data, analysis and recommendations on fundamental issues of: the extent, nature, and

causes of poverty in the United States; the impact, particularly on women and children, of

being poor in an extremely affluent society; the role of social welfare programs in

contributing to both the well-being and the continuing misery of the poor; and the way in

which American attitudes toward the impoverished have determined our social policies

(Sidel, 1998).

Both of Sidel’s books are significant to understanding how federal and state

welfare policies actually affect those they are designed to assist. The personal accounts of

women attempting to balance work requirements while pursuing a college degree allow

the reader a comprehensive look inside the lives of those directly impacted by legislative

decision making. This is an advantage of her wok.

Vincent Tinto and College Student Retention

The final segment of this literature review focuses on the topic of college student

retention and one of the most widely cited authors on the subject, Vincent Tinto. Vincent

Tinto is a distinguished professor at Syracuse University who has written extensively on

college student retention and the impact of learning communities on student growth and
 65

attainment (Thomas, Cooper, Quinn, 2003). Additionally, Tinto can be found as a

contributing author in many books published on the topic of student retention and

academic success.

One book significant to this dissertation which Tinto contributed an essay to is

Improving Completion Rates Among Disadvantaged Students. Editors Liz Thomas,

Michael Cooper and Jocey Quinn have created this work to allow the reader a greater

understanding of the critical elements which must be understood if students are to

succeed at higher education institutions. The significance of Improving Completion

Rates Among Disadvantaged Students is that the contributing authors acknowledge for

the reader that removing barriers which prevent access to higher education and

participation is not the only element to ensuring students remain in the institution until

they reach their educational goal(s). The authors argue that if students fail to receive

assistance in completing the program or course of study they have undertaken, they will

perceive the entire process as a failure and may present even more negative views of

higher education (Thomas, Cooper, & Quinn, 2003).

Vincent Tinto’s contribution to Improving Completion Rates Among

Disadvantaged Students provides strength to the work as he is a renowned scholar on the

subject of student retention and educational attainment. In his contributing essay,

Establishing Conditions for Success, Tinto articulates the lessons learnt in the United

States regarding the need to increase access to and completion from universities

(Thomas, Cooper, & Quinn, 2003). As the focus of his work in primarily on four year

colleges and universities, he states that only 51 percent of the student beginning
 66

university studies in the US complete their degree within 6 years (Thomas, Cooper,

Quinn, 2003, p. xiii). As he is interested in examining what institutions can do to improve

completion, Tinto identifies the conditions which he considers need improvement at the

institutional level. The primary underlying theme presented in Tinto’s essay is that

administrators and academics must be willing to analyze and change their current policies

in order to afford their students the greatest possibility of obtaining their educational goal.

The disadvantages and advantages of Improving Completion Rates Among

Disadvantaged Students are one and the same depending on which population the reader

is interested in studying. Since the authors focus solely on students from disadvantaged

backgrounds, this is an advantage for researchers interested in gaining a broader

understanding of this particular student population. However, an individual hoping to

gain additional insight into overall college student population will be disappointed with

the limited of scope of this work.

An additional edited work which Tinto has lent his name and expertise to is Alan

Seidman’s College Student Retention: Formula for Student Success. The significance of

this book to the field of higher education retention is that the author has enlisted a number

of experts to examine a variety of areas critical to retaining college students. Such areas

include allowing the reader to understand the history of the retention movement while

cautioning that attempting to measure persistence using institutional data can present its

own set of challenges. One challenge may persist when examining a data set used by

researchers to study retention varies and can create different results for the same problem

(Seidman, 2005). This is a critical point because many institutions rely heavily on
 67

institutional data when making decisions related to retention. Ensuring the reader is

aware of the challenges associated with interpreting data may improve the accuracy of its

use on college campuses.

An advantage of College Student Retention: Formula for Student Success is the

authors acknowledge that research on student retention is voluminous and they do not

claim that their work is comprehensive and definitive in scope. This allows the reader to

understand retention is one of the most widely studied topics in higher education over the

past thirty years (Seidman, A, 2005). Additionally, many theoretical frameworks have

emerged which seek to explain why students leave colleges before obtaining their

educational goal. However, they authors state that within this time frame, many of the

foundational aspects of the theories are being to emerge. Specifically, Tinto argues the

concept that academic preparedness, commitments, and involvements are critical to

student success (Seidman, 2005, p. x).

An additional advantage of College Student Retention: Formula for Student

Success is that the forward and epilogue is penned by Tinto, which defines the scope of

the entire edited volume. As a well-renowned scholar on retention and persistence,

Tinto’s contribution to this work makes a statement to the reader that he supports the

theoretical concepts outlined by the contributing authors. This should be an indication to

the reader that this work is important to the field of higher education and should be

examined carefully.

Tinto reminds the reader that despite all the research that has been conducted,

little work has been devoted to the development of a model of student persistence that
 68

would provide guidelines to institutions for creating policies, practices, and programs to

enhance student success (Seidman, 2005, p. x). Additionally, he states that the deficiency

between research and practical solutions to resolving the retention issue is a result of a

lack of transition between researchers examining the data and what practitioners need to

know in order to have an effect on their campus retention rates (Seidman, 2005).

The final literary work reviewed for this dissertation is Retention and Student

Success in Higher Education by Mary Yorke and Bernard Longden. This work is

significant in that it argues a lot depends on the student’s perception of their experience

in higher education as to whether or not they remain at a college or university until

degree completion. Additionally, the scope of this book focuses on how institutions can

help to increase the chances of student’ success. The power of a literary work combining

these two elements, allows the reader to understand institutions must innately view the

student experience through their eyes if maximum retention results are to be achieved.

An advantage of Retention and Student Success in Higher Education is that the

work is arranged in a manner that allows the reader to understand influential factors

related to student retention. The authors set the scene by examining retention, completion

and success in their political context and by discussing the interests if the three key

stakeholders – students, institutions and governments (Yorke & Logden, 2004).

Additionally, the authors argue that theoretical applications related to retention

must incorporate applications of psychology as students’ deciding whether or not to

persist at a college or withdraw is fundamentally a matter of psychology (Yorke &

Logden, 2004). Tinto’s theory is examined as a model which states that both social and
 69

psychological factors are influential in a student’s departure decision. The authors

recognize a substantial amount of research exists which proves social integration is

critical to student success, however they remind the reader that academic integration is

also important and that the research supporting this notion is much weaker (Yorke &

Logden, 2004).

A disadvantage of Retention and Student Success in Higher Education for

practitioners in the United States wishing to gain greater insight into proposed solutions

to persistence challenges is that that the majority of the case studies and examples

presented by the authors are from the perspective of educators in the United Kingdom.

As the United States and United Kingdom follow very different educational models, the

reader may be left with unanswered questions at the conclusion of the book. Additionally,

the reader may wonder how the ideas presented are applicable to colleges and universities

in the United States.

Critical Review of the Literature

The literature reviewed for this study is believed to be the most relevant

comprehensive information available on each specific topic. The section dedicated to the

history of higher education in the United States is grounded with George A. Baker’s A

Handbook on the Community College in America: Its History, Mission, and Management.

This work is considered to be a monumental contribution to the history of community

colleges as the author allows the reader to take part in the development journey of the

two-year sector of higher education through a chronological stage of events. Without

such a resource, scholars interested in understanding the creation of community colleges

 70

in America would be forced to rely on a variety of published works written from various

viewpoints and with sometimes conflicting data. Baker’s work is a critical contribution

to the role that community colleges have played in the overall development of higher

education in the United States.

The second section of this literature review focused on Appalachian and regional

poverty. The most valuable resource reviewed is the Appalachian Commission Online

Resource Center. Through this online publication researches are able to find a significant

amount of data relevant to the study of Appalachia. Statistical data is presented using

visual maps representing various studies of the geography and economic stability of the

Region. This is an important tool to anyone wishing to gain statistical information related

to the economy, population, poverty rate, and geographic data. Researchers should be

aware that this resource is operated by a government agency that displays data for the

purpose of disseminating information to the public. The interpretation of the data is left

to the researcher.

Next, literature related to conditions of access to higher education was examined.

The themes prevalent in each of the publications selected revolve around equality of

access for all students interested in pursuing a college degree. Donald Heller’s work

Conditions of Access: Higher Education for Lower Income Students focuses on the role

that federal legislation and committees have played in defining access to higher education

for children in the United States. Although this work allows the reader to understand the

author’s viewpoint on a variety of political issues, the reader must be cognizant to remain

objective in their thinking in order to gain the maximum benefit from this relevant work.
 71

Finally, the concluding section of this literature review focused on the impact of

the welfare system on women and children in the United States. Shut Out: Low Income

Mothers and Higher Education in Post-Welfare America is an excellent resource for

anyone wishing to understand the limitations established by the federal government

related to single mothers on welfare and pursuit of higher education. At times it is a

challenge to remain focused on the author’s facts as there is a tendency for the reader to

visualize each situation described in the book. If this poignant literary work is not read

carefully, it is possible to underestimate some of the most staggering challenges facing

single mothers struggling to elevate themselves in society by earning a college degree.

Summary and Conclusions

Literature reviewed for this study encompassed topics ranging from the history of

higher education, Appalachian regional poverty, access to higher education, and the

effect of the welfare system on women and children in the United States. After

concluding this section, the reader should have a foundational understanding of each

segmented topic under review. This introduction to the literature will allow the reader to

further understand the following chapters in this study.

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CHAPTER THREE

Research Design

The theoretical framework for this research is that of Vincent Tinto’s Theory of

Individual Departure. While many attempts to explain student departure from institutions

of higher education have relied heavily on psychological models of educational

persistence, Tinto’s theory adds the element that social factors must also be considered

when examining student persistence. Tinto’s Theory of Individual Departure emphasizes

the impact of wider social and economic forces on the behavior of students within

institutions of higher education (Tinto, 1987). Although Tinto’s work is usually reserved

for studies related to four year colleges and universities, this model is applicable to two

year institutions as it illustrates clearly that students transitioning from a familiar

community, such as their home environment, into one which is unknown, are at risk for

early departure from the institution.

Tinto’s longitudinal model of departure from institutions of higher

education consists of five primary components: pre-entry attributes, goals &

commitments, institutional experiences, personal and normative integration, and

outcomes (Tinto, 1987, p.114). The purpose of the model is to address the process of

departure as the focus is on events which occur within the institution and/or which

immediately preceding a student beginning their college education. The model also pays

attention to how individuals voluntarily withdraw from institutions of higher education

while examining the interactions between students and other members of the academic

and social systems of the institution (Tinto, 1987, p. 113).

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Tinto’s longitudinal model of departure is relevant to the study of two year

college students because the transition from high school to college is sometimes

overwhelming for the students these institutions serve. During this critical time of

adjustment, many students are at risk of departing from the institution at a very early

point in their college career. The model suggests that pre-entry attributes such as family

background, a student’s skills and abilities, along with personal experiences and level of

schooling prior to entering college have a direct correlation with student intentions upon

entering an institution of higher education (Tinto, 1987). The next segment of the model

suggests that the pre-entry attributes establish the goals and commitments aspect of the

model.

Tinto then suggests that students enter a phase of institutional experiences;

academic and social. The academic system is broken down into two segments, academic

performance and interactions with faculty and staff. In the social aspect, students are

exposed to extracurricular activities as well as interactions with peer groups (Tinto,

1987). Both of these experiences give the student an opportunity to integrate on both a

social and academic levels. Following integration another level of commitment and goals

are presented, however at this level a new aspect is introduced which the student must

consider, external commitments. Theoretically, once these commitments are considered,

a student makes their departure decision. They either remain at the institution to pursue

their educational goal, or they leave prior to completion (Tinto, 1987). Such departure

decisions are begin examined in high education programs such as the Athens County

Retention Program (ACRP) at Hocking College.

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The Athens County Retention Program (ACRP) at Hocking College was created

as a resource for participants designed to assist with their transition to college and

degree persistence success. The goals of this program are in alignment with Tinto’s

belief that institutions of higher education must be willing to invest in resources and

provide incentives and rewards if student retention and persistence are to improve

(Tinto, 2003). This research attempts to determine if the involvement, integration and

affiliation that Tinto’s theory argues are critical components to academic success and

degree persistence making a difference for participants in ACRP at Hocking College.

Population of Interest

The population of interest centers on students attending Hocking College who

have an Expected Family Contribution (EFC) of $0. An EFC of $0 is relevant because

according to the Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA), these families are

identified as being low income and are expected to contribute $0 toward the cost of a

college education. This study then examines this population in terms of those residing in

Athens County and those from counties in Ohio other than Athens.

Sample

The sample centers on the Athens County Retention Program (ACRP) at Hocking

College as a subset of the broader Hocking College student population. Participants in

ACRP (N=100) from academic terms summer 2005 through spring 2007 served as one

population studied. An additional population included was students not eligible to

participate in ACRP (N = 104) due to county of residence during the same academic time

period. The key characteristics of the population of interest include: 69 female; 31 males;
 75

100% Athens County residence for the ACRP participant group. The non-ACRP

participant group consists of 63 female; 41 males; 100% from an Ohio county other than

Athens.

The sampling plan consists of two samples; sample one consists of students

enrolled in the ACRP during summer 2005 through spring 2007, and, sample two

consists of students not eligible to participate in the ACRP due to county of residence.

The two samples had different numbers of students classified in each data set. Data

collected indicates 100 ACRP participants compared to 2,090 Hocking College students

not eligible to participate in the program due to county of residence. A random sampling

of the 2,090 students who were not eligible to participate in ACRP was completed by

including every 20th student entry from sample (b) students not eligible to participate in

the program due to county of residence, allowing for 100 students in sample (a) students

enrolled in the Athens County Retention program summer 2005 through spring 2007 and

104 students in sample (b) students not eligible to participate in ACRP due to county of

residence. After random selection, there were 204 students examined for this study as the

random sampling indicated 104 students in the sample after every 20th student was

included from the comprehensive list of 2,090.

Data Acquisition

In this study, two groups of students are compared: (a) students who participated in

the Athens Country Retention Program, and, (b) students not eligible to participate in the

Athens Country Retention Program. Students from Athens County with an EFC of $0 are

eligible to apply for ACRP. Application to the Athens County Retention Program will
 76

serve as the independent variable. The dependent variables will be (a)

ASSETT/COMPAS test placement, (b) on-campus residency status, and (c) graduation

rate. The means of each group for each of the dependent variables will be compared using

independent t-test and chi-square (performed by SPSS 15.0) to check for significant

differences.

The following student-level data was requested from the HP3000 Image Data Base,

the student information system at Hocking College, for students enrolled in the Athens

County Retention Program: (a) student major, (b) county of residence, (c) whether or not

graduated, (d) whether or not on-campus residential, (e) ASSETT/COMPASS placement,

and (e) gender. The following data criteria were used to request data for Hocking

College students whose county of residence was someplace other than Athens County: (a)

student major, (b) county of residence, (c) whether or not graduated, (d) whether or not

on-campus residential, (e) ASSETT/COMPASS placement, (e) gender, and (f) EFC $0.

Data were extracted from the HP3000 Image Database were placed in a delimited flat

file, which was imported to Excel. Programming to extract the data was written in 4th

Generation Language, QUIZ, produced by Congnos, Inc. (http://www.congnos.com/). All

data collected were initially imported into an MS Excel spreadsheet, then into SPSS 15.0

statistical analysis software for analysis and storage.

The date chosen to begin this research is significant because it marked the inaugural

year of the ACRP at Hocking College. The data collection end date of spring quarter

2007 was selected to coincide with the implementation of a new computer system at

Hocking College. Data was set to be merged into a new computer system effective
 77

summer quarter 2007 and I was concerned that relevant data would be lost or

inadvertently manipulated in the data conversion process.

The independent variable for this study was participation in ACRP at Hocking

College. The Athens County Department of Job and Family Services provided the

financial assistance for the establishment of ACRP. Grant funds were used to establish a

scholarship fund to be used specifically for tuition, textbooks, and other college related

expenses for qualifying Athens County residents. Scholarship recipients are approved by

the Department of Job and Family Services based on Temporary Assistance for Needy

Families (TANF) guidelines and referred to Hocking College for award. Additional

guidelines established for awarding ACRP scholarship dollars include: approved

recipients must not exceed a total scholarship amount of $800 by their second quarter of

eligibility and recipients shall be limited to two consecutive quarters of scholarship

funding.

Funding from Athens County Department of Job and Family Services also provides

support services designed to enhance college completion rates including one full-time

employee to monitor student progress. Additionally, four Peer Mentors are employed to

provide mentoring and tutoring services for the ACRP participants. The total funding

provided from the Athens County Department of Job and Family Services for this study

period was $350,000.

There were no human participants needed for this study, rather data without student

names or identifying numbers were used. The Ohio University Institutional Review

Board (IRB) determined this study exempt from review because it involves: 1) research
 78

involving the collection or study of existing data, and 2) documents, records, pathological

specimens, or diagnostic specimens if publicly available or recorded without identifiers.

The following student-level data from the HP3000 Image Database system were

used: (a) student major, (b) county of residence, (c) whether or not graduated, (d) whether

or not on-campus residential, (e) ASSETT/COMPASS placement (e) gender and (f) EFC

$0. Further explanation of these specific data elements include:

• Student Major (nominal measurement). The area of study the student had

declared as a major at Hocking College.

• County of Residence (nominal measurement). This data element indicated

whether or not students’ permanent residence was Athens County.

According to Hocking College’s administrative computing system, Athens

County permanent mailing addresses were assigned a value of Athens

County resident. All other students were assigned a value of non-Athens

County resident.

• Graduation Rate (nominal measurement). This data element evaluated

whether or not participants earned an Associate degree during the study

period between summer 2005 through spring 2007. Data coded 1 for yes

and 2 for no.

• On-Campus residence status (nominal measurement). Students who

appeared with an on-campus local mailing address, within Hocking

College’s administrative computing system, were assigned a value of on-

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campus residential (assigned value 1). All other students were assigned a

value of commuter student (assigned value 2).

• ASSETT/COMPASS Placement (ratio measurement). College entry

examinations given to every student entering Hocking College other than

those with previous college transfer credit in Math and/or English

composition. Assessment placement scores range from 0-100.

• Gender (nominal measurement). This data element indicated whether the

participating students were male or female according to the Hocking

College admission application. Data was assigned 1 for female and 2 for

male.

• Expected Family Contribution (EFC) (ratio measurement). The amount of

money a student’s family is expected to contribute to their college

education for a one year period. The lower the EFC amount, the more

financial aid a student will receive. EFC amounts are determined by

calculating family income claimed on tax returns reported on the Free

Application for Student Financial Aid (FAFSA).

Data Conditioning

In preparation for importing Excel data files into SPSS 15.0, variables were labeled

according to the following systems:

1) Academic quarters were assigned a number 1-4 (1 = summer, 2 = fall,

3 = winter, 4 = spring) in accordance with record keeping guidelines at

Hocking College (ordinal measurement).

 80

2) Gender was assigned 1 for female and 2 for male (nominal measurement).

3) Graduation from Hocking College was assigned 1 for yes and 2 for no

(nominal measurement).

4) Entry course placement based on either ASSET or COMPASS placement

was assigned based on reading, writing, and math course sequences.

Reading was assigned 1 for COMM 051 (Fundamentals of Reading), 2 for

COMM 110 (Reading Communication), 3 for no reading needed. Writing

was assigned 1 for COMM 050 (Fundamentals of Communications), 2 for

COMM 121 (Communications I), and 3 for COMM 122 (Communications

II). Math was assigned 1 for MATH 101 (Basic Math), 2 for MATH 102

(Pre-Algebra), 3 for MATH 108 (Introduction to Algebra) (ordinal

measurement).

The data representing ASSETT/COMPASS presented a challenge, which needed

addressed before moving forward with analysis. The raw Excel file was ratio data which

was converted into an ordinal measurement due to measuring course levels vs.

assessment test scores. Students entering Hocking College complete either the ASSETT

(paper and pencil) or COMPASS (computerized) course placement test. Both tests are

designed to place a student into the appropriate college level course, however, their

numerical scores do not equate. Therefore, a student receiving the same score on both

tests would be placed into a different college level course. The research needed to

develop a method of comparing data from each test, therefore course placement was used

as a measurement rather than placement scores.

 81

5) Number of quarters attending Hocking College was calculated by counting

the students’ start year and academic quarter (summer, fall, winter, spring)

through the data collection timeframe of spring 2007 (ratio measurement).

Some students entering Hocking College are only required to complete certain

segments of the ASSETT/COMPASS test rather than all three sections testing math,

English, and writing. These cases would occur for students with transfer credit from

another college/university in one of the three tested areas. Due to this fact, SPSS listed

“missing data” in the output charts. Missing data were not a factor considered in the

overall data analysis.

The Excel spreadsheet representing the raw data was reworked in SPSS according

to the following: (1) ASSETT/COMPAS raw ratio measurement scores were treated as

ordinal measurements for the purpose of establishing course placement for students

taking two different entry course placement exams. (2) The start quarter for each student

was manually calculated by counting backwards from the spring 2007 academic term for

the purpose of establishing how many quarters a student had attended Hocking College.

(3) Extracted raw data including personal information (name, street address, phone

number) was not imported into SPSS according to IRB regulations. These variables were

excluded from the study.

Once the data were imported into SPSS a variable sample was created to identify

ACRP participation and non-eligible participants based on county of residence. These

variables were assigned 1 = ACRP participation and 2 = non-ACRP participation. Also,

in SPSS Transform, the Recode into Difference Variables function was used to create
 82

new reading, writing, and math class level ordinal values based on the aforementioned

rational.

Data Analysis

The independent samples t-test is used when comparing means of two entirely

separate groups of people (Aron, Aron, & Coups, 2005). The portion of the SPSS

output labeled “Group Statistics” will provide the sample size, as well as the means, for

each groups of students. The remaining output indicates the significance of any

differences indicated by the means.

The purpose of this study is to evaluate degree attainment rates in terms of

participation and non-participation in the Athens County Retention Program (ACRP) at

Hocking College. Comparisons were examined between the students who participated in

ACRP and non-eligible students for the purpose of examining (a) length of persistence at

Hocking College; (b) ASSETT/COMPAS test placement, (c) on-campus residency status,

and (d) graduation rate.

Independent t-tests were used in this study to assess if the means of two groups

were statistically different from each other. The t-test is appropriate whenever you want

to compare the means of two groups, and especially appropriate as the analysis for the

post test-only two groups randomized experimental design (socialreserch.net). Utilizing

the independent t-test results provided the study with a sound statistical procedure for

analyzing the degree of variance between those students participating in ACRP and those

students not eligible for the program.

 83

Additionally, chi-square tests were used to generate statistical outputs from SPSS

15.0. A chi-square statistic was used to investigate whether distributions of categorical

variables differ from one another. The chi-square statistic compares the tallies or counts

of categorical responses between two (or more) independent groups

(http://math.hws.edu/javamath/ryan/ChiSquare.html).

Assumptions

Chi-square tests are used when the scores are on a nominal variable (Aron, Aron,

and Coups, 2005). The underlying assumption of this research is that the Hocking

College ACRP will have a significant impact on the persistence of those who

participated. Levene’s test was performed to determine if there was enough difference to

be of concern. Levene’s test is similar to a t-test in that it tests the hypothesis that the

variances in the two groups are equal (Fields, 2005).

The assumptions for both chi-square and the t-test were met in all but one case,

research question three. For this research question the assumption of homogeneity was

violated based on the Levene’s test, therefore, the adjusted t-value was utilized to

determine significance.
 84

CHAPTER FOUR

Results of Research Question One

Are there significant differences in college entrance assessment placement,

between those students who joined Hocking College’s Athens County Retention Program
and non-eligible students?
Chi square indicates that there is no significant difference (X² = 4.32, p = .115) on

entrance examination course placement between ACRP participants and non-eligible

students on math entrance assessment placement.

Table Group 1: Research Question One Data Output Tables

Case Processing Summary Math

Cases
Valid Missing Total
N Percent N Percent N Percent
SAMPLE * MATH 184 90.2% 20 9.8% 204 100.0%

SAMPLE Math Crosstabulation

MATH
1.00 2.00 3.00 Total
SAMPLE ACRP PARTICPANTS Count 56 11 24 91
Expected Count 50.4 9.9 30.7 91.0
% within SAMPLE 61.5% 12.1% 26.4% 100.0%
% within MATH 54.9% 55.0% 38.7% 49.5%
% of Total 30.4% 6.0% 13.0% 49.5%
NON-ACRP Count 46 9 38 93
PARTICPANTS
Expected Count 51.6 10.1 31.3 93.0
% within SAMPLE 49.5% 9.7% 40.9% 100.0%
% within MATH 45.1% 45.0% 61.3% 50.5%
% of Total 25.0% 4.9% 20.7% 50.5%
Total Count 102 20 62 184
Expected Count 102.0 20.0 62.0 184.0
% within SAMPLE 55.4% 10.9% 33.7% 100.0%
% within MATH 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
% of Total 55.4% 10.9% 33.7% 100.0%
Chi-Square Tests Math
 85

Table Group 1: Research Question One Data Output Tables (Continued)

Asymp. Sig.
Value df (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 4.320(a) 2 .115
Likelihood Ratio 4.349 2 .114
Linear-by-Linear
3.824 1 .051
Association
N of Valid Cases
184

The results indicated no significant difference (X² = 2.19, p = .335) between the

two groups on writing entrance assessment placement.

Case Processing Summary Writing

Cases
Valid Missing Total
N Percent N Percent N Percent
SAMPLE * WRITING 183 89.7% 21 10.3% 204 100.0%

SAMPLE Writing Crosstabulation

WRITING
1.00 2.00 3.00 Total
SAMPLE ACRP PARTICPANTS Count 2 45 42 89
Expected Count 2.9 40.4 45.7 89.0
% within SAMPLE 2.2% 50.6% 47.2% 100.0%
% within WRITING 33.3% 54.2% 44.7% 48.6%
% of Total 1.1% 24.6% 23.0% 48.6%
NON-ACRP Count 4 38 52 94
PARTICPANTS
Expected Count 3.1 42.6 48.3 94.0
% within SAMPLE 4.3% 40.4% 55.3% 100.0%
% within WRITING 66.7% 45.8% 55.3% 51.4%
% of Total 2.2% 20.8% 28.4% 51.4%
Total Count 6 83 94 183
Expected Count 6.0 83.0 94.0 183.0
% within SAMPLE 3.3% 45.4% 51.4% 100.0%
% within WRITING 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
% of Total 3.3% 45.4% 51.4% 100.0%
 86

Table Group 1: Research Question One Data Output Tables (Continued)

Chi-Square Tests Writing
Asymp. Sig.
Value df (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 2.186(a) 2 .335
Likelihood Ratio 2.200 2 .333
Linear-by-Linear
.540 1 .462
Association
N of Valid Cases
183

Similarly, no significant difference (X² = .35, p = .839) existed between ACRP

participants and non-eligible students on the reading entrance assessment placement.

Case Processing Summary Reading

Cases
Valid Missing Total
N Percent N Percent N Percent
SAMPLE * READING 180 88.2% 24 11.8% 204 100.0%

SAMPLE Reading Crosstabulation

READING
COMM05 COMM11 NO
1 0 READING Total
SAMPL ACRP Count 3 10 75 88
E PARTICPANTS
Expected Count 2.4 10.8 74.8 88.0
% within SAMPLE 3.4% 11.4% 85.2% 100.0%
% within
60.0% 45.5% 49.0% 48.9%
READING
% of Total 1.7% 5.6% 41.7% 48.9%
NON-ACRP Count 2 12 78 92
PARTICPANTS
Expected Count 2.6 11.2 78.2 92.0
% within SAMPLE 2.2% 13.0% 84.8% 100.0%
% within
40.0% 54.5% 51.0% 51.1%
READING
% of Total 1.1% 6.7% 43.3% 51.1%
Total Count 5 22 153 180
Expected Count 5.0 22.0 153.0 180.0
% within SAMPLE 2.8% 12.2% 85.0% 100.0%
% within
100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
READING
% of Total 2.8% 12.2% 85.0% 100.0%
 87

Table Group 1: Research Question One Data Output Tables (Continued)

Chi-Square Tests Reading

Asymp. Sig.
Value df (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square .352(a) 2 .839
Likelihood Ratio .353 2 .838
Linear-by-Linear
.014 1 .906
Association
N of Valid Cases
180

When testing for significant differences in between ACRP participants and non-

eligible ACRP students, males and females do not differ in their entry course placement

according to three separate two sample X² tests performed for math, writing, and reading

assessment placement.

Case Processing Summary ACRP Participants

Cases
Valid Missing Total
N Percent N Percent N Percent
GENDER * MATH 91 91.0% 9 9.0% 100 100.0%

GENDER Math Crosstabulation

MATH
1.00 2.00 3.00 Total
GENDER FEMALE 37 6 18 61
MALE 19 5 6 30
Total 56 11 24 91

Chi-Square Tests Math

Asymp. Sig.
Value df (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 1.489(a) 2 .475
Likelihood Ratio 1.485 2 .476
N of Valid Cases 91
 88

Table Group 1: Research Question One Data Output Tables (Continued)

Case Processing Summary Non-ACRP Participants
Cases
Valid Missing Total
N Percent N Percent N Percent
GENDER * MATH 93 89.4% 11 10.6% 104 100.0%

GENDER Math Crosstabulation

MATH
1.00 2.00 3.00 Total
GENDER FEMALE 31 7 27 65
MALE 15 2 11 28
Total 46 9 38 93

Chi-Square Tests Math

Asymp. Sig.
Value df (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square .427(a) 2 .808
Likelihood Ratio .441 2 .802
N of Valid Cases 93

Case Processing Summary – ACRP Participants Writing

Cases
Valid Missing Total
N Percent N Percent N Percent
GENDER * WRITING 89 89.0% 11 11.0% 100 100.0%

GENDER Writing Crosstabulation

WRITING
1.00 2.00 3.00 Total
GENDER FEMALE 1 26 32 59
MALE 1 19 10 30
Total 2 45 42 89

Chi-Square Tests Writing

Asymp. Sig.
Value df (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 3.539(a) 2 .170
Likelihood Ratio 3.588 2 .166
N of Valid Cases 89
 89

Table Group 1: Research Question One Data Output Tables (Continued)

Case Processing Summary Non-ACRP Participants Writing
Cases
Valid Missing Total
N Percent N Percent N Percent
GENDER * WRITING 94 90.4% 10 9.6% 104 100.0%

GENDER Writing Crosstabulation

WRITING
1.00 2.00 3.00 Total
GENDER FEMALE 2 24 38 64
MALE 2 14 14 30
Total 4 38 52 94

Chi-Square Tests Writing

Asymp. Sig.
Value df (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 1.623(a) 2 .444
Likelihood Ratio 1.590 2 .452
N of Valid Cases 94

Case Processing Summary ACRP Participants Reading

Cases
Valid Missing Total
N Percent N Percent N Percent
GENDER * READING 88 88.0% 12 12.0% 100 100.0%

GENDER Reading Crosstabulation

READING
COMM051 COMM110 NO READING Total
GENDER FEMALE 2 8 48 58
MALE 1 2 27 30
Total 3 10 75 88

Chi-Square Tests Writing

Asymp. Sig.
Value df (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 1.006(a) 2 .605
Likelihood Ratio 1.088 2 .580
N of Valid Cases 88
 90

Table Group 1: Research Question One Data Output Tables (Continued)

Case Processing Summary Non-ACRP Participants Reading
Cases
Valid Missing Total
N Percent N Percent N Percent
GENDER * READING 92 88.5% 12 11.5% 104 100.0%

GENDER Reading Crosstabulation

READING
COMM051 COMM110 NO READING Total
GENDER FEMALE 0 7 57 64
MALE 2 5 21 28
Total 2 12 78 92

Chi-Square Tests Reading

Asymp. Sig.
Value df (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 5.741(a) 2 .057
Likelihood Ratio 5.899 2 .052
N of Valid Cases 92

Results of Research Question Two

Are there significant differences in the campus living status of those students who

participated in the Athens County Retention Program and non-eligible students?

Data shows there is no significant relationship between ACRP participation and

on-campus residency. Both ACRP participants and non-eligible students are more likely

not to live on-campus.

 91

Table Group 2: Research Question Two Data Output Tables

Case Processing Summary On-Campus Living Status
Cases
Valid Missing Total
N Percent N Percent N Percent
SAMPLE * ON CAMPUS
RESIDENCE 204 100.0% 0 .0% 204 100.0%

SAMPLE * On-Campus Living Status Crosstabulation

ON CAMPUS
RESIDENCE

NO YES Total
SAMPLE ACRP PARTICPANTS Count 95 5 100
Expected Count 91.2 8.8 100.0
% within SAMPLE 95.0% 5.0% 100.0%
% within ON CAMPUS
RESIDENCE 51.1% 27.8% 49.0%

% of Total 46.6% 2.5% 49.0%

NON-ACRP Count 91 13 104
PARTICPANTS
Expected Count 94.8 9.2 104.0
% within SAMPLE 87.5% 12.5% 100.0%
% within ON CAMPUS
RESIDENCE 48.9% 72.2% 51.0%

% of Total 44.6% 6.4% 51.0%

Total Count 186 18 204
Expected Count 186.0 18.0 204.0
% within SAMPLE 91.2% 8.8% 100.0%
% within ON CAMPUS
RESIDENCE 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

% of Total 91.2% 8.8% 100.0%

Chi-Square Tests On-Campus Living Status

Asymp. Sig. Exact Sig. Exact Sig.
Value df (2-sided) (2-sided) (1-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 3.565(b) 1 .059
Continuity Correction(a) 2.693 1 .101
Likelihood Ratio 3.691 1 .055
Fisher's Exact Test .083 .049
N of Valid Cases 204
 92

Results of Research Question Three

Are there significant difference in graduation rates of those students who

participated in the Athens County Retention program and non-eligible students?

The investigator was unable to answer this question as a comparison between

ACRP participants and non-eligible students due to the fact that start dates and quarters

varied widely between the two groups. The data was acquired by asking to identify

graduates and non-graduates. Once it was discovered that this was not an appropriate

measurement, it was too late to pull the raw data again as Hocking College had begun

converting to a new data management system. Therefore, both ACRP participants and

non-eligible students were compared to benchmarks from the Ohio Board of Regents

Performance Report for Ohio’s Colleges and Universities 2006 Institutional Outcomes

Measures. The benchmark of part-time students was selected for this dissertation vs. full-

time students because the assumption was made the ACRP students were more likely to

be part-time students as they are primarily adult learners with commitments and family

responsibilities outside of the classroom. Non-eligible students were compared to the full-

time student benchmark assuming a more traditional college student attempting a full-

time academic schedule. According to the findings of the Ohio Board of Regents report,

6% of Hocking College students earned an associate degree by the end of their third year

of study (The performance report for Ohio's colleges and universities 2006, 2007). The

results indicate that ACRP participants graduated at the same rate as the Hocking College

part-time benchmark reported by Ohio Board of Regents Performance Report for Ohio’s

Colleges and Universities 2006 Institutional Outcomes Measures.

 93

Table Group 3: Research Question Three Data Output Tables

Descriptive Statistics ACRP Participants

N Mean Std. Deviation Minimum Maximum
GRADUATION 100 1.9300 .25643 1.00 2.00

Graduation ACRP Participants

Observed N Expected N Residual
YES 7 6.0 1.0
NO 93 94.0 -1.0
Total 100

Test Statistics ACRP Participants

GRADUATION
Chi-Square(a) .177
df 1
Asymp. Sig. .674

The results indicate that non-eligible ACRP student’s graduation rates do differ
from the Hocking College full-time benchmark reported by Ohio Board of Regents
Performance Report for Ohio’s Colleges and Universities 2006 Institutional Outcomes
Measures.

Descriptive Statistics Non-Eligible Students

N Mean Std. Deviation Minimum Maximum
GRADUATION 104 1.7885 .41038 1.00 2.00

Graduation Non-Eligible Students

Observed N Expected N Residual
YES 22 6.2 15.8
NO 82 97.8 -15.8
Total 104

Test Statistics Non-Eligible Students

GRADUATION
Chi-Square(a) 42.345
Df 1
Asymp. Sig. .000
 94

The researcher also analyzed the number of quarters ACRP participants and non-

eligible students attended Hocking College. The purpose of this measure was to evaluate

whether or not participation in ACRP was a factor leading to degree completion. The

results of the data indicate a significant difference (t = 2.37, p< .05) between ACRP and

non-eligible students in the number of quarters they attended Hocking College.

Table Group 3: Research Question Three Data Output Tables (Continued)

Group Statistics Number of Quarters Attended

Std. Error
SAMPLE N Mean Std. Deviation Mean
NUMBER OF QUARTERS ACRP PARTICPANTS 100 24.49 27.203 2.720
NON-ACRP
PARTICPANTS 104 17.30 13.781 1.351

Independent Samples Test Number of Quarters Attended

Levene's Test for Equality
of Variances

F Sig.

Lower Upper
NUMBER OF QUARTERS Equal variances
assumed 23.661 .000

Equal variances not

assumed

Independent Samples Test Number of Quarters Attended

t-test for Equality of Means

Mean Std. Error 95% Confidence Interval
t df Sig. (2-tailed) Difference Difference of the Difference

Lower Upper Lower Upper Lower Upper Lower

2.396 202 .018 7.192 3.002 1.272 13.112

2.368 145.382 .019 7.192 3.037 1.189 13.195

 95

When the data were segregated into graduates and non-graduates in both samples,

the results indicated there was no significant difference between ACRP graduates and

non-eligible student graduates in the number of quarters they attended at Hocking

College.

Table Group 3: Research Question Three Data Output Tables (Continued)

Group Statistics Graduates

Std. Error
SAMPLE N Mean Std. Deviation Mean
NUMBER OF QUARTERS ACRP PARTICPANTS 7 27.86 22.049 8.334
NON-ACRP
PARTICPANTS 22 27.45 13.387 2.854

Independent Samples Test Graduates

Levene's Test for Equality
of Variances

F Sig.

Lower Upper
NUMBER OF QUARTERS Equal variances
assumed 27.229 .000

Equal variances not

assumed

Independent Samples Test Graduates

t-test for Equality of Means

95% Confidence Interval
of the Difference
Mean Std. Error
t df Sig. (2-tailed) Difference Difference Upper Lower

2.909 173 .004 9.663 3.322 3.107 16.219

3.032 132.317 .003 9.663 3.187 3.359 15.967

 96

For non-graduates, the results indicated there was a significant difference

(t = 3.03, p < .01) between ACRP and non-eligible students in the number of quarters

attended at Hocking College.

Table Group 3: Research Question Three Data Output Tables (Continued)

Group Statistics Number of Quarters Attended (Non-Graduates)

Std. Error
SAMPLE N Mean Std. Deviation Mean
NUMBER OF QUARTERS ACRP PARTICPANTS 93 24.24 27.634 2.866
NON-ACRP
PARTICPANTS 82 14.57 12.630 1.395

Independent Samples Test Number of Quarters Attended (Non-Graduates)

Levene's Test for Equality
of Variances

F Sig.

Lower Upper
NUMBER OF QUARTERS Equal variances
assumed 27.229 .000

Equal variances not

assumed

Independent Samples Test Number of Quarters Attended (Non-Graduates)

t-test for Equality of Means

95% Confidence Interval
of the Difference
Mean Std. Error
t df Sig. (2-tailed) Difference Difference Upper Lower

2.909 173 .004 9.663 3.322 3.107 16.219

3.032 132.317 .003 9.663 3.187 3.359 15.967

 97

When testing to see if there was a significant difference between males and

females in the number of quarters attending Hocking College the data set included all

study participants (ACRP and non-eligible students) as well as those who had graduated

and those who did not. The results indicated there was no significant difference.

Table Group 3: Research Question Three Data Output Tables (Continued)

Group Statistics ACRP Participants Gender Comparison for Number of Quarters Attended
Std. Error
GENDER N Mean Std. Deviation Mean
NUMBER OF QUARTERS FEMALE 69 24.99 25.688 3.093
MALE 31 23.39 30.731 5.519

Independent Samples Test ACRP Participants Gender Comparison for Number of Quarters Attended
Levene's Test for Equality
of Variances

F Sig.

Lower Upper
NUMBER OF QUARTERS Equal variances
assumed .107 .744

Equal variances not

assumed

Independent Samples Test ACRP Participants Gender Comparison for Number of Quarters Attended

t-test for Equality of Means

Mean Std. Error 95% Confidence Interval
t df Sig. (2-tailed) Difference Difference of the Difference

Lower Upper Lower Upper Lower Upper Lower

.270 98 .787 1.598 5.909 -10.129 13.326

.253 49.635 .802 1.598 6.327 -11.112 14.308

 98

Group Statistics Non-Eligible Students Gender Comparison for Number of Quarters Attended
Std. Error
GENDER N Mean Std. Deviation Mean
NUMBER OF QUARTERS FEMALE 67 18.28 15.551 1.900
MALE 37 15.51 9.743 1.602

Independent Samples Test Non- Eligible Students Gender Comparison for

Number of Quarters Attended
Levene's Test for Equality
of Variances

F Sig.

Lower Upper
NUMBER OF QUARTERS Equal variances
assumed 3.790 .054

Equal variances not

assumed

Independent Samples Test Non-Eligible Students Gender Comparison for

Number of Quarters Attended

t-test for Equality of Means

95% Confidence Interval
of the Difference
Mean Std. Error
t df Sig. (2-tailed) Difference Difference Upper Lower

.981 102 .329 2.770 2.823 -2.830 8.370

1.115 100.284 .268 2.770 2.485 -2.160 7.700

 99

CHAPTER FIVE

Data Summary, Suggestions for Further Research and Conclusions

The purpose of this study was to learn if a specific social program designed to

increase access to higher education for low income students did indeed serve the

population as intended. The Athens County Job and Family Services funded ACRP at

Hocking College, located in Nelsonville, Ohio, was investigated for the purpose of

determining if there were significant differences in college entrance assessment scores;

campus living status; and graduation rates between eligible participation in this program

and non-eligible students. The research hypothesis for this study was that the ACRP at

Hocking College provides a significant difference in degree attainment for eligible

students who partake in the program vs. those students who were not eligible participants.

In preparation for importing data into SPSS 15.0, variables were labeled

according to the following systems:

1) Academic quarters were assigned a number 1-4 (1 = summer, 2 = fall,

3 = winter, 4 = spring) in accordance with record keeping guidelines at

Hocking College (ordinal measurement).

2) Gender was assigned 1 for female and 2 for male (nominal measurement).

3) Graduation from Hocking College was assigned 1 for yes and 2 for no

(nominal measurement).

4) Entry course placement based on either ASSET or COMPASS placement

was assigned based on reading, writing, and math course sequences.

Reading was assigned 1 for COMM 051 (Fundamentals of Reading), 2 for

 100

COMM 110 (Reading Communication), 3 for no reading needed. Writing

was assigned 1 for COMM 050 (Fundamentals of Communications), 2 for

COMM 121 (Communications I), and 3 for COMM 122 (Communications

II). Math was assigned 1 for MATH 101 (Basic Math), 2 for MATH 102

(Pre-Algebra), 3 for MATH 108 (Introduction to Algebra) (ordinal

measurement).

5) Number of quarters attending Hocking College was calculated by counting

the students’ start year and academic quarter (summer, fall, winter, spring)

through the data collection timeframe of spring 2007 (ratio measurement).

The purpose of this study was to evaluate degree attainment rates based on the

association between participation and non-participation in the Athens County Retention

Program (ACRP) at Hocking College. Comparisons were examined between the students

who participated in ACRP and non-eligible students for the purpose of examining (a)

length of persistence at Hocking College; (b) ASSETT/COMPAS test placement, (c) on-

campus residency status, and (d) graduation rate.

The study proffered the results for the following research questions:

The Data Results for Research Question One

Are there significant differences in college entrance assessment placement,

between those students who joined Hocking College’s Athens County Retention Program

and non-eligible students?

 101

The data shows that there is no significant difference (X² = 4.32, p = .115) on

entrance examination course placement between ACRP participants and non-eligible

students in math. The results indicated no significant difference (X² = 2.19, p = .335)

between the two groups on writing entrance assessment placement. Similarly, no

significant difference (X² = .35, p = .839) existed between the ACRP participants and

non-eligible students on the reading assessment placement. When testing for significant

differences in between ACRP participants and non-eligible ACRP students, males and

females do not differ in their entry course placement according to three separate two

sample X² tests performed for math, writing, and reading.

The Data Results for Research Question Two

Are there significant differences in the campus living status of those students who

participated in the Athens County Retention Program and non-eligible students?

Data shows there is no significant relationship between ACRP participation and

on-campus residency. Both ACRP participants and non-eligible students are more likely

not to live on-campus.

The Data Results for Research Question Three

Are there significant difference in graduation rates of those students who

participated in the Athens County Retention program and non-eligible students?

The investigator was unable to answer this question as a comparison between

ACRP participants and non-eligible students due to the fact that start dates and quarters

varied widely between the two groups. Therefore, both ACRP participants and non-

eligible students were compared to benchmarks from the Ohio Board of Regents
 102

Performance Report for Ohio’s Colleges and Universities 2006 Institutional Outcomes

Measures. The benchmark of part-time students was selected for this dissertation vs. full-

time students because the assumption was made the ACRP students were more likely to

be part-time students as they are primarily adult learners with commitments and family

responsibilities outside of the classroom. Non-eligible students were compared to the full-

time student benchmark assuming a more traditional college student attempting a full-

time academic schedule. According to the findings of the Ohio Board of Regents report

published January 18, 2007, 6% of Hocking College students earned an associate degree

by the end of their third year of study.

The data indicates that ACRP participants graduated at the same rate as the

Hocking College part-time benchmark reported by Ohio Board of Regents Performance

Report for Ohio’s Colleges and Universities 2006 Institutional Outcomes Measures.

The data further indicates that non-eligible ACRP student’s graduation rates do

differ from the Hocking College full-time benchmark reported by Ohio Board of Regents

Performance Report for Ohio’s Colleges and Universities 2006 Institutional Outcomes

Measures. The researcher also analyzed the number of quarters ACRP participants and

non-eligible students attended Hocking College. The purpose of this measure was to

evaluate whether or not participation in ACRP was a factor leading to degree completion.

The results of the data indicated a significant difference (t = 2.37, p< .05) between ACRP

and non-eligible students in the number of quarters they attended Hocking College. When

the data were segregated into graduates and non-graduates in both samples, the results

indicated there was no significant difference between ACRP graduates and non-eligible
 103

student graduates in the number of quarters they attended at Hocking College. For non-

graduates, the results indicated there was a significant difference

(t = 3.03, p < .01) between ACRP and non-eligible students in the number of quarters

attended at Hocking College.

When testing to see if there was a significant difference between males and

females in the number of quarters attending Hocking College the data set included all

study participants (ACRP and non-eligible students) as well as those who had graduated

and those who did not. The results indicated there was no significant difference.

Suggestions Further Research

Further research is needed to identify if there is a significant difference in

graduation rates between ACRP participants and non-eligible students entering Hocking

College during the same academic quarter. Additionally, further examination of the

purpose for attending Hocking College should be tested vs. graduation rate as many

students select to as their education goal the attainment of a certification or completion of

a series of courses. The overall assessment of the effectiveness of ACRP is that there was

no significant difference between participants and non-eligible students in all areas

studied except the number of quarters each group attending Hocking College

Conclusion

In conclusion, the data analyzed for this study has illustrated there are only two

significant differences between ACRP participants and non-eligible students. The first

difference demonstrated by the data indicated that overall, there was a significant

difference between ACRP participants and non-eligible students in the number of

 104

quarters attended. Additionally, when the data were segregated into graduates and non-

graduates in both groups, a significant difference between the number of quarters non-

graduates from each group attended Hocking College was discovered. Based upon these

results, Tinto’s longitudinal model of departure from institutions of higher education

would suggest that non-graduates from both groups studied encountered events within the

institution and/or immediately preceding the beginning of their college career which lead

to this result. Further research is needed to identify if the non-graduate students from

both groups obtained an educational goal which was something other than an associate

degree and if the students continue to enroll in courses at Hocking College.

In no way does the research presented in this study bring conclusion to the

effectiveness of ACRP at Hocking College. This research merely serves as a foundation

upon which future research can be conducted in order to strengthen and widen this area

of study. As the state of Ohio begins to work on Governor Ted Strickland’s University

System of Ohio, research such as this may become increasingly more relevant to the

condition of higher education as programs are reviewed for relevance to completion rates

at the state’s publicly financed institutions.

The University System of Ohio (USO) is a statewide initiative with a mission to

provide affordable, high quality higher education opportunities for all Ohioans.

According to the Ohio Board of Regents, programs and curricula will be designed to

meet Ohioans' individual and collective needs for the 21st century. One segment of USO

articulates that a comprehensive community college education will be available to all

Ohioans. Community colleges will be linked though policies and a database that will
 105

enable each school to offer programs developed at other schools, and enable student to

see what courses are offered at other institutions (Fingerhut, 2007). However, the overall

effectiveness of such a plan is not without its critics. Leaders from the two year sector of

higher education, specifically technical colleges, are those mainly concerned with the

USO as they stand to lose the most in terms of unique curriculum offerings if the plan is

fully implemented according to initial guidelines. Therefore it is critical that voices from

all types of Ohio’s colleges and universities be represented on state committees deciding

the future direction of higher education in Ohio.

As stated previously in Chapter Two, two year institutions were founded to

provide access to higher education for their regional populations. Additionally, the

mission of technical colleges is to offer state-of-the-art vocational training leading to

entry level job placement. Under USO, state funded institutions, four year and two year

alike, would provide similar (if not identical) course offerings designed to state standards

or Transfer Assurance Guides leaving little room for specialized unique degree programs.

Under this model, each institution must redesign specified courses to ensure students are

being taught the same outcomes statewide. The fear is that this initiative is forcing two

year institutions to redefine the scope of their mission by solely becoming pathways for a

bachelorette degree while the importance of vocational training is diminished.

This dissertation examined a program initiated at Hocking College, a two year

technical institution, for the purpose of providing access to higher education for low-

income students from one Appalachian county in Athens, Ohio. These students will be

directly affected by the University System of Ohio as Hocking College struggles to hold
 106

onto its unique educational offerings. Not all students enrolled at Hocking College are

interested in a four year degree, and these are likely the one who will be left out under the

new statewide system. Therefore, the critical question becomes, are we really providing

access to higher education for all students or only those with aspirations of transferring to

the four year colleges and universities across the state? This question can only be

answered by further research once the USO has been fully implemented.

It is the hope of this researcher that the goals of students pursuing vocational

education degree programs are not forgotten as policy makers decided the future direction

of higher education in Ohio. Low-income students struggling to maintain a balance

between work, family and college are at the greatest risk of seeing their aspiration of a

college degree disappear. The cycle of welfare dependence and poverty is in jeopardy of

being perpetuated due to legislative decisions made beyond the students’ control. Will

students in Ohio have the luxury to choose a job training degree program designed to

maximize unique talents and skills or be forced into a system where all graduates look

alike? The future of Ohio depends on the outcome of this unanswered question.
 107

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APPENDIX A: DATA ACQUISITION PERMISSION

 APPENDIX B: TINTO’S MODEL OF INDIVIDUAL DEPARTURE MODIFIED FOR ACRP @ HOCKING COLLEGE

Pre-Entry Attributes Goals Institutional Personal Goals Outcome

& Experiences Integration &
Commitments Commitments

Background -
Single parent, Academic
Performance Progressing in Earn degree/
First generation coursework
college student certificate
Reliable day care

Navigate system
Faculty/Staff Departure
Interactions Provide Decision
assistance
ASSETT/COMP for success
ASS placement
Participating in
Provide day care Extracurricular activities
services Activities outside
Child care
Advising classroom
Family concerns
Work
Social obligations
High school grad
Home schooled Peer-Group
Remedial work Interactions
needed