Analog Computer

Analog computer, is a class of devices in which continuously variable physical quantities such as
electrical potential, fluid pressure, or mechanical motion are represented in a way analogous to the
corresponding quantities in the problem to be solved. The analog system is set up according to
initial conditions and then allowed to change freely. Answers to the problem are obtained by
measuring the variables in the analog model.
The earliest analog computers were special-purpose machines, as for example the tide predictor
developed in 1873 by William Thomson (later known as Lord Kelvin). Along the same lines, A.A.
Michelson and S.W. Stratton built in 1898 a harmonic analyzer having 80 components. Each of
these was capable of generating a sinusoidal motion, which could be multiplied by constant factors
by adjustment of a fulcrum on levers.
Analog computers are especially well suited to simulating dynamic systems; such simulations may
be conducted in real time or at greatly accelerated rates, thereby allowing experimentation by
repeated runs with altered variables. They have been widely used in simulations of aircraft,
nuclear-power plants, and industrial chemical processes. Other major uses include analysis of
hydraulic networks (e.g., flow of liquids through a sewer system) and electronics networks (e.g.,
performance of long-distance circuits).

Feedback System and Autopilot

Feedback Systems
A significant factor in the performance of many systems is that a coupling occurs between the input
and output of the system. The term feedback is used to describe the phenomenon. A home heating
system controlled by a thermostat is a simple example of a feedback system. The system has a furnace
whose purpose is to heat a room, and the output of the system can be measured as room temperature.
Depending upon whether the temperature is below or above the thermostat setting, the furnace will be
turned on or off, so that information is being fed back from the output to the input. In this case, there
are only two state, either the furnace is on or off.
An example of a feedback system in which there is continuous control is the aircraft system. Here, the
input is a desired aircraft heading and the output is the actual heading. The gyroscope of the autopilot
is able to detect the difference between the two headings. A feedback is established by using the
difference to operate the control surface, since change of heading will then affect the signal being used
to the heading. The difference between the desired heading 𝜃 and actual heading 𝜃0 is called the error
signal, since it is a measure of the extent to which the system deviates from the desired condition. It is
denoted by𝜀.
The feedback in the autopilot is said to be negative feedback. The more the system output deviates
from the desired from value stronger is the force to drive it back.
Many simulation studies of continuous system are concerned primarily with the study of servo
mechanism, which is the general name given to the devices that rely upon feedback for their operation.
Simulation of an Autopilot
Autopilot System
Autopilot is an automatic aircraft control system. A gyroscope in the autopilot detects the difference
between the actual heading (Heading is the relative horizontal orientation of the aircraft relative to
magnetic North) and the desired heading. It sends a signal to move the control surfaces. In response to
the control surface movement, the airframe steers towards the desired heading.

Fig: Autopilot system

In order to simulate the action of autopilot, we first construct a mathematical model of the aircraft
system. The error signal, 𝜀, has been defined as the difference between the desired heading, or output,
𝜃𝑖 , and the actual heading, 𝜃0. We therefore have the following identity:

𝜀 = 𝜃𝑖 − 𝜃0 (1)
We assume the rudder (a flat, movable piece usually of wood or metal that is attached to a ship,
boat, airplane, etc., and is used in steering) is turned to an angle proportional to the error signal, so
that the force changing the aircraft heading is proportional to the error signal. Instead of moving
the aircraft sideways, the force applies a torque which will turn the aircraft.

Torque = 𝐾𝜀 − 𝐷𝜃0̇ (2)

Where K and D, are constants, the first term on the right hand side is the torque produced by the
rudder, and the second is the viscous drag.
The torque is also given by the product of inertia on body of aircraft and second derivative of the
heading,

Torque = 𝐼𝜃0̈ (3)

From equation (1), (2) and (3) we get,

𝐼𝜃0̈ + 𝐷𝜃0̇ + 𝐾𝜃0 = 𝐾𝜃𝑖 (4)

Dividing both sides by I, and making the following substitutions in equation (4)

2ξ𝜔 = D/I, 𝜔2 = k/I

𝜃0̈ + 2ξ𝜔𝜃0̇ + 𝜔2 𝜃0 = 𝜔2 𝜃𝑖 (5) (ξ is damping factor)
This is a second order differential equation.

Fig: Aircraft response to autopilot system

CSMP III Program for Autopilot System

TITLE AIRCRAFT WITH RATE CONTROL
*
PARAM D = (5.656, 16.968, 39.592, 56.56, 113.12)
INPUT = A*TIME
ERROR = INPUT – HEAD
TORQUE = K*ERROR – D*ANGVEL
ANGACC = TORQUE/I
HEAD = INTGRL (0.0, ANGVEL)
ANGVEL= INTGRL (0.0, ANGACC)
*
CONST I = 2.0, K = 400.0, A = 0.0175
TIMER DELT = 0.005, FINTIM = 1.5, PRDEL = 0.05
PRINT HEAD
LABEL HEADING VERSUS TIME
END

Note: 𝜽𝟎 , 𝜽𝟎̇ 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝜽𝟎̈ are HEAD, angular velocity (ANGVEL) and angular
acceleration (ANGACC respectively). A is constant. D takes different values on
five separate runs