Second Edition

Data
Networks

DIMITRI BERTSEKAS
Massachusetts Institute of Technology

ROBERT GALLAGER
Massachusetts Institute of Technology

PRENTICE HALL, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632

 LIbrary of Congress CatalogIng-In-PublIcatIon Data

Bertsekas. Dimitri P.
Data networks / Dimitri Bertsekas. Robert Gallager. -- 2nd ed.
p. em.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-13-200916-1
1. Data trans.ission systems. I. Gallager. Robert G. II. Title.
TK5105.B478 1992
004.6--dc20 91-35561
CIP

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©1992, 1987 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.

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ISBN 0-13-200916-1

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 Contents

PREFACE xv

1 INTRODUCTION AND LAYERED NETWORK ARCHITECTURE 1

1.1 Historical Overview 1

1.1.I Technological and Economic Background, 5

1.1.2 Communication Technology, 6
1.1.3 Applications of Data Networks, 7

1.2 Messages and Switching 9

1.2.1 Messages and Packets, 9

1.2.2 Sessions, II
1.2.3 Circuit Switching and Store-and-Forward Switching, 14

1.3 Layering 17

1.3.1 The Physical Layer, 20

1.3.2 The Data Link Control Layer, 23
The MAC sub/ayer, 24
1.3.3 The Network Layer, 25
The Internet sub/ayer. 28
1.3.4 The Transport Layer, 29
1.3.5 The Session Layer, 30

v
 vi Contents

1.3.6 The Presentation Layer, 31

1.3.7 The Application Layer, 31

1.4 A Simple Distributed Algorithm Problem 32

Notes and Suggested Reading 35
Problems 35

2 POINT-TO-POINT PROTOCOLS AND LINKS 37

2.1 Introduction 37
2.2 The Physical Layer: Channels and Modems 40

2.2.1 Filtering, 41
2.2.2 Frequency Response, 43
2.2.3 The Sampling Theorem, 46
2.2.4 Bandpass Channels, 47
2.2.5 Modulation, 48
2.2.6 Frequency- and Time-Division Multiplexing, 52
2.2.7 Other Channel Impairments, 53
2.2.8 Digital Channels, 53
ISDN,54

2.2.9 Propagation Media for Physical Channels, 56

2.3 Error Detection 57

2.3.1 Single Parity Checks, 58

2.3.2 Horizontal and Vertical Parity Checks, 58
2.3.3 Parity Check Codes, 59
2.3.4 Cyclic Redundancy Checks, 61

2.4 ARQ: Retransmission Strategies 64

2.4.1 Stop-and-Wait ARQ, 66

Correctness of stop and wait, 69

2.4.2 Go Back n ARQ, 72

Rules followed by transmitter and receiver in go back
n,74
Correctness of go back n, 76
Go back n with modulus m > n, 78
Efficiency of go back n implementations, 80
2.4.3 Selective Repeat ARQ, 81
2.4.4 ARPANET ARQ, 84

2.5 Framing 86
Contents vii

2.5.1 Character-Based Framing, 86

2.5.2 Bit-Oriented Framing: Flags, 88
2.5.3 Length Fields, 90
2.5.4 Framing with Errors, 92
2.5.5 Maximum Frame Size, 93
Variable frame length, 93
Fixed frame length, 97

2.6 Standard DLCs 97

2.7 Initialization and Disconnect for ARQ Protocols 103

2.7.1 Initialization in the Presence of Link Failures, 103

2.7.2 Master-Slave Protocol for Link Initialization, 104
2.7.3 A Balanced Protocol for Link Initialization, 107
2.7.4 Link Initialization in the Presence of Node Failures, 109

2.8 Point-to-Point Protocols at the Network Layer 110

2.8.1 Session Identification and Addressing, III

Session identification in TYMNET, 112
Session identification in the Codex networks, 113
2.8.2 Packet Numbering, Window Flow Control, and Error
Recovery, 114
Error recovery, 115
Flow control, 116
Error recovel)' at the transport layer versus the network
layer, 117
2.8.3 The X.25 Network Layer Standard, 118
2.8.4 The Internet Protocol, 120

2,9 The Transport Layer 123

2,9.1 Trap-sport Layer Standards, 123

2.9.2 Addressing and Multiplexing in TCP, 124
2.9,3 Error Recovery in TCP, 125
2.9.4 Flow Control in TCP/IP, 127
2.9.5 TP Class 4, 128

2.10 Broadband ISDN and the Asynchronous Transfer Mode 128

2.10.1 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), 132

2.10.2 The Adaptation Layer, 135
Class 3 (connection-oriented) traffic, 136
Class 4 (connection less) traffic. 137
Class 1 and 2 traffic, 137
2.10.3 Congestion, 138
 viii Contents

Summary 139
Notes, Sources, and Suggested Reading 140
Problems 141

3 DELAY MODELS IN DATA NETWORKS 149

3.1 Introduction 149

3. 1.1 Multiplexing of Traffic on a Communication Link, 150

3.2 Queueing Models: Little's Theorem 152

3.2.1 Little's Theorem, 152

3.2.2 Probabilistic Form of Little's Theorem, 154
3.2.3 Applications of Little's Theorem, 157

3.3 The lvI / M /1 Queueing System 162

3.3.1 Main Results, 164

Arrival statistics--the Poisson process. 164
Service statistics. 165
MarkoI' chain formulation. 166
Derimtion of the stationary distrihution. 167
3.3.2 Occupancy Distribution upon Arrival, 17I
3.3.3 Occupancy Distribution upon Departure. 173

3.4 The lvI / lvI / m, lvI / !vI/ x. lvI / lvI / m /m, and Other Markov
Systems 173

3.4.1 AI/M/m: The m-Server Case. 174

3.4.2 l'vi / M / 00: The Infinite-Server Case, 177
3.4.3 Ai/ki/m/m: The TTL-Server Loss System, 178
3.4.4 Multidimensional Markov Chains: Applications in Circuit
Switching, 180
Truncation of independent single-class systems. 182
Blocking prohahilities for circuit switching systems. 185

3.5 The lvI/GIl System 186

3.5.1 AI/G/I Queues with Vacations. 192

3.5.2 Reservations and Polling, 195
Single-user system, 196
Multi-user system. 198
Limited serl'ice systems. 201
3.5.3 Priority Queueing, 203
Nonpreemptive priority, 203
 Contents ix

Preemptil'e resume priority, 205

3.5.4 An Upper Bound for the G/G/I System. 206

3.6 Networks of Transmission Lines 209

3.6.1 The Kleinrock Independence Approximation. 211

3.7 Time Reversibility-Burke's Theorem 214

3.8 Networks of Queues-Jackson's Theorem 221
Heuristic explanation ofJackson's Theorem. 227

3.8.1 Extensions of Jackson's Theorem. 229

State-dependent sen'ice rates. 229
Multiple classes of customers, 230

3.8.2 Closed Queueing Networks, 233

3.8.3 Computational Aspects-Mean Value Analysis, 238

Summary 240
Notes, Sources, and Suggested Reading 241
Problems 242
Appendix A: Review of Markov Chain Theory 259

3A.! Discrete-Time Markov Chains, 259

3A.2 Detailed Balance Equations, 261
3A.3 Partial Balance Equations, 262
3A.4 Continuous-Time Markov Chains. 262
3A.5 Drift and Stability. 264

Appendix B: Summary of Results 265

4 MULTIACCESS COMMUNICATION 271

4.1 Introduction 271

4.1.1 Satellite Channels. 273

4.1.2 Multidrop Telephone Lines. 274
4.1.3 Multitapped Bus. 274
4.1.4 Packet Radio Networks. 275

4.2 Slotted Multiaccess and the Aloha System 275

4.2.1 Idealized Slotted Multiaccess Model, 275

Discussion of assumptions, 276
x Contents

4.2.2 Slotted Aloha, 277

4.2.3 Stabilized Slotted Aloha, 282
Stability and maximum throughput. 282
Pseudo-Bayesian algorithm. 283
Approximate delay analysis, 284
Binary e.\ponential backoff. 286

4.2.4 Unslotted Aloha, 287

4.3 Splitting Algorithms 289

4.3.1 Tree Algorithms, 290

Improvements to the tree algorithm. 292
Variants of the tree algorithm. 293
4.3.2 First-Come First-Serve Splitting Algorithms, 293
Analysis of FCFS splitting algorithm. 297
Improvements in the FCFS splitting algorithm, 301
Practical details. 302
Last-come first-serve (LCFS) splitting algorithm. 302
Delayed feedback. 303
Round-robin splitting. 304

4.4 Carrier Sensing 304

4.4.1 CSMA Slotted Aloha, 305

4.4.2 Pseudo-Bayesian Stabilization for CSMA Aloha, 307
4.4.3 CSMA Unslotted Aloha, 309
4.4.4 FCFS Splitting Algorithm for CSMA, 310

4.5 Multiaccess Reservations 312

4.5.1 Satellite Reservation Systems, 313

4.5.2 Local Area Networks: CSMA/CD and Ethernet, 317
Slotted CSMAICD. 317
Unslotted CSMAICD. 318
The IEEE 802 standards. 320
4.5.3 Local Area Networks: Token Rings, 320
IEEE 802.5 token ring standard. 323
E\peeted delay for token rings. 324
FDDI.326
Slotted rings and register insertion rings. 330

4.5.4 Local Area Networks: Token Buses and Polling, 331

IEEE 802.4 token bus standard. 332
Implicit tokens: CSMAICA, 333
4.5.5 High-Speed Local Area Networks, 333
Distributed queue dual bus (IEEE 802.6), 335
 Contents xi

Expressnet, 339
Homenets, 341

4.5.6 Generalized Polling and Splitting Algorithms, 342

4.6 Packet Radio Networks 344

4.6.1 TDM for Packet Radio Nets, 346

4.6.2 Collision Resolution for Packet Radio Nets, 347
4.6.3 Transmission Radii for Packet Radio, 349
4.6.4 Carrier Sensing and Busy Tones, 350

Summary 351

Notes, Sources, and Suggested Reading 352

Problems 353

5 ROUTING IN DATA NETWORKS 363

5.1 Introduction 363

5.1.1 Main Issues in Routing, 365

5.1.2 Wide-Area Network Routing: An Overview, 367
FloodinE? and broadcasting, 368
Shortest path routing, 370
Optimal routing, 372
Hot potato (deflection) routinE? schemes, 372
Cut-through routing, 373
ARPANET: An example of datagram routing, 374
TYMNET: An example of virtual circuit routing, 376
Routing in SNA, 378
Routing in circuit switching networks, 379
5.1.3 Interconnected Network Routing: An Overview, 379
Bridged local area networks, 382
Spanning tree routinE? in bridE?ed local area networks, 383
Source routing in bridged local area networks, 385

5.2 Network Algorithms and Shortest Path Routing 387

5.2.1 Undirected Graphs, 387

5.2.2 Minimum Weight Spanning Trees, 390
5.2.3 Shortest Path Algorithms, 393
The Bellman-Ford algorithm, 396
Bellman's equation and shortest path construction, 399
Dijkstra's algorithm, 401
The Floyd-Warshall algorithm, 403
5.2.4 Distributed Asynchronous Bellman-Ford Algorithm, 404
 xii Contents

5.2.5 Stability of Adaptive Shortest Path Routing

Algorithms, 410
Stability issues in datagram networks. 410
Stability issues in virtual circuit networks. 414

5.3 Broadcasting Routing Infonnation: Coping with Link Failures 418

5.3.1 Flooding: The ARPANET Algorithm, 420

5.3.2 Flooding without Periodic Updates, 422
5.3.3 Broadcast without Sequence Numbers, 425

5.4 Flow Models, Optimal Routing, and Topological Design 433

5.4.1 Overview of Topological Design Problems, 437

5.4.2 Subnet Design Problem, 439
Capacity assignment problem. 439
Heuristic methods for capacity assignment. 442
Network reliability issues, 445
Spanning tree topology design. 447
5.4.3 Local Access Network Design Problem, 448

5.5 Characterization of Optimal Routing 451

5.6 Feasible Direction Methods for Optimal Routing 455

5.6.1 The Frank-Wolfe (Flow Deviation) Method, 458

5.7 Projection Methods for Optimal Routing 464

5.7.1 Unconstrained Nonlinear Optimization, 465

5.7.2 Nonlinear Optimization over the Positive Orthant, 467
5.7.3 Application to Optimal Routing, 468

5.8 Routing in the Codex Network 476

Summary 477
Notes, Sources, and Suggested Reading 478
Problems 479

6 flOW CONTROL 493

6.1 Introduction 493

6.1.1 Means of Flow Control, 494

6.1.2 Main Objectives of Flow Control, 496
Limiting delay and buffer overflow, 496
Fairness, 498
Contents xiii

6.2 Window Flow Control 500

6.2.1 End-to-End Windows, 501

Limitations of end-to-end windows, 502
6.2.2 Node-by-Node Windows for Virtual Circuits. 506
6.2.3 The Isarithmic Method, 508
6.2.4 Window Flow Control at Higher Layers. 508
6.2.5 Dynamic Window Size Adjustment. 510

6.3 Rate Control Schemes 510

Queueing analysis of the leaky hucket scheme, 513

6.4 Overview of Flow Control in Practice 515

Flow control in the ARPANET. 515
Flow control in the TYMNET. 517
Flow control in SNA. 517
Flow control in a Codex network. 518
Flow control in the PAR1S network, 518
Flow control in K25. 519

6.5 Rate Adjustment Algorithms 519

6.5.1 Combined Optimal Routing and Flow Control. 519

6.5.2 Max-Min Flow Control, 524

Summary 530
Notes, Sources, and Suggested Reading 530
Problems 531

REFERENCES 537

INDEX 552