Caltrans Highway Design Manual 2016

HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL
May 7, 2012
FOREWORD
Purpose and made available on-line on the Department
Design website:
This manual was prepared for the California http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/oppd/hdm/hdmtoc.htm.
Department of Transportation (Department) by the The new instructions or updates may consist of
Division of Design for use on the California State additional sheets or new sheets to be substituted for
highway system. This manual establishes uniform those superseded. Users of this manual are
policies and procedures to carry out the State encouraged to utilize the most recent version
highway design functions of the Department. It is available on-line on the Department Design website.
neither intended as, nor does it establish, a legal
standard for these functions. Organization of the Manual
The standards, procedures, and requirements A decimal numbering system is used which permits
established and discussed herein are for the identification by chapter, topic, and index, each of
information and guidance of the officers and which is a subdivision of the preceding
employees of the Department. classification. For example:
Many of the instructions given herein are subject to Chapter 40 Federal-Aid
amendment as conditions and experience warrant.
Topic 42 Federal-Aid System
Special situations may call for deviation from
policies and procedures, subject to Division of Index 42.2 Interstate
Design approval, or such other approval as may be The upper corner of each page shows the page
specifically provided for in the text of this manual. number and the date of issue.
It is not intended that any standard of conduct or
Use the Table of Contents
duty toward the public shall be created or imposed
by the publication of this manual. Statements as to The Table of Contents gives the index number and
the duties and responsibilities of any given page number for each topical paragraph together
classification of officers or employees mentioned with corresponding dates of issue. If the holder of
herein refer solely to duties or responsibilities owed the manual chooses to maintain a paper copy, the
by these in such classification to their superiors. holder is responsible for keeping the paper copy up
However, in their official contacts, each employee to date and current. Revised Table of Contents will
should recognize the necessity for good relations be issued on the Department Design website as the
with the public. need arises.
Scope Use of the English and Metric Editions of the
This manual is not a textbook or a substitute for Highway Design Manual
engineering knowledge, experience, or judgment. It This Sixth Edition of the Highway Design Manual
includes techniques as well as graphs and tables not is in U.S. Customary (English) units. Departmental
ordinarily found in textbooks. These are intended as policy established by Director’s Policy 15-R1 and
aids in the quick solutions of field and office Deputy Directive Number 12-R1, both effective
problems. Except for new developments, no October 2006, state that the Department has adopted
attempt is made to detail basic engineering the use of the U.S. Customary (English) units as its
techniques; for these, standard textbooks should be preferred system of units and measures. All projects
used. designed and constructed in English units shall
follow the standards in this manual.
Form
The Metric standards contained in the Fifth Edition
The loose-leaf form was chosen because it
of the Highway Design Manual, and related
facilitates change and expansion. New instructions
publications, are to continue to be used if the
or updates will be issued as sheets in the format of
specific project was granted an exception to
this manual
May 7, 2012
continue to be delivered in Metric units. Only those

projects identified, approved, and disclosed per
Project Delivery Directive 3 (PID-03) are allowed to
continue to be advertised and constructed on the
State highway system using Metric units.
Use of the HDM as a Reference in Other
Media
No warranty is made regarding the results of use of
this Caltrans Highway Design Manual (HDM) or
that the HDM will accurately and reliably test
construction designs for compliance with any
Federal, State or industry standards, or that the
HDM will predict or test the safety or other feature
or a structure. Engineering judgment must be used
to apply the HDM to designs and to adjust designs
to fit individual site conditions. The HDM is not
intended to be a substitute for engineering
knowledge, experience or judgment. In no event
shall the Departmentbe liable for costs of
procurement of substitute goods, loss of profits, or
for any indirect, special, consequential or incidental
damages, however caused, by use of the HDM. The
Department shall not be liable for any claims in
connection with the use of the HDM, including
without limitation, liability arising from third-party
claims, liability related to the quality of calculations
or the safety or quality or structures, liability for
scheduling delays or re-design, retrofit or re-work of
structures, or other similar liability.
July 24, 2009
Metric Basics
Measurable Attribute - Basic Units Unit Expression
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Luminous intensity candela cd
Time second s
Time hour h
Electric current ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature Kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol
Volume of liquid liter L
Measurable Attribute - Special Names Unit Expression
Frequency of a periodic phenomenon hertz Hz (1/s)
Force newton N (kg.m/s2)
Energy/work/quantity of heat joule J(N.m)
Power watt W (J/s)
Pressure/stress pascal Pa (N/m2)
Celcius temperature Celsius °C
Quantity of electricity/electrical charge coulomb C
Electric potential volt V
Electric resistance ohm Ω
Luminous flux lumen lm
Luminance lux lx (lm/m2) or
(cd/m2)
Measurable Attribute - Derived Units Unit Expression
Acceleration meter per second squared m/s2
Area square meter m2
Area hectare ha (10 000 m2)
Density/mass kilogram per cubic meter kg/m3
Volume cubic meters m3
Velocity meter per second m/s
Mass tonne tonne (1000 kg)
Multiplication Factors Prefix Symbol Pronunciations
9
1 000 000 000 = 10 giga G jig' a (ias in jig, a as in a-bout)
6
1 000 000 = 10 mega M as in mega-phone
1000 = 103 kilo k kill' oh
2
100 = 10 *hecto h heck' toe
10 = 101 *deko da deck' a (a as in a-bout)
-1
0.1 = 10 *deci d as in deci-mal
0.01 = 10-2 *centi c as in centi-pede
0.001 = 10-3 milli m as in mili-tary
0.000 001 = 10-6 micro µ as in micro-phone
0.000 000 001 = 10-9 nano n nan' oh (an as in ant)
* to be avoided where possible
July 1, 2015
Common Conversion Factors to Metric

Class Multiply: By: To Get:
Area ft2 0.0929 m2
yd2 0.8361 m2
mi 2 2.590 km 2
acre 0.404 69 ha
Length ft 0.3048 m
in 25.4 mm
mi 1.6093 km
yd 0.9144 m
Volume ft3 0.0283 m3
gal 3.785 L*
fl oz 29.574 mL *
yd3 0.7646 m3
acre ft 1233.49 m3
Mass oz 28.35 g
lb 0.4536 kg
kip (1,000 lbs) 0.4536 453.6 kg
short ton 907.2 kg
(2,000 lbs)
short ton 0.9072 tonne (1000 kg)
Density lb/yd3 0.5933 kg/m3
lb/ft3 16.0185 kg/m3
Pressure psi 6894.8 Pa
ksi 6.8948 MPa (N/mm2)
lbf/ft2 47.88 Pa
Velocity ft/s 0.3048 m/s
mph 0.4470 m/s
mph 1.6093 km/h
Temp °F t °c = (t °f-32)/1.8 °C
Light footcandle lux (lx)

10.7639
(or) lumen/ft2 (or) lumen/m2
* Use Capital "L" for liter to eliminate confusion with the numeral "1"
Land Surveying Conversion Factors

Class Multiply : By: To Get
Area acre 4046.87261 m2
acre 0.404 69 ha (10 000 m2)
Length ft 1200/3937** m
** Exact, by definition of the US Survey foot, Section 8810, State of California Public Resources Code
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Table of Contents
Topic Subject Page
Number Number
CHAPTER 10 - DIVISION OF DESIGN

11 Organization
11.1 Organization 10-1
CHAPTER 20 - DESIGNATION OF HIGHWAY ROUTES

21 Highway Route Numbers
21.1 Legislative Route Numbers and Descriptions 20-1
21.2 Sign Route Numbers 20-1
CHAPTER 40 - FEDERAL-AID
41 Enabling Legislation
41.1 General 40-1
42 Federal-Aid System
42.1 National Highway System 40-1
42.2 Interstate 40-1
43 Federal-Aid Programs
43.1 Surface Transportation Program (STP) 40-1
43.2 California Stewardship and Oversight Agreement with FHWA 40-1
43.3 Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement Program (CMAQ) 40-2
43.4 Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation Program 40-2
43.5 Federal Lands Program 40-2
43.6 Highway Safety Improvement Program 40-2
43.7 Special Programs 40-2
44 Funding Determination
44.1 Funding Eligibility 40-2
44.2 Federal Participation Ratio 40-3
44.3 Emergency Relief 40-3
CHAPTER 60 - NOMENCLATURE
61 Abbreviations
61.1 Official Names 60-1
62 Definitions
62.1 Geometric Cross Section 60-1
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Number Number
62.2 Highway Structures 60-2

62.3 Highway Types 60-2
62.4 Interchanges and Intersections at Grade 60-5
62.5 Landscape Architecture 60-6
62.6 Right of Way 60-8
62.7 Pavement 60-8
62.8 Highway Operations 60-12
62.9 Drainage 60-13
62.10 Users 60-13
CHAPTER 80 - APPLICATION OF DESIGN STANDARDS

81 Project Development Overview
81.1 Philosophy 80-1
81.2 Highway Context 80-1
81.3 Place Types 80-2
81.4 Type of Highway 80-4
81.5 Access Control 80-5
81.6 Design Standards and Highway Context 80-5
82 Application of Standards
82.1 Highway Design Manual Standards 80-5
82.2 Approvals for Nonstandard Design 80-7
82.3 FHWA and AASHTO Standards and Policies 80-9
82.4 Mandatory Procedural Requirements 80-9
82.5 Effective Date for Implementing Revisions to Design Standards 80-9
82.6 Design Information Bulletins and Other Caltrans Publications 80-9
82-7 Traffic Engineering 80-10
CHAPTER 100 - BASIC DESIGN POLICIES

101 Design Speed
101.1 Highway Design Speed 100-1
101.2 Highway Design Speed Standards 100-2
102 Design Capacity & Level of Service
102.1 Design Capacity (Automobiles) 100-3
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102.2 Design Capacity and Quality of Service (Pedestrians and Bicycles) 100-4
103 Design Designation
103.1 Relation to Design 100-4
103.2 Design Period 100-4
104 Control of Access
104.1 General Policy 100-5
104.2 Access Openings 100-5
104.3 Frontage Roads 100-5
104.4 Protection of Access Rights 100-6
104.5 Relation of Access Opening to a Median Opening 100-6
104.6 Maintaining Local Community Access 100-6
104.7 Cross References 100-6
105 Pedestrian Facilities
105.2 Sidewalks and Walkways 100-6
105.3 Pedestrian Grade Separations 100-8
105.4 Accessibility Requirements 100-9
105.5 Guidelines for the Location and Design of Curb Ramps 100-10
105.6 Pedestrian Crossings 100-11
106 Stage Construction and Utilization of Local Roads
106.1 Stage Construction 100-11
106.2 Utilization of Local Roads 100-13
107 Roadside Installations
107.1 Roadway Connections 100-14
107.2 Maintenance and Police Facilities on Freeways 100-14
107.3 Location of Border Inspection Stations 100-14
108 Coordination with Other Agencies
108.1 Divided Nonfreeway Facilities 100-15
108.2 Transit Loading Facilities 100-15
108.3 Commuter and Light Rail Facilities Within State Right of Way 100-17
108.4 Bus Loading Facilities 100-18
108.5 Bus Rapid Transit 100-18
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108.6 High-Occupancy Toll and Express Toll Lanes 100-19

108.7 Coordination with the FHWA 100-19
109 Scenic Values in Planning and Design
109.1 Basic Precepts 100-19
109.2 Design Speed 100-20
109.3 Aesthetic Factors 100-20
110 Special Considerations
110.1 Design for Overloaded Material Hauling Equipment 100-21
110.2 Control of Water Pollution 100-22
110.3 Control of Air Pollution 100-26
110.4 Wetlands Protection 100-27
110.5 Control of Noxious Weeds – Exotic and Invasive Species 100-27
110.6 Earthquake Consideration 100-28
110.7 Traffic Control Plans 100-28
110.8 Safety Reviews 100-30
110.9 Value Analysis 100-31
110.10 Proprietary Items 100-31
110.11 Conservation of Materials and Energy 100-32
110.12 Tunnel Safety Orders 100-34
111 Material Sites and Disposal Sites
111.2 Investigation of Local Materials Sources 100-38
111.3 Materials Information Furnished to Prospective Bidders 100-39
111.4 Materials Arrangements 100-40
111.5 Procedures for Acquisition of Material Sites and Disposal Sites 100-40
111.6 Mandatory Material Sites and Disposal Sites on Federal-aid Projects 100-41
112 Contractor's Yard and Plant Sites
112.1 Policy 100-42
112.2 Locating a Site 100-42
113 Geotechnical Design Report
113.1 Policy 100-42
113.2 Content 100-42
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113.3 Submittal and Review 100-42

114 Materials Report
114.1 Policy 100-43
114.2 Requesting Material Report(s) 100-43
114.3 Content 100-43
114.4 Preliminary Materials Report 100-44
114.5 Review and Retention of Records 100-44
115 Designing for Bicycle Traffic
115.1 General 100-44
116 Bicyclists and Pedestrians on Freeways
116.1 General 100-45
CHAPTER 200 - GEOMETRIC DESIGN AND STRUCTURE STANDARDS

201 Sight Distance
201.1 General 200-1
201.2 Passing Sight Distance 200-1
201.3 Stopping Sight Distance 200-2
201.4 Stopping Sight Distance at Grade Crests 200-2
201.5 Stopping Sight Distance at Grade Sags 200-2
201.6 Stopping Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves 200-2
201.7 Decision Sight Distance 200-3
202 Superelevation
202.1 Basic Criteria 200-3
202.2 Standards for Superelevation 200-8
202.3 Restrictive Conditions 200-9
202.4 Axis of Rotation 200-9
202.5 Superelevation Transition 200-16
202.6 Superelevation of Compound Curves 200-19
202.7 Superelevation on City Streets and County Roads 200-19
203 Horizontal Alignment
203.1 General Controls 200-19
203.2 Standards for Curvature 200-19
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203.3 Alignment Consistency 200-21

203.4 Curve Length and Central Angle 200-21
203.5 Compound Curves 200-21
203.6 Reversing Curves 200-21
203.7 Broken Back Curves 200-21
203.8 Spiral Transition 200-21
203.9 Alignment at Bridges 200-22
204 Grade
204.1 General Controls 200-22
204.2 Position with Respect to Cross Section 200-22
204.3 Standards for Grade 200-22
204.4 Vertical Curves 200-23
204.5 Sustained Grades 200-23
204.6 Coordination of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment 200-26
204.7 Separate Grade Lines 200-27
204.8 Grade Line of Structures 200-27
205 Road Connections and Driveways
205.1 Access Openings on Expressways 200-30
205.2 Private Road Connections 200-30
205.3 Urban Driveways 200-31
205.4 Driveways on Frontage Roads and in Rural Areas 200-32
205.5 Financial Responsibility 200-32
206 Pavement Transitions
206.1 General Transition Standards 200-32
206.2 Pavement Widenings 200-32
206.3 Pavement Reductions 200-34
206.4 Temporary Freeway Transitions 200-34
207 Airway-Highway Clearances
207.1 Introduction 200-34
207.2 Clearances 200-35
207.3 Submittal of Airway-Highway Clearance Data 200-35
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208 Bridges, Grade Separation Structures, and Structure Approach Embankment

208.1 Bridge Lane and Shoulder Width 200-35
208.2 Cross Slope 200-41
208.3 Median 200-41
208.4 Bridge Sidewalks 200-41
208.5 Open End Structures 200-41
208.6 Bicycle and Pedestrian Overcrossings and Undercrossings 200-41
208.7 Equestrian Undercrossings and Overcrossings 200-42
208.8 Cattle Passes, Equipment, and Deer Crossings 200-42
208.9 Railroad Underpasses and Overheads 200-42
208.10 Bridge Barriers and Railings 200-42
208.11 Structure Approach Embankment 200-44
209 Currently Not In Use
210 Reinforced Earth Slopes and Earth Retaining Systems
210.2 Construction Methods and Types 200-51
210.3 Alternative Earth Retaining Systems (AERS) 200-57
210.4 Cost Reduction Incentive Proposals (CRIP) 200-58
210.5 Aesthetic Consideration 200-58
210.6 Safety Railing, Fences, and Concrete Barriers 200-58
210.7 Design Responsibility 200-59
210.8 Guidelines for Type Selection and Plan Preparation 200-59
CHAPTER 300 – GEOMETRIC CROSS SECTION

301 Traveled Way Standards
301.1 Lane Width 300-1
301.2 Class II Bikeway (Bike Lane) Lane Width 300-1
301.3 Cross Slopes 300-2
302 Highway Shoulder Standards
302.1 Width 300-3
302.2 Cross Slopes 300-3
302.3 Tapered Edge 300-6
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303 Curbs, Dikes, and Side Gutters

303.2 Curb Types and Uses 300-7
303.3 Dike Types and Uses 300-9
303.4 Curb Extensions 300-11
303.5 Position of Curbs and Dikes 300-14
303.6 Curbs and Dikes on Frontage Roads and Streets 300-14
304 Side Slopes
304.1 Side Slope Standards 300-14
304.2 Clearance From Slope to Right of Way Line 300-16
304.3 Slope Benches and Cut Widening 300-16
304.4 Contour Grading and Slope Rounding 300-16
304.5 Stepped Slopes 300-17
305 Median Standards
305.1 Width 300-17
305.2 Median Cross Slopes 300-18
305.3 Median Barriers 300-19
305.4 Median Curbs 300-19
305.5 Paved Medians 300-19
305.6 Separate Roadways 300-19
306 Right of Way
306.1 General Standards 300-19
306.2 Right of Way Through the Public Domain 300-19
307 Cross Sections for State Highways
307.1 Cross Section Selection 300-19
307.2 Two-lane Cross Sections for New Construction 300-21
307.3 Two-lane Cross Sections for 2R, 3R, and other Projects 300-21
307.4 Multilane Divided Cross Sections 300-21
307.5 Multilane All Paved Cross Sections with Special Median Widths 300-21
307.6 Multilane Cross Sections for 2R and 3R Projects 300-25
307.7 Reconstruction Projects 300-25
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308 Cross Sections for Roads Under Other Jurisdictions

308.1 City Streets and County Roads 300-25
309 Clearances
309.1 Horizontal Clearances for Highways 300-26
309.2 Vertical Clearances 300-28
309.3 Tunnel Clearances 300-33
309.4 Lateral Clearance for Elevated Structures 300-33
309.5 Structures Across or Adjacent to Railroads 300-33
310 Frontage Roads
310.1 Cross Section 300-35
310.2 Outer Separation 300-35
310.3 Headlight Glare 300-35
CHAPTER 400 – INTERSECTIONS AT GRADE

401 Factors Affecting Design
401.1 General 400-1
401.2 Human Factors 400-1
401.3 Traffic Considerations 400-2
401.4 The Physical Environment 400-2
401.5 Intersection Type 400-2
401.6 Transit 400-3
402 Operational Features Affecting Design
402.1 Capacity 400-3
402.2 Collisions 400-3
402.3 On-Street Parking 400-4
402.4 Consider All Users 400-4
402.5 Speed-Change Areas 400-4
403 Principles of Channelization
403.1 Preference to Major Movements 400-4
403.2 Areas of Conflict 400-4
403.3 Angle of Intersection 400-5
403.4 Points of Conflict 400-5
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403.5 Currently Not In Use 400-6

403.6 Turning Traffic 400-6
403.7 Refuge Areas 400-9
403.8 Prohibited Turns 400-9
403.9 Effective Signal Control 400-9
403.10 Installation of Traffic Control Devices 400-9
403.11 Summary 400-9
403.12 Other Considerations 400-10
404 Design Vehicles
404.1 General 400-10
404.2 Design Considerations 400-10
404.3 Design Tools 400-11
404.4 Design Vehicles and Related Definitions 400-12
404.5 Turning Templates & Vehicle Diagrams 400-13
405 Intersection Design Standards
405.1 Sight Distance 400-14
405.2 Left-turn Channelization 400-23
405.3 Right-turn Channelization 400-25
405.4 Traffic Islands 400-29
405.5 Median Openings 400-30
405.7 Public Road Intersections 400-34
405.8 City Street Returns and Corner Radii 400-34
405.9 Widening of 2-lane Roads at Signalized Intersections 400-34
405.10 Roundabouts 400-34
406 Ramp Intersection Capacity Analysis
CHAPTER 500 – TRAFFIC INTERCHANGES

501 General
501.1 Concepts 500-1
501.2 Warrants 500-1
501.3 Spacing 500-1
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502 Interchange Types

502.1 General 500-1
502.2 Local Street Interchanges 500-2
502.3 Freeway-to-freeway Interchanges 500-6
503 Interchange Design Procedure
503.1 Basic Data 500-8
503.2 Reviews 500-8
504 Interchange Design Standards
504.1 General 500-11
504.2 Freeway Entrances and Exits 500-11
504.3 Ramps 500-15
504.4 Freeway-to-Freeway Connections 500-35
504.5 Auxiliary Lanes 500-36
504.6 Mainline Lane Reduction at Interchanges 500-36
504.7 Weaving Sections 500-38
CHAPTERS 600 – 670 – PAVEMENT ENGINEERING

CHAPTER 600 – GENERAL ASPECTS
601 Introduction
602 Pavement Structure Layers
602.1 Description 600-1
603 Types of Pavement Projects
603.1 New Construction 600-3
603.2 Widening 600-3
603.3 Pavement Preservation 600-3
603.4 Roadway Rehabilitation 600-6
603.5 Reconstruction 600-6
603.6 Temporary Pavements and Detours 600-7
604 Roles and Responsibilities
604.1 Roles and Responsibilities for Pavement Engineering 600-7
604.2 Other Resources 600-8
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605 Record Keeping

605.1 Documentation 600-9
605.2 Subsequent Revisions 600-10
606 Research and Special Designs
606.1 Research and Experimentation 600-10
606.2 Special Designs 600-10
606.3 Mechanistic-Emperical Design 600-10
606.4 Proprietary Items 600-11
CHAPTER 610 – PAVEMENT ENGINEERING CONSIDERATIONS

611 Factors in Selecting Pavement Types
611.1 Pavement Type Selection 610-1
611.2 Selection Criteria 610-1
612 Pavement Design Life
612.1 Definition 610-1
612.2 New Construction and Reconstruction 610-1
612.3 Widening 610-1
612.4 Pavement Preservation 610-3
612.5 Roadway Rehabilitation 610-3
612.6 Temporary Pavements and Detours 610-3
612.7 Non-Structural Wearing Courses 610-3
613 Traffic Considerations
613.1 Overview 610-3
613.2 Traffic Volume Projection 610-4
613.3 Traffic Index Calculation 610-5
613.4 Axle Load Spectra 610-5
613.5 Specific Traffic Loading Considerations 610-8
614 Soil Characteristics
614.1 Engineering Considerations 610-11
614.2 Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) 610-12
614.3 California R-Value 610-12
614.4 Expansive Soils 610-14
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614.5 Subgrade Enhancement Geotextile (SEG) 610-15

615 Climate
616 Existing Pavement Type and Condition
617 Materials
617.1 Availability of Materials 610-18
617.2 Recycling 610-18
618 Maintainability and Constructibility
618.1 Maintainability 610-19
618.2 Constructibility 610-19
619 Life-Cycle Cost Analysis
619.1 Life-Cycle Cost Analysis 610-20
CHAPTER 620 – RIGID PAVEMENT

621 Types of Rigid Pavements
621.1 Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP) 620-1
621.2 Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement (CRCP) 620-1
621.3 Precast Panel Concrete Pavement (PPCP) 620-1
622 Engineering Requirements
622.1 Engineering Properties 620-1
622.2 Performance Factors 620-3
622.3 Pavement Joints 620-3
622.4 Dowel Bars and Tie Bars 620-3
622.5 Joint Seals 620-5
622.6 Bond Breaker 620-5
622.7 Texturing 620-6
622.8 Transitions and Anchors 620-6
623 Engineering Procedure for New and Reconstruction Projects
623.1 Catalog 620-6
623.2 Mechanistic-Empirical Method 620-21
624 Engineering Procedures for Pavement Preservation
624.1 Preventive Maintenance 620-21
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Number Number
624.2 Capital Preventive Maintenance (CAPM) 620-21

625 Engineering Procedures for Pavement and Roadway Rehabilitation
625.1 Rigid Pavement Rehabilitation Strategies 620-21
626 Other Considerations
626.1 Traveled Way 620-22
626.2 Shoulder 620-24
626.3 Intersections 620-27
626.4 Roadside Facilities 620-27
CHAPTER 630 – FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

631 Types of Flexible Pavements & Materials
631.1 Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) 630-1
631.2 Open Graded Friction Course (OGFC) 630-1
631.3 Rubberized Hot Mix Asphalt (RHMA) 630-1
631.4 Other Types of Flexible Pavement 630-2
631.5 Stress Absorbing Membrane Interlayers (SAMI) 630-2
632 Engineering Criteria
633 Engineering Procedures for New and Reconstruction Projects
633.1 Empirical Method 630-5
634 Engineering Procedures for Flexible Pavement Preservation
635 Engineering Procedures for Flexible Pavement and Roadway Rehabilitation
636.1 Traveled Way 630-19
636.2 Shoulders 630-20
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Number Number
636.3 Intersections 630-20

637 Engineering Analysis Software 630-21
CHAPTER 640 – COMPOSITE PAVEMENTS

641 Types of Composite Pavement
641.1 Asphalt Over Concrete Composite Pavement 640-1
641.2 Concrete Over Asphalt Composite Pavement 640-1
642 Engineering Criteria
643 Engineering Procedures for New Construction and Reconstruction
644 Engineering Procedures for Pavement Preservation
645 Engineering Procedures for Pavement and Roadway Rehabilitation
CHAPTER 650 – PAVEMENT DRAINAGE

651 General Considerations
651.1 Impacts of Drainage on Pavement 650-1
651.2 Drainage System Components and Requirements 650-1
652 Subsurface Drainage and Storm Water Management
653.1 New Consideration Projects 650-6
653.2 Widening Projects 650-6
653.3 Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Projects 650-6
653.4 Ramps 650-6
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CHAPTER 660 – PAVEMENT FOUNDATIONS

661 Engineering Considerations
661.1 Description 660-1
661.2 Purpose 660-1
662 Types of Bases
662.1 Aggregate Base 660-1
662.2 Treated Base 660-1
662.3 Treated Permeable Base 660-2
662.4 Subbase 660-2
663 Engineering Properties for Base and Subbase Materials
663.1 Selection Criteria 660-3
663.2 Base and Subbase for Rigid Pavements 660-3
663.3 Base and Subbase for Flexible Pavements 660-3
664 Subgrade Enhancement
664.1 Overview 660-3
664.2 Mechanical Subgrade Enhancement 660-3
664.3 Chemical Stabilization 660-6
664.4 Subgrade Enhancement Geosynthetics 660-6
665 Subgrade Enhancement Geosynthetic Fabrics
665.1 Purpose 660-6
665.2 Properties of Geosynthetics 660-6
665.3 Required Tests 660-7
665.4 Mechanical Stabilization Using SEGT and SEGG 660-7
665.5 Selecting Geosynthetic Type and Design Parameters 660-7
665.6 Application of SEG 660-9
665.7 Other Design Considerations 660-9
665.8 R-value Enhancement Using SEG 660-10
665.9 SEG Abbreviations and Definitions 660-10
CHAPTER 670 – TAPERS AND SHOULDER BACKING

671 Pavement Tapers
671.1 Background and Purpose 670-1
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Topic Subject Page
Number Number
671.2 Engineering Requirements and Considerations 670-1

671.3 Tapers into Existing Pavement or Structure 670-1
672 Shoulder Backing
672.1 Background and Purpose 670-1
672.2 Alternate Materials and Admixtures 670-8
672.3 Design 670-9
CHAPTER 700 – MISCELLANEOUS STANDARDS

701 Fences
701.1 Type, Intent and Purpose of Fences 700-1
701.2 Freeway and Expressway Access Control Fence 700-2
701.3 Private Fences 700-3
701.4 Temporary Fences 700-4
701.5 Other Fences 700-4
702 Miscellaneous Traffic Items
702.1 References 700-4
703 Special Structures and Installation
703.1 Truck Weighing Facilities 700-5
703.2 Rockfall Restraining Nets 700-4
704 Contrast Treatment
704.1 Policy 700-5
705 Materials and Color Selection
705.1 Special Treatments and Materials 700-5
705.2 Colors for Steel Structures 700-5
706 Roadside Treatment
706.1 Roadside Management 700-6
706.2 Vegetation Control 700-7
706.3 Topsoil 700-7
706.4 Irrigation Crossovers for Highway Construction Projects 700-7
706.5 Water Supply Line (Bridge) and Sprinkler Control Conduit for Bridge 700-8
706.6 Water Supply for Future Roadside Rest Areas, Vista Points, or Planting 700-8
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Topic Subject Page
Number Number
707 Slope Treatment Under Structures

707.1 Policy 700-8
707.2 Guidelines for Slope Treatment 700-8
707.3 Procedure 700-9
CHAPTERS 800-890 – HIGHWAY DRAINAGE DESIGN

CHAPTERS 800 – GENERAL ASPECTS
801 General
801.2 Drainage Design Philosophy 800-1
801.3 Drainage Standards 800-1
801.4 Objectives of Drainage Design 800-2
801.5 Economics of Design 800-2
801.6 Use of Drainage References 800-3
802 Drainage Design Responsibilities
802.1 Functional Organization 800-3
802.2 Culvert Committee 800-5
802.3 Bank and Shore Protection Committee 800-5
803 Drainage Design Policies
803.1 Basic Policy 800-6
803.2 Cooperative Agreements 800-6
803.3 Up-Grading Existing Drainage Facilities 800-6
804 Floodplain Encroachments
804.1 Purpose 800-7
804.2 Authority 800-7
804.3 Applicability 800-7
804.4 Definitions 800-7
804.5 Procedures 800-8
804.6 Responsibilities 800-8
804.7 Preliminary Evaluation of Risks and Impacts for Environmental 800-9
Document Phase
804.8 Design Standards 800-10
804.9 Coordination with the Local Community 800-10
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Number Number
804.10 National Flood Insurance Program 800-10

804.11 Coordination with FEMA 800-14
805 Preliminary Plans
805.1 Required FHWA Approval 800-14
805.2 Bridge Preliminary Report 800-14
805.3 Storm Drain Systems 800-15
805.4 Unusual Hydraulic Structures 800-15
805.5 Levees and Dams Formed by Highway Fills 800-15
805.6 Geotechnical 800-15
805.7 Data Provided by the District 800-15
806 Definitions of Drainage Terms
806.2 Drainage Terms 800-16
807 Selected Drainage References
807.2 Federal Highway Administration Hydraulic Publications 800-35
807.3 American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials 800-35
(AASHTO)
807.4 California Department of Transportation 800-36
807.5 U.S. Department of Interior – Geological Survey (USGS) 800-36
807.6 U.S. Department of Agriculture – Natural Resources Conservation 800-36
Service (NRCS)
807.7 California Department of Water Resources and Caltrans 800-36
807.8 University of California – Institute of Transportation and Traffic 800-37
Engineering (ITTE)
807.9 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 800-37
808 Selected Computer Programs
CHAPTER 810 – HYDROLOGY

811 General
811.2 Objectives of Hydrologic Analysis 810-1
811.3 Peak Discharge 810-1
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Number Number
811.4 Flood Severity 810-2

811.5 Factors Affecting Runoff 810-2
812 Basin Characteristics
812.1 Size 810-2
812.2 Shape 810-2
812.3 Slope 810-2
812.4 Land Use 810-3
812.5 Soil and Geology 810-3
812.6 Storage 810-3
812.7 Elevation 810-3
812.8 Orientation 810-3
813 Channel and Floodplain Characteristics
813.1 General 810-4
813.2 Length and Slope 810-4
813.3 Cross Section 810-4
813.4 Hydraulic Roughness 810-4
813.5 Natural and Man-made Constrictions 810-4
813.6 Channel Modifications 810-4
813.7 Aggradation – Degradation 810-4
813.8 Debris 810-5
814 Meteorological Characteristics
814.1 General 810-5
814.2 Rainfall 810-6
814.3 Snow 810-6
814.4 Evapo-transpiration 810-6
814.5 Tides and Waves 810-6
815 Hydrologic Data
815.1 General 810-7
815.2 Categories 810-7
815.3 Sources 810-7
815.4 Stream Flow 810-8
815.5 Precipitation 810-8
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Number Number
815.6 Adequacy of Data 810-8

816 Runoff
816.1 General 810-8
816.2 Overland Flow 810-8
816.3 Subsurface Flow 810-8
816.4 Detention and Retention 810-8
816.5 Flood Hydrograph and Flood Volume 810-8
816.6 Time of Concentration (Tc) and Travel Time (Tt) 810-10
817 Flood Magnitude
817.1 General 810-13
817.2 Measurements 810-13
818 Flood Probability and Frequency
818.1 General 810-14
818.2 Establishing Design Flood Frequency 810-15
818.3 Stationarity and Climate Variability 810-16
819 Estimating Design Discharge
819.2 Empirical Methods 810-15
819.3 Statistical Methods 810-21
819.4 Hydrograph Methods 810-23
819.5 Transfer of Data 810-24
819.6 Hydrologic Software 810-26
819.7 Region-Specific Analysis 810-26
CHAPTER 820 – CROSS DRAINAGE

821 General
821.2 Hydrologic Considerations 820-1
821.3 Selection of Design Flood 820-2
821.4 Headwater and Tailwater 820-2
821.5 Effects of Tide and Wind 820-3
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Number Number
822 Debris Control

822.2 Debris Control Methods 820-3
822.3 Economics 820-4
822.4 Classification of Debris 820-4
822.5 Types of Debris Control Structures 820-4
823 Culvert Location
823.2 Alignment and Slope 820-5
824 Culvert Type Selection
824.2 Shape and Cross Section 820-5
825 Hydraulic Design of Culverts
825.2 Culvert Flow 820-6
825.3 Computer Programs 820-6
825.4 Coefficient of Roughness 820-7
826 Entrance Design
826.2 End Treatment Policy 820-7
826.3 Conventional Entrance Designs 820-7
826.4 Improved Inlet Designs 820-8
827 Outlet Design
827.1 General 820-8
827.2 Embankment Protection 820-8
828 Diameter and Length
828.2 Minimum Diameter 820-10
828.3 Length 820-10
829 Special Considerations
829.2 Bedding and Backfill 820-10
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829.3 Piping 820-11

829.4 Joints 820-12
829.5 Anchorage 820-12
829.6 Irregular Treatment 820-12
829.7 Siphons and Sag Culverts 820-12
829.8 Currently Not In Use 820-13
829.9 Dams 820-13
829.10 Reinforced Concrete Box Modifications 820-13
CHAPTER 830 – TRANSPORTATION FACILITY DRAINAGE

831 General
831.1 Basic Concepts 830-1
831.2 Highway Grade Line 830-1
831.3 Design Storm and Water Spread 830-1
831.5 Computer Programs 830-5
832 Hydrology
832.2 Rational Method 830-5
832.3 Time of Concentration 830-5
833 Roadway Cross Sections
833.2 Grade, Cross Slope, and Superelevation 830-5
834 Roadside Drainage
834.1 General 830-6
834.2 Median Drainage 830-6
834.3 Ditches and Gutters 830-6
834.4 Overside Drains 830-7
835 Dikes and Berms
835.1 General 830-8
835.2 Earth Berms 830-8
835.3 Dikes 830-8
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Topic Subject Page
Number Number
836 Curbs and Gutters

836.1 General 830-8
836.2 Gutter Design 830-9
837 Inlet Design
837.1 General 830-9
837.2 Inlet Types 830-9
837.3 Location and Spacing 830-14
837.4 Hydraulic Design 830-15
837.5 Local Depressions 830-16
838 Storm Drains
838.1 General 830-17
838.2 Design Criteria 830-17
838.3 Hydraulic Design 830-17
838.4 Standards 830-18
838.5 Appurtenant Structures 830-19
839 Pumping Stations
839.1 General 830-20
839.2 Pump Type 830-20
839.3 Design Responsibilities 830-20
839.4 Trash and Debris Considerations 830-20
839.5 Maintenance Consideration 830-20
839.6 Groundwater Considerations 830-21
CHAPTER 840 – SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE

841 General
841.2 Subsurface (Groundwater) Discharge 840-1
841.3 Preliminary Investigations 840-1
841.4 Exploration Notes 840-1
841.5 Category of System 840-2
842 Pipe Underdrains
842.1 General 840-3
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Number Number
842.2 Single Installations 840-3

842.3 Multiple Installations 840-3
842.4 Design Criteria 840-3
842.5 Types of Underdrain Pipe 840-4
842.6 Design Service Life 840-4
842.7 Pipe Selection 840-5
CHAPTER 850 – PHYSICAL STANDARDS

851 General
851.2 Selection of Material and Type 850-1
852 Pipe Materials
852.1 Reinforced Concrete Pipe (RCP) 850-1
852.2 Concrete Box and Arch Culverts 850-3
852.3 Corrugated Steel Pipe, Steel Spiral Rib Pipe and Pipe Arches 850-3
852.4 Corrugated Aluminum Pipe, Aluminum Spiral Rib Pipe and Pipe Arches 850-6
852.5 Structural Metal Plate 850-8
852.6 Plastic Pipe 850-9
852.7 Special Purpose Types 850-10
853 Pipe Liners and Linings for Culvert Rehabilitation
853.1 General 850-10
853.2 Caltrans Host Pipe Structural Philosophy 850-10
853.3 Problem Identification and Coordination 850-11
853.4 Alternative Pipe Liner Materials 850-11
853.5 Cementitious Pipe Lining 850-12
853.6 Invert Paving with Concrete 850-12
853.7 Structural Repairs with Steel Tunnel Liner Plate 850-14
854 Pipe Connections
855 Design Service Life
855.1 Basic Concepts 850-17
855.2 Abrasion 850-19
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855.3 Corrosion 850-30

855.4 Protection of Concrete Pipe and Drainage Structures from Acids, 850-31
Chlorides and Sulfates
855.5 Material Susceptibility to Fire 850-34
856 Height of Fill
856.1 Construction Loads 850-34
856.2 Concrete Pipe, Box and Arch Culverts 850-37
856.3 Metal Pipe and Structural Plate Pipe 850-37
856.4 Plastic Pipe 850-38
856.5 Minimum Height of Cover 850-38
857 Alternative Materials
857.2 Alternative Pipe Culvert Selection Procedure Using AltPipe 850-57
857.3 Alternative Pipe Culvert (APC) and Pipe Arch Culvert List 850-59
CHAPTER 860 – OPEN CHANNELS

861 General
861.2 Hydraulic Considerations 860-2
861.3 Selection of “Design Flood” 860-2
861.4 Safety Considerations 860-2
861.5 Maintenance Consideration 860-3
861.6 Economics 860-3
861.7 Coordination with Other Agencies 860-3
861.8 Environment 860-3
861.9 Unlined Channels 860-4
861.10 Lined Channels 860-4
861.11 Water Quality Channels 860-4
861.12 References 860.4
862 Roadside Drainage Channel Location
862.1 General 860-4
862.2 Alignment and Grade 860-5
862.3 Point of Discharge 860-5
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863 Channel Section

863.1 Roadside and Median Channels 860-5
863.2 Triangular 860-5
863.3 Trapezoidal 860-6
863.4 Rectangular 860-6
864 Channel Stability Design Concepts
864.1 General 860-6
864.2 Stable Channel Design Procedure 860-6
864.3 Side Slope Stability 860-8
865 Channel Linings
865.1 Flexible Versus Rigid 860-8
865.2 Rigid 860-9
865.3 Flexible 860-9
865.4 Composite Lining Design 860-11
865.5 Bare Soil Design and Grass Lining 860-11
865.6 Rolled Erosion Control Products 860-15
866 Hydraulic Design of Roadside Channels
866.1 General 860-16
866.2 Flow Classifications 860-16
866.3 Open Channel Flow Equations 860-17
866.4 Water Surface Profiles 860-20
867 Channel Changes
867.1 General 860-20
868 Freeboard Considerations
868.1 General 860-21
868.2 Height of Freeboard 860-21
CHAPTER 870 – BANK PROTECTION – EROSION CONTROL

871 General
871.2 Design Philosophy 870-1
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871.3 Selected References 870-2

872 Planning and Location Studies
872.1 Planning 870-3
872.2 Class and Type of Protection 870-4
872.3 Geomorphology and Site Consideration 870-4
872.4 Data Needs 870-24
872.5 Rapid Assessment 870-24
873 Design Concepts
873.2 Design High Water and Hydraulics 870-25
873.3 Armor Protection 870-26
873.4 Training Systems 870-47
873.5 Summary and Design Check List 870-54
873.6 Coordination with the Division of Engineering Services and Structures 870-55
Maintenance and Investigations
CHAPTER 880 – SHORE PROTECTION

881 General
881.2 Design Philosophy 880-1
881.3 Selected References 880-1
882 Planning and Location Studies
882.1 Planning 880-2
882.2 Class and Type of Protection 880-3
882.3 Site Consideration 880-3
883 Design
883.2 Design High Water and Design Wave Height 880-4
883.3 Armor Protection 880-10
CHAPTER 890 – STORM WATER MANAGEMENT

891 General
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Number Number
891.2 Philosophy 890-1

892 Storm Water Management Strategies
892.1 General 890-1
892.2 Types of Strategies 890-1
892.4 Mixing with Other Waste Streams 890-2
893 Maintenance Requirements for Storm Water Management Features
893.1 General 890-3
CHAPTER 900 – LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE

901 General
901.1 Landscape Architecture Program 900-1
901.2 Cross References 900-1
902 Planting Guidance
902.1 General Guidance for Freeways and Expressways 900-1
902.2 Sight Distance and Clear Recovery Zone Standards for Freeways and 900-3
Expressways
902.3 Planting Guidance for Large Trees on Conventional Highways 900-4
902.4 Planting Procedures, Selection and Location 900-4
902.5 Irrigation Guidelines 900-7
903 Safety Roadside Rest Area Standards and Guidelines
903.1 Minimum Standards 900-8
903.2 General 900-8
903.3 Site Selection 900-9
903.4 Facility Size and Capacity Analysis 900-10
903.5 Site Planning 900-11
903.6 Utility Systems 900-14
903.7 Structures 900-16
903.8 Security and Pedestrian Amenities 900-17
904 Vista Point Standards and Guidelines
904.1 General 900-18
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Number Number
904.3 Design Features and Facilities 900-18

905 Park and Ride Standards and Guidelines
905.1 General 900-19
905.3 Design Features and Facilities 900-20
CHAPTER 1000 – BICYCLE TRANSPORTATION DESIGN

1001 Introduction
1001.1 Bicycle Transportation 1000-1
1001.2 Streets and Highways Code References 1000-1
1001.3 Vehicle Code References 1000-1
1001.4 Bikeways 1000-2
1002 Bikeway Facilities
1002.1 Selection of the Type of Facility 1000-2
1003 Bikeway Design Criteria
1003.1 Class I Bikeways (Bike Paths) 1000-4
1003.2 Class II Bikeways (Bike Lanes) 1000-13
1003.3 Class III Bikeways (Bike Routes) 1000-13
1003.4 Trails 1000-14
1003.5 Miscellaneous Criteria 1000-15
CHAPTER 1100 – HIGHWAY TRAFFIC NOISE ABATEMENT

1101 General Requirements
1101.2 Objective 1100-1
1101.3 Terminology 1100-2
1101.4 Procedures for Assessing Noise Impacts 1100-2
1101.5 Prioritizing Construction of Retrofit Noise Barriers 1100-2
1102 Design Criteria
1102.1 General 1100-2
1102.2 Noise Barrier Location 1100-2
1102.3 Noise Barrier Height and Position 1100-3
1102.4 Noise Barrier Length 1100-3
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Number Number
1102.5 Alternative Noise Barrier Designs 1100-4

1102.6 Noise Barrier Aesthetics 1100-5
1102.7 Maintenance Consideration in Noise Barrier Design 1100-6
1102.8 Emergency Access Considerations in Noise Barrier Design 1100-6
1102.9 Drainage Openings in Noise Barrier 1100-7
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Figure Subject Page
Number Number
CHAPTER 10 – DIVISION OF DESIGN

11.1 Division of Design Functional Organization Chart 10-2
CHAPTER 20 – DESIGNATION OF HIGHWAY ROUTES

21.1 Interstate Highway System in California 20-2
CHAPTER 60 – NOMENCLATURE
62.2 Types of Structures 60-4
CHAPTER 100 – BASIC DESIGN POLICIES

105.6 Typical Pedestrian Crossings at “T” Intersections 100-12
110.12 California Mining and Tunneling Districts 100-36
CHAPTER 200 – GEOMETRIC DESIGN AND STRUCTURE STANDARDS

201.4 Stopping Sight Distance on Crest Vertical Curves 200-4
201.5 Stopping Sight Distance on Sag Vertical Curves 200-5
201.6 Stopping Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves 200-6
201.7 Decision Sight Distance on Crest Vertical Curves 200-7
202.2 Maximum Comfortable Speed on Horizontal Curves 200-15
202.5A Superelevation Transition 200-17
202.5B Superelevation Transition Terms & Definitions 200-18
202.6 Superelevation of Compound Curves 200-20
204.4 Vertical Curves 200-24
204.5 Critical Lengths of Grade for Design 200-25
205.1 Access Openings on Expressways 200-30
206.2 Typical Two-lane to Four-lane Transitions 200-33
207.2A Airway-Highway Clearance Requirements (Civil Airports) 200-36
207.2B Airway-Highway Clearance Requirements (Heliport) 200-37
207.2C Airway-Highway Clearance Requirements (Military Airports) 200-38
207.2D Airway-Highway Clearance Requirements (Navy Carrier Landing Practice Field) 200-39
208.1 Offsets to Safety-Shape Barriers 200-40
208.10A Vehicular Railings for Bridge Structures 200-45
208.10B Combination Vehicular Barrier and Pedestrian Railings for Bridge Structures 200-46
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208.10C Pedestrian Railings for Bridge Structures 200-47

208.11A Limits of Structure Approach Embankment Material 200-49
208.11B Abutment Drainage Details 200-50
210.8 Type Selection and PS&E Process for Reinforced Earth Slopes and Earth Retaining 200-60
Systems
CHAPTER 300 – GEOMETRIC CROSS SECTION

301.2A Typical Class II Bikeway (Bike Lane) Cross Section 300-5
303.3 Dike Type Selection and Placement 300-10
303.4A Typical Bulbout with Class II Bikeway (Bike Lane) 300-12
303.4B Typical Bulbout without Class II Bikeway (Bike Lane) 300-13
305.6 Optional Median Designs for Freeways with Separate Roadways 300-20
307.2 Geometric Cross Sections for Two-lane Highways (New Construction) 300-22
307.4 Geometric Cross Sections for Freeways and Expressways 300-23
307.5 Geometric Cross Sections for All Paved Multilane Highways 300-24
309.2 Department of Defense Rural and Single Interstate Routes 300-30
309.5A Typical Horizontal Railroad Clearances from Grade Separated Structures 300-36
309.5B Permanent Railroad Clearance Envelope 300-37
CHAPTER 400 - INTERSECTIONS AT GRADE

403.3A Angle of Intersection (Minor Leg Skewed to the Right) 400-6
403.3B Class II Bikeway Crossing Railroad 400-6
403.6A Typical Bicycle and Motor Vehicle Movements at Intersections of Multilane 400-7
Streets without Right-Turn-Only Lanes
403.6B Bicycle Left-Turn-Only Lane 400-8
404.5A STAA Design Vehicle – 56-Foot Radius 400-15
404.5B STAA Design Vehicle – 67-Foot Radius 400-16
404.5C California Legal Design Vehicle – 50-Foot Radius 400-17
404.5D California Legal Design Vehicle – 60-Foot Radius 400-18
404.5E 40-Foot Bus Design Vehicle 400-19
404.5F 45-Foot Bus & Motorhome Design Vehicle 400-20
404.5G 60-Foot Articulated Bus Design Vehicle 400-21
405.2A Standard Left-turn Channelization 400-26
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405.2B Minimum Median Left-turn Channelization (Widening on One Side of Highway) 400-27
405.2C Minimum Median Left-turn Channelization (Widening on Both Sides in Urban 400-28
Areas with Short Blocks)
405.4 Pedestrian Refuge Island 400-32
405.5 Typical Design for Median Openings 400-33
405.7 Public Road Intersections 400-35
405.9 Widening of Two-lane Roads at Signalized Intersections 400-36
405.10 Roundabout Geometric Elements 400-41
406A Spread Diamond 400-44
406B Tight Diamond 400-45
406C Two-quadrant Cloverleaf 400-46
CHAPTER 500 - TRAFFIC INTERCHANGES

502.2 Typical Local Street Interchanges 500-3
502.3 Typical Freeway-to-freeway Interchanges 500-9
504.2A Single Lane Freeway Entrance 500-12
504.2B Single Lane Freeway Exit 500-13
504.2C Location of Freeway Ramps on a Curve 500-14
504.3A Typical Freeway Entrance Loop Ramp Metering (1 GP Lane + 1 HOV Preferential 500-18
Lane)
504.3B Typical Successive Freeway Entrance Ramp Metering (1 GP Lane + 1 HOV 500-19
Preferential Lane)
504.3C Restrictive Condition Freeway Entrance Ramp Metering (1 GP Lane) 500-20
504.3D Restrictive Condition Freeway Entrance Loop Ramp Metering (1 GP Lane) 500-21
504.3E Typical Multilane Freeway Diagonal Entrance Ramp Metering (2 GP Lanes + 500-27
1 HOV Preferential Lane)
504.3F Typical Multilane Freeway Loop Entrance Ramp Metering (2 GP Lanes + 1 HOV 500-24
Preferential Lane)
504.3G Typical Freeway-to-Freeway Connector Ramp Metering (1 GP Lane + 1 HOV 500-26
Preferential Lane)
504.3H Typical Freeway-to-Freeway Connector Ramp Metering (2 GP Lanes + 1 HOV 500-27
Preferential Lane)
504.3I Location of Ramp Intersections on the Crossroads 500-31
504.3J Transition to Two-lane Exit Ramp 500-33
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504.3K Two-Lane Connectors and Exit Ramps 500-34

504.4 Diverging Branch Connections 500-37
504.7A Design Curve for Freeway and Collector Weaving 500-40
504.7B Lane Configuration of Weaving Sections 500-41
504.7D Percentage Distribution of On- and Off-ramp Traffic in Outer Through Lane and 500-43
Auxiliary Lane (Level of Service D Procedure)
504.7E Percentage of Ramp Traffic in the Outer Through Lane (No Auxiliary Lane) (Level 500-44
of Service D Procedure)
504.8 Typical Examples of Access Control at Interchanges 500-45
CHAPTERS 600-670 - PAVEMENT ENGINEERING

CHAPTER 600 – GENERAL ASPECTS
602.1 Basic Pavement Layers of the Roadway 600-4
CHAPTER 610 – PAVEMENT ENGINEERING CONSIDERATIONS

613.5A Shoulder Design for TI Equal to Adjacent Lane TI 600-11
613.5B Shoulder Design for TI Less than Adjacent Lane TI 600-12
615.1 Pavement Climate Regions 600-22

621.1 Types of Rigid Pavement 620-2
623.1 Rigid Pavement Catalog Decision Tree 620-8
626.1 Rigid Pavement at Ramp or Connector Gore Area 620-25
626.2A Rigid Pavement and Shoulder Details 620-28
626.2B Rigid Shoulders Through Ramp and Gore Areas 620-29
626.4 Rigid Bus Pad 620-31
CHAPTER 650 – PAVEMENT DRAINAGE

651.2A Typical Section with Treated Permeable Base Drainage Layer 650-2
651.2B Cross Drain Interceptor Details for Use with Treated Permeable Base 650-3
651.2C Cross Drain Interceptor Trenches 650-5

665.5 Flowchart for Selecting an Appropriate SEG 660-8
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CHAPTER 670 – TAPERS AND SHOULDER BACKING

671.2A Tapering Into a Previously Overlaid Pavement 670-2
671.2B New Structure Approach Pavement Transition Details 670-3
671.3A Transverse Transition Tapers for Pavement Preservation Projects 670-5
671.3B Longitudinal Tapers at Shoulders, Curbs, Dikes, Inlets, and Metal Beam Guard 670-6
Railing
671.3C Transition Taper Underneath Overcrossing/Bridge 670-7
672.3A Typical Application of Shoulder Backing 670-10
672.3B Alternative Placement for Existing Slopes Steeper than 6:1 670-10
672.3C Placement of Shoulder Backing Thickness Greater Than 0.5 foot for Slope Repair 670-11
672.3D Placement of Shoulder Backing Behind Dikes 670-11
672.3E Longitudinal Drainage (Roadside Ditches/Gutters) 670-12
CHAPTERS 800-890 - HIGHWAY DRAINAGE DESIGN

CHAPTER 800 - GENERAL ASPECTS
804.7A Technical Information for Location Hydraulic Study 800-11
804.7B Floodplain Evaluation Report Summary 800-13
CHAPTER 810 - HYDROLOGY

813.1 Post-Fire Debris 810-5
816.5 Typical Flood Hydrograph 810-9
816.6 Velocities for Upland Method of Estimating Travel Time for Shallow Concentrated 810-12
Flow
816.7 Digital Elevation Map (DEM) 810-13
817.2 Gaging Station 810-14
817.3 High Water Marks 810-14
818.1 Overtopping Flood 810-15
818.2 Maximum Historic Flood 810-15
819.2A Runoff Coefficients for Undeveloped Areas 810-19
819.2C Regional Flood-Frequency Equations 810-22
819.4A Basic Steps to Developing and Applying a Rainfall-runoff Model for Predicting the 810-25
Required Design Flow
819.7A Desert Regions in California 810-30
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819.7B Example Depth-Area Reduction Curve 810-33

819.7C San Bernardino County Hydrograph for Desert Areas 810-38
819.7D USBR Example S-Graph 810-39
819.7E Soil Slips vs. Slope Angle 810-45
819.7F Alluvial Fan 810-45
819.7H Recommended Bulking Factor Selection Process 810-50
CHAPTER 830 - TRANSPORTATION FACILITY DRAINAGE

837.1 Storm Drain Inlet Types 830-12
CHAPTER 850 - PHYSICAL STANDARDS

855.1 Minor Bedload Abrasion 850-20
855.2 Abrasion Test Panels 850-21
855.3A Minimum Thickness of Metal Pipe for 50-Year Maintenance-Free Service Life 850-32
855.3B Chart for Estimating Years to Perforation of Steel Culverts 850-33
CHAPTER 860 - OPEN CHANNELS

861.1 Small Roadside Channel 860-1
861.2 Roadside Channel Outlet to Storm Drain at Drop Inlet 860-1
861.3 Concrete Lined Channel with Excessive Weed Growth 860-3
862.1 Small-Rock Lined Channel Outside of Clear Recovery Zone 860-5
863.1 Small-Rock Lined Channel with Rounded Bottom 860-5
865.1 Steep-Sloped Channel with Composite Vegetative Lining 860-9
865.2 Concrete Lined Channel 860-9
865.3 Long-Term Flexible Lining 860-10
865.4 Grass-Lined Median Channel 860-12
864.3C Specific Energy Diagram 860-19
CHAPTER 870 - BANK PROTECTION - EROSION CONTROL

872.1 Stream Classification 870-9
872.2 Diagram of Braided River Channel 870-10
872.3 Bed Load and Suspended Load 870-13
872.4 Longitudinal Encroachments 870-14
872.5 Slope Failure Due to Loss of Toe 870-17
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Figure Subject Page
Number Number
872.6 Mature Valley with Meandering Stream 870-21

872.7 Alternative Highway Locations Across Debris Cone 870-23
872.8 Alluvial Fan 870-23
872.9 Desert Wash Longitudinal Encroachment 870-23
872.10 Stage Construction 870-24
873.3A Stone Shape 870-31
873.3B Medium Density Vegetation 870-40
873.3D Rock Slope Protection 870-41
873.3C Gabion Lined Streambank 870-42
873.3E Concreted-Rock Slope Protection 870-43
873.3F Toe Failure – Concreted RSP 870-43
873.4A Thalweg Redirection Using Bendway Weirs 870-47
873.4B Bendway Weir Typical Cross Section and Layout 870-49
873.4C Bendway Weir Rock Size Chart 870-50
873.4D Example of Spur Design 870-52
873.4E Bridge Abutment Guide Banks 870-51
873.6A Bridge Abutment Failure Example 870-55
873.6B Habitat Enhancement Example 870-56
873.6C Lateral Stream Migration Within a Canyon Setting Example 870-56
CHAPTER 880 - SHORE PROTECTION

883.2A Nomenclature of Tidal Ranges 880-5
883.2B Significant Wave Height Prediction Nomograph 880-8
883.2C Design Breaker Wave 880-9
883.2D Global Sea Level Rise Projections 880-11
883.2E Wave Run-up on Smooth Impermeable Slope 880-12
883.2F RSP Lined Ocean Shore 880-12
883.2G Rock Slope Protection 880-16
883.2H Typical Groin Layout with Resultant Beach Configuration 880-19
883.2I Alignment of Groins to an Oblique Sea Warrants Shortening Proportional to 880-19
Cosine of Obliquity
883.2J Typical Stone Dike Groin Details 880-20
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Figure Subject Page
Number Number
CHAPTER 890 - STORM WATER MANAGEMENT

892.3 Example of a Cumulative Hydrograph with and without Detention 890-4
CHAPTER 1000 - BICYCLE TRANSPORTATION DESIGN

1003.1A Two-way Class I Bikeway (Bike Path) 1000-6
1003.1B Typical Cross Section of Class I Bikeway (Bike Path) Parallel to Highway 1000-7
1003.1C Minimum Lengths of Bicycle Path Crest Vertical Curve (L) Based on Stopping 1000-11
Sight Distance (S)
1003.1D Minimum Lateral Clearance (m) on Bicycle Path Horizontal Curves 1000-12
1003.5 Railroad Crossing Class I Bikeway 1000-15
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Number Number
CHAPTER 80 - APPLICATION OF DESIGN STANDARDS

82.1A Mandatory Standards 80-11
82.1B Advisory Standards 80-15
82.1C Decision Requiring Other Approvals 80-19
CHAPTER 100 - BASIC DESIGN POLICIES

101.2 Vehicular Design Speed 100-3
CHAPTER 200 - GEOMETRIC DESIGN AND STRUCTURE STANDARDS

201.1 Sight Distance Standards 200-1
201.7 Decision Sight Distance 200-3
202.2A Minimum Radii for Design Superelevation Rates, Design Speeds, and emax=4% 200-10
202.2B Minimum Radii for Design Superelevation Rates, Design Speeds, and emax=6% 200-11
202.2C Minimum Radii for Design Superelevation Rates, Design Speeds, and emax=8% 200-12
202.2D Minimum Radii for Design Superelevation Rates, Design Speeds, and emax=10% 200-13
202.2E Minimum Radii for Design Superelevation Rates, Design Speeds, and emax=12% 200-14
204.3 Maximum Grades for Type of Highway and Terrain Conditions 200-23
204.8 Falsework Span and Depth Requirements 200-29
210.2 Types of Reinforced Earth Slopes and Earth Retaining Systems 200-52
CHAPTER 300 - GEOMETRIC CROSS SECTION

302.1 Mandatory Standards for Paved Shoulder Width on Highways 300-4
303.1 Selection of Curb Type 300-8
307.2 Shoulder Widths for Two-lane Roadbed New Construction Projects 300-21
309.2A Vertical Clearances 300-29
309.2B California Routes on the Rural and Single Interstate Routing System 300-31
309.5A Minimum Vertical Clearances Above Highest Rail 300-34
309.5B Minimum Horizontal Clearances to Centerline of Nearest Track 300-38
CHAPTER 400 - INTERSECTIONS AT GRADE

401.3 Vehicle Characteristics/Intersection Design Elements Affected 400-2
405.1A Corner Sight Distance (7-1/2 Second Criteria) 400-22
405.1B Application of Sight Distance Requirements 400-22
405.2A Bay Taper for Median Speed-change Lanes 400-24
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405.2B Deceleration Lane Length 400-24

405.4 Parabolic Curb Flares Commonly Used 400-31
406 Vehicle Traffic Flow Conditions at Intersections at Various Levels of Operation 400-43
CHAPTER 500 - TRAFFIC INTERCHANGES

504.3 Ramp Widening for Trucks 500-16
504.7C Percent of Through Traffic Remaining in Outer Through Lane (Level of Service D 500-42
Procedure)
CHAPTERS 600-670 – PAVEMENT ENGINEERING

CHAPTER 610 - PAVEMENT ENGINEERING CONSIDERATIONS
612.2 Pavement Design Life for New Construction and Rehabilitation 610-2
613.3A ESAL Constants 610-6
613.3B Lane Distribution Factors for Multilane Highways 610-6
613.3C Conversion of ESAL to Traffic Index 610-7
613.5A Traffic Index (TI) Values for Ramps and Connectors 610-9
613.5B Minimum TI’s for Safety Roadside Rest Areas 610-12
614.2 Unified Soil Classification System (from ASTM D 2487) 610-13

622.1 Rigid Pavement Engineering Properties 620-4
622.2 Rigid Pavement Performance Factors 620-5
623.1A Relationship Between Subgrade Type 620-7
623.1B Rigid Pavement Catalog (North Coast, Type I Subgrade Soil) 620-9
623.1C Rigid Pavement Catalog (North Coast, Type II Subgrade Soil) 620-10
623.1D Rigid Pavement Catalog (South Coast/Central Coast, Type I Subgrade Soil) 620-11
623.1E Rigid Pavement Catalog (South Coast/Central Coast, Type II Subgrade Soil) 620-12
623.1F Rigid Pavement Catalog (Inland Valley, Type I Subgrade Soil) 620-13
623.1G Rigid Pavement Catalog (Inland Valley, Type II Subgrade Soil) 620-14
623.1H Rigid Pavement Catalog (Desert, Type I Subgrade Soil) 620.15
623.1I Rigid Pavement Catalog (Desert, Type II Subgrade Soil) 620-16
623.1J Rigid Pavement Catalog (Low Mountain/South Mountain, Type I Subgrade Soil) 620-17
623.1K Rigid Pavement Catalog (Low Mountain/South Mountain, Type II Subgrade Soil) 620-18
623.1L Rigid Pavement Catalog (High Mountain/High Desert, Type I Subgrade Soil) 620-19
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Table Subject Page
Number Number
623.1M Rigid Pavement Catalog (High Mountain/High Desert, Type II Subgrade Soil) 620-20
625.1 Minimum Standard Thicknesses for Crack, Seat, and Asphalt Overlay 620-23
CHAPTER 630 – FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

632.1 Asphalt Binder Grade 630-4
633.1 Gravel Equivalents (GE) and Thickness of Structural Layers (ft) 630-8
635.1A Tolerable Deflections at the Surface (TDS) in 0.001 inches 630-12
635.1B Gravel Equivalence Needed for Deflection Reduction 630-13
635.1C Commonly Used Gf for Asphaltic Materials for Flexible Pavement Rehabilitation 630-14
635.1D Reflective Crack Retardation Equivalencies (Thickness in ft) 630-15
636.4 Pavement Structures for Park and Ride Facilities 630-20

663.2 Base and Subbase Material Properties for Rigid Pavement Catalog 660-4
663.3 Gravel Factor and California R-values for Base and Subbases 660-5
CHAPTER 700 – MISCELLANEOUS STANDARDS

701.5 Slatted CL-6 Post & Footing Dimensions 700-4
CHAPTERS 800-890 - HIGHWAY DRAINAGE DESIGN

CHAPTER 800 - GENERAL ASPECTS
808.1 Summary of Related Computer Programs and Web Applications 800-38
CHAPTER 810 - HYDROLOGY

816.6A Roughness Coefficients for Sheet Flow 810-11
816.6B Intercept Coefficients for Shallow Concentrated Flow 810-11
819.2B Runoff Coefficients for Developed Areas 810-20
819.2C Regional Flood-Frequency Equations 810-21
819.5A Summary of Methods for Estimating Design Discharge 810-27
819.7A Region Regression Equations for California’s Desert Regions 810-31
819.7B Runoff Coefficients for Desert Areas 810-32
819.7C Watershed Size for California Desert Regions 810-32
819.7D Hydrologic Soil Groups 810-34
819.7E Curve Numbers for Land Use-Soil Combinations 810-36
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819.7F Channel Routing Methods 810-40

819.7G Channel Method Routing Guidance 810-41
819.7H Design Storm Durations 810-42
819.7I Bulking Factors & Types of Sediment Flow 810-44
819.7J Adjustment-Transportation Factor Table 810-49
CHAPTER 830 - TRANSPORTATION FACILITY DRAINAGE

831.3 Desirable Roadway Drainage Guidelines 830-3
838.4 Minimum Pipe Diameter for Storm Drain Systems 830-18
CHAPTER 840 - SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE

842.4 Suggested Depth and Spacing of Pipe Underdrains for Various Soil Types 840-5
CHAPTER 850 - PHYSICAL STANDARDS

852.1 Manning "n" Value for Alternative Pipe Materials 850-2
853.1A Allowable Alternative Pipe Liner Materials 850-11
853.1B Guide for Plastic Pipeliner Selection in Abrasive Conditions to Achieve 50 Years 850-13
of Maintenance-Free Service Life
854.1 Joint Leakage Selection Criteria 850-18
855.2A Abrasion Levels and Materials 850-22
855.2B Bed Materials Moved by Various Flow Depths and Velocities 850-26
855.2C Guide for Anticipated Service Life Added to Steel Pipe by Abrasive Resistant 850-27
Protective Coating
855.2D Guide for Anticipated Wear to Metal Pipe by Abrasive Channel Materials 850-28
855.2E Relative Abrasion Resistance Properties of Pipe an Lining Materials 850-28
855.2F Guide for Minimum Material Thickness of Abrasive Resistant Invert Protection to 850-29
Achieve 50 Years of Maintenance-Free Service Life
855.4A Guide for the Protection of Cast-In-Place and Precast Reinforced and Unreinforced 850-35
Concrete Structures Against Acid and Sulfate Exposure Conditions
855.4B Guide for Minimum Cover Requirements for Cast-In-Place and Precast Reinforced 850-36
Concrete Structures for 50-Year Design Life in Chloride Environments
856.3A Corrugated Steel Pipe Helical Corrugations 850-39
856.3B Corrugated Steel Pipe Helical Corrugations 850-40
856.3C Corrugated Steel Pipe 2⅔" x ½" Annular Corrugations 850-41
856.3D Corrugated Steel Pipe Arches 2⅔" x ½" Helical or Annular Corrugations 850-42
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856.3E Steel Spiral Rib Pipe ¾" x 1" Ribs at 11½" Pitch 850-43
856.3F Steel Spiral Rib Pipe ¾" x 1" Ribs at 8½" Pitch 850-44
856.3G Steel Spiral Rib Pipe ¾" x ¾" Ribs at 7½" Pitch 850-45
856.3H Corrugated Aluminum Pipe Annular Corrugations 850-46
856.3I Corrugated Aluminum Pipe Helical Corrugations 850-47
856.3J Corrugated Aluminum Pipe Arches 2⅔" x ½" Helical or Annular Corrugations 850-48
856.3K Aluminum Spiral Rib Pipe ¾" x 1" Ribs at 11½" Pitch 850-49
856.3L Aluminum Spiral Rib Pipe ¾" x ¾" Ribs at 7½" Pitch 850-50
856.3M Structural Steel Plate Pipe 6" x 2" Corrugations 850-51
856.3N Structural Steel Plate Pipe Arches 6" x 2" Corrugations 850-52
856.3O Structural Aluminum Plate Pipe 9" x 2½" Corrugations 850-53
856.3P Structural Aluminum Plate Pipe Arches 9" x 2½" Corrugations 850-54
856.4 Thermoplastic Pipe Fill Height Tables 850-55
856.5 Minimum Thickness of Cover for Culverts 850-56
857.2 Allowable Alternative Materials 850-58
CHAPTER 860 - OPEN CHANNELS

865.1 Concrete Channel Linings 860-9
865.2 Permissible Shear and Velocity for Selected Lining Materials 860-13
866.3A Average Values for Manning's Roughness Coefficient (n) 860-18
868.2 Guide to Freeboard Height 860-21
CHAPTER 870 - BANK PROTECTION – EROSION CONTROL

872.1 Guide to Selection of Protection 870-5
872.2 Failure Modes and Effects Analysis for Riprap Revetment 870-18
873.3A RSP Class by Median Particle Size 870-32
873.3B RSP Class by Median Particle Weight 870-33
CHAPTER 880 - SHORE PROTECTION

883.2 Dimensionless Breaker Parameter and Wave Types 880-14
CHAPTER 900 - LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE

902.3 Large Tree Setback Requirements on Conventional Highways 900-5
903.5 Vehicle Parking Stall Standards 900-13
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CHAPTER 1000 - BICYCLE TRANSPORTATION DESIGN

1003.1 Bike Path Design Speeds 1000-9
xlv
HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL 10-1
December 30, 2015
CHAPTER 10
DIVISION OF DESIGN
Topic 11 - Organization and
Functions
Index 11.1 - Organization
The Division of Design (DOD), a part of Project
Delivery, is comprised of the Engineering Program
with the following offices: CADD and GIS,
Highway Drainage Design, Innovative Design and
Delivery, Performance Management, Project
Support, Standards and Procedures, Storm Water
Management Design; as well as the Landscape
Architecture Program with the following offices:
Landscape Architecture Standards and Procedures,
Landscape Architecture Support and Planning,
Professional Development, and Strategic
Information & Business Management.
Additionally, the Project Delivery Coordinators
represent the Chief, DOD, in the California
Department of Transportation (Department)
Districts, maintaining liaison and coordinating
District and Headquarters activities, ensuring
consistent and uniform application of statewide
policies, standards, procedures, guidelines and
practices. See Figure 11.1 for information on the
functional duties performed by the various offices in
the DOD.
As the Chief Design Engineer within the DOD, the
Chief, Division of Design provides technical and
procedural advice and assistance to the Districts in
support of the development of transportation
projects as follows: establishes, maintains and
monitors the project development process in accord
with all applicable State and Federal laws and
regulations; establishes engineering standards and
procedures for application of standards on a
statewide basis; approves exceptions to non-
delegated mandatory design standards; monitors
project development related reports, facilitates
performance management and process improvement
activities. The Chief, DOD also is a member of the
AASHTO Subcommittee on Design.
10-2 HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL
December 30, 2015
Figure 11.1
Division of Design Functional Organization Chart
May 7, 2012
(1) Interstate and Defense Highways (Interstate

CHAPTER 20 System). The Interstate System is a network
DESIGNATION OF HIGHWAY of freeways of national importance, created by
Congress and constructed with Federal-aid
ROUTES Interstate System funds. Routes in the system
are signed with the Interstate route shields
Topic 21 - Highway Route (See Index 42.2 and Figure 21.1) and the
Numbers general numbering convention is as follows:
routes with one or two-digit numbers are
north-south or east-west through routes, routes
Index 21.1 - Legislative Route Numbers and with three-digit numbers, the first of which is
Descriptions odd, are interstate spur routes. For example,
The Legislature designates all State highway routes I-110 is a spur route off of I-10. Routes in
and assigns route numbers. The description and three-digit numbers, the first of which is even,
number of each route are contained in Chapter 2, are loops through or belt routes around cities.
Article 3 of the Streets and Highways Code. These I-805 in San Diego is an example of a loop off
route numbers are used for all administrative of I-5. The numbering of Interstate routes was
purposes. developed by AASHTO with concurrence by
the states.
The Legislature has stated its intent that the routes
of the State Highway System serve the State's Renumbering of Interstate routes requires the
heavily traveled rural and urban corridors, that they approval of AASHTO to assure conformity
connect the communities and regions of the State, with established numbering procedures. Such
and that they serve the State's economy by revisions also are a system action that must be
connecting centers of commerce, industry, approved by the Federal Highway
agriculture, mineral wealth, and recreation. Administrator.
A legislative route description generally runs south The Transportation System Information
to north or west to east. To the extent possible, the Program is responsible for processing requests
number used on each route's guide signs is the for changes to the system to AASHTO and
same as the legislatively designated route number. FHWA for their consideration.
A specific location on any State highway is (2) United States Numbered Routes. United
described by its post mile designation (formerly States Numbered Routes are a network of
known as kilometer post). Post miles typically start State highways of statewide and national
at the west or south county line and end at the east importance. These highways can be
or north county line. Generally, post mile conventional roadways or freeways.
information is available in the Caltrans State The establishment of a U.S. number as a guide
Highway Log, and is maintained by the for interstate travel over certain roads has no
Department’s, Office of System Management connection with Federal control, any Federal-
Planning. aid System, or Federal construction financing.
The Executive Committee of AASHTO, with
21.2 Sign Route Numbers the concurrence of the states, has full authority
Each route in the State Highway System is given a for numbering U.S. routes.
unique number for identification and signed with The Transportation System Information
distinctive numbered Interstate, U.S. or California Program is responsible for processing requests
State route shields to guide public travel. Route for numbering U.S. routes to AASHTO for
numbers used on one system are not duplicated on their consideration.
another system. Odd numbered routes are
generally south to north and even numbered routes
are generally west to east.
September 1, 2006
Figure 21.1
Interstate Highway System
in California
May 7, 2012
(3) State Sign Routes. State Sign Routes are State

highways within the State, other than the
above signed routes, which are distinctively
signed to serve intrastate and interstate travel.
(4) Business Routes. A Business Route generally
is a local street or road in a city or urban area,
designated by the same route number as the
through Interstate, U.S., or State highway to
which it is connected, with the words
“Business Route" attached to the identifying
route shields. The Business Route designation
provides guidance for the traveling public to
leave the main highway at one end of a city or
urban area, patronize local businesses, and
continue on to rejoin the main route at the
opposite end of the city or urban area.
The Transportation System Information
Program is responsible for approval of
Business Route designations. Applications for
Business Route designation and signing must
be made by written request from the local
government agency to the Chief of the
Transportation System Information Program.
U.S. and Interstate Business Routes require
approval by the AASHTO Executive
Committee.
December 30, 2015
arterials, the defense strategic highway network, and

CHAPTER 40 strategic highway connectors.
FEDERAL-AID 42.2 Interstate
Topic 41 - Enabling Legislation As a result of ISTEA the Interstate System is a part
of the NHS, but will retain its separate identity and
Index 41.1 - General receive separate funding. SAFETEA-LU continued
those funding programs for the Interstate and NHS;
The Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency however, SAFETEA-LU concentrated on safety and
Act (ISTEA) of 1991 is the first transportation congestion. SAFETEA-LU also addressed other
legislation since the Interstate System was enacted. important aspects of an effective and efficient
ISTEA has changed the established Federal-Aid highway program.
system. During the 20 years prior to ISTEA there
were four Federal-Aid systems: Interstate, Primary, Topic 43 - Federal-Aid Programs
Secondary, and Urban. Now, instead of four
Federal-aid systems there are two, the National 43.1 Surface Transportation Program
Highway System (NHS) and the Interstate System, (STP)
which is a component of the National Highway
System. The Surface Transportation Program is a funding
program which may be used for roads (including
In 2005, the Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient NHS) that are not functionally classified as local or
Transportation Enhancement Act, Legacy for the rural minor collectors. These roads are now
Users, better known as SAFETEA-LU, was passed. collectively referred to as Federal-aid roads.
SAFETEA-LU, invests in highway, transit and
safety programs. While ISTEA created new federal- The STP includes safety and enhancement
aid programs, SAFETEA-LU continued those programs. Ten percent of the STP funds must be
programs such as the Surface Transportation used for safety construction activities, hazard
Program, National Highway System, Congestion elimination and rail-highway crossings. Another ten
Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement Program percent of the program is designated for
and the Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation transportation enhancement, which encompasses a
Program. broad range of environmental related activities. The
remainder of the STP funds are divided as follows;
A variety of other programs also continued to exist 50 percent is to be divided between areas of the State
to provide flexibility in determining transportation based on population; the remaining 30 percent can
solutions and promote a multi-modal system be used in any area.
approach. Some of these programs include those
that target funding for rail and transit projects while 43.2 California Stewardship and Oversight
others provide funds for environmental Agreement with FHWA
enhancement such as habitat mitigation and wetland The goal under the Stewardship and Oversight
banking. Numerous other funding categories are Agreement (Agreement) is to document the roles
also available for use during the six year term of the and responsibilities of the FHWA’s California
act. Division Office and Caltrans with respect to project
approvals and related responsibilities, and to
Topic 42 - Federal-Aid System document the methods of oversight which will be
42.1 National Highway System used to efficiently and effectively deliver the
Federal-aid Highway Program. The Agreement
After consultation with the States, in 1995 the states that “Caltrans [Department] and the FHWA
Secretary of Transportation proposed a National will jointly determine which projects are considered
Highway System (NHS) consisting of to be projects of Division or Corporate Interest
approximately 160,000 miles across the United (PODI and/or POCI). The initial PODI and POCI
States. The NHS consists of all Interstate routes, a determination will be made at the Caltrans
large percentage of urban and rural principal [Department] District level in conjunction with the
December 30, 2015
FHWA.” Projects not selected as PODIs or POCIs 43.6 Highway Safety Improvement
will be considered as Delegated Projects and, the Program
Department will have approval authority for all
aspects of a Federal-aid project, except those which SAFETEA-LU established the Highway Safety
may not be delegated by federal law (requiring Improvement Program (HSIP) as a core Federal-aid
FHWA approval). For the Delegated Projects, program for safety funding to achieve a significant
FHWA will verify compliance with federal reduction in traffic fatalities and serious injuries on
regulations via annual program and process reviews. all public roads. The state apportionment of funds is
See the Project Development Procedures Manual for subject to a set aside for construction and operational
other essential procedures regarding the improvements on high risk rural roads (HRR). HRR
Stewardship and Oversight Agreement between the are functionally classified as rural major or minor
Department and FHWA. For additional information collectors or rural roads with a fatal or injury crash
see the FHWA webpage on Stewardship and rate above statewide average for those functional
Oversight. See the Department Design website for classes of roadways, injury crash rates above those
the current Stewardship and Oversight Agreement functional classes of roadways, or those roads which
between FHWA California Division Office and are likely to experience an increase in traffic
Caltrans. volumes that could lead to a crash rate in excess of
the statewide rate.
43.3 Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality
The HSIP also created a planning process for safety
Improvement Program (CMAQ) which is overseen by the Department. The Strategic
The Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Highway Safety Plan is developed with input from
Improvement Program directs funds toward stakeholders to better coordinate funding and safety
transportation projects in Clean Air Act non- efforts on the State highway system
attainment areas for ozone and carbon monoxide.
Projects using CMAQ funds contribute to meeting 43.7 Special Programs
the attainment of national ambient area air quality Special Program funds are allocated for projects
standards. CMAQ funds may not be used for which generally fall into the following groups:
projects which will increase capacity for single Special Projects-High Cost Bridge, Congestion
occupant vehicles. Exceptions might include HOV Relief, High Priority Corridors on the NHS, Rural
lanes which allow single occupant vehicles at other and Urban Access, Priority Intermodal and
than peak travel times or auxiliary lanes. Innovative Projects; National High Speed Ground
Transportation Programs; Scenic Byways Program;
43.4 Bridge Replacement and
Use of Safety Belts and Motorcycle Helmets;
Rehabilitation Program National Recreational Trails Program; Emergency
The Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation Relief.
Program was continued in order to provide
assistance for any bridge on public roads. Caltrans, Topic 44 - Funding Determination
Division of Engineering Services, Office of
Structures Maintenance and Investigation, develops 44.1 Funding Eligibility
the bridge sufficiency rating for bridges on the State Each Federal program has certain criteria and
system and sets a sufficiency threshold for the use of requirements. During design the project engineer is
Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation Funds. to consult with the FHWA reviewer to determine the
43.5 Federal Lands Program appropriate Federal program each individual project
is eligible for and the level of future Federal
The Federal Lands Program authorizations are involvement. The final determination to request
available through three categories: Indian Federal participation will be made by Caltrans,
Reservation roads, Parkways and Park roads, and Budgets Program, Federal Resource Branch.
Public Lands Highways (which incorporates the
previous Forest Highway category).
December 30, 2015
44.2 Federal Participation Ratio

SAFETEA-LU designates the percentage of Federal
participation in several programs and fund types.
The Interstate System reimbursement allotment is
approximately 90 percent. The remainder of
projects on the NHS, STP and CMAQ
reimbursement allotments is approximately
80 percent. For certain safety improvements, the
federal share may be up to 100%. FHWA
determines the final detailed ratio based on a
formula applied to each State. Contact Caltrans,
Budgets Program, Federal Resources Branch for the
most current reimbursement rates.
44.3 Emergency Relief
Emergency opening projects are funded
100 percent for the first 180 days following a
disaster. For restoration projects and emergency
opening projects after 180 days Federal participation
is pro-rated.
December 30, 2015
travel in the same direction are numbered

CHAPTER 60 from left to right when facing in the
NOMENCLATURE direction of travel.
Unless indicated otherwise in this manual, (c) Multiple Lanes--Freeways and conven-
wherever the following abbreviations, terms, or tional highways are sometimes defined by
phrases are used, their intent and meaning shall be the number of through lanes in both
as identified in this Chapter. directions. Thus an 8-lane freeway has 4
through lanes in each direction. Likewise,
Topic 61 - Abbreviations a 4-lane conventional highway has 2
through lanes in each direction. Lanes
Index 61.1 - Official Names
that are not equally distributed to each
AASHTO American Association of State direction would otherwise be described as
Highway and Transportation appropriate.
Officials
Caltrans or California Department of (d) Median Lane--A speed change lane within
Department Transportation the median to accommodate left turning
CFR Code of Federal Regulations vehicles.
CTC or California Transportation
Commission Commission (e) Speed Change Lane--An auxiliary lane,
DES Division of Engineering Services including tapered areas, primarily for the
District Department of Transportation acceleration or deceleration of vehicles
Districts when entering or leaving the through
DOT U.S. Department of Transportation lanes.
DOD Division of Design
FAA Federal Aviation Administration (f) Traffic Lane/Vehicle Lane--The portion
FHWA Federal Highway Administration of the traveled way for the movement of a
GS Geotechnical Services single line of vehicles, both motor vehicle
METS Office of Materials Engineering and and bicycle.
Testing Services
(2) Bikeways.
OAP Office of Asphalt Pavement (a) Class I Bikeway (Bike Path). Provides a
OCPPF Office of Concrete Pavement and completely separated facility for the
Pavement Foundations exclusive use of bicycles and pedestrians
PP Pavement Program
with crossflow by vehicles minimized.
PS&E Plans, Specifications, and Estimate
PUC Public Utilities Commission (b) Class II Bikeway (Bike Lane). Provides a
SD Structure Design striped lane for one-way bike travel on a
SHOPP State Highway Operation and street or highway.
Protection Plan
STIP State Transportation Improvement (c) Class III Bikeway (Bike Route). Provides
Program for shared use with pedestrian or motor
vehicle traffic.
Topic 62 - Definitions
(d) Class IV Bikeway (Separated Bikeway).
62.1 Geometric Cross Section Provides for the exclusive use of bicycles
(1) Lane. and includes a separation (e.g., grade
separation, flexible posts, inflexible
(a) Auxiliary Lane--The portion of the physical barrier, or on-street parking)
roadway for weaving, truck climbing, required between the separated bikeway
speed change, or for other purposes and the through vehicular traffic.
supplementary to through movement.
(3) Maintenance Vehicle Pullout (MVP). Paved
(b) Lane Numbering--On a multilane areas, or appropriate all weather surfaces,
roadway, the lanes available for through adjacent to the shoulder for field personnel to
December 30, 2015
park off the traveled way and access the work construction. This nomenclature must be used
site. in all phases of planning.
(4) Median. The portion of a divided highway (2) Bridges. A structure including supports
separating the traveled ways in opposite erected over a depression or an obstruction,
directions. such as water, highway, or railway, and
having a track or passageway for carrying
(5) Outer Separation. The portion of an arterial
traffic or other moving loads; and having an
highway between the traveled ways of a
opening measured along the center of the
roadway and a frontage street or road.
roadway of more than 20 feet between
(6) Roadbed. That portion of the roadway undercopings of abutments or spring lines of
extending from curb line to curb line or (buried) arches, or extreme ends of openings
shoulder line to shoulder line. Divided for (buried) multiple boxes. It may also
highways are considered to have two include (buried) multiple pipes, where the
roadbeds. clear distance between openings is less than
(7) Roadside. A general term denoting the area half of the smaller contiguous opening.
adjoining the outer edge of the roadbed to the (3) Culverts. A type of buried structure without a
right of way line. Extensive areas between the bridge number, see Index 806.2.
roadbeds of a divided highway may also be
Any structure that fits the definition of a
considered roadside.
bridge shall be assigned a bridge number by
(8) Roadway. That portion of the highway Structure Maintenance and Investigation.
included between the outside lines of the Buried structures that meet the definition of a
sidewalks, or curbs and gutters, or side ditches bridge but are made of a collection of culverts
including also the appertaining structures, and will only be considered as bridges for the
all slopes, ditches, channels, waterways, and purposes of design and structural maintenance
other features necessary for proper drainage record, not for definitions in specifications.
and protection.
Buried structures, with or without bridge
(9) Shoulder. The portion of the roadway numbers, covered by Caltrans Standard Plans
contiguous with the traveled way for the can be designed by the District. Culvert
accommodation of stopped vehicles, for modifications to Standard Plans can be
emergency use, for errant vehicle recovery, designed by the District and shall be reviewed
and for lateral support of base and surface by the Division of Engineering Services.
courses. The shoulder may accommodate on- Buried structure with a bridge number but not
street parking as well as bicyclists and covered by Standard Plans shall be designed
pedestrians, see the guidance in this manual as by the Division of Engineering Services.
well as DIB 82.
62.3 Highway Types
(10) Sidewalk. A surfaced pedestrian way
contiguous to a roadbed used by the public (1) Freeway. A freeway, as defined by statute, is
where the need for which is created primarily a highway in respect to which the owners of
by the local land use. See DIB 82 for further abutting lands have no right or easement of
guidance. access to or from their abutting lands or in
respect to which such owners have only
(11) Traveled Way. The portion of the roadway for limited or restricted right or easement of
the movement of vehicles and bicycles, access. This statutory definition also includes
exclusive of shoulders. expressways.
62.2 Highway Structures The engineering definitions for use in this
(1) Illustration of Types of Structures. Figure manual are:
62.2 illustrates the names given to common
types of structures used in highway
December 30, 2015
(a) Freeway--A divided arterial highway with (f) Divided Highway--A highway with
full control of access and with grade sepa- separated roadbeds for traffic traveling in
rations at intersections. opposing directions.
(b) Expressway--An arterial highway with at (g) Major Street or Major Highway--An
least partial control of access, which may arterial highway with intersections at
or may not be divided or have grade sepa- grade and direct access to abutting
rations at intersections. property on which geometric design and
traffic control measures are used to
(2) Controlled Access Highway. In situations
expedite the safe movement of through
where it has been determined advisable by the
traffic.
Director or the CTC, a facility may be
designated a "controlled access highway" in (h) Through Street or Through Highway--The
lieu of the designation "freeway". All highway or portion thereof at the entrance
statutory provisions pertaining to freeways to which vehicular traffic from
and expressways apply to controlled access intersecting highways is regulated by
highways. “STOP” signs or traffic control signals or
is controlled when entering on a separate
(3) Conventional Highway. A highway without
right-turn roadway by a “YIELD” sign.
control of access which may or may not be
divided. Grade separations at intersections or (5) Parkway. An arterial highway for non-
access control may be used when justified at commercial vehicles, with full or partial
spot locations. control of access, which is typically located
within a park or a ribbon of park-like
(4) Highway. In general a public right of way for
development.
the purpose of travel or transportation.
(6) Scenic Highway. A State or county highway,
(a) Alley--A road passing through a
in total or in part, that is recognized for its
continuous row of houses, buildings, etc.
scenic value, protected by a locally adopted
that permits access from the local street
corridor protection program, and has been
network to backyards, garages, etc.
officially designated by the Department.
(b) Arterial Highway--A general term
(7) Street or Road.
denoting a highway primarily for through
travel usually on a continuous route. (a) Cul-de-Sac Street--A local street open at
one end only, with special provisions for
(c) Bypass--An arterial highway that permits
turning around.
users to avoid part or all of a city or town
center, a suburban area, or an urban area. (b) Dead End Street/No Outlet--A local street
open at one end only, without special
(d) Collector-Distributor Road--A separated
provisions for turning around.
freeway system adjacent to a freeway,
which connects two or more local road (c) Frontage Street or Road--A local street or
ramps or freeway connections to the road auxiliary to and located on the side
freeway at a limited number of points. of an arterial highway for service to abut-
ting property and adjacent areas and for
(e) Collector Road--A route that serves travel
control of access.
of primarily intracounty rather than
statewide importance in rural areas or a (d) Local Street or Local Road--A street or
route that serves both land access and road primarily for access to residence,
traffic circulation within a residential business or other abutting property.
neighborhood, as well as commercial and
(e) Private Road or Private Driveway--A way
industrial areas in urban and suburban
or place in private ownership and used for
areas.
travel by the owner and those having
express or implied permission from the
May 7, 2012
Figure 62.2
Types of Structures
December 30, 2015
owner but not by other members of the grades, sight distances, widths, slopes, and
public. other similar elements.
(f) Street--A way or place that is publicly (6) Gore. The area immediately beyond the
maintained and open for the use of the divergence of two roadbeds bounded by the
public to travel. Street includes highway. edges of those roadbeds.
(g) Toll Road, Bridge or Tunnel--A highway, (7) Grade Separation. A crossing of two
bridge, or tunnel open to traffic only upon highways, highway and local road, or a
payment of a toll or fee. highway and a railroad at different levels.
(8) Throughway. A conventional highway or a (8) Inscribed Circle Diameter. The distance
suburban arterial in developed or developing across the circle of a roundabout, inscribed by
areas, that is characterized by lower density the outer curb (or edge) of the circulatory
(not built out) land uses, adjacent undeveloped roadway. It is the sum of the central island
land or parkland, direct access to abutting diameter and twice the circulatory roadway
property, at-grade intersections, and that may width.
have shoulders with or without curb and
(9) Interchange. A system of interconnecting
gutter.
roadways in conjunction with one or more
62.4 Interchanges and Intersections at grade separations that provides for the
Grade movement of vehicles between two or more
roadways on different levels.
(1) Central Island. The raised area in the center
of a roundabout around which traffic (10) Interchange Elements.
circulates. The central island does not (a) Branch Connection--A multilane connec-
necessarily need to be circular in shape. tion between two freeways.
(2) Circulatory Roadway. The curved roadbed (b) Freeway-to-freeway Connection--A single
that users of a roundabout travel on in a or multilane connection between freeways
counterclockwise direction around the central or any two high speed facilities.
island.
(c) Ramp--A connecting roadway between a
(3) Channelization. The separation or regulation freeway or expressway and another high-
of conflicting movements into definite paths way, road, or roadside area.
of travel by the use of pavement markings,
raised islands, or other suitable means to (11) Intersection. The general area where two or
facilitate the safe and orderly movement of more roadways join or cross, including the
vehicles, bicycles and pedestrians. roadway and roadside facilities for
movements in that area.
(4) Crosswalk. Crosswalk is either:
(12) Island. A defined area between roadway lanes
(a) That portion of a roadway included within for control of vehicle movements or for
the prolongation or connection of the pedestrian refuge. Within an intersection a
boundary lines of sidewalks at median or an outer separation is considered an
intersections where the intersecting island.
roadways meet at approximately right
angles, except the prolongation of such (13) Landscape Buffer/Strip. A planted section
lines from an alley across a street. adjacent to the legs of a roundabout that
separates users of the roadway from users of
(b) Any portion of a roadway distinctly the shared use/Class I Bikeway and assists
indicated for pedestrian crossing by lines with guiding pedestrians to the designated
or other markings on the surface. crossing locations. Also known as “way
(5) Geometric Design. The arrangement of the finding.”
visible elements of a road, such as alignment,
December 30, 2015
(14) Minimum Turning Radius. The radius of the required for the vehicle turning. Consideration
path of the outer front wheel of a vehicle for additional width may be needed for other
making its sharpest turn. vehicles, bicycles and pedestrians.
(15) Offset Left-Turn Lanes. Left-turn lanes are (23) Truck Apron. The traversable portion of the
shifted as far to the left as practical rather than roundabout central island adjacent to the
aligning the left-turn lane exactly parallel with circulatory roadway that may be needed to
and adjacent to the through lane. accommodate the wheel tracking of large
vehicles. A truck apron is sometimes
(16) Offtracking. The difference between the
provided on the outside of the circulatory
paths of the front and rear wheels of a vehicle
roadway, but cannot encroach upon the
as it negotiates a turn.
pedestrian crossing.
(17) Pedestrian Refuge. A section of pavement or
(24) Weaving Section. A length of roadway,
sidewalk, completely surrounded by asphalt or
designed to accommodate two traffic streams
other road materials, where users can stop
merging and diverging within a short distance.
before completing the crossing of a road.
(25) Wheelbase. For single-unit vehicles, the
(18) Roundabout. A type of circular intersection
distance from the first axle to the single rear
with specific geometric and traffic control
axle or, in the case of a tandem or triple set of
features that in combination lower speed
rear axles, to the center of the group of rear
operations and lower speed differentials
axles. See Topic 404
among all users immediately prior to, through,
and beyond the intersection. Vehicle speed is 62.5 Landscape Architecture
controlled by deflection in the path of travel,
and the “yield upon entry” rule for traffic (1) “A” Soil Horizon. Formed below the “O” soil
approaching the roundabout’s circulatory horizon layer, defined in part (9) below, where
roadway. Curves and deflections are mineral matter is mixed with decayed organic
introduced that limit operating speeds. matter.
(19) Splitter Island. A raised or painted traffic (2) Classified Landscaped Freeway. A classified
island that separates traffic in opposing landscaped freeway is a planted section of
directions of travel. They are typically used at freeway that meets the criteria established by
roundabouts and on the minor road the California Code of Regulations Outdoor
approaches to an intersection. Advertising Regulations, Title 4, Division 6.
This designation is used in the control and
(20) Skew Angle. The complement of the acute regulation of outdoor advertising displays.
angle between two centerlines which cross.
(3) Duff. A vegetative material that has been
(21) Swept width. The total width needed by the collected and removed from the project during
vehicle body to traverse a curve. It is the clearing and grubbing activities, or chipped or
distance measured along the curve radius from ground up and stockpiled for reapplication to
the outer front corner of the body to the inner the final slope surface.
rear corner of the body as the vehicle traverses
around a curve. This width is used to (4) Highway Planting. Highway planting
determine lane width and clearance to objects, addresses safety requirements, complies with
such as signs, poles, etc., as well as vehicles, environmental commitments, and assists in the
bicycles, and pedestrians. visual integration of the transportation facility
within the existing natural and built
(22) Tracking width. The total width needed by environment. Highway planting provides
the tires to traverse a curve; it is the distance planting to satisfy legal mandates,
measured along the curve radius from the environmental mitigation requirements,
outer front tire track to the inner rear tire track Memoranda of Understanding or Agreement
as the vehicle traverses around a curve. This between the Department and local agencies
width is used to determine the minimum width for aesthetics or erosion control. Highway
December 30, 2015
planting also includes roadside management (12) Replacement Highway Planting. Replacement
strategies that improve worker safety by highway planting replaces vegetation installed
reducing the frequency and duration of worker by the Department or others, that has been
exposure. damaged or removed due to transportation
project construction. Replacement highway
(5) Highway planting required due to the impacts
planting may also include irrigation
of a roadway construction project must be
modifications and/or replacement.
programmed and funded by the parent
Replacement highway planting required due to
roadway project.
the impacts of a roadway construction project
(6) Highway planting, funded and maintained by must be programmed in conjunction with and
the Department on conventional highways, is funded from the parent roadway project.
limited to planting that provides: safety
(13) Required Mitigation Planting. Required
improvements, erosion control/stormwater
mitigation planting provides planting and
pollution prevention, revegetation, and
other work necessary to mitigate
required mitigation planting. Highway
environmental impacts due to roadway
planting on freeways, controlled access
construction. The word “required” indicates
highways and expressways, funded and
that the work is necessary to meet legally
maintained by the Department, is limited to
required environmental mitigation or permit
areas that meet specific criteria. See Chapter
requirements. Required mitigation planting
29 “Landscape Architecture” of the Project
may be performed within the operational right
Development Procedures Manual (PDPM) for
of way, immediately adjacent to the highway
more detailed information regarding
or at an offsite location as determined by the
warranted planting.
permit. A planting project for required
(7) Highway Planting Revegetation. Highway mitigation due to the impacts of a roadway
planting revegetation provides planting as construction project must be programmed and
mitigation for native vegetation damaged or funded by the parent roadway project.
removed due to a roadway construction
(14) Roadside Rehabilitation. The primary
project. Highway planting revegetation may
purpose of this program is to provide for
include irrigation systems as appropriate.
replacement, restoration and rehabilitation of
Highway planting revegetation, required due
existing roadside elements, including highway
to the impacts of a roadway construction
planting and irrigation, following damage by
project, must be programmed and funded by
weather, acts of nature or deterioration. This
the parent roadway project.
program also provides for erosion control to
(8) Imported Topsoil. Soil that is delivered onto a comply with National Pollutant Discharge
project from a commercial source and is Elimination System (NPDES) permit
fertile, friable soil of loamy character that requirements, design for safety features, and
contains organic matter. improvements for roadside appearance and
(9) Local Topsoil. Existing soil obtained from the coordination with community character.
“A” and “O” soil horizons within the project (15) Safety Roadside Rest Area System. The safety
limits, typically during excavation activities. roadside rest area system is a component of
(10) “O” Soil Horizon. The surface layer the highway system providing roadside areas
consisting of loose and partly decaying where travelers can stop, rest and manage
organic matter. their travel needs. Planned with consideration
of alternative stopping opportunities such as
(11) Park and Ride. A paved area for parking truck stops, commercial services, and vista
which provides a connection point for public points, the rest area system provides public
access to a variety of modal options. See stopping opportunities where they are most
Topic 905. needed, usually between large towns and at
entrances to major metropolitan areas. Within
December 30, 2015
the safety roadside rest system, individual rest (7) Easement. A right to use or control the
areas may include vehicle parking, picnic property of another for designated purposes.
tables, sanitary facilities, telephones, water,
(8) Eminent Domain. The power to take private
tourist information panels, traveler service
property for public use without the owner's
information facilities and vending machines.
consent upon payment of just compensation.
See Topic 903.
(9) Encroachment. In terms of exceptions and
(16) Street Furniture. Features such as newspaper
permits, includes, but is not limited to, any
boxes, bicycle racks, bus shelters, benches, art
structure, object, or activity of any kind or
or drinking fountains that occupy space on or
character which is within the State right of
alongside pedestrian sidewalks.
way, but it is not a part of the State facility or
(17) Vista Point. Typically a paved dedicated area serving a transportation need.
beyond the shoulder that permits travelers to
(10) Inverse Condemnation. The legal process
stop and view a scenic area. In addition to
which may be initiated by a property owner to
parking areas, amenities such as trash
compel the payment of just compensation,
receptacles, interpretive displays, and in some
where the property has been taken for or
cases, rest rooms, drinking water and
damaged by a public purpose.
telephones may be provided. See Topic 904.
(11) Negotiation. The process by which property
62.6 Right of Way is sought to be acquired for project purposes
(1) Acquisition. The process of obtaining rights through mutual agreement upon the terms for
of way. transfer of such property.
(2) Air Rights. The property rights for the control (12) Partial Acquisition. The acquisition of a
or specific use of a designated airspace portion of a parcel of property.
involving a highway. (13) Relinquishment. A transfer of the State's
(3) Appraisal. An expert opinion of the market right, title, and interest in and to a highway, or
value of property including damages and portion thereof, to a city or county.
special benefits, if any, as of a specified date, (14) Right of Access. The right of an abutting land
resulting from an analysis of facts. owner for entrance to or exit from a public
(4) Business District (or Central Business road.
District). The commercial and often the (15) Severance Damages. Loss in value of the
geographic heart of a city, which may be remainder of a parcel which may result from a
referred to as “downtown.” Usually contains partial taking of real property and/or from the
retail stores, theatres, entertainment and project.
convention venues, government buildings, and
little or no industry because of the high value (16) Vacation. The reversion of title to the owner
of land. Historic sections may be referred to of the underlying fee where an easement for
as “old town.” highway purposes is no longer needed.
(5) Condemnation. The process by which 62.7 Pavement
property is acquired for public purposes The following list of definitions includes
through legal proceedings under power of em- terminologies that are commonly used in California
inent domain. as well as selected terms from the "AASHTO
(6) Control of Access. The condition where the Guide for the Design of Pavement Structures"
right of owners or occupants of abutting land which may be used by FHWA, local agencies,
or other persons to access in connection with a consultants, etc. in pavement engineering reports
highway is fully or partially controlled by and research publications.
public authority. (1) Asphalt Concrete. See Hot Mix Asphalt
(HMA).
December 30, 2015
(2) Asphalt Rubber. A blend of asphalt binder, this manual, only flexible over rigid composite
reclaimed tire rubber, and certain additives in pavements are considered composite
which the rubber component is at least pavements.
15 percent by weight of the total blend and has
(11) Crack. Separation of the pavement material
reacted in the hot asphalt binder sufficiently to
due to thermal and moisture variations,
cause swelling of the rubber particles.
consolidation, vehicular loading, or reflections
(3) Asphalt Treated Permeable Base (ATPB). A from an underlying pavement joint or
highly permeable open-graded mixture of separation.
crushed coarse aggregate and asphalt binder
(12) Crack, Seat, and Overlay (CSO). A
placed as the base layer to assure adequate
rehabilitation strategy for rigid pavements.
drainage of the structural section, as well as
CSO practice requires the contractor to crack
structural support.
and seat the rigid pavement slabs, and place a
(4) Base. A layer of selected, processed, and/or flexible overlay with a pavement reinforcing
treated aggregate material that is placed fabric (PRF) interlayer.
immediately below the surface course. It
(13) Crumb Rubber Modifier (CRM). Scrap rubber
provides additional load distribution and
produced from scrap tire rubber and other
contributes to drainage and frost resistance.
components, if required, and processed for use
(5) Basement Soil/Material. See Subgrade. in wet or dry process modification of asphalt
paving.
(6) Borrow. Natural soil obtained from sources
outside the roadway prism to make up a (14) Deflection. The downward vertical movement
deficiency in excavation quantities. of a pavement surface due to the application
of a load to the surface.
(7) California R-Value. A measure of resistance
to deformation of the soils under saturated (15) Dense Graded Asphalt Concrete (DGAC).
conditions and traffic loading as determined See Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA).
by the stabilometer test (CT301). The
(16) Depression. Localized low areas of limited
California R-value, also referred to as R-
size that may or may not be accompanied by
value, measures the supporting strength of the
cracking.
subgrade and subsequent layers used in the
pavement structure. For additional (17) Dowel Bar. A load transfer device in a rigid
information, see Topic 614. slab usually consisting of a plain round steel
bar.
(8) Capital Preventive Maintenance. Typically,
Capital Preventive Maintenance (CAPM) (18) Edge Drain System. A drainage system,
consists of work performed to preserve the consisting of a slotted plastic collector pipe
existing pavement structure utilizing strategies encapsulated in treated permeable material
that preserve or extend pavement service life. and a filter fabric barrier, with unslotted
The CAPM program is divided into pavement plastic pipe vents, outlets, and cleanouts,
preservation and pavement rehabilitation. For designed to drain both rigid and flexible
further discussion see Topic 603. pavement structures.
(9) Cement Treated Permeable Base (CTPB). A (19) Embankment. A prism of earth that is
highly permeable open-graded mixture of constructed from excavated or borrowed
coarse aggregate, portland cement, and water natural soil and/or rock, extending from
placed as the base layer to provide adequate original ground to the grading plane, and
drainage of the structural section, as well as designed to provide a stable support for the
structural support. pavement structure.
(10) Composite Pavement. These are pavements (20) Equivalent Single Axle Loads (ESAL's). The
comprised of both rigid and flexible layers. number of 18-kip standard single axle load
Currently, for purposes of the procedures in repetitions that would have the same damage
December 30, 2015
effect to the pavement as an axle of a specified admixtures, primarily used as a base for
magnitude and configuration. See Index portland cement concrete pavement.
613.3 for additional information.
(28) Longitudinal Joint. A joint normally placed
(21) Flexible Pavement. Pavements engineered to between roadway lanes in rigid pavements to
transmit and distribute vehicle loads to the control longitudinal cracking; and the joint
underlying layers. The highest quality layer is between the traveled way and the shoulder.
the surface course (generally asphalt binder
(29) Maintenance. The preservation of the entire
mixes) which may or may not incorporate
roadway, including pavement structure,
underlying layers of base and subbase. These
shoulders, roadsides, structures, and such
types of pavements are called "flexible"
traffic control devices as are necessary for its
because the total pavement structure bends or
safe and efficient utilization.
flexes to accommodate deflection bending
under vehicle loads. For further discussion, (30) Open Graded Asphalt Concrete (OGAC). See
see Chapter 630. Open Graded Friction Course (OGFC).
(22) Grading Plane. The surface of the basement (31) Open Graded Friction Course (OGFC).
material upon which the lowest layer of Formerly known as open graded asphalt
subbase, base, pavement surfacing, or other concrete (OGAC), OGFC is a wearing course
specified layer, is placed. mix consisting of asphalt binder and aggregate
with relatively uniform grading and little or no
(23) Gravel Factor (Gf ). Refers to the relative
fine aggregate and mineral filler. OGFC is
strength of a given material compared to a
designed to have a large number of void
standard gravel subbase material. The
spaces in the compacted mix as compared to
cohesiometer values were used to establish the
hot mix asphalt. For further discussion, see
Gf currently used by Caltrans.
Topic 631.
(24) Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA). Formerly known as
(32) Overlay. An overlay is a layer, usually hot
asphalt concrete (AC), HMA is a graded
mix asphalt, placed on existing flexible or
asphalt concrete mixture (aggregate and
rigid pavement to restore ride quality, to
asphalt binder) containing a small percentage
increase structural strength (load carrying
of voids which is used primarily as a surface
capacity), and to extend the service life.
course to provide the structural strength
needed to distribute loads to underlying layers (33) Pavement. The planned, engineered system of
of the pavement structure. layers of specified materials (typically
consisting of surface course, base, and
(25) Hot Recycled Asphalt (HRA). The use of
subbase) placed over the subgrade soil to
reclaimed flexible pavement which is
support the cumulative vehicle loading
combined with virgin aggregates, asphalt, and
anticipated during the design life of the
sometimes rejuvenating agents at a central
pavement. The pavement is also referred to as
hot-mix plant and placed in the pavement
the pavement structure and has been referred
structure in lieu of using all new materials.
to as pavement structural section.
(26) Joint Seals. Pourable, extrudable or
(34) Pavement Design Life. Also referred to as
premolded materials that are placed primarily
performance period, pavement design life is
in transverse and longitudinal joints in
the period of time that a newly constructed or
concrete pavement to deter the entry of water
rehabilitated pavement is engineered to
and incompressible materials (such as sand
perform before reaching a condition that
that is broadcast in freeze-thaw areas to
requires CAPM, (see Index 603.4). The
improve skid resistance).
selected pavement design life varies
(27) Lean Concrete Base. Mixture of aggregate, depending on the characteristics of the
portland cement, water, and optional highway facility, the objective of the project,
and projected vehicle volume and loading.
December 30, 2015
(35) Pavement Drainage System. A drainage rehabilitation activities (see Indexes 603.3 and
system used for both asphalt and rigid 603.4).
pavements consisting of a treated permeable
(42) Resurfacing. A supplemental surface layer or
base layer and a collector system which
replacement layer placed on an existing
includes a slotted plastic pipe encapsulated in
pavement to restore its riding qualities and/or
treated permeable material and a filter fabric
to increase its structural (load carrying)
barrier with unslotted plastic pipe as vents,
strength.
outlets and cleanouts to rapidly drain the
pavement structure. For further discussion, (43) Rigid Pavement. Pavement engineered with a
see Chapter 650. rigid surface course (typically Portland cement
concrete or a variety of specialty cement
(36) Pavement Preservation. Work done, either by
mixes for rapid strength concretes) which may
contract or by State forces to preserve the ride
incorporate underlying layers of stabilized or
quality, safety characteristics, functional
unstabilized base or subbase materials. These
serviceability and structural integrity of
types of pavements rely on the substantially
roadway facilities on the State highway
higher stiffness of the rigid slab to distribute
system. For further discussion, see Topic 603.
the vehicle loads over a relatively wide area of
(37) Pavement Service Life. Is the actual period of underlying layers and the subgrade. Some
time that a newly constructed or rehabilitated rigid slabs have reinforcing steel to help resist
pavement structure performs satisfactorily cracking due to temperature changes and
before reaching its terminal serviceability or a repetitive loading.
condition that requires major rehabilitation or
(44) Roadbed. The roadbed is that area between
reconstruction. Because of the many
the intersection of the upper surface of the
independent variables involved, pavement
roadway and the side slopes or curb lines.
service life may be considerably longer or
The roadbed rises in elevation as each
shorter than the design life of the pavement.
increment or layer of subbase, base or surface
For further discussion, see Topic 612.
course is placed. Where the medians are so
(38) Pavement Structure. See Pavement. wide as to include areas of undisturbed land, a
divided highway is considered as including
(39) Pumping. The ejection of base material, either
two separate roadbeds.
wet or dry, through joints or cracks, or along
edges of rigid slabs resulting from vertical (45) Asphalt Rubber Binder. A blend of asphalt
movements of the slab under vehicular traffic binder modified with crumb rubber modifier
loading. This phenomena is especially (CRM) that may include less than 15 percent
pronounced with saturated structural sections. CRM by mass.
(40) Raveling. Progressive disintegration of the (46) Rubberized Hot Mix Asphalt (RHMA).
surface course on asphalt concrete pavement Formerly known as rubberized asphalt
by the dislodgement of aggregate particles and concrete (RAC). RHMA is a material
binder. produced for hot mix applications by mixing
either asphalt rubber or asphalt rubber binder
(41) Rehabilitation. Work undertaken to extend
with graded aggregate. RHMA may be gap-
the service life of an existing facility. This
(RHMA-G) or open- (RHMA-O) graded.
includes placement of additional surfacing
and/or other work necessary to return an (47) R-value. See California R-Value.
existing roadway, including shoulders, to a
(48) Serviceability. The ability at time of
condition of structural or functional adequacy,
observation of a pavement to serve vehicular
for the specified service life. This might
traffic (automobiles and trucks) which use the
include the partial or complete removal and
facility. The primary measure of
replacement of portions of the pavement
serviceability is the Present Serviceability
structure. Rehabilitation is divided into
pavement rehabilitation activities and roadway
December 30, 2015
Index (PSI), which ranges from 0 (impossible stated, the period is a year. The term is
road) to 5 (perfect road). commonly abbreviated as ADT or AADT.
(49) Settlement. Localized vertical displacement of (2) Delay. The time lost while road users are im-
the pavement structure due to slippage or peded by some element over which the user
consolidation of the underlying foundation, has no control.
often resulting in pavement deterioration,
(3) Density. The number of vehicles per mile on
cracking and poor ride quality.
the traveled way at a given instant.
(50) Structural Section. See Pavement Structure.
(4) Design Vehicles. See Topic 404.
(51) Structural Section Drainage System. See
(5) Design Volume. A volume determined for use
Pavement Drainage System.
in design, representing traffic expected to use
(52) Subbase. Unbound aggregate or granular the highway. Unless otherwise stated, it is an
material that is placed on the subgrade as a hourly volume.
foundation or working platform for the base.
(6) Diverging. The dividing of a single stream of
It functions primarily as structural support, but
traffic into separate streams.
it can also minimize the intrusion of fines
from the subgrade into the pavement structure, (7) Headway. The time in seconds between
improve drainage, and minimize frost action consecutive vehicles moving past a point in a
damage. given lane, measured front to front.
(53) Subgrade. Also referred to as basement soil, (8) Level of Service. A rating using qualitative
it is the portion of the roadbed consisting of measures that characterize operational
native or treated soil on which pavement conditions within a traffic stream and their
surface course, base, subbase, or a layer of any perception by users.
other material is placed. (9) Managed Lanes. Lanes that are proactively
(54) Surface Course. One or more uppermost managed in response to changing operating
layers of the pavement structure engineered to conditions in efforts to achieve improved
carry and distribute vehicle loads. The surface efficiency and performance. Typically
course typically consists of a weather-resistant employed on highways with increasing
flexible or rigid layer, which provides recurrent traffic congestion and limited
characteristics such as friction, smoothness, resources.
resistance to vehicle loads, and drainage. In (a) High-Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) Lanes--
addition, the surface course minimizes An exclusive lane for vehicles carrying
infiltration of surface water into the the posted number of minimum occupants
underlying base, subbase and subgrade. A or carpools, either part time or full time.
surface course may be composed of a single
layer with one or multiple lifts, or multiple (b) High Occupancy Toll (HOT) Lanes--An
layers of differing materials. HOV lane that allows vehicles qualified
as carpools to use the facility without a
(55) Tie Bars. Deformed reinforcing bars placed at fee, while vehicles containing less than
intervals that hold rigid pavement slabs in the required number of occupants to pay a
adjoining lanes and exterior lane-to-shoulder toll. Tolls may change based on real time
joints together and prevent differential vertical conditions (dynamic) or according to a
and lateral movement. schedule (static).
62.8 Highway Operations (c) Express Toll Lanes--Facilities in which all
(1) Annual Average Daily Traffic. The average users are required to pay a toll, although
24-hour volume, being the total number HOVs may be offered a discount. Tolls
during a stated period divided by the number may be dynamic or static.
of days in that period. Unless otherwise
December 30, 2015
(10) Merging. The converging of separate streams information to users through a word,
of traffic into a single stream. symbol and/or arrow legend. Signs do not
include highway traffic signals or
(11) Running Time. The time the vehicle is in
pavement markings, delineators, or
motion.
channelizing devices.
(12) Spacing. The distance between consecutive
(c) Highway Traffic Signal--A power-
vehicles in a given lane, measured front to
operated control device by which traffic is
front.
warned or directed to take a specific
(13) Speed. action. These devices do not include
(a) Design Speed--A speed selected to signals at toll plazas, power-operated
establish specific minimum geometric signs, illuminated pavement markers,
design elements for a particular section of warning lights, or steady burning
highway or bike path. electrical lamps.
(b) Operating Speed--The speed at which (d) Changeable Message Sign--An electronic
drivers are observed operating their traffic sign used on roadways to give
vehicles during free-flow conditions. The travelers information about traffic
85th percentile of the distribution of a congestion, accidents, roadwork zones,
representative sample of observed speeds speed limits or any dynamic information
is used most frequently to measure the about current driving conditions.
operating speed associated with a (16) Volume. The number of vehicles passing a
particular location or geometric feature. given point during a specified period of time.
(c) Posted Speed--The speed limit determined (17) Weaving. The crossing of traffic streams
by law and shown on the speed limit sign. moving in the same general direction
(d) High Speed – A speed greater than accomplished by merging and diverging.
45 mph. (18) Ramp Metering. A vehicular traffic
(e) Low Speed – A speed less than or equal to management strategy which utilizes a system
45 mph. of traffic signals on freeway entrance and
connector ramps to regulate the volume of
(f) Running Speed--The speed over a speci- vehicles entering a freeway corridor in order
fied section of highway, being the dis- to maximize the efficiency of the freeway and
tance divided by running time. The aver- thereby minimizing the total delay in the
age for all traffic, or component thereof, is transportation corridor.
the summation of distances divided by the
summation of running times. 62.9 Drainage
(14) Traffic. A general term used throughout this See Chapter 800 for definition of drainage terms.
manual referring to the passage of people, 62.10 Users
vehicles and/or bicycles along a transportation
route. (1) Bicycle. A device propelled via chain, belt or
gears, exclusively by human power.
(15) Traffic Control Devices.
(2) Bus. Any vehicle owned or operated by a
(a) Markings--All pavement and curb publicly owned or operated transit system, or
markings, object markers, delineators, operated under contract with a publicly owned
colored pavements, barricades, or operated transit system, and used to provide
channelizing devices, and islands used to to the general public, regularly scheduled
convey regulations, guidance, or warning transportation for which a fare is charged. A
to users. general public paratransit vehicle is not a
(b) Sign--Any traffic control device that is transit bus.
intended to communicate specific
December 30, 2015
(3) Bus Rapid Transit (BRT). A flexible rubber- (10) Pedestrian. A person who is afoot or who is
tired rapid-transit mode that combines using any of the following: (a) a means of
stations, vehicles, services, exclusive running conveyance propelled by human power other
ways, and Intelligent Transportation System than a bicycle, or (b) an electric personal
elements into an integrated system with a assistive mobility device. Includes a person
strong positive identity that evokes a unique who is operating a self-propelled wheelchair,
image. motorized tricycle, or motorized quadricycle
and, by reason of physical disability, is
(4) Commuter Rail. Traditional rapid and heavy
otherwise unable to move about as a
rail passenger service intended to provide
pedestrian as specified in part (a) above.
travel options in suburban and urban areas.
Corridor lengths are typically shorter than (11) Street Car, Trams or Trolley. A passenger rail
intercity passenger rail services. Top vehicle which runs on tracks along public
operating speeds are in the range of 90 to urban streets and also sometimes on separate
110 miles per hour. The tracks may or may rights of way. It may also run between cities
not be shared with freight trains and typically and/or towns, and/or partially grade separated
are in a separate right of way. structures.
(5) Conventional Rail. Traditional intercity (12) Transit. Includes light rail; commuter rail;
passenger rail and interregional freight rail. motorbus; street car, tram, trolley bus; BRT;
Top operating speeds are in the range of 60 to automated guideway; and demand responsive
110 miles per hour. The tracks may or may vehicles. The most common application is for
not be shared by passenger and freight trains motorbus transit. See Index 404.4 for a
and typically run within their own right of description of the design vehicle as related to
way corridor. buses.
(6) Design Vehicle. The largest vehicle (13) Vehicle. A device to move, propel or draw a
commonly expected on a particular roadway. person upon a highway, except a device on
Descriptions of these vehicles are found in rails or propelled exclusively by human
Index 404.4. power. This definition, abstracted from the
CVC, is intended to refer to motor vehicles,
(7) Equestrian. A rider on horseback.
excluding those devices necessary to provide
(8) High Speed Rail. A type of intercity and mobility to persons with disabilities.
interregional passenger rail service that
operates significantly faster than conventional
rail. Top operating speeds are typically 150 to
220 miles per hour. These trains may be
powered by overhead high voltage lines or
technologies such as Maglev. The tracks are
grade separated within a separate controlled
access right of way and may or may not be
shared with freight trains.
(9) Light Rail. A form of urban transit that uses
rail cars on fixed rails in a right of way that
may or may not be grade separated.
Motorized vehicles and bicycles may share the
same transportation corridor. These railcars
are typically electrically driven with power
supplied from an overhead line rather than an
electrified third rail. Top operating speeds are
typically 60 miles per hour.
June 21, 2013
construction on the basis of overall system benefits

CHAPTER 80 as well as community goals, plans, and values.
APPLICATION OF DESIGN Decisions must also emphasize the connectivity
STANDARDS between the different transportation modes so that
they work together effectively.
Topic 81 - Project Development The goal is to increase person and goods
Overview throughput, highway mobility and safety in a
manner that is compatible with, or which enhances,
Index 81.1 - Philosophy adjacent community values and plans.
The Project Development process seeks to provide 81.2 Highway Context
a degree of mobility to users of the transportation
system that is in balance with other values. In the The context of a highway is a critical factor when
development of transportation projects, social, developing the purpose and need statement for a
economic, and environmental effects must be project in addition to making fundamental design
considered fully along with technical issues so that decisions such as its typical cross section and when
final decisions are made in the best overall public selecting the design elements and aesthetic features
interest. Attention should be given to such such as street furniture and construction materials.
considerations as: Designing a highway that is sensitive to, and
respectful of, the surrounding context is critical for
(a) Need to provide transportation for all users project success in the minds of the Department and
(motorists, bicyclists, transit riders, and our stakeholders.
pedestrians) of the facility and transportation
modes. A “one-size-fits-all” design philosophy is not
Departmental policy. Designers need to be aware
(b) Attainment of community goals and objectives. of and sensitive to land use, community context
(c) Needs of low mobility and disadvantaged and the associated user needs of the facility. In
groups. some instances, the design criteria and standards in
this manual are based on the land use contexts in
(d) Costs and benefits of eliminating or which the State highway is located, for instance:
minimizing adverse effects on natural large population areas and downtowns in urban
resources, environmental values, public areas, small rural towns and communities, suburban
services, aesthetic values, and community and commercial/residential areas, and rural corridors.
individual integrity . This approach ensures the standards are flexible,
(e) Planning based on realistic financial estimates. and the approach allows and encourages methods
to minimize impacts on scenic, historic,
(f) The cost, ease, and safety of maintaining archaeological, environmental, and other important
whatever is built. resources.
Proper consideration of these items requires that a Beyond their intended transportation benefits, State
facility be viewed from the perspectives of the user, highways can significantly impact the civic, social
the nearby community, and larger statewide and economic conditions of local communities.
interests. For the user, efficient travel, mode Designing transportation facilities that integrate the
selection, and safety are paramount concerns. At local transportation and land uses while making the
the same time, the community often is more design responsive to the other needs of the
concerned about local aesthetic, social, and community support the livability of the community
economic impacts. The general population, and are usually a complementary goal to meeting
however, tends to be interested in how successfully the transportation needs of the users of the State
a project functions as part of the overall highway system.
transportation system and how large a share of
available capital resources it consumes. Therefore, To do this successfully, the designer needs to have
individual projects must be selected for an understanding of the area surrounding the
September 22, 2014
highway and the users of the highway, its function project planning and project development processes
within the regional and State transportation helps to formulate context sensitive project
systems, (which includes all transportation modes), alternatives and transportation facilities that
and the level of access control needed. To gain this coordinate with the local land uses.
understanding, the designer must consult the
The following place types are used in this manual:
Transportation Concept Reports and work with the
planning division and the local agencies. (1) Rural Areas. Rural areas are typically
sparsely settled and developed. They can
In this manual, the following concepts are used to
consist of protected federal and State lands,
discuss the context of a highway:
agricultural lands, and may include tourist and
• Place Type - the surrounding built and natural recreational destinations. However, as rural
environment; lands transition into rural communities, they
can become more developed and suburban and
• Type of Highway - the role the highway plays urban-like by providing for a mixture of
in terms of providing regional or interregional housing, commercial, industrial and public
connectivity and local access; and, institutions. For the use of this manual, rural
• Access Control - the degree of connection or areas have been subcategorized as Natural
separation between the highway and the Corridors, Developing Corridors and
surrounding land use. City/Town Centers (Rural Main Streets).
A “Main Street” design is not specific to a certain (a) Natural Corridors. Typically, the desire in
place type, but is a design philosophy to be applied these corridors is to preserve the natural
on State highways that also function as community and scenic countryside while at the same
streets. A “Main Street” design serves pedestrians, time provide transportation services to
bicyclists, businesses and public transit with support the travel and tourism that occurs
motorized traffic operating at speeds of 20 to when visiting these locations. Examples
40 miles per hour. See the Department’s “Main of this place type are: National/State
Street, California” document for more information. Forests and Parklands; agricultural lands
with scattered farm buildings and
81.3 Place Types residences; and, low density development.
A place type describes the area’s physical See Topic 109 for additional information.
environment and the land uses surrounding the (b) Developing Corridors. State highways
State highway. The place types described below traveling through these lands tend to be
are intentionally broad. Place types should be increasingly clustered with industrial,
agreed upon in partnership with all of the project commercial, and residential areas as they
stakeholders; however, there likely may be more lead into a rural city or town center.
than one place type within the limits of a project. These corridors can be a transition zone
Ultimately, the place types selected can be used to among the aforementioned areas.
determine the appropriate application of the Highways associated with these locations
guidance provided in this manual. These place help to deliver tourists, but they also need
type definitions are independent of the Federal to support the local communities and their
government definitions of urban and rural areas. local economies. In addition, these
See Title 23 United States Code, Section 13 for highways also serve a role and should be
further information. efficient at moving people and goods
Identifying the appropriate place type(s) involves between regions.
discussions with the project sponsors, ideally Industrial, commercial and retail buildings
through the Project Development Team (PDT) tend to be located separately from housing
process, and requires coordination with the land use and are typically set back from the
planning activities associated with the on-going highway with parking areas placed in
local and regional planning activities. Extensive front. Truck traffic on these highways
community engagement throughout both the
December 30, 2015
tends to serve the needs of these development and design of highway projects
industrial, commercial and retail in these locations. Accommodating all of
buildings; however, there will be a these needs concurrently into a project leads
component of the truck traffic that is to greater efficiency in the use of funding. For
transporting their loads inter-regionally. the use of this manual, suburban areas have
Therefore, corridors in areas that are in been categorized as either Lower
transition may need to accommodate Density/Residential Neighborhoods or Higher
design vehicles. Density/Regional Community Centers
(Suburban Main Streets).
(c) City or Town Centers (Rural Main
Streets). State highways in this scenario (a) Lower Density / Residential Neighborh-
are usually a conventional main street oods. State highways typically do not
through the rural city or town, or they may cross through this place type. This place
be the only main street. The use of the type usually feeds users onto the State
State highway in this environment varies highway system and is typically under the
depending upon the individual jurisdiction of a local entity. State
community, as does the mix of buildings, highways, if they do interact with this
services, businesses, and public spaces. place type, usually just connect at the
Transit is often present and should be edges of them where the pedestrians,
incorporated into the transportation bicyclists, and motor vehicle operators
system as appropriate. Transportation integrate into the highway system that
improvement projects on these main street includes transit facilities.
highways can be more complicated and
(b) Higher Density / Regional Community
costly than similar projects in more rural
Centers (Suburban Main Streets). As
settings. A balance usually needs to be
suburban areas grow they tend to merge
maintained between the needs of the
together into each other’s boundaries.
through traffic and those of the local main
Growth in some locations can create
street environment. Thus, analyzing the
“Megacommunities.” While these
pedestrian and bicyclist needs early in the
megacommunities seem to function as
development of the project and then
individual cities, they typically have
following through on the agreements
multiple distinct community centers that
during the design of highway projects in
require highways with the capacity to
these locations can be especially
serve not only each center, but the center-
important. Accommodating the pedestrian
to-center traveler needs. These areas
and bicyclist needs concurrently in
typically require the State highway to
projects leads to greater efficiency in the
serve not only the originally urbanized
use of funding.
area, but also the newer suburban areas
(2) Suburban Areas. Suburban areas lead into that have been created where the housing,
and can completely surround urban areas. A shopping and employment opportunities
mixture of land uses is typical in suburban are all centered. Anticipating and
areas. This land use mixture can consist of accommodating growth in this place type
housing, retail businesses and services, and can be a challenge. State and local
may include regional centers such as shopping governments, the business community and
malls and other similar regional destinations; citizens groups, and metropolitan planning
which are usually associated with suburban organizations all need to agree on how to
communities (cities and towns) that can be meet the community needs, and at times
connected with larger urban centers and cities. the interregional needs of the highway.
Assessing the needs of pedestrians, bicyclists,
(3) Urban and Urbanized Areas. Urban areas
and transit users in concert with the vehicular
generally are the major population centers in
needs of motorists and truck drivers is
the State. Large numbers of people live in
necessary during the project planning,
December 30, 2015
these urbanized areas where growth is • Downtown Cores. Similar to

expected to continue. Bicycling, transit, and community centers, much of the
walking are important transportation modes in transportation system has already
these areas and as the facilities for pedestrians, been built and its footprint in the
transit and bicyclists expand in these areas, the community needs to be preserved
percentage and number of travelers walking, while its use may need to be
using transit and bicycling is also likely to reallocated. Successfully meeting the
increase. State agencies and the local mobility needs of a major
governmental entities, the business metropolitan downtown core area
community and citizens groups, congestion requires a balanced approach. Such
management agencies and the local/regional an approach is typically used to
metropolitan planning organization (MPO) enhance the existing transportation
need to all agree upon the concept of the network’s performance by adding
transportation facilities being provided so that capacity to the highways, sidewalks,
the community needs can be met. and transit stations for all of the users
Urban areas are typically high-density of the system, and/or adding such
locations such as central business districts, enhancement features as HOV lanes,
downtown communities, and major activity BRT, walkable corridors, etc. Right
centers. They have a full range of land uses of way is limited and costly to
and are associated with a large diversity of purchase in these locations. Delivery
activities. For the use of place types in this truck traffic that supports the
manual, urban areas have been categorized as downtown core businesses can also
Lower Density Parklands and Residential create problems.
Neighborhoods and Higher Density Urban The HEPGIS tool on the FHWA website is
Main Streets. Higher Density Urban Main available to determine if the project is in an
Streets have been further characterized as urban area. Urban areas are found on the
Community Centers and Downtown Cores. Highway Information tab of the tool.
(a) Lower Density Parklands and Residential 81.4 Type of Highway
Neighborhoods. Large numbers of people
live in these urbanized areas and Much of the following terminology is either
bicycling, transit and walking are already discussed in Chapter 20 or defined in Topic
important transportation modes in these 62. The additional information in this portion of
areas. Parklands can enhance these the manual is being provided to connect these terms
neighborhoods and parkland preservation with the guidance that is being provided.
is a concern, as well as, access to support (1) Functional Classification. One of the first
travel and tourism to the parklands. steps in the highway design process is to define
(b) High Density Urban Main Streets. the function that the facility is to serve. The
two major considerations in functionally
• Community Centers or Corridor. classifying a highway are access and
Strategically improving the design throughput. Access and mobility are inversely
and function of the existing State related; as access is increased, mobility
highways that cross these centers is decreases. In the AASHTO “A Policy on
typically a concern. Providing Geometric Design of Highways and Streets”,
transportation options to enhancing highways are functionally classified first as
these urban neighborhoods that either urban or rural. The hierarchy of the
combine highway, transit, passenger functional highway system within either an
rail, walking, and biking options are urban or rural area consists of the following:
desirable, while they also help
promote tourism and shopping.
December 30, 2015
• Principal arterial - main movement (high • Designers have the ability to design for all
mobility, limited access) Typically 4 lanes modes of travel (vehicular, bicycle, pedestrian,
or more; truck and transit); and,
• Minor arterial - interconnects principal • Designers have the flexibility to tailor a project
arterials (moderate mobility, limited to the unique circumstances that relate to it and
access) Typically 2 or 3 lanes with turn its location, while meeting driver expectation.
lanes to benefit through traffic;
Designers should balance the interregional
• Collectors - connects local roads to transportation needs with the needs of the
arterials (moderate mobility, moderate communities they pass through. The design of
access) with few businesses; and, projects should, when possible, expand the options
for biking, walking, and transit use. In planning
• Local roads and streets - permits access to and designing projects, the project development
abutting land (high access, limited team should work with locals that have any livable
mobility). policies as revitalizing urban centers, building local
The California Road System (CRS) maps are the economies, and preserving historic sites and scenic
official functional classification maps approved by country roads. The “Main Streets: Flexibility in
Federal highway Administration. These maps Planning, Design and Operations” published by the
show functional classification of roads. Department should be consulted for additional
guidance as should the FHWA publication
(2) Interstate Highways. The interstate highway
“Flexibility in Highway Design”.
system was originally designed to be high-
speed interregional connectors and it is a Early consultation and discussion with the Project
portion of the National Highway System Delivery Coordinator and the District Design
(NHS). In urban and suburban areas, a large Liaison during the project initiation document
percentage of vehicular traffic is carried on the (PID) phase is also necessary to avoid issues that
interstate highway system, rather than on the may arise later in the project development process.
local arterials and streets. Design Information Bulletin 78 “Design Checklist
for the Development of Geometric Plans” is a tool
(3) State Routes. The State highway system is
that can be used to identify and discuss design
described in the California Streets and
features that may deviate from standard.
Highway Code, Division 1, Chapter 2 and they
are further defined in this manual in Topic Topic 82 - Application of
62.3, Highway Types which provides
definitions for freeways, expressways, and Standards
highways.
82.1 Highway Design Manual Standards
81.5 Access Control (1) General. The highway design criteria and
Index 62.3 defines a controlled access highway and policies in this manual provide a guide for the
a conventional highway. The level of access engineer to exercise sound judgment in
control plays a part in determining the design applying standards, consistent with the above
standards that are to be utilized when designing a Project Development philosophy, in the
highway. See Index 405.6 for additional access design of projects. This guidance allows for
control guidance. flexibility in applying design standards and
approving design exceptions that take the
81.6 Design Standards and Highway context of the project location into
Context consideration; which enables the designer to
The design guidance and standards in this manual tailor the design, as appropriate, for the
have been developed with the intent of ensuring specific circumstances while maintaining
that: safety.
December 16, 2016
The design standards used for any project System (NHS) as comprehensive design
should equal or exceed the minimum given in standards which cover a multitude of design
the Manual to the maximum extent feasible, characteristics, allowing flexibility in
taking into account costs (initial and life- application:
cycle), traffic volumes, traffic and safety
• Design Speed
benefits, right of way, socio-economic and
environmental impacts, maintenance, etc. • Lane Width
Because design standards have evolved over
many years, many existing highways do not • Shoulder Width
conform fully to current standards. It is not • Horizontal Curve Radius
intended that current manual standards be
applied retroactively to all existing State • Superelevation Rate
highways; such is neither warranted nor • Stopping Sight Distance
economically feasible. However, when
warranted, upgrading of existing roadway • Maximum Grade
features such as guardrail, lighting, • Cross Slope
superelevation, roadbed width, etc., should be
considered, either as independent projects or • Vertical Clearance
as part of larger projects. A record of the • Design Loading Structural Capacity (non
decision not to upgrade the existing non- geometric)
standard mandatory or advisory features are to
be provided through the exception process Design loading structural capacity criteria
(See Index 82.2). applies to all NHS facility types. See the
Technical Publications – DES Manuals for
This manual does not address temporary further information.
construction features. It is recognized that the
construction conditions encountered are so The remaining geometric criteria listed above
diverse and variable that it is not practical to are applicable to the NHS as follows: (1) On
set geometric criteria. Guidance for use of high-speed roadways (Interstate highways,
traffic control devices for temporary other freeways, and roadways with design
construction zones can be found in Part 6 – speeds of greater than or equal to 50 mph), all
Temporary Traffic Control of the California the geometric criteria apply. The stopping
Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices sight distance criteria applies to horizontal
(California MUTCD). Guidance for the alignments and vertical alignments except for
engineering of pavements in temporary sag vertical curves; and (2) On low-speed
construction zones is available in Index 612.6. roadways (non-freeways with design speeds
In this manual, design standards and guidance less than 50 mph), only the design speed
are categorized in order of importance in criteria applies.
development of a State highway system. See The two speed categories stated above that
Index 82.4 for other mandatory procedural FHWA designates match the high- and low-
requirements. speed definitions in Index 62.8(13) when
(2) Absolute Requirements. Design guidance considering that design speed and posted speed
related to requirements of law, policy, or are set in 5 mph increments.
statute that do not allow exception are phrased The design standards related to the geometric
by the use of “is required”, “without criteria are identified in Table 82.1A among
exception”, “are to be”, “is to be”, “in no other important geometric standards in this
event”, or a combination of these terms. manual regardless of the design speed of the
(3) Controlling Criteria. The FHWA has roadway and whether or not the roadway is part
designated the following ten controlling of the NHS.
criteria for projects on the National Highway
December 16, 2016
(4) Mandatory Standards. Mandatory design designs suggested in these publications do not
standards are those considered most essential always meet Highway Design Manual
to achievement of overall design objectives. Standards. Therefore, all other Caltrans
Many pertain to requirements of law or publications must be used in conjunction with
regulations such as those embodied in the this manual.
FHWA's ten controlling criteria (see Index
(9) Transportation Facilities Under the
82.1(3)). In addition to the FHWA’s ten
Jurisdiction of Others. Generally, if the local
controlling criteria are “Caltrans-only”
road or street is a Federal-aid route it should
mandatory standards that have been identified
conform to AASHTO standards; see Topic
by Caltrans as most essential pertaining to
308 – Cross Sections for Roads Under Other
requirements of State law, policy or
Jurisdictions. Occasionally though, projects
objectives. Mandatory standards use the word
on the State highway system involve work on
"shall" and are printed in Boldface type (see
adjacent transportation facilities that are under
Table 82.1A).
the jurisdiction of cities and counties. Some
(5) Advisory Standards. Advisory design of these local jurisdictions may have
standards are important also, but allow greater published standards for facilities that they own
flexibility in application to accommodate and operate. The guidance in this manual may
design constraints or be compatible with local be applicable, but it was prepared for use on
conditions on resurfacing or rehabilitation the State highway system. Thus, when project
projects. Advisory standards use the word work impacts adjacent transportation facilities
"should" and are indicated by Underlining that are under the jurisdiction of cities and
(see Table 82.1B). counties, local standards and AASHTO
guidance must be used in conjunction with
(6) Decision Requiring Other Approvals. There
this manual to encourage designs that are
are design criteria decisions that are not bold
sensitive to the local context and community
or underlined text which require specific
values. Agreeing on which standards will be
approvals from individuals to whom such
used needs to be decided early in the project
decisions have been delegated. These
delivery process and on a project by project
individuals include, but are not limited to,
basis.
District Directors, Traffic Liaisons, Project
Delivery Coordinators or their combination as 82.2 Approvals for Nonstandard Design
specified in this manual. These decisions
should be documented as the individual (1) Mandatory Standards. Design features or
approving desires. elements which deviate from mandatory
standards indicated herein require the
(7) Permissive Standards. All standards other approval of the Chief, Division of Design.
than absolute requirements, mandatory, This approval authority has been delegated to
advisory, or decisions requiring other the District Directors for projects on
approvals, whether indicated by the use of conventional highways and expressways, and
“should”, “may”, or “can” are permissive. for certain other facilities in accordance with
(8) Other Caltrans Publications. In addition to the current District Design Delegation
the design standards in this manual, see Index Agreement. Approval authority for
82.7 for general information on the mandatory design standards on all other
Department’s traffic engineering policy, facilities has been delegated to the Project
standards, practices and study warrants. Delivery Coordinators except as noted in
Table 82.1A where: (a) the mandatory
Caution must be exercised when using other standard has been delegated to the District
Caltrans publications which provide Director and (b) the mandatory standards in
guidelines for the design of highway facilities, Chapters 600 through 670 requires the
such as HOV lanes. These publications do not approval of the State Pavement Engineer, or,
contain design standards; moreover, the (c) specifically delegated to the District
December 16, 2016
Directors per the current District Design For local facilities crossing the State right of
Delegation Agreements and may involve way see Index 308.1.
coordination with the Project Delivery
(2) Advisory Standards. The authority to approve
Coordinator. See the HQ Division of Design
exceptions to advisory standards has been
website for the most current District Design
delegated to the District Directors. A list of
Delegation Agreements.
advisory standards is provided in Table 82.1B.
The current procedures and documentation Proposals for exceptions from advisory
requirements pertaining to the approval standards can be discussed with the District
process for those exceptions to mandatory Design Liaison during development of the
design standards as well as the dispute approval documentation. The responsibility
resolution process are contained in Chapter 21 for the establishment of procedures for
of the Project Development Procedures review, documentation, and long term
Manual (PDPM). retention of approved exceptions from
advisory standards has also been delegated to
Design exception approval must be obtained
the District Directors.
pursuant to the instructions in PDPM Chapter
9. (3) Decisions Requiring Other Approvals. The
authority to approve specific decisions
The Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st
identified in the text are also listed in Table
Century Act (MAP-21) of 2012 allowed
82.1C. The form of documentation or other
significant delegation to the states by FHWA
instructions are provided as directed by the
to approve and administer portions of the
approval authority.
Federal-Aid Transportation Program. MAP-
21 further allowed delegation to the State (4) Permissive Standards. A record of deviation
DOT’s and in response to this a Stewardship from permissive standards and the disclosure
and Oversight Agreement (SOA) document of the engineering decisions in support of the
between FHWA and Caltrans was signed. deviation should be documented and placed in
The SOA outlines the process to determine the project file. This principle of
specific project related delegation to Caltrans. documentation also applies when following
In general, the SOA delegates approval of other Division of Design guidance, e.g.,
exceptions to mandatory design standards Design Information Bulletins and Design
related to the ten controlling criteria on all Memos. The form of documentation and
Interstate projects whether FHWA has other instructions on long term retention of
oversight responsibilities or not to Caltrans. these engineering decisions are to be provided
Exceptions to this delegation would be for as directed by the District approval authority.
projects of FHWA Division or Corporate
(5) Local Agencies. Cities and counties are
interest which are determined on a project by
responsible for the design decisions they make
project basis. See Index 43.2 for additional
on transportation facilities they own and
information. Consultation with FHWA should
operate. The responsible local entity is
be sought as early in the project development
delegated authority to exercise their
process as possible. However, formal FHWA
engineering judgment when utilizing the
approval, if applicable, shall not be requested
applicable design guidance and standards,
until the appropriate Caltrans representative
including those for bicycle facilities
has approved the design exception.
established by Caltrans pursuant to the Streets
FHWA approval is not required for exceptions and Highways Code Sections 890.6 and 890.8
to "Caltrans-only" mandatory standards. and published in this manual. For further
Table 82.1A identifies these mandatory stan- information on this delegation and the
dards. Where FHWA approval of a design delegation process, see the Caltrans Local
exception is required, only cite the mandatory Assistance Procedures Manual, Chapter 11.
standards that are identified by the FHWA as
ten controlling criteria, see Index 82.1(3).
December 16, 2016
82.3 FHWA and AASHTO Standards and On projects where the project development process
Policies has started, the following conditions on the
effective date of the new or revised standards will
The standards in this manual generally conform to be applied:
the standards and policies set forth in the AASHTO
publications, "A Policy on Geometric Design of • For all projects where the PS&E has not been
Highways and Streets" (2011) and "A Policy on finalized, the new or revised design standards
Design Standards-Interstate System" (2005). A shall be incorporated unless this would impose
third AASHTO publication, the latest edition of the a significant delay in the project schedule or a
"Roadside Design Guide", focuses on creating safer significant increase in the project engineering
roadsides. These three documents, along with or construction costs. The Project Delivery
other AASHTO and FHWA publications cited in Coordinator or individual delegated authority
23 CFR Ch 1, Part 625, Appendix A, contain most must make the final determination on whether
of the current AASHTO policies and standards, and to apply the new or previous design standards
are approved references to be used in conjunction on a project-by-project basis for roadway
with this manual. features.
AASHTO policies and standards, which are • For all projects where the PS&E has been
established as nationwide standards, do not always submitted to Headquarters Office Engineer for
satisfy California conditions. When standards advertising or the project is under construction,
differ, the instructions in this manual govern, the new or revised standards will be
except when necessary for FHWA project approval incorporated only if they are identified in the
(Index 108.3, Coordination with the FHWA). Change Transmittal as requiring special
implementation.
The use of publications and manuals that are
developed by organizations other than the FHWA For locally-sponsored projects, the Oversight
and AASHTO can also provide additional guidance Engineer must inform the funding sponsor within
not covered in this manual. The use of such 15 working days of the effective date of any
guidance coupled with sound engineering judgment changes in mandatory or advisory design standards
is to be exercised in collaboration with the as defined in Index 82.2.
guidance in this manual.
82.6 Design Information Bulletins and
82.4 Mandatory Procedural Requirements Other Caltrans Publications
Required procedures and policies for which In addition to the design standards in this manual,
Caltrans is responsible, relating to project Design Information Bulletins (DIBs) establish
clearances, permits, licenses, required tests, policies and procedures for the various design
documentation, value engineering, etc., are in- specialties of the Department that are in the
dicated by use of the word "must". Procedures and Division of Design. Some DIBs may eventually
actions to be performed by others (subject to become part of this manual, while others are
notification by Caltrans), or statements of fact are written with the intention to remain as design
indicated by the word "will". guidance in the DIB format. References to DIBs
are made in this manual by the “base” DIB number
82.5 Effective Date for Implementing only and considered to be the latest version
Revisions to Design Standards available on the Department Design website. See
Revisions to design standards will be issued with a the Department Design website for further
stated effective date. It is understood that all information concerning DIB numbering protocol
projects will be designed to current standards and postings.
unless an exception has been approved in Caution must be exercised when using other
accordance with Index 82.2 or otherwise noted by Caltrans publications, which provide guidelines for
separate Design Memorandum. the design of highway facilities, such as HOV
lanes. These publications do not contain design
standards; moreover, the designs suggested in these
December 16, 2016
publications do not always meet Highway Design

Manual Standards. Therefore, all other Caltrans
publications must be used in conjunction with this
manual.
82.7 Traffic Engineering
The Division of Traffic Operations maintains
engineering policy, standards, practices and study
warrants to direct and guide decision-making on a
broad range of design and traffic engineering
features and systems, which are provided to meet
the site-specific safety and mobility needs of all
highway users.
The infrastructure within a highway or freeway
corridor, segment, intersection or interchange is not
“complete” for drivers, bicyclists and pedestrians
unless it includes the appropriate traffic control
devices; traffic safety systems; operational features
or strategies; and traffic management elements and
or systems. The presence or absence of these
traffic elements and systems can have a profound
effect on safety and operational performance. As
such, they are commonly employed to remediate
performance deficiencies and to optimize the
overall performance of the “built” highway system.
For additional information visit the Division of
Traffic Operations website at
http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/traffops/
December 16, 2016
Table 82.1A
Mandatory Standards
CHAPTER 100 BASIC DESIGN Topic 208 Bridges, Grade Separation
POLICIES Structures, and Structure
Approach Embankment
Topic 101 Design Speed
Index 208.1 Bridge Width(1)
Index 101.1 Technical Reductions of Design
208.4 Bridge Sidewalk (Width)(1)
Speed
208.10 Barriers on Structures with
101.1 Selection of Design Speed - Local
Sidewalks(1)
Facilities(2)
208.10 Bridge Approach Railings(1)
101.1 Selection of Design Speed - Local
Facilities - with Connections to CHAPTER 300 GEOMETRIC CROSS
State Facilities
SECTION
101.2 Design Speed Standards
Topic 301 Traveled Way Standards
Topic 104 Control of Access
Index 301.1 Lane Width
Index 104.4 Protection of Access Rights(1)
301.2 Class II Bikeway Lane Width(1)
CHAPTER 200 GEOMETRIC DESIGN 301.3 Cross Slopes – New Construction
AND STRUCTURE
301.3 Cross Slopes – Resurfacing or
STANDARDS widening
Topic 201 Sight Distance
301.3 Cross Slopes – Unpaved Roadway
Index 201.1 Stopping Sight Distance Standards
301.3 Algebraic Differences in Cross
Topic 202 Superelevation Slopes
Index 202.2 Standards for Superelevation Topic 302 Shoulder Standards
202.7 Superelevation on City Streets and Index 302.1 Shoulder Width
County Roads(2)
302.1 Shoulder Width with Rumble Strip
Topic 203 Horizontal Alignment
302.2 Shoulder Cross Slopes -Bridge
Index 203.1 Horizontal Alignment - Local
302.2 Shoulder Cross Slopes – Left
Facilities(2)
302.2 Shoulder Cross Slopes – Paved
203.1 Horizontal Alignment and Stopping
Median
Sight Distance
302.2 Shoulder Cross Slopes - Right
203.2 Standards for Curvature – Minimum
Radius Topic 305 Median Standards
203.2 Standards for Curvature – Lateral Index 305.1 Median Width – Conventional
Clearance Highways(1)
Topic 204 Grade 305.1 Median Width – Freeways and
Expressways(1)
Index 204.1 Standards for Grade - Local
Facilities(2)
204.3 Standards for Grade(2) (1) Caltrans-only Mandatory Standard.
204.8 Vertical Falsework Clearances(1) (2) Authority to approve deviations from this
Topic 205 Road Connections and Driveways Mandatory Standard is delegated to the District
Director.
Index 205.1 Sight Distance Requirements for
Access Openings on Expressways (3) Authority to approve deviations from this
Mandatory Standard is delegated to the State
Pavement Engineer.
December 16, 2016
Table 82.1A
Mandatory Standards (Cont.)
Topic 307 Cross Sections for State Highways Topic 310 Frontage Roads
Index 307.2 Shoulder Standards for Two-lane Index 310.1 Frontage Road Width Cross Section
(2)
Cross Sections for New
Construction
CHAPTER 400 INTERSECTIONS AT
Topic 308 Cross Sections for Roads Under GRADE
Other Jurisdictions
Topic 404 Design Vehicles
Index 308.1 Cross Section Standards for City
Streets and County Roads without Index 404.2 Design Vehicle–Traveled Way(1)
Connection to State Facilities(2)
Topic 405 Intersection Design Standards
308.1 Minimum Width of 2-lane Over-
crossing Structures for City Streets Index 405.1 Corner Sight Distance – Driver Set
and County Roads without Back
Connection to State Facilities(1), (2) 405.1 Corner Sight Distance at Public
308.1 Cross Section Standards for City Road Intersections
Streets and County Roads with 405.1 Corner Sight Distance at Private
Connection to State Facilities (2) Road Intersections
308.1 Two-Lane Local Road Lane Width 405.2 Left-turn Channelization - Lane
for City Streets and County Roads Width
within Interchange(2)
405.2 Left-turn Channelization - Lane
308.1 Multi-Lane Local Road Lane Width Width – Restricted Urban
for City Streets and County Roads
within Interchange(2) 405.2 Two-way Left-turn Lane Width
308.1 Shoulder Width Standards for City 405.3 Right-turn Channelization – Lane
Streets and County Roads Lateral and Shoulder Width
Obstructions(2)
CHAPTER 500 TRAFFIC
308.1 Shoulder Width Standards for City INTERCHANGES
Streets and County Roads with
Curbs and Gutter(2) Topic 501 General
308.1 Minimum Width for 2-lane Index 501.3 Interchange Spacing(1)

Overcrossing at Interchanges(1), (2) Topic 502 Interchange Types
Topic 309 Clearances Index 502.2 Isolated Off-Ramps and Partial
Index 309.1 Horizontal Clearances and Stopping Interchanges(1)
Sight Distance 502.3 Route Continuity(1)
309.1 Horizontal Clearances(1) Topic 504 Interchange Design Standards
309.2 Vertical Clearances - Major Index 504.2 Location of Freeway Entrances &
Structures Exits(1)
309.2 Vertical Clearances - Minor 504.2 Ramp Deceleration Lane and “DL”
Structures Distance(1)
309.2 Vertical Clearances - Rural and 504.3 Ramp Lane Width
Single Interstate Routing System
(1) Caltrans-only Mandatory Standard.
309.3 Horizontal Tunnel Clearances(1)
(2) Authority to approve deviations from this
309.3 Vertical Tunnel Clearances Mandatory Standard is delegated to the District
309.4 Lateral Clearance for Elevated Director.
Structures(1) (3) Authority to approve deviations from this
309.5 Structures Across or Adjacent to Mandatory Standard is delegated to the State
Railroads - Vertical Clearance Pavement Engineer.
December 16, 2016
Table 82.1A
504.3 Ramp Shoulder Width Topic 625 Engineering Procedures for
Pavement and Roadway
504.3 Ramp Lane Drop Taper Past the
Rehabilitation
Limit Line(1)
Index 625.1 Limits of Paving on Resurfacing
504.3 Metered Multi-Lane Ramp Lane Projects(1), (3)
Drop Taper Past the Limit Line(1)
Topic 626 Other Considerations
504.3 Ramp Meters on Connector
Ramps(1) Index 626.2 Tied Rigid Shoulder Standards(1), (3)
504.3 Lane Drop Transitions on Connector 626.2 Tied Rigid Shoulders or Widened
Ramps(1) Slab Standards(1), (3)
504.3 Distance Between Ramp 626.2 Tied Rigid Shoulders or Widened
Intersection and Local Road Slab at Ramps and Gore
Intersection(1) Standard(1), (3)
504.4 Freeway-to-freeway Connections – CHAPTER 630 FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
Shoulder Width – 1 and 2-Lane
Topic 633 Engineering Procedures for New
504.4 Freeway-to-freeway Connections – & Reconstruction Projects
Shoulder Width – 3-Lane
Index 633.1 Enhancements for Pavement Design
504.7 Minimum Weave Length(1) Life Greater Than 20 Years(1), (3)
504.8 Access Control along Ramps(1) Topic 635 Engineering Procedures for
504.8 Access Control at Ramp Terminal(1) Flexible Pavement and Roadway
Rehabilitation
504.8 Access Rights Opposite Ramp
Terminals(1) Index 635.1 Limits of Paving on Resurfacing
Projects(1), (3)
CHAPTER 610 PAVEMENT
CHAPTER 700 MISCELLANEOUS
ENGINEERING
STANDARDS
CONSIDERATIONS
Topic 701 Fences
Topic 612 Pavement Design Life
Index 701.2 Fences on Freeways and
Index 612.2 Design Life for New Construction Expressways(1)
and Reconstruction(1), (3)
612.3 Pavement Design Life for Widening CHAPTER 900 LANDSCAPE
Projects(1), (3)) ARCHITECTURE
612.5 Pavement Design Life for Pavement Topic 902 Planting Guidelines
Roadway Rehabilitation Projects(1),
(3) Table 902.3 Large Tree Setback Requirements
on Conventional Highways –
Topic 613 Traffic Considerations Median with Curb(1)
Index 613.5 Shoulder Traffic Loading 902.3 Large Tree Setback Requirements
Considerations(1), (3) on Conventional Highways –
Median with Barrier(1)
CHAPTER 620 RIGID PAVEMENT
(1) Caltrans-only Mandatory Standard.
Topic 622 Engineering Requirements
Index 622.4 Dowel Bars and Tie Bars for New or Mandatory Standard is delegated to the District
Reconstructed Rigid Pavements(1), (3) Director.
Index 622.8 Transitions and Terminal Anchors (3) Authority to approve deviations from this
for CRCP(1), (3) Mandatory Standard is delegated to the State
Pavement Engineer.
December 16, 2016
Table 82.1A
902.3 The Planting of Trees From CHAPTER 1100 HIGHWAY TRAFFIC
Manholes on Conventional Highway NOISE ABATEMENT
Medians(1)
Topic 1102 Design Criteria
902.3 The Planting of Trees From the
Longitudinal End of Conventional Index 1102.2 Horizontal Clearance to Noise
Highway Medians(1) Barrier(1)
Topic 903 Safety Roadside Rest Area Design 1102.2 Noise Barrier on Safety Shape
Standards and Guidelines Concrete Barrier(1)
Index 903.5 Rest Area Ramp Design
Topic 904 Vista Point Standards and (1) Caltrans-only Mandatory Standard.
Guidelines
Index 904.3 Vista Point Ramp Design Mandatory Standard is delegated to the District
CHAPTER 1000 BICYCLE Director.
TRANSPORTATION (3) Authority to approve deviations from this
DESIGN Mandatory Standard is delegated to the State
Pavement Engineer.
Topic 1003 Design Criteria
Index 1003.1 Class I Bikeway Widths(1), (2)
1003.1 Class I Bikeway Shoulder Width(1),
(2)
1003.1 Class I Bikeway Horizontal

Clearance(1), (2)
1003.1 Class I Bikeway Structure Width(1),
(2)
1003.1 Class I Bikeway Vertical

Clearance(1), (2)
1003.1 Class I Bikeway Minimum
Separation From Edge of Traveled
Way(1), (2)
1003.1 Physical Barriers Adjacent to Class I
Bikeways(1), (2)
1003.1 Class I Bikeway in Freeway
Medians(1), (2)
1003.1 Class I Bikeway Design Speeds(1), (2)
1003.1 Stopping Sight Distance(2)
1003.1 Bikeway Shoulder Slope(1)(2)
1003.1 Obstacle Posts or Bollards in
Bicycle Paths(1), (2)
December 16, 2016
Table 82.1B
Advisory Standards
CHAPTER 100 BASIC DESIGN Topic 203 Horizontal Alignment
POLICIES Index 203.1 Horizontal Alignment – Local
Facilities
Topic 101 Design Speed
203.3 Alignment Consistency and Design
Index 101.1 Selection of Design Speed – Local
Speed
Facilities
203.5 Compound Curves
101.1 Selection of Design Speed – Local
Facilities – with Connections to 203.5 Compound Curves on One-Way
State Facilities Roads
101.2 Design Speed Standards 203.6 Reversing Curves – Transition
Length
Topic 104 Control of Access
203.6 Reversing Curves – Transition Rate
Index 104.5 Relation of Access Opening to
Median Opening Topic 204 Grade
Topic 105 Pedestrian Facilities Index 204.1 Standards for Grade – Local
Facilities
Index 105.2 Minimum Sidewalk Width – Next to
a Building 204.3 Standards for Grade
105.2 Minimum Sidewalk Width – Not 204.3 Ramp Grades
Next to a Building
204.4 Vertical Curves – 2 Percent and
105.5 New Construction, Two Curb Ramp Greater
Design
204.4 Vertical Curves – Less Than
Topic 107 Roadside Installations 2 Percent
Index 107.1 Standards for Roadway Connections 204.5 Decision Sight Distance at Climbing
Lane Drops
107.1 Number of Exits and Entrances
Allowed at Roadway Connections 204.6 Horizontal and Vertical Curves
Consistency in Mountainous or
CHAPTER 200 GEOMETRIC DESIGN Rolling Terrain
AND STRUCTURE
Topic 205 Road Connections and Driveways
STANDARDS
Index 205.1 Access Opening Spacing on
Topic 201 Sight Distance
Expressways
Index 201.3 Stopping Sight Distance on
205.1 Access Opening Spacing on
Sustained Grades
Expressways – Location
201.7 Decision Sight Distance
Topic 206 Pavement Transitions
Topic 202 Superelevation
Index 206.3 Lane Drop Transitions
Index 202.2 Superelevation on Same Plane for
206.3 Lane Width Reductions
Rural Two-lane Roads
Topic 208 Bridges, Grade Separation
202.5 Superelevation Transition
Structures, and Structure
202.5 Superelevation Runoff Approach Embankment
202.5 Superelevation in Restrictive Index 208.3 Decking of Bridge Medians
Situations
208.6 Minimum Height of Pedestrian
202.6 Superelevation of Compound Undercrossings
Curves
208.6 Class I Bikeways Exclusive Use
202.7 Superelevation on City Streets and
County Roads
May 7, 2012
Table 82.1B
Advisory Standards (Cont.)
208.10 Protective Screening on 309.1 Horizontal Clearance
Overcrossings
309.1 Safety Shaped Barriers at Retaining,
208.10 Bicycle Railing Locations Pier, or Abutment Walls
Topic 210 Earth Retaining Systems 309.1 High Speed Rail Clearance
Index 210.6 Cable Railing 309.5 Structures Across or Adjacent to
Railroads – Vertical Clearance
CHAPTER 300 GEOMETRIC CROSS
SECTION Topic 310 Frontage Roads
Index 310.2 Outer Separation – Urban and
Topic 301 Traveled Way Standards
Mountainous Areas
Index 301.2 Class II Bikeway Lane Width
310.2 Outer Separation – Rural Areas
301.3 Algebraic Differences of Cross
Slopes at Various Locations CHAPTER 400 INTERSECTIONS AT
GRADE
Topic 303 Curbs, Dikes, and Side Gutters
Topic 403 Principles of Channelization
303.1 Use of Curb with Posted Speeds of
40 mph and Greater Index 403.3 Angle of Intersection
303.3 Dike Selection 403.6 Optional Right-Turn Lanes
303.4 Bulbout Design 403.6 Right-Turn-Only Lane and Bike
Lane
303.4 Bulbouts at Mid-block locations
Topic 404 Design Vehicles and Related
303.4 Curb Face Setback at Bulbouts
Definitions
Topic 304 Side Slopes Index 404.4 STAA Design Vehicles on the
Index 304.1 Side Slopes 4:1 or Flatter National Network, Terminal Access,
California Legal, and Advisory
304.1 18 ft Minimum Catch Distance routes
Topic 305 Median Standards 404.4 California Legal Design Vehicle
Index 305.1 Median Width Freeways and Accommodation
Expressways – Urban 404.4 45-Foot Bus and Motorhome Design
305.1 Median Width Freeways and Vehicle
Expressways – Rural Topic 405 Intersection Design Standards
305.1 Median Width Conventional Index 405.1 Corner Sight Distance at
Highways – Urban and Rural Main Unsignalized Public Road
Streets Intersections
305.1 Median Width Conventional 405.1 Decision Sight Distance at
Highways – Climbing or Passing Intersections
Lanes
405.4 Pedestrian Refuge by Area Place
305.2 Median Cross Slopes Type
Topic 308 Cross Sections for Roads Under 405.5 Emergency Openings and Sight
Other Jurisdictions Distance
Index 308.1 Cross Section Standards for City 405.5 Median Opening Locations
Streets and County Roads without
Connection to State Facilities 405.10 Entry Speeds – Single and Multilane
Roundabouts
Topic 309 Clearances
Index 309.1 Clear Recovery Zone
309.1 Discretionary Fixed Objects
December 16, 2016
Table 82.1B
CHAPTER 500 TRAFFIC 504.3 Metered Multi-Lane Entrance
INTERCHANGES Ramps Auxiliary Lane on Sustained
Grades and Certain Truck Volumes
Topic 504 Interchange Design Standards
504.3 Ramp Terminals and Grade
Index 504.2 Ramp Entrance and Exit Standards
504.3 Ramp Terminals and Sight Distance
504.2 Collector-Distributor Deceleration
504.3 Distance between Ramp Intersection
Lane and “DL” Distance
and Local Road Intersection
504.2 Paved Width at Gore
504.3 Entrance Ramp Lane Drop
504.2 Contrasting Surface Treatment
504.3 Single-Lane Ramp Widening for
504.2 Auxiliary Lanes Passing
504.2 Freeway Exit Nose Design Speed 504.3 Two-lane Exit Ramps
504.2 Decision Sight Distance at Exits and 504.3 Two-lane Exit Ramps and Auxiliary
Branch Connections Lanes
504.2 Design Speed and Alignment 504.3 Distance Between Successive On-
Consistency at Inlet Nose ramps
504.2 Freeway Ramp Profile Grades 504.3 Distance Between Successive Exits
504.2 Differences in Pavement Cross 504.4 Freeway-to-freeway Connections
Slopes at Freeway Entrances and Design Speed
Exits
504.4 Profile Grades on Freeway-to-
504.2 Vertical Curves Beyond Freeway freeway Connectors
Exit Nose
504.4 Single-lane Freeway-to-freeway
504.2 Crest Vertical Curves at Freeway Connector Design
Exit Terminal
504.4 Single-lane Connector Widening for
504.2 Sag Vertical Curves at Freeway Exit Passing
Terminal
504.4 Volumes Requiring Branch
504.2 Ascending Entrance Ramps with Connectors
Sustained Upgrades
504.4 Merging Branch Connector Design
504.3 Ramp Terminus Design Speed
504.4 Diverging Branch Connector Design
504.3 Ramp Lane Drop Taper At 6-foot
504.4 Merging Branch Connector
Separation Point
Auxiliary Lanes
504.3 Ramp Lane Drop Location
504.4 Diverging Branch Connector
504.3 Metered Entrance Ramps (1 GP + Auxiliary Lanes
1 HOV Preferential Lane) Auxiliary
504.4 Freeway-to-freeway Connector Lane
Lane
Drop Taper
504.3 Metered Entrance Ramps (1 GP +
504.6 Mainline Lane Reduction at
1 HOV Preferential Lane) Auxiliary
Interchanges
Lane on Sustained Grades and
Certain Truck Volumes 504.8 Access Control at Ramp Terminal
504.3 HOV Preferential Lane Restrictive CHAPTER 610 PAVEMENT
Condition Auxiliary Lane
ENGINEERING
504.3 Metered Multi-Lane Entrance CONSIDERATIONS
Ramps Lane Drop
Topic 612 Pavement Design Life
504.3 Metered Multi-Lane Entrance
Ramps Auxiliary Lane
December 16, 2016
Table 82.1B
Index 612.6 Traffic Loading for Temporary CHAPTER 1000 BICYCLE
Pavements and Detours TRANSPORTATION
CHAPTER 620 RIGID PAVEMENT DESIGN
Topic 625 Engineering Procedures for Topic 1003 Bikeway Design Criteria
Pavement and Roadway Index 1003.1 Class I Bikeway Horizontal
Rehabilitation Clearance
Index 625.1 Repair of Existing Pavement
1003.1 Class I Bikeway in State Highway
Distresses
or Local Road Medians
CHAPTER 630 FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
Topic 635 Engineering Procedures for
Flexible Pavement and Roadway
Rehabilitation
Distresses
CHAPTER 640 COMPOSITE

PAVEMENTS
Topic 645 Engineering Procedures for
Rehabilitation
Distresses
CHAPTER 700 MISCELLANEOUS

STANDARDS
Topic 701 Fences
Index 701.2 Fences on Freeways and
Expressways
CHAPTER 900 LANDSCAPE

ARCHITECTURE
Topic 902 Planting Guidance
Index 902.2 Clear Recovery Zone Planting of
Large Trees on Freeways and
Expressways, Including
Interchanges
902.2 Minimum Tree Setback
Table 902.3 Large Tree Setback Requirements
on Conventional Highways -
Roadside
Topic 904 Vista Point Standards and
Guidelines
Index 904.3 Road Connections to Vista Points
December 16, 2016
Table 82.1C
Decision Requiring Other Approvals
CHAPTER 100 BASIC DESIGN Topic 208.10 Bridge Barriers and Railing
POLICIES Index 208.10 Barrier Separation and Bridge Rail
Selection
Topic 103 Design Designation
208.10 Concrete Barrier Type 80
Index 103.2 Design Period
208.10 Concrete Barrier Type 80SW
Topic 108 Coordination With Other
Agencies 208.11 Deviations from Foundation and
Embankment Recommendations
Index 108.2 Transit Loading Facilities –
Location 210.4 Cost Reduction Incentive Proposals
108.2 Transit Loading Facilities - ADA CHAPTER 300 GEOMETRIC CROSS
108.3 Rail Crossings* SECTION
108.3 Parallel Rail Facilities* Topic 303 Curbs, Dikes, and Side Gutters
108.5 Bus Rapid Transit – Location and Index 303.4 Busbulbs
ADA
Topic 304 Side Slopes
108.7 Coordination With the FHWA -
Approvals Index 304.1 Side Slopes – Erosion Control
304.1 Side Slopes – Structural Integrity
Topic 110 Special Considerations
Index 110.1 Overload Category 309.2 Vertical Clearance on National
Highway System
110.8 Safety Review Items and Employee
Exposure 309.2 Vertical Clearance Above Railroad
Facilities
110.10 Proprietary Items
309.5 Horizontal and Vertical Clearances
110.10 Proprietary Items – On Structure at Railroad Structures
110.10 Proprietary Items – National CHAPTER 500 TRAFFIC
Highway System INTERCHANGES
Topic 111 Material Sites and Disposal Sites
Topic 502 Interchange Types
Index 111.1 Mandatory Material Sites on
Index 502.2 Single Point Interchange
Federal-aid Projects
Interchanges
111.6 Mandatory Material Sites and
502.2 Other Types of Interchanges
Disposal Sites on Federal-aid
Projects Topic 503 Interchange Procedure
Topic 116 Bicyclists and Pedestrians on Index 503.2 Interchange Geometrics
Freeway
Topic 504 Interchange Design Standards
Index 116 Bicycles and Pedestrians on
Freeways Index 504.3 HOV Preferential Lane
504.3 Modification to Existing HOV
CHAPTER 200 GEOMETRIC DESIGN Preferential Lanes
AND STRUCTURE
504.3 Enforcement Areas and
STANDARDS
Maintenance Pullouts – Required
Topic 204 Grade Enforcement Area
Index 204.8 Grade Line of Structures – 504.3 Enforcement Areas and
Temporary Vertical Clearances Maintenance Pullouts – Removal
Topic 205 Road Connections and Driveways
Index 205.1 Conversion of a Private Opening * Authority to approve deviations from this “Decision
Requirement” is delegated to the District Director.
December 16, 2016
Table 82.1C
Decision Requiring Other Approvals (Cont.)
504.3 Enforcement Areas and CHAPTER 800 HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
Maintenance Pullouts - Length DESIGN
504.6 Mainline Lane Reduction
Topic 805 Preliminary Plans
CHAPTER 600 PAVEMENT Index 805.1 Requires FHWA Approval
ENGINEERING
805.2 Bridge Preliminary Report
Topic 604 Roles and Responsibilities for
805.4 Unusual Hydraulic Structures
Pavement Engineering
Index 604.2 Standard Plans 805.5 Levees and Dams Formed by
Highway Fills
604.2 Supplemental District Standards
805.6 Geotechnical
Topic 606 Research and Special Designs
Topic 808 Selected Computer Programs
Index 606.1 Research and Experimentation –
Pilot Projects Index 808.1 Table 808.1
606.1 Research and Experimentation – CHAPTER 820 CROSS DRAINAGE

Special Designs Topic 829 Other Considerations
CHAPTER 610 PAVEMENT Index 829.9 Dams
ENGINEERING
CONSIDERATIONS CHAPTER 830 TRANSPORTATION
FACILITY DRAINAGE
Topic 837 Inlet Design
Index 614.6 Compaction
Index 837.2 Inlet Types
CHAPTER 620 RIGID PAVEMENT
CHAPTER 850 PHYSICAL STANDARDS
Topic 853 Pipe Liners and Linings for
Index 626.2 Shoulder – Widened Slab Culvert Rehabilitation
CHAPTER 700 MISCELLANEOUS Index 853.4 Alternative Pipe Liner Materials
STANDARDS CHAPTER 870 CHANNEL AND SHORE
Topic 701 Fences PROTECTION –
Index 701.1 Fence Type and Location EROSION CONTROL
701.2 Locked Gates - Maintenance Force Topic 872 Planning and Location Studies
Use Index 872.3 Site Consideration
701.2 Locked Gates - Used by Utility Topic 873 Design Concepts
Companies*
Index 873.1 Introduction
701.2 Locked Gates - Used by Other
Public Agencies or by Non-Utility 873.3 Armor Protection
Entities – FHWA Approval
Required on Interstates CHAPTER 900 LANDSCAPE
ARCHITECTURE
Topic 706 Roadside Treatment
Topic 901 General
Index 706.2 Vegetation Control
Index 901.1 Landscape Architecture Program -
Approvals
* Authority to approve deviations from this “Decision
December 16, 2016
Table 82.1C
Decision Requiring Other Approvals (Cont.)
Topic 902 Planting Guidelines
Index 902.3 Plant Selection, Setback and
Spacing
Table 902.3 Large Tree Setback Requirements
on Conventional Highway Medians
in Main Street Context
Table 902.3 Planting of Large Trees on
Conventional Highway Medians –
With Barrier and Posted Speed
Greater Than 45mph
Topic 903 Safety Roadside Rest Areas
Standards and Guidelines
Index 903.1 Deviation From Minimum Standard
903.6 Wastewater Disposal
Topic 904 Vista Point Standards and
Guidelines
Index 904.1 Site Selection
904.3 Sanitary Facilities
Topic 905 Park and Ride Standards and
Guidelines
Index 905.1 Site Selection
CHAPTER 1000 BICYCLE

TRANSPORTATION
DESIGN
Topic 1003 Miscellaneous Criteria
Index 1003.5 Bicycle Path at Railroad Crossings
CHAPTER 1100 HIGHWAY TRAFFIC

NOISE ABATEMENT
Topic 1101 General Requirements
Index 1101.2 Objective – Extraordinary
Abatement
* Authority to approve deviations from this “Decision

December 30, 2015
Where a reason for limiting speed is obvious

CHAPTER 100 to approaching drivers or bicyclists, these
BASIC DESIGN POLICIES users are more apt to accept a lower operating
speed than where there is no apparent reason
Topic 101 - Design Speed for it.
(2) Selection. Selecting the design speed for a
Index 101.1 - Highway Design Speed highway is part of the Project Development
(1) General. Highway design speed is defined as: Team process. See the Project Development
"a speed selected to establish specific Procedures Manual for additional guidance.
minimum geometric design elements for a (a) Considerations--The chosen design speed,
particular section of highway". These design for a highway segment or project, needs to
elements include vertical and horizontal take into consideration the following:
alignment, and sight distance. Other features
such as widths of pavement and shoulders, • The selected design speed should be
horizontal clearances, etc., are generally not consistent with the operating speeds
directly related to highway design speed. that are likely to be expected on a
given highway facility. Drivers and
A highway carrying a higher volume of traffic bicyclists adjust their speed based on
may justify a higher design speed than a lower their perception of the physical
classification facility in similar topography, limitations of the highway and its
particularly where the savings in user vehicular and bicycle traffic. In
operation and other costs are sufficient to addition, bicycling and walking can
offset the increased cost of right of way and be encouraged when bicyclists and
construction. A lower design speed, however, pedestrians perceive an increase in
should not be assumed for a secondary road safety due to lower vehicular speeds.
where the topography is such that drivers are
likely to travel at higher speeds. • In California the majority of State
highway projects modify existing
It is preferable that the design speed for any facilities. When modifying existing
section of highway be a constant value. facilities, the design speed selected
However, during the detailed design phase of should reflect the observed motor
a project, situations may arise in which vehicle speed (operating speed) or the
engineering, economic, environmental, or anticipated operating speed upon
other considerations make it impractical to completion of modifications.
provide the minimum elements for other Generally the posted speed is a
design standards (e.g., curve radius, stopping reliable indicator of operating speed
sight distance, etc.) established by the design although operating speeds frequently
speed. See Topic 82 for documenting exceed posted speeds. Speed limits
localized exceptions to features preventing the and speed zones are discussed in
standard design speed. Chapter 2 of the California MUTCD,
The cost to correct such restrictions may not which include references to the
be justified. Technically, this will result in a California Vehicle Code.
reduction in the effective design speed at the For existing limited access highways
location in question. Such technical and conventional highways in rural
reductions in design speed shall be areas other than Main Streets, the
discussed with and documented as required selected design speed for these
by the District approval authority or higher-speed facilities typically is
Project Delivery Coordinator depending 15 to 20 mph higher than the observed
upon the current District Design Delegation motor vehicle speed (operating
Agreement. speed).
December 30, 2015
For existing lower-speed conventional account by the Project Development

highways in urban areas and rural Team.
highways that are Main Streets with
Consideration should also be given
observed or proposed operating
to Local Agency standards and
speeds of 45 mph or less, the design
transportation plans for the facility
speed should be selected to be
when selecting the design speed.
consistent with the highway context
which may discourage high-speed (2) Local Streets or Roads. Local
operating behavior. Select a design streets or roads within the State
speed that is logical with respect to right of way, including facilities
topography, operating speed (or which will be relinquished after
anticipated operating speed if the construction (such as frontage
corridor is being redesigned and the roads), shall have minimum design
physical characteristics of the speeds conforming to AASHTO
highway are being changed), adjacent standards, as per the functional
land use, design volumes for all users, classification of the facility in
collision history, access control, and question. If the local agency having
facility type. jurisdiction over the facility in
question maintains design standards
• On projects where posted speeds or that exceed AASHTO standards,
observational data is not available, the then the local agency standards
choice of design speed is influenced should apply.
principally by whether the area is
rural or urban, the character of terrain, Where the local facility connects to
economic considerations, a freeway or expressway (such as
environmental factors, type and ramp terminal intersections), the
anticipated volume of vehicular design speed of the local facility
traffic, presence of non-motorized shall be a minimum of 35 miles per
traffic, functional classification of the hour. However, the design speed
highway, existing and planned should be 45 miles per hour when
adjacent land use. A highway in level feasible.
or rolling terrain justifies a higher Every effort should be made to avoid
design speed than one in mountainous decreasing the design speed of a
terrain. As discussed under Topic local facility through the State's right
109, scenic values are also a of way, and all due consideration
consideration in the selection of a should be given to local plans to
design speed. upgrade or improve the facility in the
(b) Freeways and Expressways--In addition to near future.
the considerations above, as high a design
101.2 Highway Design Speed Standards
speed as feasible should be selected for
use on freeways and expressways, which Table 101.2 shows appropriate ranges of design
are higher-speed facilities. speeds that shall be used for the various types of
facilities, place types, and conditions listed. For
(c) Conventional Highways
additional guidance, see Index 101.1(2).
(1) State Highways. In addition to the
considerations above, the existing
and planned highway context in
terms of area place type, land use,
types of users, etc. influence the
selection of the appropriate design
speed and should be taken into
September 22, 2014
Table 101.2 Topic 102 - Design Capacity &

Vehicular Design Speed Level of Service
Facility Type Design Speed 102.1 Design Capacity (Automobiles)
(mph) Design capacity (automobiles) is the maximum
LIMITED ACCESS HIGHWAYS volume of vehicle traffic for which a projected
highway can provide a selected level of service.
Freeways and expressways in 50-80 Design capacity varies with a number of factors,
mountainous terrain including:
Freeways in urban areas 55-80
Freeways and expressways in 70-80 (a) Level of service selected.
rural areas (b) Width of lanes.
Expressways in urban areas 50-70
(c) Number of lanes.
CONVENTIONAL HIGHWAYS (2)
(d) Presence or absence of shoulders.
Rural
Flat terrain 55-70 (e) Grades.
Rolling terrain 50-60 (f) Horizontal alignment.
Mountainous terrain 40-50
Main Streets – Cities, Towns, 30-40 (g) Operating speed.
and Community Centers (h) Lateral clearance.
Urban (i) Side friction generated by parking, drive ways,
Arterials - Throughways 40-60 intersections, and interchanges.
Arterials - Main Streets and 30-40
(j) Volumes of trucks, transit, recreational
Regional/Community
vehicles, bicycles and pedestrians.
Centers
Downtowns and City Centers 30 (k) Spacing and timing of traffic signals, and the
LOCAL FACILITIES required timing to accommodate pedestrian
(Within State right of way) crossing
Facilities crossing a freeway or AASHTO (1) Level of Service (LOS) is largely related to speed
expressway, connecting to a and density among many variables. Freeways
conventional highway or should be designed to accommodate the design
traversing a State facility year peak hour traffic volumes and to operate at a
Facilities connecting to a 35M/45A LOS determined by District Planning and/or Traffic
freeway or expressway Operations. For a rough approximation of the
M=Mandatory number of lanes required on a multilane freeway,
A=Advisory use the following design year peak hour traffic
volumes per lane at the specified LOS:
(1) If outside of State right of way and no specific local
standards apply, the minimum design speed shall be Level Design Year Peak Hour
30 miles per hour. of Vehicle Traffic Volume
(2) For conventional highways eligible or designated as Service (Average Automobiles Per
State scenic highways, see Index 109.2 Lane Per Hour)
Urban C-E 1400-2400
Rural C-D 1000-1850
December 30, 2015
For conventional highways and expressways, establishing design requirements for the
District Planning and Traffic Operations should be project, this information is used by the
consulted. Resident Engineer during construction to
determine which clauses in the Standard
Automobile traffic volumes can be adjusted for the
Specifications apply to the project.
effect of grades and the mix of automobiles, trucks,
and recreational vehicles if a more refined DHV -- The two-way design hourly volume,
calculation is desired. In those cases, consult the vehicles.
"Highway Capacity Manual", published by the
D -- The percentage of the DHV in the
Transportation Research Board.
direction of heavier flow.
102.2 Design Capacity and Quality of ESAL -- The equivalent single axle loads
Service (Pedestrians and Bicycles) forecasted for pavement engineering. See
Sidewalks are to accommodate pedestrians at a Topic 613.
Level of Service (LOS) equal to that of vehicles T -- The truck traffic volume expressed as a
using the roadway, or better. More detailed percent of the DHV (excluding recreational
guidance on design capacity for sidewalks is vehicles).
available in the “Highway Capacity Manual”
(HCM), published by the Transportation Research TI20 -- Traffic Index used for pavement
Board. The HCM also has guidance regarding engineering. The number in the subscript is
LOS for bicycle facilities for both on- and off– the pavement design life used for pavement
street applications. The LOS for on-street bicycle design. See Index 613.3(3).
facilities should be equal to that of vehicles using V -- Design speed in miles per hour.
the roadway or better. The design of off-street
bicycle facilities can use the LOS methodology in Within a project, one design designation should be
the HCM when conditions justify deviations from used except when:
the standards in Chapter 1000. (a) The design hourly traffic warrants a change in
the number of lanes, or
Topic 103 - Design Designation
(b) A change in conditions dictates a change in
103.1 Relation to Design design speed.
The design designation is a simple, concise (c) The design daily truck traffic warrants a change
expression of the basic factors controlling the in the Traffic Index.
design of a given highway. Following is an The design designation should be stated in Project
example of this expression: Initiation Documents and Project Reports and
ADT (2015) = 9800 D = 60% should appear on the typical cross section for all
new, reconstructed, or rehabilitation (including
ADT (2035) = 20 000 T = 12%
Capital Preventative Maintenance) highway
DHV = 3000 V = 70 mph construction projects.
ESAL = 4 500 000 TI20 = 11.0
103.2 Design Period
CLIMATE REGION = Desert
Geometric design of new facilities and
The notation above is explained as follows: reconstruction projects should normally be based
ADT (2015) -- The average daily traffic, in on estimated traffic 20 years after completion of
number of vehicles, for the construction year. construction. With justification, design periods
other than 20 years may be approved by the District
ADT (2035) -- The average daily traffic for the Director with concurrence by the Project Delivery
future year used as a target in design. Coordinator.
CLIMATE REGION -- Climate Region as For roundabout design period guidance, see Index
defined in Topic 615. In addition to 405.10.
September 22, 2014
Safety, Resurfacing, Restoration, and Rehabilita- 104.3 Frontage Roads

tion (RRR), and operational improvement projects
should be designed on the basis of current ADT. (1) General Policy.
Complimentary to the design period, various (a) Purpose--Frontage roads are provided on
components of a project (e.g., drainage facilities, freeways and expressways to:
structures, pavement structure, etc.) have a design • Control access to the through lanes,
life that may differ from the design period. For thus increasing safety for traffic.
pavement design life requirements, see Topic 612.
• Provide access to abutting land
Topic 104 - Control of Access ownerships.
• Provide or restore continuity of the
104.1 General Policy local street or road systems.
Control of access is achieved by acquiring rights of
• Provide for bicycle and pedestrian
access to the highway from abutting property
traffic that might otherwise need to
owners and by permitting ingress and egress only at
use the freeway.
locations determined by the State.
(b) Economic Considerations--In general, a
On freeways, direct access from private property to
frontage road is justified on freeways and
the highway is prohibited without exception.
expressways if the costs of constructing
Abutting ownerships are served by frontage roads
the frontage road are less than the costs of
or streets connected to interchanges.
providing access by other means. Right
104.2 Access Openings of way considerations often are a
determining factor. Thus, a frontage road
See Index 205.1 for the definition and criteria for would be justified if the investment in
location of access openings. The number of access construction and extra right of way is less
openings on highways with access control should than either the severance damages or the
be held to a minimum. (Private property access costs of acquiring the affected property in
openings on freeways are not allowed.) Parcels its entirety. Frontage roads may be
which have access to another public road or street required to connect parts of a severed
as well as frontage on the expressway are not property or to serve a landlocked parcel
allowed access to the expressway. In some resulting from right of way acquisition.
instances, parcels fronting only on the expressway
may be given access to another public road or street (c) Access Openings--Direct access to the
by constructing suitable connections if such access through lanes is allowable on
can be provided at reasonable cost. expressways. When the number of access
openings on one side of the expressway
With the exception of extensive highway frontages, exceeds three in 1,600 feet, a frontage
access openings to an expressway are limited to road should be provided (see Index
one opening per parcel. Wherever possible, one 104.2).
opening should serve two or more parcels. In the
case of a large highway frontage under one (2) New Alignment. Frontage roads generally are
ownership, the cost of limiting access to one not provided on freeways or expressways on
opening may be prohibitive, or the property may be new alignment since the abutting property
divided by a natural barrier such as a stream or owners never had legal right of access to the
ridge, making it necessary to provide an additional new facility. They may be provided, however,
opening. In the latter case, it may be preferable to on the basis of considerations mentioned in
connect the physically separated portions with a (1) above.
low-cost structure or road rather than permit two (3) Existing Alignment. Where a freeway or
openings. expressway is developed parallel to an
existing highway or local street, all or part of
the existing roadway often is retained as a
September 22, 2014
frontage road. In such cases, if access to 104.6 Maintaining Local Community

remainders of land on the side of the freeway Access
or expressway right of way opposite the old
road cannot be provided by other means, a When planning and designing a new freeway or
frontage road must be constructed to serve the expressway, the designer needs to consider the
landlocked remainders or the remainders must impacts of an access controlled facility on the local
be purchased outright. The decision whether community. Closing non-expressway local road
to provide access or purchase should be based connections may negatively impact access for
on considerations of cost, right of way pedestrians, bicyclists and equestrians. A new
impacts, street system continuity and similar facility may inadvertently sever local non-
factors (see (1) above). motorized access creating long out of direction
travel. Designers need to coordinate with local
(4) Railroad Crossings. Frontage roads on one or agencies for access needs across an access
both sides of a freeway or expressway on new controlled facility.
alignment, owing to safety and cost
considerations, frequently are terminated at 104.7 Cross References
the railroad right of way. When terminating a (a) Access Control at Intersections at Grade (see
frontage road at the railroad crossing, bicycle Index 405.6).
and pedestrian traffic still needs to have
reasonable access through the community. (b) Access Control at Interchanges (see
Index 504.8).
Any new railroad grade crossings and grade
separations, and any relocations or alterations Topic 105 - Pedestrian Facilities
of existing crossings must be cleared with the
railroad and approved by the PUC. 105.1 General Policy
(5) Frontage Roads Financed by Others. The California Vehicle Code Section 21949 has
Frontage roads which are not a State stated a policy for the Department to provide safe
responsibility under this policy may be built and convenient travel for pedestrians. Conventional
by the State upon request of a local political highways can be used by pedestrians. Although the
subdivision, a private agency, or an Department will work to provide safe and
individual. Such a project must be covered by convenient pedestrian travel on these highways, not
an agreement under which the State is all of these highways will contain sidewalks and
reimbursed for all construction, right of way, walkways. Connections between different modes
and engineering costs involved. of travel should be considered when designing
highway facilities, as all people may become
104.4 Protection of Access Rights pedestrians when transferring to a transit based
For proper control of acquired access rights, facility. Pedestrian use near transit facilities should
fencing or other approved barriers shall be be considered during the planning phase of
installed on all controlled access highways transportation improvement projects. See DIB 82
except as provided in Index 701.2(3)(e). for accessibility guidance of pedestrian facilities.
See also Topics 115 and 116 for guidance
104.5 Relation of Access Opening to a regarding designing for bicycle traffic.
Median Opening
105.2 Sidewalks and Walkways
Access openings should not be placed within
300 feet of a median opening unless the access The design of sidewalks and walkways varies
opening is directly opposite the median opening. depending on the setting, standards, and
requirements of local agencies. Sidewalks are
Details on access openings are given under desirable on conventional highways and on other
Index 205.1. areas of State highway right of way to serve
pedestrians when warranted by sufficient
population, density and development.
September 22, 2014
Coordination with the local agency that the State roadside and land development conditions are such
highway passes through is needed to determine the that pedestrians regularly move along a highway,
appropriate time to provide sidewalks. those pedestrians should be furnished with a
sidewalk or other walkway, as is suitable to the
Most local agencies in California have adopted
conditions. Sidewalks are typically within public
varying design standards for urban and rural areas,
right of way of the local agency or the State. When
as well as more specific requirements that are
within the State highway right of way, the need for
applicable to residential settings, downtowns,
sidewalks becomes a shared interest, since the
special districts, and other place types. These
zoning, planned development, and growth are
standards are typically tied to zoning requirements
under the local agency’s purview. The State may
for land use established by local agencies. These
assume financial responsibility for the construction
land use decisions should take into account the
of sidewalks and walkways under the conditions
ultimate need for public right of way, including the
described below. See the Project Development
transportation needs of bicyclists and pedestrians.
Procedures Manual for further discussion of the
The minimum width of a sidewalk should be 8 feet
State's responsibility in providing pedestrian
between a curb and a building when in urban and
facilities.
rural main street place types. For all other
locations the minimum width of sidewalk should be (1) Replacement in Kind. Where existing
6 feet when contiguous to a curb or 5 feet when sidewalks are to be disturbed by highway
separated by a planting strip. Sidewalk width does construction, the replacement applies only to
not include curbs. See Index 208.4 for bridge the frontages involved and no other sidewalk
sidewalks. Using the minimum width may not be construction is authorized except:
enough to satisfy the actual need if additional width
(a) As part of a right of way agreement.
is necessary to maintain an acceptable Level of
Service (LOS) for pedestrians. Note that street (b) Where the safety or capacity of the
furniture, buildings, utility poles, light fixtures and highway will be improved.
platoon generators, such as window displays and (2) Conventional Highways. The roadway cross
bus stops, can reduce the effective width of section usually provides areas for pedestrians.
sidewalks and likewise the LOS of the walkway. If the safety or capacity of the highway will be
Also, adequate width for curb ramps and driveways improved, the State may contribute towards
are other important accessibility considerations. the cost of building a pedestrian facility with a
See Index 205.3(6) and the Standard Plans for local agency project or fund it entirely with a
sidewalk requirements at driveways. State highway project. The city, county, or
property owner whose adjacent development
See Index 208.6 for information on pedestrian
generated the pedestrian traffic may build
overcrossings and undercrossings and Index 208.4
sidewalks on State right of way under a permit
for sidewalks on bridges.
in accordance with the route concept report.
“A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and
(3) Freeway and other Controlled Access
Streets”, issued by AASHTO, and the “Highway
Facilities. Sidewalks should be built across
Capacity Manual”, published by the Transportation
the freeway right of way on overcrossings and
Research Board contain pedestrian LOS criteria.
through undercrossings where necessary to
These are means of measuring the ability of the
connect with existing or planned sidewalks.
existing pedestrian facilities to provide pedestrian
Construction of planned sidewalks should be
mobility and to determine the need for
imminent. Within the foregoing criteria,
improvements or expansions. If adequate capacity
sidewalks can be part of the original project or
is not provided, pedestrian mobility may be
added later when the surrounding area
seriously impeded.
develops.
Traffic volume-pedestrian warrants for sidewalks
(4) Overcrossing and Undercrossing Approaches.
or other types of walkways along highways have
Where sidewalks are planned on overcrossing
not been established. In general, whenever the
September 22, 2014
structures or under a structure, an area should 105.3 Pedestrian Grade Separations

be provided to accommodate future sidewalks.
(1) Pedestrian grade separation takes the form of
(5) School Pedestrian Walkways. School pedestrian overcrossings or undercrossings.
pedestrian walkways may be identified along These grade separations are suitable for
a route used by school pedestrians that is not crossing freeways, rivers, railroads, canyons
limited to crossing locations, but includes and other obstacles for which no other
where physical conditions require students to crossing opportunities exist.
walk in or along rural or suburban roadways.
See Index 208.6 for design guidance for
(6) Frontage Roads. Sidewalks may be built pedestrian and bicycle overcrossings and
along frontage roads connecting local streets undercrossings.
that would otherwise dead end at the
freeways. Such sidewalks can be new or The need for a pedestrian grade separation is
replacements of existing facilities. Sidewalks based on a study of the present and future
may not be needed on the freeway side of needs of a particular area or community. Each
frontage roads except where connections must situation should be investigated and
be made to pedestrian separations or other considered on its own merits. The study
connections where appropriate. should cover pedestrian generating sources in
the area, pedestrian crossing volumes, type of
(7) Separated Cross Streets. Sidewalks may be highway to be crossed, location of adjacent
built on separated cross streets where crossing facilities, circuity, zoning, land use,
reconstruction of the cross street is made sociological and cultural factors, and the
necessary by the freeway project and where predominant age of persons expected to utilize
the criteria of paragraph (3) above apply. the facility.
(8) Transit Stops. Sidewalks should be built to Pedestrian patterns should be maintained
connect transit stops to local streets. across freeway routes where these patterns
(9) Vehicular Tunnels. Sidewalks and pedestrian have been previously established. Where
facilities may be built as part of vehicular vehicular crossings are inadequate for
tunnels which do not require ventilation as pedestrians, separate structures should be
part of the tunnel structure. Contact the provided. In general, if a circuitous route is
Division of Engineering Services - Structure involved, a pedestrian separation may be
Design (DES-SD), regarding allowable justified even though the number of
conditions. pedestrians is small.
(10) Maintenance. The State is responsible for State participation in the financing of
maintaining and replacing damaged sidewalks pedestrian separations at ramp terminals is not
within the right of way except: normally justified because of the crash history
at these locations. Exceptions to this general
(a) Where the sidewalk was placed by a policy should be considered only in special
private party under encroachment permit circumstances where no less expensive
that requires the permittee to maintain the alternative is feasible.
sidewalk, but only if the original permittee
still owns the abutting property. Where a pedestrian grade separation is
justified, an overcrossing is preferred.
(b) Where the city or county has placed Undercrossings tend to provide less visibility
nonstandard sidewalks with colored or which provides more opportunities for
textured surfaces, or meandering align- vandalism and criminal activity.
ment. See Maintenance Manual for addi- Consideration may be given to an
tional discussion on State's maintenance undercrossing when specifically requested in
responsibilities regarding sidewalks. writing by a local agency. Unobstructed
visibility should be provided through the
structure and approaches.
September 22, 2014
See Index 105.4 for discussion of provisions with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) which
for persons with disabilities. was enacted by the Federal Government and
took effect on January 26, 1992, and Section
(2) Financing.
4450 of the California Government Code.
(a) Freeways--Where the pedestrian grade
(a) Americans with Disabilities Act
separation is justified prior to award of the
Highlights.
freeway contract, the State should pay the
full cost of the pedestrian facility. In • Title II of the ADA prohibits
some cases, construction of the separation discrimination on the basis of
may be deferred; however, where the need disability by state and local
has been established to the satisfaction of governments (public entities). This
the Department prior to award of the means that a public entity may not
freeway contract, the State should pay the deny the benefits of its programs,
entire cost of the separation. activities and services to individuals
Local jurisdictions have control (by with disabilities because its facilities
zoning and planning) of development that are inaccessible. A public entity’s
influences pedestrian traffic patterns. services, programs, or activities, when
Therefore, where a pedestrian grade viewed in their entirety, must be
separation is justified after the award of a readily accessible to and usable by
freeway contract, the State's share of the individuals with disabilities. This
total construction cost of the separation standard, known as “program accessi-
should not exceed 50 percent. The State bility,” applies to all existing facilities
must enter into a cooperative agreement of a public entity.
with the local jurisdiction on this basis. • Public entities are not necessarily
(b) Conventional Highways--Grade separa- required to make each of their existing
tions are not normally provided for either facilities accessible. Public entities
cars or pedestrians on conventional may achieve program accessibility by
highways. However, in those rare cases a number of methods (e.g., providing
where pedestrian use is extensive, where it transit as opposed to structurally
has been determined that placement and accessible pedestrian facilities).
configuration of the grade separation will However, in many situations,
result in the majority of pedestrians using providing access to facilities through
it, and where the local agency has structural methods, such as alteration
requested in writing that a pedestrian of existing facilities and acquisition or
separation be constructed, an overcrossing construction of additional facilities,
may be considered. The State's share of may be the most efficient method of
the total construction cost of the providing program accessibility.
pedestrian facility should not exceed • Where structural modifications are
50 percent. The State must enter into a required to achieve program accessi-
cooperative agreement with the local bility, a public entity with 50 or more
jurisdiction on this basis. employees is required to develop a
105.4 Accessibility Requirements transition plan setting forth the steps
necessary to complete such
(1) Background. modifications.
The requirement to provide equivalent access • In compliance with the ADA, Title 28
to facilities for all individuals, regardless of of the Code of Federal regulations
disability, is stated in several laws adopted at (CFR) Part 35 identifies all public
both the State and Federal level. Two of the entities to be subject to the
most notable references are The Americans requirements for ADA regardless of
December 16, 2016
funding source. It further states that should be discussed with the District
the Uniform Federal Accessibility Design Liaison for the application of DIB
Standards (UFAS) and the Americans 82, the guidance of this manual, as well as
with Disabilities Act Accessibility other required design guidance.
Guidelines for Buildings and
ADA compliance must be recorded on the
Facilities (ADAAG) are acceptable
Ready-to-List certification for State-
design guidelines that may be used.
administered projects. Appropriate project
However, FHWA has directed
records should document the fact that
Caltrans to use the ADAAG as the
necessary review and approvals have been
Federal design guidelines for
obtained as required above.
pedestrian accessibility.
In addition to the above mentioned Design
(b) California Government Code 4450 et seq.
procedures, the District’s have established
Highlights.
procedures for certifying that the project “as-
• Sections 4450 (through 4461) of the built” complies with the ADA standards in
California Government Code require DIB 82 before a project can achieve
that buildings, structures, sidewalks, Construction Contract Acceptance (CCA) or
curbs, and related facilities that are before the Notice of Completion is provided
constructed using any State funds, or for a permit project.
the funds of cities, counties, or other
105.5 Guidelines for the Location and
political subdivisions be accessible to
and usable by persons with Design of Curb Ramps
disabilities. (1) Policy. On all State highway projects
(2) Policy. adequate and reasonable access for the safe
and convenient movement of persons with
It is Caltrans policy to: disabilities are to be provided across curbs
• Comply with the ADA and the that are constructed or replaced at pedestrian
Government Code 4450 et seq. by making crosswalks. This includes all marked and
all State highway facilities accessible to unmarked crosswalks, as defined in Section
people with disabilities to the maximum 275 of the Vehicle Code.
extent feasible. In general, if a project on Access should also be provided at bridge
State right of way is providing a pedestrian sidewalk approaches and at curbs in the
facility, then accessibility must be vicinity of pedestrian separation structures.
addressed.
Where a need is identified at an existing curb
(3) Procedures. on a conventional highway, a curb ramp may
(a) The engineer will consider pedestrian be constructed either by others under
accessibility needs in the Project Initiation encroachment permit or by the State.
Documents (PSRs, PSSRs, etc.) for all (2) Location Guidelines. When locating curb
projects where applicable. ramps, designers must consider the position of
(b) All State highway projects administered utilities such as power poles, fire hydrants,
by Caltrans or others with pedestrian street lights, traffic signals, and drainage
facilities must be designed in accordance facilities.
with the requirements in Design For reconstruction or new construction, a curb
Information Bulletin 82, “Pedestrian ramp or blended transition should serve each
Accessibility Guidelines for Highway pedestrian crossing. See Index 105.6 for
Projects.” further information. The usage of the one-
(c) The details of the pedestrian facilities and ramp design should be restricted to those
their relationship to the project as a whole locations where the volume of pedestrians and
vehicles making right turns is low. This will
December 16, 2016
reduce the potential frequency of conflicts • Section 360 - A highway is a way or place of
between turning vehicles and persons with whatever nature, publicly maintained and open
disabilities entering the common crosswalk to the use of the public for purposes of
area to cross either street. vehicular travel. Highway includes street.
Ramps and/or curb openings should be • Section 365 - An “intersection” is the area
provided at midblock crosswalks and where embraced within the prolongations of the
pedestrians cross curbed channelization or lateral curb lines, or, if none, then the lateral
median islands at intersections. Often, on boundary lines of the roadways, of two
traffic signalization, channelization, and highways which join one another at
similar projects, curbs are proposed to be approximately right angles or the area within
modified only on portions of an existing which vehicles traveling upon different
intersection. In those cases, consideration highways joining at any other angle may come
should be given to installing retrofit curb in conflict.
ramps on all legs of the intersection.
• Section 530 - A “roadway” is that portion of a
(3) Ramp Design. Curb ramp designs should highway improved, designed, or ordinarily
conform to current Standard Plans. See used for vehicular travel.
Index 105.4(3) for review procedures.
• Section 555 - A “sidewalk” is that portion of a
105.6 Pedestrian Crossings highway, other than the roadway, set apart by
There are various standards related to pedestrian curbs, barriers, markings or other delineation
crossings in this manual (e.g., the two curb ramps for pedestrian travel.
at each corner and pedestrian refuge island
standards), as well as in DIB 82 (e.g., the curb Topic 106 - Stage Construction
ramp requirement) that depend on the existence of and Utilization of Local Roads
a pedestrian crossing as prescribed in the California
Vehicle Code (CVC). 106.1 Stage Construction
Pedestrian facilities that support pedestrian (1) Cost Control Measures. When funds are
crossings occur at marked and unmarked limited and costs increase, estimated project
crosswalks. costs often exceed the amounts available in
spite of the best efforts of the engineering
Per the CA MUTCD, a marked crosswalk is staff. At such times the advantages of
striped, including at midblock locations. An reducing initial project costs by some form of
unmarked crosswalk is not striped and, per the stage construction should be considered by the
CVC, depends on two elements: 1) it occurs at an Project Delivery Team as an alternative to
intersection, and 2) it occurs where the sidewalk deferring the entire project. Stage construction
connects to the intersection. Without these two may include one or more of the following:
elements, there is no unmarked crosswalk.
(a) Shorten the proposed improvement, or
Per the CVC, pedestrian crossings are provided divide it into segments for construction in
across highways as marked or unmarked successive years;
crosswalks, thereby requiring vehicles to yield to
pedestrians (CVC 21950). Two examples in Figure (b) Reduce number of lanes for initial
105.6 clarify the existence of unmarked crosswalks construction. For example, a 4-lane
at “T” intersections, but may also apply to four freeway in a rural area with low current
legged intersections. This example is based on the traffic volumes might be staged for two
following CVC citations: lanes initially with capacity adequate for
at least 10 years after construction.
• Section 275 - For the definition of crosswalk, Similarly, a freeway might be constructed
see Index 62.4(4). Section 275 describes initially four or six lanes wide with
marked and unmarked crosswalks. provision for future widening in the
median to meet future traffic needs.
December 30, 2015
Figure 105.6
Typical Pedestrian Crossings at “T” Intersections
December 30, 2015
(c) Stage pavement structure. For flexible the freeway construction has been completed
pavement, this could be done by reducing and the District wishes to route all users over
the surface course thickness with the new roadway without waiting for
provision for a future overlay to bring the completion of the next succeeding units, and
pavement to full design depth. For rigid the use of local roads is necessary to connect
pavement, the base and subbase layers the freeway with the old State highway.
could initially be built (if the base is built Temporary adoption is useful where
with HMA) and then overlaid later with a construction of the next freeway unit is a
Portland cement concrete slab. In each number of years in the future.
case, life-cycle cost should be considered
Such a temporary CTC adoption makes it
before using a staging option.
legally possible to relinquish the old highway
(d) Down scope geometric design features. portion superseded by relocation.
This last expedient should be considered
Normally, the Department will finance any
only as a last resort; geometric features
needed improvement required to
such as alignment, grade, sight distance,
accommodate all users during the period the
weaving, or merging distance, are difficult
local road system is a traversable State route.
and expensive to change once constructed.
Financing by the local agency is not required.
All nonstandard features need to comply
However, adoption of the local road by the
with Index 82.2
CTC must precede State financing and
A choice among cost reducing alternatives construction of the proposed improvements.
should be made only after weighing the
When a local facility is adopted as a
benefits and disadvantages of each,
traversable route, the Department is
particularly as they apply to interchange
responsible for all maintenance costs of the
designs, which have a substantial effect on
local facility unless otherwise provided for
cost. See Index 502.3(2) for design
under the terms of a cooperative agreement.
considerations regarding freeway
The Department normally would not assume
interchanges.
maintenance until the road is in use as a
106.2 Utilization of Local Roads connection or, when necessary, until the
award of an improvement contract.
In the construction of freeways or other highways
by stages or construction units, it frequently Formal concurrence of the local agency must
becomes necessary to use portions of the local road be obtained before an adoption action is
system at one or more stages prior to completion of presented to the CTC.
the whole route. Usually the local road is used as a If the local agency wants more improvements
traversable connection between the newly than are needed to accommodate all users
completed segment and the existing State highway. during the period when the local road is used
Where such use of a local road is required, it may as a State highway connection, betterments
be handled by: are to be financed by the local agency. In
such cases a cooperative agreement would be
(a) Temporarily adopting the local road necessary to define the responsibilities of each
system as a traversable State highway, or party for construction and maintenance.
(b) Designating the local road system as a (2) Local Roads Used as Detours. In lieu of
detour until the next or final stage is temporary adoption by the CTC, a local road
constructed. may be designated a detour to serve as a
(1) Temporary Adoption of Local Roads as State connection between the end of State highway
Routes. Temporary adoption of a local road construction and the old State highway
system as a traversable route requires CTC following completion of a State highway
action. Temporary adoption should be construction unit and pending completion of
implemented where, for example, one unit of the next unit. Local road detours are useful if
December 30, 2015
the adjoining construction unit is scheduled in 107.2 Maintenance and Police Facilities on
a few years or less and the local road Freeways
connection is short and direct. Adoption by
the CTC is not required when a local road is Roadside maintenance yards and police facilities
designated as a temporary detour. other than truck weighing installations and
enforcement areas are not to be provided with
Under Section 93 of the Streets and Highways direct access to freeways. They should be located
Code, the Department can finance any needed on or near a cross road having an interchange
improvements required to accommodate the which provides for all turning movements. This
detour of all users during the period the local policy applies to all freeways including Interstate
road is utilized to provide continuity for State Highways.
highway users. A cooperative agreement is
usually required to establish terms of Maintenance Vehicle Pullouts (MVPs) provide
financing, construction, maintenance, and parking for maintenance workers and other field
liability. If the local agency wants more than personnel beyond the edge of shoulder. This
the minimum work needed to accommodate improves safety for field personnel by separating
users on the local road during its use as a State them from traffic. It also frees up the shoulder for
highway, such betterments are to be financed its intended use. The need and location of MVPs
by the local agency. should be determined by the PDT at project
initiation. MVPs should only be provided if it has
Section 93 also makes the Department been determined that maintenance access from
responsible for restoration of the local road or outside the state right of way through an access
street to its former condition at the conclusion gate or a maintenance trail within the state right of
of its use as a detour. The Department is way is not feasible. Where frequent activity of
responsible for all reasonable additional field personnel can be anticipated, such as at a
maintenance costs incurred by local agencies signal control box (See Index 504.3 (2)(j)) or at an
attributable to the detour. If a betterment is irrigation controller, the MVP should be placed
requested by the local agency as a part of upstream of the work site, so that maintenance
restoration it should be done at no cost to the vehicles can help shield field personnel on foot. If
Department. the controller or roadside feature is located within
the clear recovery zone, relocating it outside the
Topic 107 - Roadside Installations clear recovery zone should be considered (See
Index 309.1). The shoulder adjacent to MVPs
107.1 Roadway Connections should be wide enough for a maintenance vehicle
All connections to vista points, truck weighing or to use for acceleration before merging onto the
brake inspection stations, safety rest areas, park and traveled way. If adequate shoulder width is
ride lots, transit stations or any other connections unattainable, sufficient sight distance from the
used by the traveling public, should be constructed MVP to upstream traffic should be provided to
to standards commensurate with the standards prevent maintenance vehicles from disrupting
established for the roadway to which they are traffic flow. When considering drainage alongside
connected. On freeways this should include a MVP, it is preferable to provide a flow line
standard acceleration and deceleration lanes and all around the MVP rather than along the edge of
other design features required by normal ramp shoulder to collect the drainage before the MVP.
connections (Index 504.2). On conventional This will prevent ponding between the MVP and
highways and expressways, the standard public edge of shoulder. See Standard Plan H9 for a
road connection should be the minimum connection typical MVP layout plan and section detail.
(Index 405.7).
107.3 Location of Border Inspection
Only one means of exit and one means of entry to Stations
these installations should be allowed.
Other agencies require vehicles entering California
to stop at buildings maintained by these agencies
December 30, 2015
for inspection of vehicles and cargoes. No such The Division of Design must be notified by letter
building, parking area, or roadway adjacent to the as soon as possible in all cases where controversy
parking area at these facilities should be closer than develops over the closures to crossing traffic.
30 feet from the nearest edge of the ultimate
traveled way of the highway. 108.2 Transit Loading Facilities
(1) Freeway Application. These instructions are
Topic 108 - Coordination With applicable to projects involving transit loading
Other Agencies facilities on freeways as authorized in Section
148 of the Streets and Highways Code.
108.1 Divided Nonfreeway Facilities Instructions pertaining to the provisions for
mass public transportation facilities in
Per Section 144.5 of the Streets and Highways
freeway corridors, authorized in Section 150
Code, advance notice is required when a
of the Streets and Highways Code, are
conventional highway, which is not a declared
covered in other Departmental written
freeway, is to be divided or separated into separate
directives.
roadways, if such division or separation will result
in preventing traffic on existing county roads or (a) During the early phases of the design
city streets from making a direct crossing of the process, the District must send to the
State highway at the intersection. In this case, 30 PUC, governing bodies of local
days notice must be given to the City Council or jurisdictions, and common carriers or
Board of Supervisors having jurisdiction over said transit authorities operating in the vicinity,
roads or streets. a map showing the proposed location and
type of interchanges, with a request for
The provisions of Section 144.5 of the Streets and
their comments regarding transit loading
Highways Code are considered as not applying to
facilities. The transmittal letter should
freeway construction, or to temporary barriers for
state that transit loading facilities will be
the purpose of controlling traffic during a limited
constructed only where they are in the
period of time, as when the highway is undergoing
public interest and where the cost is
repairs, or is flooded. As to freeway construction,
commensurate with the public benefits to
it is considered that the local agency receives ample
be derived from their construction. It
notice, by virtue of the freeway agreement, of the
should also state that if the agency desires
manner in which all local roads will be affected by
to have transit loading facilities included
the freeway, and that the special notice would
in the design of the freeway that their
therefore be superfluous.
reply should include locations for transit
When the notice is required, a letter should be stops and any supporting data, such as
prepared and submitted to the appropriate estimates of the number of transit
authorities at least 60 days before road revision will passengers per day, which would help to
occur. Prior to the submittal of the letter and justify their request.
before plans are completed, the appropriate
(b) Public Meeting and Hearings. No public
authorities should be contacted and advised of
meeting or hearing is to be held when all
contemplated plans. The timing of this notice
of the contacted agencies respond that
should provide ample opportunity for consideration
transit loading facilities are not required
of any suggestions or objection made. In general, it
on the proposed freeway. The freeway
is intended that the formal notice of intent which is
should be designed without transit loading
required by law will confirm the final plans which
facilities in these cases.
have been developed after discussions with the
affected authorities. Where any one of the agencies request
transit loading facilities on the proposed
The PS&E package should document the date
freeway, the District should hold a public
notice was given and the date of reply by the
meeting and invite representatives of each
affected local agencies.
agency.
December 30, 2015
Prior to the public meeting, the District view that transit stops are not needed, a
should prepare geometric designs of the report to the Division of Design is not
transit loading facilities for the purpose of required. However, a statement to the
making cost estimates and determining the effect that the PUC, bus companies, and
feasibility of providing the facilities. local governmental agencies have been
Transit loading facilities must be contacted regarding transit stops and have
approved by the District Director with made no request for their provisions
concurrence from the Project Delivery should be included in the final
Coordinator (see Topic 82 for approvals). environmental document or the PS&E
submittal, whichever is appropriate.
(c) Justification. General warrants for the
provision of transit loading facilities in For projects where one or more of the
terms of cost or number of passengers agencies involved have requested transit
have not been established. Each case loading facilities either formally or
should be considered individually because informally during public meeting(s), a
the number of passengers justifying a complete report should be incorporated in
transit loading facility may vary greatly the final environmental document. It
between remote rural locations and high should include:
volume urban freeways.
• A map showing the section of freeway
Transit stops adjacent to freeways involved and the locations at which
introduce security and operational transit loading facilities are being
concerns that may necessitate relocating considered.
the stop at an off-freeway location. These
concerns go beyond having a facility • A complete discussion of all public
located next to high speed traffic, but also meetings held.
entail the pedestrian route to the facility • Data on type of transit service
through a low density area removed from provided, both at present and after
the general public. completion of the freeway.
It may be preferable for patrons to board • Estimate of cost of each facility,
and leave the bus or transit facility at an including any additional cost such as
off-freeway location rather than use right of way or lengthening of
stairways or ramps to freeway transit structures required to accommodate
stops. Where existing highways with the facility.
transit service are incorporated into the
freeway right of way, it may be necessary • Number of transit trips or buses per
to make provisions for bus service for day and the number of on and off
those passengers who were served along passengers per day served by the
the existing highway. This may be transit stops and the number estimated
accomplished either by providing freeway to use the proposed facilities.
bus and/or transit loading facilities or by • District's recommendation as to the
the bus leaving and re-entering the provision of transit loading facilities.
freeway at interchanges. See "A Policy If the recommendation is in favor of
on Geometric Design of Highways and providing transit loading facilities,
Streets", AASHTO, and “Guide for drawings showing location and
Geometric Design of Transit Facilities on tentative geometric designs should be
Highways and Streets”, AASHTO for a included.
discussion of transit design and bus stop
guidelines. (e) The DES-Structure Design has primary
responsibility for the structural design of
(d) Reports. On projects where all the transit loading facilities involving
agencies contacted have expressed the
December 30, 2015
structures. See Index 210.7. See also (a) The selection of transit facilities on
DIB 82 for instructions on submitting rail conventional highways should follow the
and transit station plans to the Department general outline as noted above for transit
of General Services – Division of the facilities on freeways. Transit facilities
State Architect (DSA) for review and shall be approved by the District Director
approval of pedestrian facilities with as part of the authorizing document
regard to accessibility features. (PSR/PR, PR, PSSR, etc.).
Accessible paths of travel must be
(b) A cooperative agreement should be used
provided to all pedestrian facilities,
to document the understanding between
including shelters, tables, benches,
the Department and any local agency
drinking fountains, telephones, vending
which desires a transit facility. The
machines, and information kiosks. The
agreement covers items such as funding,
path of travel from designated accessible
ownership, maintenance, and legal
parking, if applicable, to accessible
responsibility.
facilities should be as short and direct as
practical, must have an even surface, and (c) Detailed design requirements can be
must include curb ramps, marked aisles obtained from the transit authority having
and crosswalks, and other features as jurisdiction over the transit facility.
required to facilitate use of the facility by (d) See also DIB 82 for instructions on
individuals using wheelchairs, walkers or submitting rail and transit station plans to
other mobility aids. See the Department the Department of General Services –
of General Services, Division of the State Division of the State Architect (DS) for
Architect, as well as the California review and approval of pedestrian
Department of Transportation enforce the facilities with regard to accessibility
California Building Code (Title 24) for features. Accessible paths of travel must
the various on-site improvements. be provided to all pedestrian facilities,
(f) A cooperative agreement should be used including shelters, tables, benches,
to document the understanding between drinking fountains, telephones, vending
the Department and any local agency machines, and information kiosks. The
which desires a transit facility. The path of travel from designated accessible
agreement covers items such as funding, parking for persons with disabilities, if
ownership, maintenance, and legal applicable, to accessible facilities should
responsibility. be as short and direct as practical, must
have an even surface, and must include
(g) Detailed design requirements can be
curb ramps, marked aisles, and
obtained from the transit authority having
crosswalks, and other features as required
jurisdiction over the transit facility. See
to facilitate use of the facility with
Index 504.3(6) for design standards
wheelchairs, walkers and other mobility
related to bus loading facilities on
aides. See Topic 404 for guidance
freeways.
regarding the Design Vehicle, and Index
(2) Conventional Highway Application. This 626.4(3) for structural section guidance
guidance is applicable to projects involving for bus pads.
transit loading facilities on conventional
highways as authorized in Section 148 of the
108.3 Commuter and Light Rail Facilities
Streets and highways Code. Instructions Within State Right of Way
pertaining to the provisions for Bus Rapid (1) General. These facilities may cross or operate
Transit (BRT) in conventional highway parallel to a highway or other multi modal
corridors are covered in other Departmental facility owned and operated by the Department.
policy and directives. The following guidance covers all rail
facilities, and all transportation facilities owned
December 30, 2015
and operated by the Department. See the intersection behind the bus, allowing the bus to
Project Development Procedures Manual for re-enter the travel stream following a break in
additional information and procedures traffic caused by the signal timing.
regarding encroachments within State right of
(2) Design Standards. Transit facilities are to be
way. See Index 309.1(4) for high speed rail
designed and constructed per the standards
guidance.
contained elsewhere in this manual and
(2) Rail Crossings. Ideally, rail crossings of exceptions are to be documented as discussed
transportation facilities should be grade in Chapter 80.
separated. Grade separations must not impact
Bus stops and busbays (see Index 303.4(3) for
the ability of the Department to operate and
busbays) should have pavement structures
maintain its facilities, which includes the
designed in accordance with Index 626.4(3).
ability to expand the existing transportation
See the “Guide for Geometric Design of
facilities in the future. All rail crossings are to
Transit Facilities on Highways and Streets”,
be approved by the District Director. See the
AASHTO, for guidance on the selection and
California MUTCD for guidance regarding
design of transit loading facilities.
traffic controls for grade crossings.
(3) Cooperative Agreements. Close coordination
(3) Parallel Rail Facilities. Rail facilities may be
with the transit provider(s) is required for the
sited within Department right of way when
successful design and operation of bus stops
feasible alternatives do not exist for separate
and other transit facilities.
facilities. As necessary, rail facilities may be
located within the median. If rail facilities are 108.5 Bus Rapid Transit
located in the median, they must not impact the
For the purpose of design and coordination, Bus
ability of the Department to reasonably operate
Rapid Transit (BRT) is to be considered the same
and maintain its facilities, which includes the
as commuter and light rail facilities with regards to
ability to expand the existing transportation
approvals and design guidance.
facilities in the foreseeable future. All parallel
rail facilities are to be approved by the District BRT often makes use of the existing infrastructure
Director. for its operation within State right of way. As a
joint user of the State right of way, BRT may not
eliminate pedestrian or bicycle facilities. Because
of potential conflicts, BRT facilities located on
contained elsewhere in this manual and
conventional highways and expressways should
exceptions are to be documented as discussed
follow, as appropriate, the guidance for traffic
in Chapter 80.
control in the California MUTCD for light rail
(5) Cooperative Agreements. The design and facilities. Transit Cooperative Report Program
construction of rail facilities within the (TCRP) Report Numbers 90, 117 and 118 have
Department right of way should be covered in a additional guidance on BRT planning, design, and
cooperative agreement. Subsequent implementation. BRT located on freeways should
maintenance and operations requirements be designed in accordance with the HOV
should be addressed in a maintenance Guidelines.
agreement or encroachment permit as
necessary.
108.4 Bus Loading Facilities contained elsewhere in this manual, and
exceptions are to be documented as discussed
(1) General. A bus stop is a marked location for
in Chapter 80.
bus loading and unloading. Bus stops may be
midblock, adjacent to, but before an (2) Cooperative Agreements. The design and
intersection (near side) or adjacent to but after construction of BRT facilities within the
an intersection (far side). The far side location Department right of way should be covered in a
is preferred as pedestrians may cross the cooperative agreement. Subsequent
December 30, 2015
maintenance and operations requirements Procedures Manual for a complete list of

should be addressed in a maintenance FHWA involvement.
agreement or encroachment permit as
(2) Approvals. The District Directors are
necessary.
responsible for obtaining formal FHWA
108.6 High-Occupancy Toll and Express approval for the following items on Federal-
Toll Lanes aid routes, see the Project Development
Procedures Manual and the FHWA Joint
(1) General. This guidance is applicable to Stewardship Oversight Agreement for a more
projects involving High-Occupancy Toll complete list:
(HOT) and Express Toll Lanes on freeways.
These facilities are operated by a regional (a) Route Adoption. See the Project
transportation agency or Caltrans under Development Procedures Manual for a
statutory authority or with the approval of the discussion of procedures to be followed to
California Transportation Commission. The NEPA and design approvals.
HOV Guidelines are to be consulted when (b) Changes in access control lines, changes
considering the design and operation of these in locations of connection points, adding
facilities. connection points, or deleting connection
(2) Design Standards. HOT and Express Toll points on the Interstate System (even
Lane facilities are to comply with the when no Federal money is involved).
standards contained elsewhere in this manual. (c) Addition of or changes in locked gates
Exceptions are to be documented as discussed under certain conditions See Index 701.2.
in Chapter 80. Therefore, caution must be
exercised when using other Department (d) Partial interchanges on the Interstate
publications such as the HOV Guidelines if system. See Index 502.2.
conflicts in design standards are identified. (e) Design-life on Interstates System projects.
(3) Cooperative Agreements. For HOT or Approximately twelve months prior to PS&E
Express lane facilities sponsored by a regional submittal, a project review should be arranged
transportation agency, a cooperative by the District with the Project Delivery
agreement is to be used to document the Coordinator and, as required, the FHWA per
understanding between the Department and the Stewardship & Oversight Agreement, see
the regional transportation agency. The Index 43.2, to discuss nonparticipating items
agreement must address all matters related to and unusual or special design features. The
design, construction, maintenance, and importance of early contact is emphasized to
operation of the toll facility, including, but not avoid delays when final plans are prepared.
limited to, liability, financing, repair,
rehabilitation, and reconstruction. The For additional information, see the Project
regional transportation agency must also enter Development Procedures Manual.
into an agreement with the California
Highway Patrol that addresses all law Topic 109 - Scenic Values in
enforcement matters related to the toll facility. Planning and Design
108.7 Coordination with the FHWA 109.1 Basic Precepts
FHWA representatives should be contacted as For any highway, having a pleasing appearance is
indicated by the Joint Stewardship and Oversight an important consideration. Scenic values must be
Agreement. considered along with safety, utility, economy, and
(1) General. As early in the design process as all the other factors considered in planning and
possible, FHWA should be kept informed of design. This is particularly true of the many
proposed activities on Federal-aid routes. See portions of the State Highway System situated in
the Appendix of the Project Development areas of natural beauty. The location of the
December 30, 2015
highway, its alignment and profile, the cross size trees may be appropriate. If not, an
section design, and other features should be in appropriate quantity of smaller replacements
harmony with the setting. may be required to ensure eventual survival of
an adequate number of plants.
109.2 Design Speed
Provisions for watering and establishment of
The design speed should be carefully chosen as it is replacement planting should also be
the key element which establishes standards for the considered. The District Landscape Architect
horizontal alignment and profile of the highway. should be consulted early in the planning and
These requirements in turn directly influence how design process so that appropriate conservation
well the highway blends into the landscape. Scenic and revegetation measures are incorporated.
values, particularly in areas of natural scenic beauty
must play a part along with the other factors set (e) Existing vegetation such as trees or large brush
forth under Index 101.1 in selecting a design speed. may be selectively thinned or removed to open
up scenic vistas or provide a natural looking
109.3 Aesthetic Factors boundary between forest and cleared areas.
Throughout planning and design consider the Vegetation removal for aesthetic purposes
following: should be undertaken only with the
concurrence of the District Landscape
(a) The location of the highway should be such Architect.
that the new construction will preserve the
natural environment and will lead to and unfold (f) Vista points should be provided when views
scenic positions. In some cases, additional and scenery of outstanding merit occur and
minor grading not required for roadbed feasible sites can be found. (See Topic 904 for
alignment may expose an attractive view or site selection criteria.)
hide an unsightly one. (g) Whenever feasible, wide medians and
(b) The general alignment and profile of the independent roadways should be provided on
highway should fit the character of the area multilane facilities as these features add scenic
traversed so that unsightly scars of excavation interest and relieve the monotony of parallel
and embankment will be held to a minimum. roadways.
Curvilinear horizontal alignment should be (h) Bridges, tunnels, and walls merit consideration
coordinated with vertical curvature to achieve a in lieu of prominent excavation and
pleasing appearance. embankment slopes when costs of such
(c) Existing vegetation (e.g., trees, specimen alternates are not excessive.
plants, diminishing native species or historical (i) Slopes should be flattened and rounded
plantings) should be preserved and protected to whenever practical and vegetation provided so
the maximum extent feasible during the that lines of construction are softened.
planning, design, and construction of
transportation projects. Whenever specimen or (j) Structures should be located and designed to
mature trees are present, especially in forested give the most pleasing appearance.
areas, a tree survey should be made to provide (k) Scars from material sites should be avoided.
accurate data on the variety, condition, Planting compatible with the surroundings
location, size, and ground elevations of trees should be undertaken to revegetate such scars
affected. when they are unavoidable.
(d) Appropriate replacement planting should be (l) Drainage appurtenances should be so located
provided when existing planting is removed. that erosion, sumps, and debris collection areas
When native or specimen trees are removed, are hidden from view or eliminated when site
replacement planting should reflect the visual conditions permit.
importance of the plantings lost. Where the
visual impact of tree removal is substantial, (m) Interchange areas should be graded as flat as
replacement with large transplants or specimen reasonable with slope rounding and contouring
December 30, 2015
to provide graceful, natural looking over a heavily traveled surface street when large
appearance. The appearance can be further quantities of material are involved.
enhanced by planting a vegetative cover
The comparison and all factors leading to the
appropriate to the locality, being careful to
decision should be complete, fully documented,
maintain driver visibility.
and retained in the project files.
(n) In locations where graffiti has been excessive,
The design of structures for overloads will
concepts such as limiting accessibility,
normally be governed by one of the following
planting, and surface treatments should be
categories:
considered to deter graffiti.
(1) Category 1. Structures definitely planned to
(o) Roadsides should be designed to deter weed
carry overloads. This category should be used
growth along the traveled way, and to provide
only when the structures are to be constructed
for mechanical litter collection.
under a separate contract prior to a grading
contract and the estimated savings in grading
Topic 110 - Special costs exceed the extra structure costs. The
Considerations District must request the DES - SD to design
for the permissible overloading.
110.1 Design for Overloaded Material
Hauling Equipment (2) Category 2. Structures which are designed to
allow the contractor the option of
Sometimes bid costs can be reduced by allowing strengthening to carry overloads. The contract
the hauling of overloads on a construction contract. plans will include alternative details for
The savings may warrant designing structures and strengthening the structure and the contractor
structural sections of new roadways to carry the can decide at the time of bidding whether to
heavier loads and also reconstructing roadbeds used haul around the structure, build his own haul
by overloaded material hauling equipment. road structures, use "legal load" equipment on
In general, hauling of overloads is restricted to the the unstrengthened structure, or construct the
project limits. However, overloads are permitted structure in accordance with the strengthened
on portions of existing highways which are to be alternative design. The District should notify
abandoned, repaired or reconstructed with a new the DOS regarding structures to have optional
structural section, if the overloads do not affect the designs. Undercrossings, overheads, separa-
design of the reconstructed structural section. tions, and stream crossings are most likely to
be in this category.
Any overload requirements should be determined
before detailed plans are prepared. The District (3) Category 3. Structures which will not be
should request from the Division of Engineering designed to carry overloads. Most
Services – Structures Design (DES - SD) the overcrossing, ramp, and frontage road
estimated additional cost of the structures to carry structures are in this category.
overloads and use this information in making The District should consult with the DOS early in
economic comparisons. the design phase when determining the design
Factors to be considered in making the overload category of each bridge in the project.
comparisons should include the costs of Each case where hauling of overloads is permitted
strengthening structures, haul costs, amount of must be specifically described in the Special
material to be hauled, repair or reconstruction of Provisions. Each structure designed under
structural sections, construction of separate haul Categories 1 and 2 must also be designated in the
roads or structures, strengthening of the new Special Provisions. The design load must not
structural section, sequence of construction exceed the weight limitation of Section 7-1.02,
operations, and other pertinent factors. In some "Weight Limitations", of the Standard
cases, consideration should be given for requiring Specifications. The District Director or designated
the contractor to construct a separate haul structure representative must approve the overload category
for each structure.
December 30, 2015
110.2 Control of Water Pollution Recommendations for mitigation measures or

construction and operational controls contained in
Water pollution related to the construction of the project's Storm Water Data Report should
highways and to the drainage of completed receive full consideration in the development of the
highways should be limited to the maximum extent project. The Department is legally bound to
practicable. This objective should be considered comply with the appropriate permits as outlined in
from the early planning, through the detailed design the California Permit Handbook. The Department
phase, to the end of construction of each project. is also legally bound to comply with any water
Proposed alterations of existing drainage patterns quality mitigation measures specified in the
and creation of disturbed soil areas should consider project’s environmental document. Plans and
the potential for erosion and siltation. Where specifications should reflect water quality
interdisciplinary analysis (engineering, biology, protection measures in a manner that is enforceable
geology, chemical) indicates that harmful physical, in contracts.
chemical, or biological pollution of streams, rivers, On almost all projects, early contact should be
lakes, reservoirs, coastal waters, or groundwater established between the District project
may occur, preventive measures and practices will development personnel, Landscape Architecture,
be required. These measures include temporary biologists, geologists, and other specialists
erosion control features during construction, available in the Headquarters Environmental
scheduling of work, as well as the permanent Program, the Division of Engineering Services
facilities to be built under the contract. The control (DES) Office of Structural Foundations, FHWA, or
of erosion associated with permanent drainage other Districts, to ensure optimum development of
channels and ditches is covered in Chapter 860, water quality control measures.
Open Channels.
Because siltation resulting from erosion is
The Department’s Project Planning and Design recognized as a major factor in water pollution,
Guide identifies the procedures and practices to be continuous efforts should be made to improve
employed in order for projects to comply with the erosion control practices.
Storm Water Management Plan and the National
Pollutant Discharge Elimination System Permit, (1) Project Planning Phase. When project
issued by the State Water Resources Control Board. planning studies are started, consideration
should be given to the items in the following
Districts must initiate contact with the appropriate list:
agencies responsible for water quality as early as
feasible in development of transportation projects (a) Identify all waters in the vicinity of a
to ensure full identification of pollution problems, highway project which might affect
and to ensure full cooperation, understanding, and construction, maintenance and operational
agreement between the Department and the other activities.
agencies. The agencies to be contacted will vary The environmental factors that might
from project to project depending on the nature of affect preconstruction activities should be
the project, the aquatic resources present, and the looked into for the benefit of the resident
uses of the water. The agencies that may be engineer and contractor. An example
interested in a project include but are not limited to would be relocation of drilling of pile
the following: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, U.S. foundations in a sensitive stream to
Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Environmental prevent possible impacts.
Protection Agency, California Regional Water
Quality Control Boards, California Department of (b) Identify for each project all waters, both
Fish and Game, Flood Control Districts, and local fresh and saline, surface and underground,
water districts. The District Environmental Unit where water quality may be affected by
can provide assistance in determining which the proposed construction.
agencies should be contacted.
December 30, 2015
(c) Determine if any watersheds, aquifers, nars/index.htm and work with district
wells, reservoirs, lakes, or streams are landscape architecture.
sources for domestic water supplies.
(c) Provide erosion control to all soil areas to
(d) Determine if any sensitive fishery, be disturbed by construction activities.
wildlife, recreational, agricultural, or Consider the need to require the
industrial aquatic resources are located in contractor to apply permanent erosion
the vicinity of the project. control in phases, as slopes become
substantially complete, instead of
(e) Consider possible relocation or realign-
allowing all erosion control to be applied
ment that could be made to avoid or
at the end of the construction project.
minimize the possibility of pollution of
Prior to winterizing the project, the
existing waters.
designer must plan for temporary erosion
(f) Identify variations in the erosive control on slopes not substantially
characteristics of the soils in the area, and complete. Native plants should be
consider relocation or grade changes that considered for all plantings.
would minimize erosion.
If a highway planting project is
(g) Where possible, avoid unstable areas anticipated immediately following road-
where construction may cause future way construction, disturbed soil areas can-
landslides. not be left unprotected. The use of mulch
(h) Identify construction season preference of could be considered as an erosion control
regulatory agencies. method during the interim. Contact the
District Landscape Architect for
(i) Evaluate the need for additional right of assistance.
way to allow for flatter, less erosive
slopes. (d) When planning for temporary erosion
control, consider the use of vegetation,
(2) Design Phase. During the design phase, the mulches, fiber mats, fiber rolls, netting,
items listed above should again be considered. dust palliatives, crust forming chemicals,
More specific items for consideration are silt fences, plastic sheets or any other
presented in the following checklist: procedure that may be necessary to
(a) Provide for the preservation of roadside or prevent erosion. The District Storm
median vegetation beyond the limits of Water Coordinator, District Landscape
construction by special provisions and Architect, and the District Storm Water
depiction on the plans. Unit can assist in the selection and design
of temporary erosion control measures.
(b) Design slopes as flat as is reasonable with
slope rounding, landforming/geomorphic (e) Design overside drains, surface,
grading, contouring, or stepping to subsurface, and cross drains so that they
minimize erosion and to promote plant will discharge in locations and in such a
growth. Consider retaining walls when manner that surface and subsurface water
practical to reduce slope length and quality will not be affected. The outlets
steepness. Include standard special may require aprons, bank protection,
provisions or approved special provisions desilting basins, or energy dissipators.
which will require the contractor to (f) Provide for adequate fish passage through
remove or excavate, stockpile, and apply highway culverts or under bridges when
topsoil and/or duff on the final slope to necessary to protect or enhance fishery
promote plant growth. For information on resources.
landforming/geomorphic grading see:
http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/LandArch/webi (g) Provide bank protection where the
highway is adjacent to rivers, streams,
lakes, or other bodies of water.
December 30, 2015
(h) Where required, provide slope protection (m) Special consideration should be given to
or channel lining, energy dissipators, etc. using vegetated ditches to remove
for channel changes. highway runoff pollutants. The District
Hydraulics and Landscape Architecture
(i) Where the State has made arrangements
Units can provide assistance in designing
for materials, borrow, or disposal sites,
and constructing vegetated ditches.
grading plans should be provided and
revegetation required. Special provisions (n) Mandatory order of work clauses
should require the contractor to furnish sometimes result in increased costs or
plans for grading and replanting of sites. longer time limits, but they must be
considered where their use would
(j) Check right of way widths for adequate
eliminate the expense of temporary
space to reduce slope gradients and
construction or where they result in earlier
minimize slope angles, for rounding at
protection of erodible areas, or improved
tops of cuts and bottoms of fills, for
handling of site runoff.
adequate slope protection ditches and for
incorporation of treatment control (3) Abandonment and Destruction of Water Wells.
measures (e.g., infiltration basins, deten- The abandonment and destruction of water
tion basins, traction sand traps). Also wells within the highway right of way must be
consider right of way or encroachment handled in accordance with requirements
rights for temporary work such as established by statute and by agreement with
desilting basins, stream diversion, or the Department of Water Resources (DWR) to
stream crossing protection. avoid pollution of underground water and
ensure public safety. Sections 13700 to 13806
(k) All ditches should be designed to
of the California Water Code deal, in general,
minimize erosion. These treatments
with the construction and destruction of wells.
include but are not limited to grass lining,
Section 24400 to 24404 of the Health and
fiber mats, rock lining (with or without
Safety Code require that abandoned wells be
geotextile underlayment), and paving.
covered, filled, or fenced for safety reasons.
The District Hydraulics Unit can assist
Statewide standards for construction,
with the selection and design of ditch
maintenance and destruction of water wells,
treatment. Consideration should be given
monitoring wells and cathodic protection
to using soil stabilization materials in
wells have been issued by the California
median ditches or other wide drainage
DWR in Bulletin 74 - 81, "Water Well
areas that cannot be vegetated.
Standards: State of California", dated
(l) Temporary construction features for water December, 1981, and Bulletin 74 - 81", dated
pollution control that can be predicted January, 1990. Pursuant to these standards
should be made a part of the plans, and interagency agreement with DWR, the
specifications, and contract pay items. following procedures are to be followed to
Such items as mulching and seeding of determine requirements for abandonment and
slopes, berms, dikes, ditches, pipes, dams, destruction of wells within State highway
silt fences, settling basins, stream rights of way.
diversion channels, slope drains, and
(a) Before producing water wells within the
crossings over live streams should be
highway right of way are abandoned, a
considered. Since all contingencies
determination should be made of the
probably cannot be foreseen,
possible future uses of the wells. Such
supplemental work funds should be set up
future uses include landscape irrigation,
for each project. Pay items for temporary
roadside rests, vista points, maintenance
erosion control should not be adjusted for
facilities, truck weighing facilities, and
increased or decreased quantity.
others. Also see Index 706.4.
December 30, 2015
(b) The District Project Development and Intent (Form DWR 2125) and the Water
Right of Way Branches determine the Well Drillers Report (Form DWR 188)
location of water wells that will be required by the Department of Water
affected by highway construction on a Resources.
project basis.
(i) Also, under California Water Code
(c) The District submits a letter to the Section 13801, after January 15, 1990, all
Director, Department of Water Resources, cities and counties are required to have
1416 Ninth Street, Sacramento, CA. adopted ordinances that require prior
95814 Attention: Water Resources acquisition of permits for all well
Evaluation Section, Division of Resources construction, reconstruction and
Development, listing the wells to be destruction and requiring possession of an
abandoned and any information that may active C-57 contractors license as the
be known about them. The letter should minimum qualification for persons
include the scheduled PS&E date and the permitted to work on wells.
anticipated advertising date for the
(4) Summary. To prevent pollution of all waters
project. Two copies of a map, or maps,
that could be affected by a highway
showing the location of each well accu-
construction project, it is desirable to avoid
rately enough so it can be located in the
involvement with the water or avoid the
field should be included with the letter. A
construction of erodible features. Since it is
copy of this package should also be
seldom possible to avoid all such features, the
provided to Headquarters Construction.
design of effective erosion and sediment
(d) DWR will investigate the wells and write control measures should be included with the
a report recommending procedures to be project. Material resulting from erosion
used in destruction of the wells within the should either be discharged in locations where
highway right of way. The interagency no negative environmental impacts will occur,
agreement provides for reimbursement of or be deposited in locations that are accessible
the DWR's cost for these investigations to maintenance forces for removal. District
and reports. Landscape Architecture can provide technical
assistance in assessing the impacts of erosion
(e) DWR will forward its report to the
and in designing erosion control features.
District.
Project Development personnel should ensure
(f) Provisions for destruction of abandoned
that all aspects of erosion control and other
wells occasioned by highway construction
water quality control features considered
and planting projects must be included in
during design are fully explained to the
the District PS&E report. The work,
Resident Engineer. Such data is essential for
usually done by filling and sealing,
review of the contractor's water pollution
normally should be included in the
control program. Judgment must be used in
contract Special Provisions. Steps must
differentiating between planned temporary
be taken to insure that wells are left in a
protection features and work which the
safe condition between the time the site is
contractor must perform in order to fulfill
acquired by the State and the time the well
their responsibility to protect the work from
is sealed.
damage.
(g) In some cases, local ordinances or
To reduce contract change orders and ensure
conditions will require the filling and
erosion control goals are met, important
sealing of the well prior to the highway
protection should not be left to the contractor's
contract in order to leave the well in a safe
judgment. It is desirable that all predictable
condition.
temporary protection measures be
(h) The contractor who does the work to incorporated in the plans and specifications
abandon the well must file the Notice of
December 30, 2015
and items for payment included in the contract in their original condition. Work for this
items of work. purpose that can be predicted should be
made a part of the PS&E, which should
Topsoil should be stripped, stockpiled, and
require submission of the contractors plan
restored to disturbed slopes because existing
for grading, seeding, mulching or other
soil nutrients and native seeds contained
appropriate action.
within the topsoil are beneficial for
establishing vegetative cover and controlling (f) Stockpiling and respreading topsoil may
erosion. speed revegetation of the roadside and
reduce wind erosion.
In addition, the abandonment of water wells
must be given special attention in accordance (2) Control of Burning. Health and Safety Code
with Section (3) above. provisions and rules issued by Air Pollution
Control Boards will preclude burning on most
110.3 Control of Air Pollution highway projects. Off-site disposal of debris
Air pollution associated with the construction of must not create contamination problems and
highways and to completed highway facilities should not be specified simply as an expedient
should be held to the practical minimum. The resolution of the problem without imposing
designer should consider the impacts of haul roads, adequate controls on how such disposal site is
disposal sites, borrow sites, and other material to be handled. Designers should seek disposal
sources in addition to construction within the site locations within the right of way where it
highway right of way. will be permissible to dispose of debris.
Proper procedures, including compaction and
(1) Control of Dust. Many of the items listed
burial, should be specified. Debris should not
under Index 110.2, Control of Water
be disposed of within the normal roadway.
Pollution, are applicable to dust control.
Burying within the right of way should be
Consideration should be given to these items
done in such a fashion that the layers of debris
and additional material presented in the
will not act as a permeable layer or otherwise
following list:
be detrimental to the roadway. Acceptable
(a) See Index 110.2(2)(a), (c), (d), (k) and (n). alternates based on economic, aesthetic,
safety, and other pertinent considerations
(b) Flat areas not normally susceptible to
should be included in the contract if possible.
erosion by water may require erosion
control methods such as planting, On projects where burning will not be
stabilizing emulsion, protective blankets, permitted and disposal of debris within the
etc., to prevent wind erosion. right of way is not possible, optional disposal
sites should be made available. Information
(c) Cut and or fill slopes can be sources of
on such site arrangements should be made
substantial wind erosion. They will
available in the "Materials Information"
require planting or other control measures
furnished to prospective bidders. Reference is
even if water erosion is only a minor
made to the applicable portion of Index 111.3
consideration.
and 111.4 for handling this requirement.
(d) In areas subject to dust or sand storms, Special requirements for disposal of debris
vegetative wind breaks should be and final appearance of the disposal site
considered to control dust. Use of soil should be covered in the Special Provisions.
sealant may also be considered. The intent of this instruction is that the
(e) Special provisions should be used designer should make sure that prospective
requiring the contractor to restore bidders have adequate information on which
material, borrow, or disposal sites, and to make a realistic bid on clearing and
temporary haul roads to a condition such grubbing.
that their potential as sources of blowing When feasible, tree trunks, branches, and
dust or other pollution is no greater than brush should be reduced to chips and
December 30, 2015
incorporated with the soil, spread on fill possible methods of disposal of debris that
slopes, used as a cover mulch or disposed of will be available to the contractor.
in other ways compatible with the location. In
The local Air Pollution Control Board should
forest areas where they will not look out of
be contacted to determine the current
place, limbs and trunks of trees that are too
regulations.
large for chipping may be limbed and cut to
straight lengths and the pieces lined up at the (3) Summary. Special consideration should be
toes of the slope. An earth cover may be given to the direction of prevailing winds or
necessary for aesthetic reasons, or to reduce high-velocity winds in relation to possible
fire hazards. Under certain conditions salvage sources of dust and downwind residential,
of merchantable timber may be desirable, or business, or recreational areas. Every
may be required by right of way commit- practical means should be incorporated in the
ments. Whenever merchantable timber is to design of the highway and in the provisions of
be salvaged, appropriate specifications should the contract to prevent air pollution resulting
be provided. Stumps and unsightly clumps of from highway construction and operation.
debris should be chipped or buried in areas
110.4 Wetlands Protection
where they will not create future problems.
The Nation's wetlands are recognized on both the
Care should be taken not to block drainage or
Federal and State level as a valuable resource. As
to interfere with maintenance operations.
such, there have been several legislative and
Before proposing chipping as the method of administrative actions which provide for special
disposal, the designer should investigate to consideration for the preservation of wetlands.
determine if plant disease or insect pests will These are embodied on the Federal level in
be spread to disease-free or insect-free areas. Executive Order 11990, DOT Order 5660.1A,
Procedures to decontaminate such chips Section 404 of the Clean Water Act, including
before use should be included in the contract Section 404(b)(1) guidelines, and the NEPA 404
if necessary. Designers should seek advice Integration Process for Surface Transportation
from local experts and County Agricultural Projects, and the August 24, 1993 Federal
Extension Offices to determine the extent of Wetlands Policy. Wetlands are covered on the
such problems and the procedures and State level by the Porter-Cologne Water Quality
chemicals to be specified. Act and the Resources Agency's Wetlands Policy.
The U.S. Forest Service and the State Division The District Environmental Unit can provide
of Forestry should be contacted during the assistance with permitting strategies, identifying
design stage to ascertain the requirements that wetlands, determining project impacts, and
these agencies will make upon any disposal recommending mitigation measures, in
methods to be used in areas under their coordination with the District Landscape Architect.
control. 110.5 Control of Noxious Weeds - Exotic
It will be noted that under certain limited and Invasive Species
conditions the prohibition against burning Highway corridors provide the opportunity for the
may be eliminated from the Special transportation of exotic and invasive weed species
Provisions. through the landscape. Species that have the ability
There will be some areas of the State where to harm the environment, human health or the
Air Pollution Control Boards may consider economy are of particular concern. In response to
issuing a permit for open burning where the the impact of exotic and invasive species,
effect on air quality is expected to be Executive Order 13112 was signed, which directs
negligible and few if any residents would be Federal Agencies to expand and coordinate efforts
affected. The individual situation should be to combat the introduction and spread of non-native
studied and appropriate special provisions plants and animals. Grading, excavation, and fill
prepared for each project to fully cover all operations during construction may introduce
invasive species or promote their spreading.
December 30, 2015
Because of this, the FHWA implemented guidance obtain recommendations for mitigating earthquake
for State Departments of Transportation for damage.
preventing the introduction and controlling the
When subjected to an earthquake, fills may crack,
spread of invasive plant species on highway rights
slump, and settle. In areas of high water table,
of way on transportation improvement projects.
liquefaction may cause large settlement and
District Environmental Unit and Landscape
shifting of the roadway. It is not economically
Architecture can provide assistance in identifying
feasible to entirely prevent this damage. One
invasive or exotic species which should be
possible mitigation for existing soils would be to
controlled, and in recommending mitigation or
have the contract Special Provisions provide for
control methods to be included in appropriate
removal of loose and compressible material from
highway improvement projects.
fill foundation areas, particularly in canyons,
110.6 Earthquake Consideration sidehill fills, and ravines and for foundation
preparation on existing hillsides at the transition
Earthquakes are naturally occurring events that between cut and fill.
have a high potential to cause damage and
destruction. While it is not possible to completely No modification is necessary in the design of the
assure earthquake proof facilities, every attempt pavement structural sections for the purpose of
should be made to limit potential damage and reducing damage due to future earthquakes.
prevent collapse. Normally it is not possible to reduce this damage,
since the structural section cannot be insulated
There are certain measures that should be from movements of the ground on which it rests.
considered when a project is to be constructed in or In active fault areas, consideration should be given
near a known zone of active faulting. to the use of flexible pipes or pipes with flexible
Early in the route location process, active and couplings for cross drains, roadway drainage and
inactive faults should be mapped by engineering conduits.
geologists. A general assessment of the seismic Additional expenditure for right of way and
risk of various areas within the study zone should construction to make highways and freeways more
then be prepared. The DOS and Office of earthquake resistant in a known active fault area
Structural Foundations are available to assist in the should be kept in balance with the amount of
assessment of seismic risk. impact on the traveling public if the facility may be
Strong consideration must be given to the location put out of service following a disastrous
of major interchanges. They must be sited outside earthquake. Loss of a major interchange, however,
of heavily faulted areas unless there are exceptional may have a tremendous influence on traffic flow
circumstances that make it impractical to do so. and because of the secondary life-safety and
Where close seismic activity is highly probable, economic impacts some additional expenditure
consideration should be given to avoiding complex may be justified.
multilevel interchanges in favor of simple designs
110.7 Traffic Control Plans
with low skew, short span structures close to the
original ground, and maximum use of embankment. This section focuses mainly on providing for
Single span bridges which are designed to tolerate vehicular traffic through the work zone; however,
large movements are desirable. providing for bicyclists, pedestrians, and transit
through the work zone is also necessary when they
Early recognition of seismic risk may lead the
are not prohibited.
designer to modify alignment or grade in order to
minimize high cuts, fills, and bridge structures in A detailed plan for moving all users of the facility
the area. Slopes should be made as flat as possible through or around a construction zone must be
both for embankment stability and to reduce slide developed and included in the PS&E for all
potential in cuts. Buttress fills can be constructed projects to assure that adequate consideration is
to improve cut stability. The DOS and the Office given to the safety and convenience of motorists,
of Structural Foundations, should be consulted transit, bicyclists, pedestrians, and workers during
early when considering various alternatives to construction. Design plans and specifications must
December 30, 2015
be carefully analyzed in conjunction with Traffic, • Methods of minimizing construction time

Construction, and Structure personnel (where without compromising safety.
applicable) to determine in detail the measures
required to warn and guide motorists, transit, • Hours of work.
bicyclists, and pedestrians through the project • Storage of equipment and materials.
during the various stages of work. Starting early in
the design phase, the project engineer should give • Removal of construction debris.
continuing attention to this subject, including • Treatment of pavement edges.
consideration of the availability of appropriate
access to the work site, in order that efficient rates • Roadway lighting.
of production can be maintained. In addition to • Movement of construction equipment.
reducing the time the public is exposed to
construction operations, the latter effort will help to • Access for emergency vehicles.
hold costs to a minimum. • Clear roadside recovery area.
The traffic control plans should be consistent with • Provision for disabled vehicles.
the California MUTCD, and the philosophies and
requirements contained in standard traffic control • Surveillance and inspection.
system plans developed by the Headquarters
• Needed modifications of above items for
Division of Traffic Operations for use on State
inclement weather or darkness.
highways and should cover, as appropriate, such
items as: • Evaluate and provide for as appropriate the
needs of bicyclists and pedestrians (including
• Signing.
ADA requirements; see Index 105.4).
• Flagging.
• Provisions to accommodate continued transit
• Geometrics of detours. service.
• Methods and devices for delineation and • Consideration of complete facility closure
channelization. during construction.
• Application and removal of pavement • Consideration of ingress/egress requirements
markings. for construction vehicles.
• Placement and design of barriers and • Any other matters appropriate to the safety
barricades. objective.
• Separation of opposing vehicular traffic Normally, not all the above items will be pertinent
streams (See 23 CFR 630J). to any one traffic control plan. Depending on the
complexity of the project and the volume of traffic
• Maximum lengths of lane closures. affected, the data to be included in the traffic
• Speed limits and enforcement. control plan can vary from a simple graphic
alignment of the various sequences to the inclusion
• Use of COZEEP (see Construction Manual of complete construction details in the plans and
Section 2-215). special provisions. In any event, the plans should
• Use of pilot cars. clearly depict the exact sequence of operation, the
construction details to be performed, and the
• Construction scheduling. traveled way to be used by all modes of traffic
• Staging and sequencing. during each construction phase. Sufficient
alignment data, profiles, plan dimensions, and
• Length of project under construction at any one typical sections should be shown to ensure that the
time. contractor and resident engineer will have no
difficulty in providing traffic-handling facilities.
December 30, 2015
In some cases, where the project includes Safety Review Committee prior to PS&E as
permanent lighting, it may be helpful to install the discussed in Index 110.8.
lights as an early order of work, so they can
The cost of implementing traffic control plans must
function during construction. In other cases,
be included in the project cost estimate, either as
temporary installations of high-level area lighting
one or more separate pay items or as extra work to
may be justified.
be paid by force account.
Temporary roadways with alignment and surfacing
It is recognized that in many cases provisions for
consistent with the standards of the road which has
traffic control will be dependent on the way the
just been traveled by the motorist should be
contractor chooses to execute the project, and that
provided if physically and economically possible.
the designer may have to make some assumptions
Based on assessments of safety benefits, relative as to the staging or sequence of the contractor's
risks and cost-effectiveness, consideration should operations in order to develop definite temporary
be given to the possibility of including a bid item traffic control plans. However, safety of the public
for continuous traffic surveillance and control and the workers as well as public convenience
during particular periods, such as: demand that designers give careful consideration to
the plans for handling all traffic even though a
(a) When construction operations are not in
different plan may be followed ultimately. It is
progress.
simpler from a contract administration standpoint
(b) When lane closures longer than a specified to change a plan than to add one where none
length are delineated by cones or other such existed. The special provisions should specify that
nonpermanent devices, whether or not the contractor may develop alternate traffic control
construction operations are in progress. plans if they are as sound or better than those
(c) Under other conditions where the risk and provided in the contract PS&E.
consequences of traffic control device failure See Section 2-30, Traffic, of the Construction
are deemed sufficient. Manual for additional factors to be considered in
Potentially hazardous working conditions must be the preparation of traffic control plans.
recognized and full consideration given to the 110.8 Safety Reviews
safety of workers as well as the general public
during construction. This requirement includes the Formal safety reviews during planning, design and
provision of adequate clearance between public construction have demonstrated that safety-oriented
traffic and work areas, work periods, and lane critiques of project plans help to ensure the
closures based on careful consideration of application of safety standards. An independent
anticipated vehicle traffic volumes, and minimum team not involved in the design details of the
exposure time of workers through simplified design project is generally able to conduct reviews from a
and methods. fresh perspective. In many cases, this process leads
to highly cost-effective modifications that enhance
If a Transportation Management Plan (TMP) is safety for motorists, bicyclists, pedestrians, and
included in the project, the traffic control plans highway workers without any material changes in
(TCP) may need to be coordinated with the public the scope of the project.
information campaign and the transportation
demand management elements. Any changes in (1) Policy. During the planning stage all projects
TMP or TCP must be made in harmony for the must be reviewed by the District Safety Review
plans to succeed. The “TMP Guidelines”, available Committee prior to approval of the appropriate
from the Headquarters Division of Traffic project initiation document (PSR, PSSR,
Operations should be reviewed for further NBSSR, etc.).
guidance. During design, each major project with an
Traffic control plans along with other features of estimated cost over the Minor A limit must be
the design should be reviewed by the District reviewed by the District Safety Review
Committee.
December 30, 2015
Any project, regardless of cost, requiring a • Sight distance.

Traffic Control Plan must be reviewed by the
District Safety Review Committee. During • ADA design.
construction, the detection of the need for • Guardrail.
safety-related changes is the responsibility of
construction personnel, as outlined in the • Run off road concerns.
Construction Manual. • Superelevation, etc.
Safety concepts that are identified during • Roadside management and maintenance
these safety reviews which directly limit the reduction.
exposure of employees to vehicular and
bicycle traffic shall be incorporated into the • Access to facilities from off of the
project unless deletion is approved by the freeway.
District Director. • Maintenance vehicle pull-out locations.
(2) Procedure. Each District must have a Safety The objective is to identify all elements where
Review Committee, composed of at least one safety improvement may be practical and
engineer from the Construction, Design, indicate desirable corrective measures.
Maintenance, and Traffic functions and should Reviews should be scheduled when the report
designate one of the members as chairperson. or plans are far enough along for a review to
Committee members should familiarize be fruitful, but early enough to avoid
themselves with current standards and unnecessary delay in the approval of the
instructions on highway safety so that they report or the completion of PS&E.
can identify items in need of correction.
A simple report should be prepared on the
The Committee should conduct at least two recommendations made by the Safety
design safety reviews of each major project. Committee and the response by the Design
The Design Project Engineer has the basic Project Engineer. The reports should be
responsibility to notify the committee included in the project files.
chairperson when a review is needed. The
chairperson should schedule a review and 110.9 Value Analysis
coordinate participation by appropriate The use of Value Analysis techniques should begin
committee members. early in the project development process and be
Reviews, evaluating safety from the applied at various milestones throughout the PS&E
perspectives of the motorists, bicyclists, and stage to reduce life-cycle costs. See the Project
pedestrians, should include qualitative and/or Development Procedures Manual for additional
quantitative safety considerations of such information.
items as:
• Exposure of employees to vehicular and The use of proprietary items is discouraged in the
bicycle traffic. interest of promoting competitive bidding. If it is
• Traffic control plans. determined that a proprietary item is needed and
beneficial to the State, their use must be approved
• Transportation Management Plans. by the District Director or by the Deputy District
• Traversability of roadsides. Director of Design (if such approval authority has
been specifically delegated by the District
• Elimination or other appropriate treatment Director). The Division Chief of Engineering
of fixed objects. Services must approve the use of proprietary items
• Susceptibility to wrong-way moves. on structures and other design elements under their
jurisdiction. The Department’s guidelines on how
• Safety of construction and maintenance to include proprietary items in contract plans are
personnel. covered in the Office Engineer’s Ready to List and
December 30, 2015
Construction Contract Award Guide (RTL Guide) consideration of alternates such as the substitution
under “Proprietary Products.” of more plentiful or renewable resources and the
recycling of existing materials.
On projects that utilize federal funds, the use of
proprietary items requires an additional approval (1) Rigid Pavement. The crushing and reuse of
through a Public Interest Finding (PIF). A PIF is old rigid pavement as aggregate in new rigid
approved by the Federal Highway Administration or flexible pavement does not now appear to
(FHWA) Division Office for “High Profile be a cost-effective alternate, primarily because
Projects” or by the Division of Budgets, California of the availability of good mineral aggregate
Federal Resources Engineer for Delegated Projects, in most areas of California. However, if this
in accordance with the Stewardship Agreement. is a feasible option, because of unique project
Additional information on the PIF process can be conditions or the potential lack of readily
found through the Division of Budgets, Office of available materials, it may be included in a
Federal Resources. cost comparison of alternate solutions.
The use of proprietary materials, methods, or (2) Flexible Pavement. Recycling of existing
products will not be approved unless: flexible pavement must be considered, in all
cases, as an alternative to placing 100 percent
(a) There is no other known material of equal or
new flexible pavement.
better quality that will perform the same
function, or (3) Use of Flexible Pavement Grindings, Chunks
and Pieces. When constructing transportation
(b) There are overwhelming reasons for using the
facilities, the Department frequently uses
material or product in the public’s interest,
asphalt in mixed or combined materials such
which may or may not include cost savings, or
as flexible pavement. The Department also
(c) It is essential for synchronization with existing uses recycled flexible grindings and chunks.
highway or adjoining facilities, or There is a potential for these materials to
(d) Such use is on an experimental basis, with a reach the waters of the State through erosion
clearly written plan for “follow-up and or inappropriate placement during
evaluation.” construction. Section 5650 of the Fish and
Game Code states that it is unlawful to deposit
If the proprietary item is to be used experimentally asphalt, other petroleum products, or any
and there is Federal participation, the request for material deleterious to fish, plant life, or bird
FHWA approval must be submitted to the Chief, life where they can pass into the waters of the
Office of Resolution of Necessity, Encroachment State. In addition, Section 1601 of the Fish
Exceptions, and Resource Conservation in the and Game Code requires notification to the
Division of Design. The request must include a California Department of Fish and Game
Construction Evaluated Work Plan (CEWP), which (DFG) prior to construction of a project that
indicates specific functional managers, and units, will result in the disposal or deposition of
which have been assigned responsibility for debris, waste, or other material containing
objective follow-up, evaluation, and documentation crumbled, flaked, or ground pavement where
of the effectiveness of the proprietary item. it can pass into any river, stream, or lake
designated by the DFG.
110.11 Conservation of Materials and
Energy The first step is to determine whether there are
waters of the State in proximity to the project
Paving materials such as cement, asphalt, and rock
that could be affected by the reuse of flexible
products are becoming more scarce and expensive,
pavement. Waters of the State include: (1)
and the production processes for these materials
perennial rivers, streams, or lakes that flow or
consume considerable energy. Increasing evidence
contain water continuously for all or most of
of the limitation of nonrenewable resources and
the year; or (2) intermittent lakes that contain
increasing worldwide consumption of most of these
water from time to time or intermittent rivers
resources require optimal utilization and careful
or streams that flow from time to time,
December 30, 2015
stopping and starting at intervals, and may water table and covered by at least one
disappear and reappear. Ephemeral streams, foot of material.
which are generally exempt under provisions
A Memorandum of Understanding (MOU)
developed by the Department and DFG, are
dated January 12, 1993, outlines the interim
those that flow only in direct response to
agreement between the DFG and the
rainfall.
Department regarding the use of asphaltic
The reuse of flexible pavement grindings will materials. This MOU provides a working
normally be consistent with the Fish and agreement to facilitate the Department’s
Game Code and not require a 1601 Agreement continued use of asphaltic materials and avoid
when these materials are placed where they potential conflicts with the Fish and Game
cannot enter the waters of the State. However, Code by describing conditions where use of
there are no set rules as to distances and asphalt road construction material by the
circumstances applicable to the placement of Department would not conflict with the Fish
asphaltic materials adjacent to waters of the and Game Code.
State. Placement decisions must be made on
Specific Understandings contained in the
case-by-case basis, so that such materials will
MOU are:
be placed far enough away from the waters of
the State to prevent weather (erosion) or • Asphalt Use in Embankments
maintenance operations from dislodging the
The Department may use flexible
material into State waters. Site-specific
pavement chunks and pieces in
factors (i.e., steep slopes) should be given
embankments when these materials are
special care. Generally, when flexible
placed where they will not enter the
pavement grindings are being considered for
waters of the State.
placement where there is a potential for this
material to enter a water body, DFG should be • Use of flexible pavement grindings as
notified to assist in determining whether a Shoulder Backing
1601 Agreement is appropriate. DFG may
The Department may use flexible
require mitigation strategies to prevent the
pavement grindings as shoulder backing
materials from entering the Waters of the
when these materials are placed where
State. When in doubt, it is recommended that
they will not enter the waters of the State.
the DFG be notified.
• Streambed Alteration Agreements
If there is the potential for reused flexible
materials to reach waters of the State through The Department will notify the DFG
erosion or other means during construction, pursuant to Section 1601 of the Fish and
such work would normally require a 1601 Game Code when a project involving the
Agreement. Depending on the circumstances, use of asphaltic materials or crumbled,
the following mitigation measures should be flaked, or ground pavement will alter or
taken to prevent flexible grindings from result in the deposition of pavement
entering water bodies: material into a river, stream, or lake
designated by the DFG. When the
• The reuse of flexible pavement grindings
proposed activity incorporates the
as fill material and shoulder backing must
agreements reached under Section 1601 of
conform to the California Department of
the Fish and Game Code, and is consistent
Transportation (Department) Standard
with Section 5650 of the Fish and Game
Specifications, applicable manuals of
Code and this MOU, the DFG will agree
instruction, contract provisions, and the
to the use of these materials.
MOU described below.
There may be circumstances where agreement
• Flexible chunks and pieces in between the DFG and the Department cannot
embankment must be placed above the be reached. Should the two agencies reach an
December 30, 2015
impasse, the agencies enter into a binding • Culvert rehabilitation

arbitration process outlined in Section 1601 of
the Fish and Game Code. However, keep in • Large diameter pile construction, as described
mind that this arbitration process does not in the following text
exempt the Department from complying with • Pump house vaults
the provisions of the Fish and Game Code.
Also it should be noted that this process is • Cut-and-cover operations connected to ongoing
time consuming, requiring as much as 72 days underground construction and are covered in a
or more to complete. Negotiations over the manner that creates conditions characteristic of
placement of flexible pavement grindings, underground construction
chunks, and pieces are to take place at the • Well construction
District level as part of the 1601 Agreement
process. • Cofferdam excavations
110.12 Tunnel Safety Orders • Deep structure footings/shafts/casings, as

described in the following text
Projects and work activities that include human
entry into tunnels, shafts or any of a variety of Virtually any project that will lead to construction
underground structures to conduct construction or rehabilitation work within a pipe, caisson, pile or
activities must address the requirements of the underground structure that is covered by soil is
California Code of Regulations (CCR), Title 8, subject to the TSO regulations. This typically
Subchapter 20 – Tunnel Safety Orders (TSO). applies to underground structures of 30 inches or
Activities that can be considered of a maintenance greater diameter or shaft excavations of 20 feet or
nature, such as cleaning of sediment and debris more in depth. Since a shaft is defined as any
from culverts or inspection (either condition excavation with a depth at least twice its greatest
inspection for design purposes or inspection as a cross section, the regulations will apply to some
part of construction close-out) of tunnels, shafts or structure footing or cofferdam excavations.
other underground facilities are not affected by Cut and cover operations (typical of most pipe,
these regulations. junction structure and underground vault
TSO requires the Department, as owner of the construction) do not fall under the TSO regulations
facility, to request the Department of Industrial as long as worker entry to the pipe or system
Relations, Division of Occupational Safety and (usually for grouting reinforced concrete pipe,
Health (Cal-OSHA), Mining and Tunneling Unit, tightening bolts on structural plate pipe, etc.) is
to review and classify tunnels and shafts for the conducted prior to covering the facility with soil.
potential presence of flammable gas and vapors Connecting new pipe to existing buried pipe or
prior to bidding. The intent of the TSO regulations structures does fall under the TSO regulations
are to protect workers from possible injury due to unless the existing pipe system is physically
exposure to hazardous conditions. Failure to separated by a bulkhead to prevent entry into the
comply is punishable by fine. The complete TSO buried portion. Designers must either incorporate
regulations are available at the following website: requirements for such separation of facilities into
(http://www.dir.ca.gov/title8/sub20.html), with the PS&E or they must obtain the required
Sections 8403 and 8422 containing information classification from Cal-OSHA. For any project that
most applicable to project design. requires classification, specifications must be
included that alert the Contractor to the specific
The TSO regulations require classification location and classification that Cal-OSHA has
whenever there is human entry into a facility provided.
defined as a tunnel or entry into, or very near the
entrance of, a shaft. Some of the common types of The TSO regulations should be viewed as being in
activities where human entry is likely and that will addition to, and not excluding, other requirements
typically require classification include: as may apply to contractor or Department
personnel covered in the Construction Safety
• Pipe jacking or boring operations Orders (see CCR, Title 8, Subchapter 4, Article 6 at
December 30, 2015
http://www.dir.ca.gov/title8/sub4.html), safety and Division prior to bidding and in all cases prior
health procedures for confined spaces (see Chapter to actual underground construction. In order to
14 of the Caltrans Safety Manual), or any other make the evaluation, the following will be
regulations that may apply to such work. required:
(1) Plans and specifications;
Prior to PS&E submittal on a project that includes
any work defined in CCR Section 8403, a written (2) Geological report;
request must be submitted for classification to the (3) Test bore hole and soil analysis log along
appropriate Mining and Tunneling (M&T) Unit the tunnel alignment;
office. Each M&T Unit office covers specific
counties as shown on Figure 110.12. Classification (4) Proximity and identity of existing utilities
and abandoned underground tanks.
must be obtained individually for each separate
location on a project. For emergency projects or (5) Recommendation from owner, agency,
other short lead-time work, it is recommended that lessee, or their agent relative to the
the appropriate M&T Unit office be contacted as possibility of encountering flammable gas
soon as possible to discuss means of obtaining or vapors;
classification prior to the start of construction (6) The Division may require additional drill
activities. hole or other geologic data prior to
making gas classifications.
The request must include all pertinent and
necessary data to allow the M&T Unit to classify (b) The Division shall classify all tunnels or
the situation. The data specified under paragraph portions of tunnels into one of the following
classifications:
(a) of Section 8422 (complete text of Section 8422
reprinted below) is typical of new construction (1) Nongassy, which classification shall be
projects, however for culvert rehabilitation and applied to tunnels where there is little
other type of work affecting an existing facility, not likelihood of encountering gas during the
all of the indicated items are typically available or construction of the tunnel.
necessary for submittal. The appropriate M&T (2) Potentially gassy, which classification
Unit office should be contacted for advice if there shall be applied to tunnels where there is a
is any question regarding data to submit. possibility flammable gas or
hydrocarbons will be encountered.
In many instances it may not be known during
design if there will be human entry into facility (3) Gassy, which classification shall be
types that would meet the definition of a tunnel or applied to tunnels where it is likely gas
will be encountered or if a concentration
shaft. If there is any anticipation that such entry is
greater than 5 percent of the LEL of:
likely to occur, classification should be requested.
As permit acquisition is typically the responsibility (A) flammable gas has been detected
of the District, it is imperative that there be close not less than 12 inches from any
coordination between District and Structures surface in any open workings with
normal ventilation.
Design staff regarding the inclusion of any
facilities in the structures PS&E that could be (B) flammable petroleum vapors that
defined as a tunnel or shaft and have potential for have been detected not less than
3 inches from any surface in any
human entry. The following text is taken directly
open workings with normal
from Section 8422: ventilation.
8422 Tunnel Classifications (4) Extrahazardous, which classification shall
(a) When the preliminary investigation of a tunnel be applied to tunnels when the Division
project is conducted, the owner or agency finds that there is a serious danger to the
proposing the construction of the tunnel shall safety of employees and:
submit the geological information to the Flammable gas or petroleum vapor
Division for review and classification relative emanating from the strata has been ignited
to flammable gas or vapors. The preliminary in the tunnel; or
classification shall be obtained from the
December 30, 2015
Figure 110.12
California Mining and Tunneling Districts
December 30, 2015
(A) A concentration of 20 percent of NOTE: The Division shall respond within 10

the LEL of flammable gas has been working days for any such request. Also, the
detected not less than 12 inches Division may request additional information and/or
from any surface in any open require specific conditions in order to work under a
working with normal ventilation; or
lower level of classification.
(B) A concentration of 20 percent of
LEL petroleum vapors has been Topic 111 - Material Sites and
detected not less than three inches
from any surface in any open Disposal Sites
workings with normal ventilation.
111.1 General Policy
(c) A notice of the classification and any special
orders, rules, special conditions, or regulations The policies and procedures concerning material
to be used shall be prominently posted at the sites and disposal sites are listed below. For further
tunnel job site, and all personnel shall be information concerning selection and procedures
informed of the classification. for disposal, staging and borrow sites, see DIB 85.
(d) The Division shall classify or reclassify any (a) Materials investigations and environmental
tunnel as gassy or extrahazardous if the
studies of local materials sources should be
preliminary investigation or past experience
indicates that any gas or petroleum vapors in
made to the extent necessary to provide a basis
hazardous concentrations is likely to be for study and design. Location and capacity of
encountered in such tunnel or if the tunnel is available disposal sites should be determined
connected to a gassy or extrahazardous for all projects requiring disposal of more than
excavation and may expose employees to a 10,000 cubic yards of clean material. Sites for
reasonable likelihood of danger. disposal of any significant amount of material
(e) For the purpose of reclassification and to in sensitive areas should be considered only
ensure a proper application of classification, where there is no practical alternative.
the Division shall be notified immediately if a (b) Factual information obtained from such
gas or petroleum vapor exceeds any one of the
investigations should be made readily available
individual classification limits described in
subsection (b) above. No underground works to prospective bidders and contractors.
shall advance until reclassification has been (c) The responsibility for interpreting such
made. information rests with the contractor and not
(1) A request for declassification may be with the State.
submitted in writing to the Division by
(d) Generally, the designation of optional material
the employer and/or owner's designated
agent whenever either of the following sites or disposal sites will not be included in the
conditions occur: special provisions. Mandatory sites must be
designated in the special provisions or
(A) The underground excavation has Materials Information Handout as provided in
been completed and/or isolated
Index 111.3 of this manual and Section 2-1.03
from the ventilation system and/or
other excavations underway, or
of the Standard Specifications. A disposal site
within the highway right of way (not
(B) The identification of any specific necessarily within the project limits) should be
changes and/or conditions that have
provided when deemed in the best interest of
occurred subsequent to the initial
classification criteria such as the Department as an alternative to an approved
geological information, bore hole site for disposal of water bearing residues
sampling results, underground generated by grinding or grooving operations,
tanks or utilities, ventilation after approval is obtained from the Regional
system, air quality records, and/or Water Quality Control Board (RWQCB)
evidence of no intrusions of having jurisdiction over the area.
explosive gas or vapor into the
underground atmosphere. (e) Material agreements or other arrangements
should be made with owners of material sites
December 30, 2015
whenever the absence of such arrangements project is based on the most economical use of
would result in restriction of competition in available materials compatible with good
bidding, or in other instances where it is in the environmental design practices. Where it can
State's interest that such arrangements be made. be reasonably assumed that all required
materials can be most economically obtained
(f) The general policy of Caltrans is to avoid
from commercial sources on the current “AB
specifying mandatory sources unless data in
3098 List”, it should be unnecessary to
support of such sources shows certain and
investigate other sites. In all other cases
substantial savings to the State. Mandatory
material sites should be investigated.
sources must not be specified on Federal-aid
Exploration of materials sources should not be
projects except under exceptional
restricted to those properties where the owner
circumstances, and prior approval of the
expresses willingness to enter into agreement
FHWA is required. Supporting data in such
with the State. Unless it is definitely known
cases should be submitted as early as possible.
that the owner will under no circumstances
This policy also applies to disposal sites.
permit removal of materials, the site should be
(g) It is the policy of Caltrans to cooperate with considered as a possible source of local
local authorities to the greatest practicable materials.
extent in complying with environmental
(2) Geotechnical Design Report or Materials
requirements for all projects. Any corrective
Report. The Geotechnical Design Report or
measures wanted by the local authorities
Materials Report should include complete
should be provided through the permit process.
information on all sites investigated and
Any unusual requirements, conditions, or
should discuss the quality, cost, SMARA
situations should be submitted to the Division
status, and availability of materials from
of Design for review (see Indexes 110.2 and
commercial plants on the current “AB 3098
110.3).
List”. Sufficient sampling of sites must be
(h) The use of any materials site requires performed to indicate the character of the
compliance with environmental laws and material and the elevation of the ground water
regulations, which is normally a part of the surface, and to determine changes in the
project environmental documentation. If the character of the material, both laterally and
need for a site occurs after approval of the vertically. Sampling must be done in such a
project environmental document, a separate manner that individual samples can be taken
determination of environmental requirements from each horizon or layer. Composite
for the materials site may be required. samples of two or more different types of
(i) If the materials site is outside the project limits material are unsatisfactory, as there is no
and exceeds 1-acre in size, or extraction will assurance that the materials would be so
exceed 1,000 cubic yards, it must comply with combined if the materials source were actually
the Surface Mining and Reclamation Act of used. Testing of blends of two or more types
1975 (SMARA) and be included on the current of materials is permissible, provided the test
“AB 3098 List” published by the Department report clearly indicates the combination tested.
of Conservation before material from that site The test report must clearly indicate the
can be used on a State project. There are location of the sample and the depth
limited exceptions to this requirement and the represented. The fact that materials sites are
District Materials Engineer should be not designated in the Special Provisions does
consulted. not reduce the importance of thorough
exploration and testing.
111.2 Investigation of Local Materials
As tabulations of test data for local materials
Sources will be furnished to prospective bidders, and
(1) Extent of Explorations. Possible sources of the test reports may be examined by bidders if
materials should be investigated to the extent they so request, it is important that only
necessary to assure that the design of each factual data be shown on the test report and
December 30, 2015
that no conclusions, opinions, or interpretation 111.3 Materials Information Furnished to

of the test data be included. Under Prospective Bidders
"Remarks", give only the pertinent factual
information regarding the scalping, crushing, (1) Materials Information Compilation. It is the
blending, or other laboratory processing intent that all test data applicable to material
performed in preparing samples for testing, sites for a project be furnished to prospective
and omit any comments as to suitability for bidders. To obtain uniformity in the
any purpose. Any discussion of the quality, "handouts" furnishing this information to
suitability, or quantity of material in local prospective bidders, the District Materials
materials sites necessary for design purposes Unit should develop the “handout” and the
should be included in the Geotechnical Design following information must be included:
Report or Materials Report, and not noted on (a) A cover page entitled, "Materials
the test reports. For any potential materials Information", should show District,
source explored or tested, all boring and test County, Route, kilometer post limits, and
data must be furnished, including those tests geographical limits. There should be a
which indicate unsuitable or inferior material. note stating where the records, from
Materials information to be furnished bidders which the information was compiled, may
may include data on a materials source be inspected. Also, an index, listing
previously investigated for the same project or investigated material sites, and disposal
some other project provided all of the sites, maps, test reports, tabulation sheets,
following conditions are met: SMARA status, and agreements is to be
shown on the cover page.
(a) There has been no change in test
procedures subsequent to the time the (b) A vicinity map showing the location of
earlier tests were made. investigated materials sites and disposal
sites in relation to the project.
(b) The materials source has not been altered
by stream action, weathering, or other (c) A map of each material site showing the
natural processes. location and identification of boring or
test pits.
(c) The material sampled and represented by
the tests has not been removed. (d) A tabulation of the test data for each
material site, showing complete
(d) There has been no change in SMARA information on the location, depth, and
status, or inclusion or exclusion on the processing of each sample tested, together
“AB 3098 List”. with all test results.
It will be necessary for each District to (e) Copies of all options or agreements with
maintain a filing system such that all owners of the material sites, if such
preliminary test reports for potential materials arrangements have been made.
sites are readily accessible. This will
necessitate preparation of test reports covering (f) Soil survey sheets or suitable terrain maps
all preliminary tests of materials. It will also showing borings and tests along the
be essential to maintain some type of highway alignment.
materials inventory system, whereby sites in (g) A tabulation of which sites comply with
the vicinity of any project can be readily environmental laws and regulations and
identified and the test reports can be are included on the current “AB 3098
immediately accessible. Filing only by List”.
numerical or chronological order will not be
permissible. (h) Material site grading and reclamation plan
and disposal site grading plans, if they
have been prepared.
December 30, 2015
(i) Copies of local use permits and clearances benefits have been properly considered in the
(when they have been obtained by the derivation of the royalty.
State) such as environmental clearances,
mining permits, Forest Service Fire 111.5 Procedures for Acquisition of
Regulations, water quality control Material Sites and Disposal Sites
clearances, etc. If documents are of These instructions establish procedures to be
unusual length, a statement should be followed in the purchase of material sites and
included that they have been obtained and disposal sites when such purchase is deemed
are available for inspection at the District necessary by the District. The steps to be taken are
office or Sacramento Plans Counter. listed in order as follows:
Maps, test reports, and other data included in (1) General Procedure.
the "Materials Information" must be factual,
and should not include any comments, (a) A District report proposing and
conclusions, or opinions as to the quality, establishing the necessity for purchase of
quantity, suitability, depth, or area of the the site is required. The report should
materials in any material site or along the contain the following information:
highway. • The project or projects on which the
Reproducible copies of all material to be site is to be used and programming of
included in the "Material Information" proposed construction.
package should be submitted to the Office • The location and description of the
Engineer. property, zoning, and site restora-
The Office Engineer will reproduce the tion/reclamation proposals including
"Materials Information," and copies will be necessary vicinity and site maps.
available to prospective bidders upon request • The amount and quality of material
in the same manner that plans and special estimated to be available in the site
provisions are furnished. and amount needed for the project or
111.4 Materials Arrangements projects, or amount of excess material
to be disposed of and the capacity of
Materials agreements or other arrangements must the site or sites.
be made in accordance with the policy stated under
Index 111.1(e). • An economic analysis using the
estimated purchase price and value of
The determination of when and where materials land after removal of material or
agreements or other arrangements are to be deposit of excess material. The total
obtained is the responsibility of the District, see estimated savings over other possible
Section 8.25.00.00 of the Right of Way Manual. alternatives must be clearly demon-
The District should also determine the maximum strated. Alternatives must be shown
royalty that can be paid economically on the basis from the standpoint of what would
of availability of competitive sources. have to be done if the site was not
purchased. Alternatives could be
In preparing agreements, guaranteed quantity changes in location or grade as well as
provisions should not be included, as the alternative sources of material.
opportunity exists for possible token removal, with
the result that the State would be required to pay • A statement as to whether or not the
for the guaranteed quantity even though the use of the site should be mandatory,
material would not actually be removed. Also, with a separate statement regarding
requirements that the State perform construction the effect for each proposed project
work on the owner's property, such as fences, gates, for which mandatory use of the site is
cattle guards, roads, etc., should be included only considered necessary, including com-
when the cost of such items and possible resulting plete justification for the mandatory
December 30, 2015
specification (see Index 111.6). Three Management and Administration Units

copies of each map or other and obtain District Director approval.
attachment, folded letter size, are
(g) After issuance of an expenditure
required for mandatory sites on all
authorization, the District Division of
Federal-aid projects.
Right of Way will complete purchase of
• A statement of the type of the site.
environmental documentation. (2) Material and Disposal Sites in Federal Lands.
• Other justification. The applicable sections of the Federal
Highway Act of 1958 for procurement of
Send one copy to the Division of Design borrow or disposal sites, Sections 107(d) and
and one copy to DES Materials 317, are set forth in Section 8.18.02.00 of the
Engineering and Testing Services for Right of Way Manual; Section 107(d) applies
information. to the Interstate System while Section 317
(b) If the project or projects are to have applies to other Federal-aid highways.
Federal aid, the District will prepare a Whenever Federal public lands are required
request, with supporting environmental for a material or a disposal site, and after
clearance, for FHWA approval to specify preliminary negotiations at the local level with
the source as mandatory. One copy of this the Federal agency having jurisdiction, the
request should be sent to the Office District must submit a letter report to the
Engineer and one copy to Division of FHWA. This report should observe the
Design. requirements of Index 111.5 of this manual
and Section 8.18.02.03 of the Right of Way
(c) If the estimated purchase price is over
Manual.
$300,000, the District should include the
item in the STIP and corresponding Following submittal of the proposal by the
budget. District to the FHWA, the latter, acting on
behalf of the State transmits the proposal with
(d) When the proposed purchase has been
a favorable recommendation to the Federal
approved, the Project Engineer should
agency having control of the site. See Section
notify the District Division of Right of
8.18.02.03 of the Right of Way Manual.
Way, District Environmental Division and
the District Materials Unit and request 111.6 Mandatory Material Sites and
that Right of Way purchase the site (or Disposal Sites on Federal-aid Projects
obtain a Materials Agreement; the
Materials Unit should assist in the The contract provisions must not specify a
development of the agreement) and the mandatory site for the disposal of surplus
Environmental Division obtain excavated materials unless a particular site is
environmental authorization to proceed. needed for environmental reasons or the site is
found to be the most economical for one or more
(e) The District must include the cost of Federal-aid projects. All points listed in Index
purchase in the proper fiscal year program 111.5(1)(a) and (b) must be covered and one copy
and/or budget as part of the District of all attachments submitted. Supporting data must
targets. be submitted to the FHWA during the project
(f) After budgeting, the District must submit planning phase or early in the project design phase
an expenditure authorization to cover as almost all cases of mandatory sites must go to
purchase of the site. This could be the FHWA for decision.
concurrent if the project is added to the Section 635.407 of 23 CFR 635D states in part:
budget during a fiscal year. The
expenditure authorization request should "The designation of a mandatory material
be processed through the District Project source may be permitted based on
environmental considerations, provided the
December 30, 2015
environment would be substantially enhanced space is available in the vicinity of the project, the
without excessive cost." District Environmental Division should be
consulted to determine what environmental
"The contract provisions ... shall not specify
requirements are necessary for the use of these
mandatory a site for the disposal of surplus
properties for the intended purpose. If sufficient
excavated materials unless there is a finding
space does not appear to be available for yard or
by the State highway agency with the
plant, the Project Engineer must see that the
concurrence of the FHWA Division
appropriate wording is placed in the contract
Administrator that such placement is the most
Special Provisions.
economical except that the designation of a
mandatory site may be permitted based on
environmental considerations, provided the
Topic 113 - Geotechnical Design
environment would be substantially enhanced Report
without excessive cost."
113.1 Policy
Topic 112 - Contractor's Yard and The Project Engineer must review the project
Plant Sites initiation document and Preliminary Geotechnical
Design Report, if any, to ascertain the scope of
112.1 Policy geotechnical involvement for a project. A
Geotechnical Design Report (GDR) is to be
The Project Engineer should, during the design
prepared by the Roadway Geotechnical
phase of a project, consider the need and
Engineering Branches of the Division of
availability of sites for the contractor's yards and
Engineering Services, Geotechnical Services (DES-
materials plants. This is particularly important in
GS) (or prepared by a consultant with technical
areas where dust, noise, and access problems could
oversight by DES-GS) for all projects that involve
limit the contractor in obtaining sites on their own
designs for cut slopes, embankments, earthwork,
in a timely manner. Asphalt concrete recycling
landslide remediation, retaining walls, groundwater
projects pose special problems of material storage,
studies, erosion control features, subexcavation and
access, and plant location; see Index 110.11.
any other studies involving geotechnical
Temporary storage areas should be considered for
investigations and engineering geology. A GDR is
grooving and grinding projects. As a general rule,
not required for projects that solely include those
the use of material sites designated in the Special
design features described in Index 114.1.
Provisions should be optional. Should the
materials site be desired, the contractor shall 113.2 Content
provide notice to the Resident Engineer within a
designated time period after approval of the The GDR is to conform to the “Guidelines for
contract (30 days would be a minimum, but not Geotechnical Reports” which is prepared by the
more than 60 days except in unusual situations). Office of Structural Foundations.
All environmental requirements must be satisfied 113.3 Submittal and Review
and local permits must be obtained prior to
submittal of the PS&E. Right of Way, Permits, and Final copies of the GDR are to be submitted to the
Environmental units must be informed early in the Project Engineer, District Materials Unit, and the
process. The contractor will be allowed to use Division of Design. For consultant developed
these sites only for work on the designated reports, the GDR is to be submitted to DES-GS for
project(s). review and approval. DES-GS will then transmit
the approved GDR to the Project Engineer, District
112.2 Locating a Site Materials Unit, and the Division of Design.
The Project Engineer should consult with District
Division of Right of Way concerning appropriately
sized parcels currently being held in the airspace
inventory, nearby property held by Caltrans for
future construction, or as excess land. If such
December 30, 2015
Topic 114 - Materials Report (3) Proposed design life for pavements and
culverts.
114.1 Policy (4) Design Designation. Include for projects
A Materials Report must be prepared for all involving pavement structural enhancements.
projects that involve any of the following Does not apply to pavement preservation
components: activities.
• Pavement structure recommendations and/or (5) Special Considerations or Limitations. Include
pavement studies any information that may affect the materials
recommendations. Examples include traffic
• Culverts (or other drainage materials) management requirements or environmental
• Corrosion studies restrictions.
• Materials disposal sites 114.3 Content
• Side prone areas with erosive soils All Materials Reports must contain the location of
the project, scope of work, and list of special
The Materials Report may be either a single report conditions and assumptions used to develop the
or a series of reports that contains one or several of report. Materials Reports must contain the
the components listed above. Materials Reports are following information when the applicable activity
prepared for Project Initiation Documents, Project is included in the scope of the project.
Reports, and PS&E. Materials Report(s) are signed
and stamped with an engineers seal by the engineer (1) Pavement. The Materials Report must
in responsible charge for the findings and document the design designation and climate
recommendations. The District Materials Engineer zone or climate data used to prepare the report
will either prepare the Materials Report or review and recommendations. Document studies,
and accept Materials Report(s) prepared by others. tests, and cores performed to collect data for
The Material Report is signed by the Registered the report. Include deflection studies for
Engineer that prepared the report. flexible pavement rehabilitation projects (see
Index 635.1). Also include pavement structure
114.2 Requesting Materials Report(s) recommendations. The report should also
The Project Engineer (or equivalent) is responsible outline special material requirements that
for requesting a Materials Report. The District should be incorporated such as justifications
Materials Engineer can assist the Project Engineer for using (or not using) particular materials in
in identifying what components need to be the pavement structure.
addressed, when to request them, and what (2) Drainage Culverts or Other Materials. The
information is needed. At a minimum, the Materials Report must contain a sufficient
following information needs to be included in all number of alternatives that materially meet or
requests: exceed the culvert design life (and other
(1) Project location. drainage related) standards for the Project
Engineer to establish the most maintainable,
(2) Scope of work. Project Engineer should spell constructable, and cost effective alternative in
out the type of work to be done that will affect conformance with FHWA regulations (23 CFR
materials. If pavements are involved, state type 635D).
of pavement work. Provide type of project,
such as new construction, widening, or (3) Corrosion. Corrosion studies are necessary
rehabilitation. Note if culverts will be when new culverts, culvert rehabilitation, or
installed, extended, or replaced. Note if culvert extensions are part of the scope of the
material or disposal sites are needed, see project. Studies should satisfy the
Topic 111 for criteria. requirements of the “Corrosion Guidelines”.
Copies of the guidelines can be obtained from
the Corrosion Technology Branch in DES
December 16, 2016
Materials Engineering and Testing Services or Topic 115 - Designing for Bicycle
on the DES Materials Engineering and Testing
Services website.
Traffic
(4) Materials or Disposal Sites. See Topic 111 115.1 General
“Material and Disposal Sites” for conditions Under the California Vehicle Code, bicyclists
when sites need to be identified and how to generally have the same rights and duties that
document. motor vehicle drivers do when using the State
114.4 Preliminary Materials Report highway system. For example, they make the same
merging and turning movements, they need
Because resources and/or time are sometimes adequate sight distance, they need access to all
limited, it is not always possible to complete all the destinations, etc. Therefore, designing for bicycle
tests and studies necessary for a final Materials traffic and designing for motor vehicle traffic are
Report during the planning/scooping phase. In similar and based on the same fundamental
these instances, a Preliminary Materials Report transportation engineering principles. The main
may be issued using the best information available differences between bicycle and motor vehicle
and good engineering judgment. Accurate traffic operations are lower speed and acceleration
projections and design designations are still capabilities, as well as greater sensitivity to out of
required for the Preliminary Materials Report. direction travel and steep uphill grades. Design
Preliminary Materials Reports should not be used guidance that addresses the safety and mobility
for project reports or PS&E development. When needs of bicyclists on Class II bikeways (bike
used, Preliminary Materials Reports must lanes) is distributed throughout this manual. See
document the sources of information used and Chapter 1000 for additional bicycle guidance for
assumptions made. It must clearly state that the Class I bikeways (bike paths) and Class III
Preliminary Materials Report is to be used for bikeways (bike routes). See Design Information
planning and initial cost estimating only and not for Bulletin (DIB) 89 for Class IV bikeways (separated
final design. The Department Pavement website bikeways) guidance.
contains supplemental guidance for developing
preliminary pavement structures. All city, county, regional and other local agencies
responsible for bikeways or roads except those
114.5 Review and Retention of Records freeway segments where bicycle travel is
A copy of the Draft Materials Report is to be prohibited shall follow the bikeway design criteria
submitted for review and comment to the District established in this manual and the California
Materials Engineer. The District Materials MUTCD, as authorized in the Streets and
Engineer reviews the document for the Department Highways Code Sections 890.6 and 891(a).
to assure that it meets the standards, policies, and However, a local agency may utilize alternative
other requirements found in Department manuals, design criteria as prescribed in the Streets and
and supplemental district guidance (Index Highways Code Section 891(b). The decision to
604.2(2)). If it is found that the document meets develop bikeways should be made in consultation
these standards, the District Materials Engineer and coordination with local agencies responsible
accepts the Materials Report. If not, the report is for bikeway planning to ensure connectivity and
returned with comments to the submitter. network development.
After resolution of the comments, a final copy of Generally speaking, bicycle travel can be enhanced
the Materials Report is submitted to the District by bikeways or improvements to the right-hand
Materials Engineer who then furnishes it to the portion of roadways, where bicycles are required to
Project Engineer. The original copy of the travel. When feasible, a wider shoulder than
Materials Report must be permanently retained in minimum standard should be considered since
the District’s project history file and be accessible bicyclists are required to ride to as far to the right
for review by others when requested. as possible, and shoulders provide bicyclists an
opportunity to pull over to let faster traffic pass.
December 16, 2016
All transportation improvements are an opportunity retrofitting of the incompatible feature, or

to improve safety, access, and mobility for the installation of signing, pavement markings, or other
bicycle mode of travel. traffic control devices.
Where no reasonable, convenient and safe non-
Topic 116 - Bicyclists and freeway alternative exists within a freeway
Pedestrians on Freeways corridor, the Department should coordinate with
local agencies to develop new routes, improve
116.1 General existing routes or provide parallel bicycle and
Seldom is a freeway shoulder open to bicycle, pedestrian facilities within or adjacent to the
pedestrian or other non-motorized travel, but they freeway right of way. See Project Development
can be opened for use if certain criteria assessing Procedures Manual Chapter 1, Article 3 (Regional
the safety and convenience of the freeway, as and System Planning) and Chapter 31
compared with available alternate routes, is met. (Nonmotorized Transportation Facilities) for
However, a freeway should not be opened to discussion of the development of non-freeway
bicycle or pedestrian use if it is determined to be transportation alternatives.
incompatible. The Headquarters Traffic Liaison
and the Project Delivery Coordinator must approve
any proposals to open freeways to bicyclists,
pedestrian or other non-motorized use. See the
California MUTCD and CVC Section 21960.
When a new freeway segment is to remain open or
existing freeway segment is to be reopened to these
modes, it is necessary to evaluate the freeway
features for their compatibility with safe and
efficient travel, including:
• Shoulder widths
• Drainage grates; see Index 1003.5(2)
• Expansion joints
• Utility access covers on shoulders
• Frequency and spacing of entrance/exit ramps
• Multiple-lane entrance/exit ramps
• Traffic volumes on entrance/exit ramps and on
lanes merging into exit ramps
• Sight distance at entrance/exit ramps
• Freeway to freeway interchanges
• The presence and design of rumble strips
• Longitudinal edges and joints
If a freeway segment has no suitable non-freeway
alternative and is closed because certain features
are considered incompatible, the feasibility of
eliminating or reducing the incompatible features
should be evaluated. This evaluation may include
removal, redesign, replacement, relocation or
March 7, 2014
Passing must be accomplished assuming an

CHAPTER 200 oncoming vehicle comes into view and maintains
GEOMETRIC DESIGN AND the design speed, without reduction, after the
overtaking maneuver is started.
STRUCTURE STANDARDS
Table 201.1
Topic 201 - Sight Distance Sight Distance Standards
Index 201.1 - General (1) (2)
Design Speed Stopping Passing
Sight distance is the continuous length of highway (mph) (ft) (ft)
ahead, visible to the highway user. Four types of
sight distance are considered herein: passing, 10 50 ---
stopping, decision, and corner. Passing sight 15 100 ---
distance is used where use of an opposing lane can
20 125 800
provide passing opportunities (see Index 201.2).
Stopping sight distance is the minimum sight 25 150 950
distance for a given design speed to be provided on 30 200 1,100
multilane highways and on 2-lane roads when
35 250 1,300
passing sight distance is not economically
obtainable. Stopping sight distance also is to be 40 300 1,500
provided for all users, including motorists and 45 360 1,650
bicyclists, at all elements of interchanges and
intersections at grade, including private road 50 430 1,800
connections (see Topic 504, Index 405.1, & Figure 55 500 1,950
405.7). Decision sight distance is used at major
60 580 2,100
decision points (see Indexes 201.7 and 504.2).
Corner sight distance is used at intersections (see 65 660 2,300
Index 405.1, Figure 405.7, and Figure 504.3J). 70 750 2,500
Table 201.1 shows the minimum standards for 75 840 2,600
stopping sight distance related to design speed
80 930 2,700
for motorists. Stopping sight distances given in the
table are suitable for Class II and Class III (1) See Topic 101 for selection of design speed.
bikeways. The stopping sight distances are also (2) For sustained downgrades, refer to advisory standard in
Index 201.3
applicable to roundabout design on the approach
roadway, within the circulatory roadway, and on The sight distance available for passing at any
the exits prior to the pedestrian crossings. Also place is the longest distance at which a driver
shown in Table 201.1 are the values for use in whose eyes are 3 ½ feet above the pavement
providing passing sight distance. surface can see the top of an object 4 ¼ feet high
See Chapter 1000 for Class I bikeway sight on the road. See Table 201.1 for the calculated
distance guidance. values that are associated with various design
speeds.
Chapter 3 of "A Policy on Geometric Design of
Highways and Streets," AASHTO, contains a In general, 2-lane highways should be designed to
thorough discussion of the derivation of stopping provide for passing where possible, especially
sight distance. those routes with high volumes of trucks or
recreational vehicles. Passing should be done on
201.2 Passing Sight Distance tangent horizontal alignments with constant grades
Passing sight distance is the minimum sight or a slight sag vertical curve. Not only are drivers
reluctant to pass on a long crest vertical curve, but
distance required for the driver of one vehicle to
it is impracticable to design crest vertical curves to
pass another vehicle safely and comfortably.
provide for passing sight distance because of high
December 30, 2015
cost where crest cuts are involved. Passing sight The stopping sight distances in Table 201.1 should
distance for crest vertical curves is 7 to 17 times be increased by 20 percent on sustained
longer than the stopping sight distance. downgrades steeper than 3 percent and longer than
one mile.
Ordinarily, passing sight distance is provided at
locations where combinations of alignment and 201.4 Stopping Sight Distance at Grade
profile do not require the use of crest vertical Crests
curves.
Figure 201.4 shows graphically the relationships
Passing sight distance is considered only on 2-lane between length of highway crest vertical curve,
roads. At critical locations, a stretch of 3- or 4-lane design speed, and algebraic difference in grades.
passing section with stopping sight distance is Any one factor can be determined when the other
sometimes more economical than two lanes with two are known.
passing sight distance.
201.5 Stopping Sight Distance at Grade
Passing on sag vertical curves can be accomplished Sags
both day and night because headlights can be seen
through the entire curve. From the curves in Figure 201.5, the minimum
length of vertical curve which provides headlight
See Part 3 of the California Manual on Uniform sight distance in grade sags for a given design
Traffic Control Devices (California MUTCD) for speed can be obtained.
criteria relating to the placement of barrier striping
for no-passing zones. Note, that the passing sight If headlight sight distance is not obtainable at grade
distances shown in the California MUTCD are sags, lighting may be considered. The District
based on traffic operational criteria. Traffic approval authority or Project Delivery Coordinator,
operational criteria are different from the design depending upon the current District Design
characteristics used to develop the values provided Delegation Agreement, and the HQ Traffic Liaison
in Table 201.1 and Chapter 3 of AASHTO, A shall be contacted to review proposed grade sag
Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and lighting to determine if such use is appropriate.
Streets. The aforementioned table and AASHTO 201.6 Stopping Sight Distance on
reference are also used to design the vertical profile
Horizontal Curves
and horizontal alignment of the highway. Consult
the Headquarters (HQ) Traffic Liaison when using Where an object off the pavement such as a bridge
the California MUTCD criteria for traffic pier, building, cut slope, or natural growth restricts
operating-control needs. sight distance, the minimum radius of curvature is
determined by the stopping sight distance.
Other means for providing passing opportunities,
such as climbing lanes or turnouts, are discussed in Available stopping sight distance on horizontal
Index 204.5. Chapter 3 of AASHTO, A Policy on curves is obtained from Figure 201.6. It is assumed
Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, that the driver's eye is 3 ½ feet above the center of
contains a thorough discussion of the derivation of the inside lane (inside with respect to curve) and
passing sight distance. the object is ½-foot high. The line of sight is
assumed to intercept the view obstruction at the
201.3 Stopping Sight Distance midpoint of the sight line and 2 feet above the
The minimum stopping sight distance is the center of the inside lane when the road profile is
distance required by the user, traveling at a given flat (i.e. no vertical curve). Crest vertical curves
speed, to bring the vehicle or bicycle to a stop after can cause additional reductions in sight distance.
an object ½-foot high on the road becomes visible. The clear distance (m) is measured from the center
Stopping sight distance for motorists is measured of the inside lane to the obstruction.
from the driver's eyes, which are assumed to be The design objective is to determine the required
3 ½ feet above the pavement surface, to an object clear distance from centerline of inside lane to a
½-foot high on the road. See Index 1003.1(10) for retaining wall, bridge pier, abutment, cut slope, or
Class I bikeway stopping sight distance guidance. other obstruction for a given design speed. Using
December 16, 2016
radius of curvature and minimum sight distance for

that design speed, Figure 201.6 gives the clear
Table 201.7
distance (m) from centerline of inside lane to the Decision Sight Distance
obstruction.
Design Speed Decision Sight
See Index 1003.1(12) for bikeway stopping sight
(mph) Distance
distance on horizontal curve guidance.
(ft)
When the radius of curvature and the clear distance 30 450
to a fixed obstruction are known, Figure 201.6 also
35 525
gives the sight distance for these conditions.
40 600
See Index 101.1 for technical reductions in design
speed caused by partial or momentary horizontal 45 675
sight distance restrictions. See Index 203.2 for
50 750
additional comments on glare screens.
55 865
Cuts may be widened where vegetation restricting
horizontal sight distance is expected to grow on 60 990
finished slopes. Widening is an economic trade-off
65 1,050
that must be evaluated along with other options.
See Index 902.2 for sight distance requirements on 70 1,105
landscape projects. 75 1,180
201.7 Decision Sight Distance 80 1,260
At certain locations, sight distance greater than
stopping sight distance is desirable to allow drivers
time for decisions without making last minute
Topic 202 - Superelevation
erratic maneuvers (see Chapter III of AASHTO, A
Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and 202.1 Basic Criteria
Streets, for a thorough discussion of the derivation
of decision sight distance.) When a vehicle moves in a circular path, it
undergoes a centripetal acceleration that acts
On freeways and expressways the decision sight toward the center of curvature. This force is
distance values in Table 201.7 should be used at countered by the perceived centrifugal force
lane drops and at off-ramp noses to interchanges, experienced by the motorist.
branch connections, roadside rests, vista points, and
inspection stations. When determining decision On a superelevated highway, this force is resisted
sight distance on horizontal and vertical curves, by the vehicle weight component parallel to the
Figures 201.4, 201.5, and 201.6 can be used. superelevated surface and by the side friction
Figure 201.7 is an expanded version of Figure developed between the tires and pavement. It is
201.4 and gives the relationship among length of impractical to balance centrifugal force by
crest vertical curve, design speed, and algebraic superelevation alone, because for any given curve
difference in grades for much longer vertical curves radius a certain superelevation rate is exactly
than Figure 201.4. correct for only one driving speed. At all other
speeds there will be a side thrust either outward or
Decision sight distance is measured using the inward, relative to the curve center, which must be
3 ½-foot eye height and ½-foot object height. See offset by side friction.
Index 504.2 for sight distance at secondary exits on
a collector-distributor road. If the vehicle is not skidding, these forces are in
equilibrium as represented by the following
simplified curve equation, which is used to design a
curve for a comfortable operation at a particular
speed:
December 16, 2016
Figure 201.4
Stopping Sight Distance on Crest Vertical Curves
L = Curve Length (feet)
A = Algebraic Grade Difference (%)
S = Sight Distance (feet)
V = Design Speed for “S” in mph
K = Distance in feet required to achieve
a 1% change in grade. K value as
Drivers eye height is 3 ½ feet. shown on graph is valid when S <
Object height is ½-foot. L.
Notes:
• Before using this figure for intersections, branch connections and exits, see Indexes 201.7 and 405.1, and
Topic 504.
• See Figure 204.4 for vertical curve formulas.
• See Index 204.4 for minimum length of vertical curve
When S > L When S < L
L = 2S – 1329/A L = AS2 /1329

December 16, 2016
Figure 201.5
Stopping Sight Distance on Sag Vertical Curves
K = Distance in feet required to
achieve a 1% change in grade. K
value as shown on graph is valid
when S < L.
Notes:
• For sustained downgrades, see Index 201.3.
• Before using this figure for intersections, branch connections and exits, see Indexes 201.7 and 405.1, and
Topic 504.
• See Index 204.4 for minimum length of vertical curve.
L = 2S - (400 + 3.5S)/A L = AS2 /(400 + 3.5S)

December 16, 2016
Figure 201.6
Stopping Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves
Line of sight is 2.0 feet above
the centerline inside lane at
point of obstruction.
R = Radius of the centerline of
the lane nearest the
obstruction (feet).
m = Clear distance from
centerline of the lane
nearest the obstruction
(feet).
Notes:   28.65S 
• For sustained downgrades, see Index 201.3. m = R 1 - COS 
• Formulas apply only when “S” is equal to or less than length of   R 
curve.
R   R - m 
• Angles in formulas are expressed in degrees. S=  COS -1  
28.65   R 
December 16, 2016
Figure 201.7
Decision Sight Distance on Crest Vertical Curves
K = Distance in feet required to achieve a 1%
change in grade. K value as shown on
Drivers eye height is 3½ feet. graph is valid when S < L.
Object height is ½-foot.
Notes:
• Before using this figure for intersections, branch connections and exits, see Indexes 201.7 and 405.1,
and Topic 504.
• See Index 204.4 for minimum length of vertical curve.
L = 2S – 1329/A L = AS2 /1329

December 16, 2016
0.067𝑉𝑉 2 𝑉𝑉 2 (typically 4 to 6 percent). Similarly, either a

e+f = = low maximum rate of superelevation or no
𝑅𝑅 15𝑅𝑅
superelevation is employed within intersection
Where: areas or where there is a tendency to drive
e = Roadway superelevation slope, feet per slowly because of turning and crossing
foot movements, warning devices, and signals. In
f = Side friction factor these areas it is difficult to warp crossing
R = Curve radius, feet pavements for drainage without providing
V = Vehicle speed, miles per hour negative superelevation for some turning
movements. Therefore, use of Tables 202.2D
Standard superelevation rates are designed to hold
and 202.2E for urban roads may not apply in
the portion of the centrifugal force that must be
these locations.
taken up by tire friction within allowable limits.
Friction factors as related to speed are shown on Roadways may be constructed on any of the
Figure 202.2. The factors apply equally to flexible following highway types, which determines
and rigid pavements. the emax to be used:
202.2 Standards for Superelevation (a) Use emax=12% for ramps, connectors,
(1) Highways. Maximum superelevation rates for 2-lane conventional highways, and
various highway conditions are shown in frontage roads. See Index 202.7 for
Tables 202.2A through 202.2E. The frontage roads under other jurisdictions.
maximum rates of superelevation (emax) used (b) Use emax=10% for freeways,
on highways are controlled by four factors: expressways, and multilane conventional
climate conditions (i.e., frequency and amount highways.
of snow and ice); terrain conditions (i.e., flat,
rolling, or mountainous); type of area (i.e., (c) Use emax=8% when snow and ice
rural or urban); and frequency of slow-moving conditions prevail (usually over 3,000 feet
vehicles whose operations might be affected elevation).
by high superelevation rates. Consideration of (d) Use emax=6% for urban roads with posted
these factors jointly leads to the conclusion speeds 35 to 45 miles per hour.
that no single maximum superelevation rate is
universally applicable. (e) Use emax=4% for urban roads with posted
speeds less than 35 miles per hour.
The highest superelevation rate for highways
in common use is 10 percent, although Based on an emax selected by the designer
12 percent is used in some cases. for one of the conditions above,
Superelevation rates above 8 percent are only superelevation rates from Tables 202.2A
used in areas without snow and ice. Although through 202.2E shall be used with the
higher superelevation rates offer an advantage minimum curve radii and design speed
to vehicles at high speeds, current practice (Vd). If less than standard superelevation
considers that rates in excess of 12 percent are rates are approved (see Index 82.1), Figure
beyond practical limits. This practice 202.2 shall be used to determine
recognizes the combined effects of superelevation based on the curve radius
construction processes, maintenance and maximum comfortable speed.
difficulties, and operation of vehicles at low
When using Tables 202.2A through 202.2E
speeds.
for a given radius, interpolation is not
Where traffic congestion or the clustered land necessary as the superelevation rate should be
use of developing corridors (i.e., industrial, determined from a radius equal to, or slightly
commercial, and residential) restricts top smaller than, the radius provided in the table.
speeds, it is common practice to utilize a The result is a superelevation rate that is
lower maximum rate of superelevation rounded up to the nearest 0.2 of a percent. For
December 16, 2016
example, a 50 mph curve with a maximum grade and a superelevation transition would
superelevation rate of 8 percent and a radius of create undesirable drainage conditions on the
1,880 feet should use the radius of 1,830 feet to pavement.
obtain a superelevation of 5.4 percent. Also,
Superelevated cross slopes on curves extend
Tables 202.2A through 202.2E use the
the full width of the traveled way and
following terms as defined:
shoulders, except that the shoulder slope on the
(1) “normal crown” (NC) designates a traveled low side should be not less than the minimum
way cross section used on curves that are shoulder slope used on the tangents (see Index
so flat that the elimination of adverse cross 304.3 for cross slopes under cut widening
slope is not needed, and thus the normal conditions).
cross slope sections can be used. See
On rural 2-lane roads, superelevation should be
Index 301.3 for further guidance.
on the same plane for the full width of traveled
(2) “remove adverse crown” (RC) designates way and shoulders, except on transitions (see
curves where the adverse cross slope Index 304.3 for cut widening conditions).
should be eliminated by superelevating the
(2) Bikeways. Superelevation design criteria in
entire roadway at the normal cross slope
Index 202.2(1) also accommodates Class II,
rate.
III, and IV bikeways. See Index 1003.1 for
Maximum comfortable speed is determined by Class I guidance.
the formula given on Figure 202.2. It
represents the speed on a curve where 202.3 Restrictive Conditions
discomfort caused by centripetal acceleration is Lower superelevation rates than those given in
evident to a driver. AASHTO, A Policy on either Table 202.2 or Figure 202.2 may be necessary
Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, in areas where restricted speed zones or ramp/street
states, "In general, studies show that the intersections are controlling factors. Other typical
maximum side friction factors developed locations are short radius curves on ramps near the
between new tires and wet concrete pavements local road juncture, either at an intersection or
range from about 0.5 at 20 miles per hour to where a loop connects with an overcrossing
approximately 0.35 at 60 miles per hour. In all structure. Often, established street grades, curbs, or
cases, the studies show a decrease in friction drainage may prove difficult to alter and/or
values as speeds increase. superelevation transition lengths would be
undesirably short.
To use Figure 202.2, the designer must decide
on the relative importance among three Such conditions may justify a reduction in the
variables. Normally, when a nonstandard superelevation rate, different rates for each half of
superelevation rate is approved, Figure 202.2 the roadbed, or both. In any case, the superelevation
will be entered with the superelevation rate and rate provided should be appropriate for the
a desired curve radius. It must then be conditions allowing for a smooth transition while
determined whether the resulting maximum providing the maximum level of comfort to the
comfortable speed is adequate for the driver. Where standard superelevation rates cannot
conditions or whether further adjustments to be attained, discussions should be held with the
radius and superelevation may be needed. District Design Liaison and/or the Project Delivery
Coordinator to determine the proper solution and the
Except for short radius curves, the standard
superelevation rate results in very little side necessity of preparing a design exception fact sheet.
In warping street or ramp surface areas for drainage,
thrust at speeds less than 45 miles per hour.
adverse superelevation should be avoided (see
This provides maximum comfort for most
Figure 202.2).
drivers.
Superelevation for horizontal curves with radii 202.4 Axis of Rotation
of 10,000 feet and greater may be deleted in (1) Undivided Highways. For undivided highways
those situations where the combination of a flat the axis of rotation for superelevation is
December 16, 2016
Table 202.2A
Minimum Radii for Design Superelevation Rates, Design Speeds, and
emax=4%
Vd (mph)
e (%) 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
R (ft)
NC 1410 2050 2830 3730 4770 5930 7220
RC 902 1340 1880 2490 3220 4040 4940
2.2 723 1110 1580 2120 2760 3480 4280
2.4 513 838 1270 1760 2340 2980 3690
2.6 388 650 1000 1420 1930 2490 3130
2.8 308 524 817 1170 1620 2100 2660
3.0 251 433 681 982 1370 1800 2290
3.2 209 363 576 835 1180 1550 1980
3.4 175 307 490 714 1010 1340 1720
3.6 147 259 416 610 865 1150 1480
3.8 122 215 348 512 730 970 1260
4.0 86 154 250 371 533 711 926
December 16, 2016
Table 202.2B
emax=6%
Vd (mph)
e (%)
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
R (ft)
NC 1580 2290 3130 4100 5230 6480 7870 9410 11100
RC 1120 1630 2240 2950 3770 4680 5700 6820 8060
2.2 991 1450 2000 2630 3370 4190 5100 6110 7230
2.4 884 1300 1790 2360 3030 3770 4600 5520 6540
2.6 791 1170 1610 2130 2740 3420 4170 5020 5950
2.8 709 1050 1460 1930 2490 3110 3800 4580 5440
3.0 635 944 1320 1760 2270 2840 3480 4200 4990
3.2 566 850 1200 1600 2080 2600 3200 3860 4600
3.4 498 761 1080 1460 1900 2390 2940 3560 4250
3.6 422 673 972 1320 1740 2190 2710 3290 3940
3.8 358 583 864 1190 1590 2010 2490 3040 3650
4.0 309 511 766 1070 1440 1840 2300 2810 3390
4.2 270 452 684 960 1310 1680 2110 2590 3140
4.4 238 402 615 868 1190 1540 1940 2400 2920
4.6 212 360 555 788 1090 1410 1780 2210 2710
4.8 189 324 502 718 995 1300 1640 2050 2510
5.0 169 292 456 654 911 1190 1510 1890 2330
5.2 152 264 413 595 833 1090 1390 1750 2160
5.4 136 237 373 540 759 995 1280 1610 1990
5.6 121 212 335 487 687 903 1160 1470 1830
5.8 106 186 296 431 611 806 1040 1320 1650
6.0 81 144 231 340 485 643 833 1060 1330
December 16, 2016
Table 202.2C
emax=8%
Vd (mph)
e (%) 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
R (ft)
NC 932 1640 2370 3240 4260 5410 6710 8150 9720 11500 12900 14500 16100 17800
RC 676 1190 1720 2370 3120 3970 4930 5990 7150 8440 9510 10700 12000 13300
2.2 605 1070 1550 2130 2800 3570 4440 5400 6450 7620 8600 9660 10800 12000
2.4 546 959 1400 1930 2540 3240 4030 4910 5870 6930 7830 8810 9850 11000
2.6 496 872 1280 1760 2320 2960 3690 4490 5370 6350 7180 8090 9050 10100
2.8 453 796 1170 1610 2130 2720 3390 4130 4950 5850 6630 7470 8370 9340
3.0 415 730 1070 1480 1960 2510 3130 3820 4580 5420 6140 6930 7780 8700
3.2 382 672 985 1370 1820 2330 2900 3550 4250 5040 5720 6460 7260 8130
3.4 352 620 911 1270 1690 2170 2700 3300 3970 4700 5350 6050 6800 7620
3.6 324 572 845 1180 1570 2020 2520 3090 3710 4400 5010 5680 6400 7180
3.8 300 530 784 1100 1470 1890 2360 2890 3480 4140 4710 5350 6030 6780
4.0 277 490 729 1030 1370 1770 2220 2720 3270 3890 4450 5050 5710 6420
4.2 255 453 678 955 1280 1660 2080 2560 3080 3670 4200 4780 5410 6090
4.4 235 418 630 893 1200 1560 1960 2410 2910 3470 3980 4540 5140 5800
4.6 215 384 585 834 1130 1470 1850 2280 2750 3290 3770 4310 4890 5530
4.8 193 349 542 779 1060 1390 1750 2160 2610 3120 3590 4100 4670 5280
5.0 172 314 499 727 991 1310 1650 2040 2470 2960 3410 3910 4460 5050
5.2 154 284 457 676 929 1230 1560 1930 2350 2820 3250 3740 4260 4840
5.4 139 258 420 627 870 1160 1480 1830 2230 2680 3110 3570 4090 4640
5.6 126 236 387 582 813 1090 1390 1740 2120 2550 2970 3420 3920 4460
5.8 115 216 358 542 761 1030 1320 1650 2010 2430 2840 3280 3760 4290
6.0 105 199 332 506 713 965 1250 1560 1920 2320 2710 3150 3620 4140
6.2 97 184 308 472 669 909 1180 1480 1820 2210 2600 3020 3480 3990
6.4 89 170 287 442 628 857 1110 1400 1730 2110 2490 2910 3360 3850
6.6 82 157 267 413 590 808 1050 1330 1650 2010 2380 2790 3240 3720
6.8 76 146 248 386 553 761 990 1260 1560 1910 2280 2690 3120 3600
7.0 70 135 231 360 518 716 933 1190 1480 1820 2180 2580 3010 3480
7.2 64 125 214 336 485 672 878 1120 1400 1720 2070 2470 2900 3370
7.4 59 115 198 312 451 628 822 1060 1320 1630 1970 2350 2780 3250
7.6 54 105 182 287 417 583 765 980 1230 1530 1850 2230 2650 3120
7.8 48 94 164 261 380 533 701 901 1140 1410 1720 2090 2500 2970
8.0 38 76 134 214 314 444 587 758 960 1200 1480 1810 2210 2670
December 16, 2016
Table 202.2D
emax=10%
Vd (mph)
e (%) 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
R (ft)
NC 3320 4350 5520 6830 8280 9890 11700 13100 14700 16300 18000
RC 2440 3210 4080 5050 6130 7330 8630 9720 10900 12200 13500
2.2 2200 2900 3680 4570 5540 6630 7810 8800 9860 11000 12200
2.4 2000 2640 3350 4160 5050 6050 7130 8040 9010 10100 11200
2.6 1840 2420 3080 3820 4640 5550 6550 7390 8290 9260 10300
2.8 1690 2230 2840 3520 4280 5130 6050 6840 7680 8580 9550
3.0 1570 2060 2630 3270 3970 4760 5620 6360 7140 7990 8900
3.2 1450 1920 2450 3040 3700 4440 5250 5930 6680 7480 8330
3.4 1360 1790 2290 2850 3470 4160 4910 5560 6260 7020 7830
3.6 1270 1680 2150 2670 3250 3900 4620 5230 5900 6620 7390
3.8 1190 1580 2020 2510 3060 3680 4350 4940 5570 6260 6990
4.0 1120 1490 1900 2370 2890 3470 4110 4670 5270 5930 6630
4.2 1060 1400 1800 2240 2740 3290 3900 4430 5010 5630 6300
4.4 994 1330 1700 2120 2590 3120 3700 4210 4760 5370 6010
4.6 940 1260 1610 2020 2460 2970 3520 4010 4540 5120 5740
4.8 890 1190 1530 1920 2340 2830 3360 3830 4340 4900 5490
5.0 844 1130 1460 1830 2240 2700 3200 3660 4150 4690 5270
5.2 802 1080 1390 1740 2130 2580 3060 3500 3980 4500 5060
5.4 762 1030 1330 1660 2040 2460 2930 3360 3820 4320 4860
5.6 724 974 1270 1590 1950 2360 2810 3220 3670 4160 4680
5.8 689 929 1210 1520 1870 2260 2700 3090 3530 4000 4510
6.0 656 886 1160 1460 1790 2170 2590 2980 3400 3860 4360
6.2 624 846 1110 1400 1720 2090 2490 2870 3280 3730 4210
6.4 594 808 1060 1340 1650 2010 2400 2760 3160 3600 4070
6.6 564 772 1020 1290 1590 1930 2310 2670 3060 3480 3940
6.8 536 737 971 1230 1530 1860 2230 2570 2960 3370 3820
7.0 509 704 931 1190 1470 1790 2150 2490 2860 3270 3710
7.2 483 671 892 1140 1410 1730 2070 2410 2770 3170 3600
7.4 460 641 855 1100 1360 1670 2000 2330 2680 3070 3500
7.6 437 612 820 1050 1310 1610 1940 2250 2600 2990 3400
7.8 416 585 786 1010 1260 1550 1870 2180 2530 2900 3310
8.0 396 558 754 968 1220 1500 1810 2120 2450 2820 3220
8.2 377 533 722 930 1170 1440 1750 2050 2380 2750 3140
8.4 359 509 692 893 1130 1390 1690 1990 2320 2670 3060
8.6 341 486 662 856 1080 1340 1630 1930 2250 2600 2980
8.8 324 463 633 820 1040 1290 1570 1870 2190 2540 2910
9.0 307 440 604 784 992 1240 1520 1810 2130 2470 2840
9.2 291 418 574 748 948 1190 1460 1740 2060 2410 2770
9.4 274 395 545 710 903 1130 1390 1670 1990 2340 2710
9.6 256 370 513 671 854 1080 1320 1600 1910 2260 2640
9.8 236 343 477 625 798 1010 1250 1510 1820 2160 2550
10.0 200 292 410 540 694 877 1090 1340 1630 1970 2370
December 16, 2016
Table 202.2E
Minimum Radii for Design Superelevation Rates, Design Speeds, and emax=12%
Vd (mph)
e (%)
25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
R (ft)
NC 2460 3370 4390 5580 6910 8370 9990 11800 13200 14800 16400 18100
RC 1820 2490 3260 4140 5130 6220 7430 8740 9840 11000 12300 13600
2.2 1640 2250 2950 3750 4640 5640 6730 7930 8920 9980 11200 12400
2.4 1500 2060 2690 3420 4240 5150 6150 7240 8160 9130 10200 11300
2.6 1370 1890 2470 3140 3900 4730 5660 6670 7510 8420 9380 10500
2.8 1270 1740 2280 2910 3600 4380 5240 6170 6960 7800 8700 9660
3.0 1170 1620 2120 2700 3350 4070 4870 5740 6480 7270 8110 9010
3.2 1090 1510 1970 2520 3130 3800 4550 5370 6060 6800 7600 8440
3.4 1020 1410 1850 2360 2930 3560 4270 5030 5690 6390 7140 7940
3.6 953 1320 1730 2220 2750 3350 4020 4740 5360 6020 6740 7500
3.8 896 1250 1630 2090 2600 3160 3790 4470 5060 5700 6380 7100
4.0 845 1180 1540 1980 2460 2990 3590 4240 4800 5400 6050 6740
4.2 798 1110 1460 1870 2330 2840 3400 4020 4560 5130 5750 6420
4.4 756 1050 1390 1780 2210 2700 3240 3830 4340 4890 5490 6120
4.6 717 997 1320 1690 2110 2570 3080 3650 4140 4670 5240 5850
4.8 681 948 1260 1610 2010 2450 2940 3480 3960 4470 5020 5610
5.0 648 904 1200 1540 1920 2340 2810 3330 3790 4280 4810 5380
5.2 618 862 1140 1470 1840 2240 2700 3190 3630 4110 4620 5170
5.4 589 824 1090 1410 1760 2150 2590 3060 3490 3950 4440 4980
5.6 563 788 1050 1350 1690 2060 2480 2940 3360 3800 4280 4800
5.8 538 754 1000 1300 1920 1980 2390 2830 3230 3660 4130 4630
6.0 514 723 960 1250 1560 1910 2300 2730 3110 3530 3990 4470
6.2 492 694 922 1200 1500 1840 2210 2630 3010 3410 3850 4330
6.4 471 666 886 1150 1440 1770 2140 2540 2900 3300 3730 4190
6.6 452 639 852 1110 1390 1710 2060 2450 2810 3190 3610 4060
6.8 433 615 820 1070 1340 1650 1990 2370 2720 3090 3500 3940
7.0 415 591 790 1030 1300 1590 1930 2290 2630 3000 3400 3820
7.2 398 568 762 994 1250 1540 1860 2220 2550 2910 3300 3720
7.4 382 547 734 960 1210 1490 1810 2150 2470 2820 3200 3610
7.6 366 527 708 928 1170 1440 1750 2090 2400 2740 3120 3520
7.8 351 507 684 897 1130 1400 1700 2020 2330 2670 3030 3430
8.0 336 488 660 868 1100 1360 1650 1970 2270 2600 2950 3340
8.2 321 470 637 840 1070 1320 1600 1910 2210 2530 2880 3260
8.4 307 452 615 813 1030 1280 1550 1860 2150 2460 2800 3180
8.6 294 435 594 787 997 1240 1510 1810 2090 2400 2740 3100
8.8 281 418 574 762 967 1200 1470 1760 2040 2340 2670 3030
9.0 270 403 554 738 938 1170 1430 1710 1980 2280 2610 2960
9.2 259 388 535 715 910 1140 1390 1660 1940 2230 2550 2890
9.4 248 373 516 693 883 1100 1350 1620 1890 2180 2490 2830
9.6 238 359 499 671 857 1070 1310 1580 1840 2130 2440 2770
9.8 228 346 481 650 832 1040 1280 1540 1800 2080 2380 2710
10.0 219 333 465 629 806 1010 1250 1500 1760 2030 2330 2660
10.2 210 320 448 608 781 980 1210 1460 1720 1990 2280 2600
10.4 201 308 432 588 757 951 1180 1430 1680 1940 2240 2550
10.6 192 296 416 568 732 922 1140 1390 1640 1900 2190 2500
10.8 184 284 400 548 707 892 1110 1350 1600 1860 2150 2460
11.0 175 272 384 527 682 862 1070 1310 1560 1820 2110 2410
11.2 167 259 368 506 656 831 1040 1270 1510 1780 2070 2370
11.4 158 247 351 485 629 799 995 1220 1470 1730 2020 2320
11.6 149 233 333 461 600 763 953 1170 1410 1680 1970 2280
11.8 139 218 312 434 566 722 904 1120 1350 1620 1910 2230
12.0 119 188 272 381 500 641 807 1000 1220 1480 1790 2130
December 16, 2016
Figure 202.2
Maximum Comfortable Speed on Horizontal Curves*
NOTES:
* See Index 202.2(1) for application of this figure.
Speed Side Friction
(mph) Factor “f”
20 0.27 NOTES:
30 0.20 This figure is not intended to represent standard superelevation rates or
40 0.16 curve radius. The standards are contained in Tables 202.2A through
50 0.14 202.2E. This figure should be used as an aid to designers to determine
55 0.13 maximum comfortable speeds. Use of this figure in lieu of the standards
60 0.12 must be documented as discussed in Index 82.2.
65 0.11 e = Superelevation (feet per foot)
70 0.10 f = Side Friction Factor 0.067V 2
75 0.09 V = Speed (mph) e+f=
R
80 0.08 R = Radius (feet)
December 16, 2016
usually the centerline of the roadbed. 202.5 Superelevation Transition

However, in special cases such as desert roads
where curves are preceded by long relatively (1) General. The superelevation transition
level tangents, the plane of superelevation generally consists of the crown runoff and the
may be rotated about the inside edge of superelevation runoff as shown on Figure
traveled way to improve perception of the 202.5A and 202.5B.
curve. In flat country, drainage pockets A superelevation transition should be
caused by superelevation may be avoided by designed in accordance with the diagram and
changing the axis of rotation from the tabular data shown in Figure 202.5A to satisfy
centerline to the inside edge of traveled way. the requirements of safety, comfort and
(2) Ramps and Freeway-to-freeway Connections. pleasing appearance. The length of
The axis of rotation may be about either edge superelevation transition should be based
of traveled way or centerline if multilane. upon the combination of superelevation rate
Appearance and drainage considerations and width of rotated plane in accordance with
should always be taken into account in the tabulated superelevation runoff lengths on
selection of the axis of rotation. the bottom of Figure 202.5A.
(3) Divided Highways. Edge of traveled way and shoulder profiles

should be plotted and irregularities resulting
(a) Freeways--Where the initial median width from interactions between the superelevation
is 65 feet or less, the axis of rotation transition and vertical alignment of the
should be at the centerline. roadway should be eliminated by introducing
Where the initial median width is greater smooth curves. Edge of traveled way and
than 65 feet and the ultimate median shoulder profiles also will reveal flat areas
width is 65 feet or less, the axis of rotation which are undesirable from a drainage
should be at the centerline, except where standpoint and should be avoided.
the resulting initial median slope would be (2) Runoff. Two-thirds of the superelevation
steeper than 10:1. In the latter case, the runoff should be on the tangent and one-third
axis of rotation should be at the ultimate within the curve. This results in two-thirds of
median edges of traveled way. the full superelevation rate at the beginning or
Where the ultimate median width is ending of a curve. This may be altered as
greater than 65 feet, the axis of rotation required to adjust for flat spots or unsightly
should normally be at the ultimate median sags and humps, or when conforming to
edges of traveled way. existing roadway.
To avoid sawtooth on bridges with decked (3) Restrictive Situations. In restrictive situations,
medians, the axis of rotation, if not such as on two lane highways in mountainous
already on centerline, should be shifted to terrain, interchange ramps, collector roads,
the centerline. frontage roads, etc., where curve radius and
length and tangents between curves are short,
(b) Conventional Highways--The axis of standard superelevation rates and/or
rotation should be considered on an transitions may not be attainable. In such
individual project basis and the most situations the highest possible superelevation
appropriate case for the conditions should rate(s) and transition length should be used,
be selected. but the rate of change of cross slope should
Aesthetics, grade distortion, superelevation not exceed 6 percent per 100 feet.
transitions, drainage, and driver perception (4) Superelevation Transitions on Bridges.
should be considered when selecting the axis Superelevation transitions on bridges should
of rotation (see Index 204.2). be avoided whenever possible (See
Index 203.9).
December 16, 2016
Figure 202.5A
Superelevation Transition
December 16, 2016
Figure 202.5B
Superelevation Transition Terms & Definitions
Term Definition
Crown Runoff The distance from the station where the high side of the superelevating section
surfaces are at a cross slope of 2% to where the high side of the section surfaces
2 3 reaches a cross slope of 0%.
Superelevation The distance from the station where the high side of the superelevating section
Runoff (L) surfaces are at a cross slope of 0% to the station where the entire cross section is at
full superelevation.
3 6
Superelevation The distance from the station where the high side of the superelevating sections are
Transition crowned at a cross slope of 2% to the station where the entire cross section is at full
superelevation. The Crown Runoff Length plus the Superelevation Runoff Length (L)
2 6 equals the Superelevation Transition Length.
%L On tangent The percentage of the superelevation runoff length (L) that is outside of the curve
(2/3L). See Index 202.5(2).
%L On curve The percentage of the superelevation runoff length (L) that is within the curve (1/3L).
See Index 202.5(2). The % On Tangent and % On curve values must total 100%.
Elements of a Superelevation Transition (Right Curve)

December 16, 2016
(5) Shoulder Transitions. The shoulder plane The major considerations in horizontal alignment
rotates about the adjacent edge of traveled way design are safety, profile, type of facility, design
as well as the rotational axis of the traveled speed, geotechnical features, topography, right of
way. Shoulder superelevation transitions way cost and construction cost. In design, safety is
should be smooth and compatible with the always considered, either directly or indirectly. On
transition of the adjacent pavements. freeways in metropolitan areas, alternative studies
often indicate that right of way considerations
202.6 Superelevation of Compound Curves influence alignment more than any other single
Superelevation of compound curves should follow factor. Topography controls both curve radius and
the procedure as shown in Figure 202.6. Where design speed to a large extent. The design speed, in
feasible, the criteria in Index 202.5 should apply. turn, controls sight distance, but sight distance must
be considered concurrently with topography because
202.7 Superelevation on City Streets and it often demands a larger radius than the design
County Roads speed. All these factors must be balanced to
Superelevation rates of local streets and roads produce an alignment which optimizes the
which are within the State right of way (with or achievement of various objectives such as safety,
without connection to State facilities) shall cost, harmony with the natural contour of the land,
conform to AASHTO standards, for the and at the same time adequate for the design
functional classification of the facility in classification of the highway.
question. If the local agency having jurisdiction Horizontal alignment shall provide at least the
over the local facility in question maintains minimum stopping sight distance for the chosen
standards that exceed AASHTO standards, then the design speed at all points on the highway, as
local agency standards should prevail. given in Table 201.1 and explained in Index
See Index 202.2 and Table 202.2 for Frontage 201.3. See Index 101.1 for technical reductions in
Roads within the State right of way. Frontage roads design speed.
that will be relinquished after construction should 203.2 Standards for Curvature
follow AASHTO or local standards as stated above.
Tables 202.2A through 202.2E shall be the
Topic 203 - Horizontal Alignment minimum radius of curve for superelevation
rates and design speeds on highways. These
203.1 General Controls tables are based upon the relationship between
Horizontal alignment should provide for safe and design speed and curvature and on their joint
continuous operation at a uniform design speed for relationship with superelevation and side friction.
substantial lengths of highway. The standards Though these relationships originate from the laws
which follow apply to curvature on both 2-lane and of mechanics, the actual values for use in design
multilane highways except when otherwise noted. depend on practical limits and factors determined
These standards also apply to portions of local empirically. If the minimum radii indicated in
streets and roads within the State right of way which Tables 202.2A through 202.2E do not provide the
connect directly to a freeway or expressway, or are desired lateral clearance to an obstruction,
expected to do so in the foreseeable future. For Figure 201.6 shall govern.
local facilities which are within the State right of See Index 202.2(1) for further information regarding
way and where there is no connection or the the use of the tables.
connection is to a non-controlled access facility
Every effort should be made to exceed minimum
(conventional highway), AASHTO standards
radii values for the emax of the table being used.
shall prevail. If the local agency having
jurisdiction over the local facility in question Such minimum radii should be used only when the
cost or other adverse effects of realizing a higher
maintains standards that exceed AASHTO
standard are inconsistent with the benefits. Use of
standards, then the local agency standards should
Figure 202.2, in lieu of the above standards must be
prevail.
documented as discussed in Index 82.2.
December 16, 2016
Figure 202.6
Superelevation of Compound Curves
December 16, 2016
The recommended minimum radii for freeways are 203.5 Compound Curves
5,000 feet in rural areas and 3,000 feet in urban
areas. Compound curves should be avoided because
drivers who have adjusted to the first curve could
If a glare screen or a median barrier is contemplated, over drive the second curve if the second curve has
either initially or ultimately, adjustments may be a smaller radius than the first. Exceptions can occur
necessary to maintain the required sight distance on in mountainous terrain or other situations where use
curves on divided highways. In such cases, a larger of a simple curve would result in excessive cost.
curve radius or a wider median may be required Where compound curves are necessary, the shorter
throughout the length of the curve. For design radius should be at least two-thirds the longer radius
purposes, a planting screen is presumed to be 8 feet when the shorter radius is 1,000 feet or less. On
wide. See Chapter 7 of the Traffic Manual for glare one-way roads, the larger radius should follow the
screen criteria. smaller radius.
203.3 Alignment Consistency The total arc length of a compound curve should be
not less than 500 feet.
Sudden reductions in alignment standards should be
avoided. Where physical restrictions on curve 203.6 Reversing Curves
radius cannot be overcome and it becomes
necessary to introduce curvature of lower standard When horizontal curves reverse direction the
connecting tangents should be long enough to
than the design speed for the project, the design
speed between successive curves should change not accommodate the standard superelevation runoffs
more than 10 miles per hour. Introduction of curves given on Figure 202.5. If this is not possible, the
with lower design speeds should be avoided at the 6 percent per 100 feet rate of change should govern
end of long tangents, steep downgrades, or at other (see Index 202.5(3)). When feasible, a minimum of
locations where high approach speeds may be 400 feet of tangent should be considered.
anticipated. 203.7 Broken Back Curves
The horizontal and vertical alignments should be A broken back curve consists of two curves in the
coordinated such that horizontal curves are not same direction joined by a short tangent. Broken
hidden behind crest vertical curves. Sharp back curves are unsightly and undesirable.
horizontal curves should not follow long tangents
because some drivers tend to develop higher speeds 203.8 Spiral Transition
on the tangent and could over drive the curve. Spiral transitions are used to transition from a
See “Combination of Horizontal and Vertical tangent alignment to a circular curve and between
Alignment” in Chapter 3 of AASHTO, A Policy on circular curves of unequal radius. Spiral transitions
Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, for may be used whenever the traffic lane width is less
further guidance on alignment consistency. than 12 feet, the posted speed is greater than
45 miles per hour, and the superelevation rate
203.4 Curve Length and Central Angle exceeds 8 percent. The length of spiral should be
The minimum curve length for central angles less the same as the Superelevation Runoff Length
than 10 degrees should be 800 feet to avoid the shown in Figure 202.5A. In the typical design, full
appearance of a kink. For central angles larger than superelevation occurs where the spiral curve meets
30 minutes, a curve is required without exception. the circular curve, with crown runoff being handled
Above a 20,000-foot radius, a parabolic curve may per Figure 202.5A. For a general discussion of
be used. Sight distance or other safety spiral transitions see AASHTO A Policy on the
considerations are not to be sacrificed to meet the Geometric Design of Streets and Highways. When
above requirements. used, spirals transitions should conform to the
Clothoid definition.
On 2-lane roads a curve should not exceed a length
of one-half mile and should be no shorter than
500 feet.
December 16, 2016
203.9 Alignment at Bridges or steep grades are involved, economic comparisons

should include vehicle operating costs.
Due to the difficulty in constructing bridges with
superelevation rates greater than 10 percent, the The standards in Topic 204 also apply to portions of
curve radii on bridges should be designed to local streets and roads within the State right of way
accommodate superelevation rates of 10 percent or which connect directly to a freeway or expressway,
less. See Index 202.2 for standard superelevation or are expected to do so in the foreseeable future.
rates. For local facilities which are within the State
right of way and where there is no connection or
Superelevation transitions on bridges are difficult to
the connection is to a non-controlled access
construct and almost always result in an unsightly
facility (conventional highway), AASHTO
appearance of the bridge and the bridge railing. standards shall prevail. If the local agency having
Therefore, if possible, horizontal curves should
jurisdiction over the local facility in question
begin and end a sufficient distance from the bridge
maintains standards that exceed AASHTO
so that no part of the superelevation transition
standards, then the local agency standards should
extends onto the bridge.
prevail.
Alignment and safety considerations, however, are
204.2 Position With Respect to Cross Section
paramount and must not be sacrificed to meet the
above criteria. The grade line should generally coincide with the
axis of rotation for superelevation (see Index 202.4).
Topic 204 - Grade Its relation to the cross section should be as follows:
204.1 General Controls (1) Undivided Highways. The grade line should
coincide with the highway centerline.
The grade line is a reference line by which the
elevation of the pavement and other features of the (2) Ramps and Freeway-to-freeway Connections.
highway are established. It is controlled mainly by Although the grade line is usually positioned at
topography, type of highway, horizontal alignment, the left edge of traveled way, either edge of
performance of heavy vehicles, right of way costs, traveled way or centerline may be used on
safety, sight distance, construction costs, cultural multilane facilities.
development, drainage, and pleasing appearance. (3) Divided Highways. The grade line should be
All portions of the grade line must meet sight positioned at the centerline of the median for
distance requirements for the design speed paved medians 65 feet wide or less, thus
classification of the road. avoiding a “saw tooth” section, which can
reduce horizontal stopping sight distance.
In flat terrain, the elevation of the grade line is often
controlled by drainage considerations. In rolling The grade line may be positioned at the
terrain, some undulation in the grade line is often ultimate median edge of traveled way when:
advantageous for construction economy. This (a) The median edges of traveled way of the
should be done with appearance in mind; for two roadways are at equal elevation.
example, a grade line on tangent alignment
exhibiting a series of humps visible for some (b) The two roadways are at different
distance ahead should be avoided whenever elevations as described in Index 204.8.
possible. In rolling hills or mountainous terrain, (c) The width of median is nonuniform (see
however, the grade line usually is more closely Index 305.6).
dependent upon physical controls.
204.3 Standards for Grade
In considering alternative profiles, economic
comparisons involving earthwork quantities and/or Table 204.3 shows the maximum grades which
retaining walls should be made. A balanced shall not be exceeded for the condition indicated.
earthwork design is most cost effective. When long Steep grades affect truck speeds and overall
capacity. They also cause operational problems at
December 16, 2016
intersections. For these reasons it is desirable to not be closer together than 50 feet and a total of all
provide the flattest grades practicable (see Index grade breaks within 200 feet should not exceed
204.5 for information on truck issues with grades). 0.5 percent.
Since flat vertical curves may develop poor drainage
Table 204.3 at the level section, adjusting the gutter grade or
shortening the vertical curve may overcome any
Maximum Grades for Type of drainage problems.
Highway and Terrain Conditions
On 2-lane roads, extremely long crest vertical
Type of Freeways and Rural Urban curves, over one-half mile, should be avoided, since
Terrain Expressways Highways Highways many drivers refuse to pass on such curves despite
adequate sight distance. It is sometimes more
Level 3% 4% 6% economical to construct passing lanes than to obtain
Rolling 4% 5% 7% passing sight distance by the use of a long vertical
Mountainous 6% 7% 9% curve.
Broken-back vertical curves consist of two vertical
curves in the same direction separated by a short
Minimum grades should be 0.5 percent in snow grade tangent. A profile with such curvature
country and 0.3 percent at other locations. Except normally should be avoided, particularly in sags
for conventional highways in urban or suburban where the view of both curves is not pleasing.
areas, a level grade line is permissible in level
terrain where side fill slopes are 4:1 or flatter and 204.5 Sustained Grades
dikes are not needed to carry water in the roadbed. (1) General. Maximum grade is not a complete
Flat grades are not permissible in superelevation design control. The length of an uphill grade is
transitions due to flat spots which cause ponding on important as well, because it affects capacity,
the roadbed. level of service, and delay when slow moving
Ramp grades should not exceed 8 percent. On trucks, buses, and recreational vehicles are
descending on-ramps and ascending off-ramps, one present.
percent steeper is allowed (see Index 504.2(5)). A common criterion for all types of highways
204.4 Vertical Curves is to consider the addition of a climbing lane
where the running speed of trucks falls
Properly designed vertical curves should provide 10 miles per hour or more below the running
adequate sight distance, safety, comfortable driving, speed of remaining traffic. Figure 204.5 shows
good drainage, and pleasing appearance. the speed reduction curves for a 200 lb/hp
A parabolic vertical curve is used. Figure 204.4 truck, which is representative of large trucks
gives all necessary mathematical relations for operating near maximum gross weight. The
computing a vertical curve, either at crests or sags. 10 miles per hour reduction criterion may be
For algebraic grade differences of 2 percent and used as one method of determining need,
greater, and design speeds equal to or greater than however the Highway Capacity Manual should
40 miles per hour, the minimum length of vertical be consulted for detailed analysis.
curve in feet should be equal to 10V, where (2) Freeway Climbing Lanes. If design year traffic
V = design speed. As an example, a 65 miles per volumes are expected to be near capacity, right
hour design speed would require a 650-foot of way acquisition and grading for a future lane
minimum vertical curve length. For algebraic grade should be considered at locations where the
differences of less than 2 percent, or design speeds upgrade exceeds 2 percent and the total rise
less than 40 miles per hour, the vertical curve length exceeds 50 feet.
should be a minimum of 200 feet. Vertical curves
are not required where the algebraic difference in Regardless of traffic volumes, the need for a
grades is 0.5 percent or less. Grade breaks should climbing lane should be investigated on
sustained upgrades greater than 2 percent if the
December 16, 2016
Figure 204.4
Vertical Curves
December 16, 2016
Figure 204.5
Critical Lengths of Grade
for Design
ASSUMED TYPICAL HEAVY TRUCK OF 200 lb/hp

December 16, 2016
total rise is greater than 250 feet. Refer to the (b) Length. Designated turnouts should be
Highway Capacity Manual for passenger car from 200 feet to 500 feet long including a
equivalent factors and sample calculations. short taper (usually 50 feet) at each end.
Approach speeds, grades, traffic volumes,
Decision sight distance (Table 201.7) should
and available space are some factors to be
be provided at climbing lane drops on
considered in determining the length. The
freeways.
Headquarters Traffic Liaison should be
(3) Two-lane Road Climbing and Passing Lanes. consulted if longer turnouts are desired.
Climbing and passing lanes are most effective
(c) Width. Paved widths of at least 15 feet in
on uphill grades and curving alignment where
fill sections and 12 feet in cut sections are
the speed differential among vehicles is
recommended. Width is measured from
significant. Climbing and passing lanes
the edge of traveled way. On the outside
should normally not be constructed on tangent
of curves along steep fill slopes or
sections where the length of tangent equals or
dropoffs, greater width or the installation
exceeds the passing sight distance, because
of guardrail should be considered.
passing will occur at such locations without a
passing lane and the double barrier stripe (d) Location. Turnouts should be located
increases delay for opposing traffic. Where where there is stopping sight distance for
the ADT exceeds 5000, 4-lane passing approaching drivers to see vehicles
sections may be considered. See Index leaving and re-entering the through lanes.
305.1(2) for median width standards.
204.6 Coordination of Horizontal and
The Headquarters Division of Traffic Vertical Alignment
Operations should be consulted regarding the
length of climbing and passing lanes, which A proper balance between curvature and grades
will vary with the design speed of the should be sought. When possible, vertical curves
highway, the traffic volume, and other factors. should be superimposed on horizontal curves. This
reduces the number of sight restrictions on the
(4) Turnouts project, makes changes in profile less apparent,
(a) General. On a two-lane highway where particularly in rolling country, and results in a
passing is limited, the California Vehicle pleasing appearance. Where the change in
Code requires slow-moving vehicles horizontal alignment at a grade summit is
followed by five or more vehicles to turn moderate, a pleasing appearance may be attained
off at designated turnouts or wherever by making the vertical curve overlap the horizontal
sufficient area for a safe turnout exists. curve.
Designated turnouts may be constructed in When horizontal and vertical curves are
hilly or mountainous terrain or on winding superimposed, the combination of superelevation
roads in other areas. and profile grades may cause distortion in the outer
Where less than 4-foot shoulders are pavement edges which could create drainage
provided on ascending grades, concerns or confuse drivers at night. In such
consideration should be given to situations edge of pavement profiles should be
providing several short sections of 4 feet plotted and smooth curves introduced to eliminate
or wider shoulder as turnouts for bicycle any irregularities or distortion.
passing. Frequent turnouts that are at On highways in mountainous or rolling terrain
least 30 feet in length are recommended where horizontal and vertical curves are
on sustained uphill grades. These turnouts superimposed at a grade summit or sag, the design
will allow safe passing of bicycles by speed of the horizontal curve should be at least
other bicyclists and vehicles in addition to equal to that of the crest or sag, and not more than
providing resting opportunities on the 10 miles per hour less than the measured or
sustained grade for bicyclists.
December 16 ,2016
estimated running (85th percentile) speed of use d/s= 0.07. These ratios do not
vehicles on the approach roadway. include the additional 2 feet required
above the deck for ballast and rail
On long open curves, a uniform grade line should
height.
be used because a rolling profile makes for a poor
appearance. (b) Highway Structures.
Horizontal and vertical curvature at intersections • Structures with single spans of
should be as flat as physical conditions permit. 100 feet or less, use d/s= 0.06.
See “Combination of Horizontal and Vertical • Structures with single spans between
Alignment” in Chapter III of AASHTO, A Policy 100 feet and 180 feet use d/s= 0.045.
on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, for
further guidance on a alignment consistency. • Continuous structures with multiple
spans of 100 feet or less, use
204.7 Separate Grade Lines d/s= 0.055.
Separate or independent grade lines are appropriate • Continuous structures with multiple
in some cases for freeways and expressways. spans of more than 100 feet, use
They are not normally considered appropriate d/s= 0.04.
where medians are less than 65 feet wide (see • Geometric plans should be submitted
Index 305.6). Exceptions to this may be minor to the DES – Structure Design prior to
differences between opposing grade lines in special preparation of the Project Report so
situations. that preliminary studies can be
In addition, for either interim or ultimate prepared. Preliminary bridge type
expressways, any appreciable grade differential selection should be a joint effort
between roadbeds should be avoided in the vicinity between the DES – Structure Design
of at-grade intersections. For traffic entering from and the District.
the crossroad, confusion and wrong-way (2) Steel or Precast Concrete Structures. Steel
movements could result if the pavement of the far and precast concrete girders in lieu of cast-in-
roadway is obscured because of excessive grade place concrete eliminate falsework, and may
differential. permit lower grade lines and reduced
204.8 Grade Line of Structures approach fill heights. Potential cost savings
from elimination of falsework, lowered grade
(1) Structure Depth. The depth to span ratio for lines, and the ability to accommodate
each structure is dependent on many factors. settlement beneath the abutments should be
Some of these are: span, type of construction, considered in structure type selection along
aesthetics, cost, falsework limitations, and with unit price, aesthetics, uniformity, and any
vertical clearance limitations. For purposes of other relevant factors. Note that grade lines at
preliminary planning and design, the depth to grade separations frequently need to be
span ratios listed below may be used in setting adjusted after final structure depths are
grade lines at grade separations. determined (see Index 309.2(3)). Details of
(a) Railroad Underpass Structures. traffic handling and stage construction should
be provided when the bridge site plan is
• Single track, through girder type submitted to the DES – Structure Design if the
structures: use 5-foot depth from top design or construction of the structure is
of rail to structure soffit (bottom of affected (see Drafting and Plans Manual,
girder). Section 3-3.2).
• Deck-type structures: for simple spans (3) Depressed Grade Line Under Structures.
use d/s (depth to span ratio)= 0.08; for Bridge and drainage design will frequently be
continuous multiple span structures simplified if the low point in the grade line is
December 16, 2016
set a sufficient distance from the intersection • Closing local streets to all traffic or trucks
of the centerlines of the structure and the only during construction.
highway so that drainage structures clear the
structure footings. • Detours.
(4) Grade Line on Bridge Decks. Vertical curves • Carrying local traffic through construction
on bridge decks should provide a minimum on subgrade.
fall of 0.05-foot per station. This fall should • Temporary or permanent lowering of the
not extend over a length greater than 100 feet. existing facility.
The flattest allowable tangent grade should be
0.3 percent. • Cost of higher clearance versus cost of
traffic control.
(5) Falsework. In many cases, it is economically
justified to have falsework over traffic during • Desires of local agency.
construction in order to have a support-free Worker safety should be considered when
open area beneath the permanent structure. determining vertical falsework clearance.
The elimination of permanent obstructions Requests for approval of temporary vertical
usually outweighs objections to the temporary clearances less than 15 feet should discuss the
inconvenience of falsework during impact on worker safety.
construction.
Temporary horizontal clearances less than
Because the width of traffic openings through shown in Table 204.8 or temporary vertical
falsework can, and oftentimes does, clearances less than 15 feet should be noted in
significantly affect costs, special care should the PS&E Transmittal Report.
be given to determining opening widths. The
following should be considered: staging and To establish the grade of a structure to be
traffic handling requirements, accommodation constructed with a falsework opening,
of pedestrians and bicyclists, the width of allowance must be made for the depth of the
approach roadbed that will exist at the time falsework. The minimum depths required for
the bridge is constructed, traffic volumes, various widths of traffic opening are shown in
needs of the local agencies, controls in the Table 204.8.
form of existing facilities, and the practical Where vertical clearances, either temporary or
challenges of falsework construction. permanent are critical, the District and the
The normal width of traffic openings and DES – Structure Design should work closely
required falsework spans are shown in Table during the early design stage when the
204.8. preliminary grades, structure depths, and
falsework depths can be adjusted without
The normal spans shown in Table 204.8 are incurring major design changes.
for anchored temporary K-rail. When
temporary K-rail is not anchored, add 4 feet to Where the vertical falsework clearance is less
normal span to include K-rail deflection. than 15 feet, advance warning devices are to
be specified or shown on the plans. Such
The minimum vertical falsework clearance devices may consist of flashing lights,
over freeways and nonfreeways shall be overhead signs, over-height detectors, or a
15 feet. The following items should be combination of these or other devices.
considered:
Warning signs on the cross road or in advance
• Mix, volume, and speed of traffic. of the previous off-ramp may be required for
• Effect of increased vertical clearance on overheight permit loads. Check with the
the grade of adjacent sections. Regional Permit Manager.
After establishing the opening requirements, a
field review of the bridge site should be made
December 16, 2016
Table 204.8
Falsework Span and Depth Requirements
Depth of Superstructure(5)
Minimum
Facility to be Normal Width of Resulting Up to Up to Up to Up to
Spanned Traffic Opening Falsework 6 feet 8 feet 10 feet 12 feet
(2)(3)(4)
Normal Span(1) Minimum Falsework Depth
20' 28' 1'-9" 1'-10" 1'-10" 1'-10½"
25' 33' 1'-10½" 2'-1' 2'-1' 2'-8½"
32' 40' 2'-0" 2'-8½" 2'-9" 3'-0"

37' 45' 2'-9" 2'-11½" 3'-0" 3'-3"
Freeway & 40' 48' 3'-0" 3'-0" 3'-2½" 3'-3"

Non Freeway 49' 57' 3'-3" 3'-3½" 3'-3½" 3'-3½"
52' 60' 3'-3" 3'-3½" 3'-3½" 3'-4"
61' 69' 3'-5" 3'-5" 3'-7" 3'-7½"
64' 72' 3'-5" 3'-7½" 3'-7½" 3'-8"
73' 81' 3'-6" 3'-9" 3'-9" 3'-9"
NOTES:
(1) Includes 8' for two temporary K-rails and 2' to center line of post including 3” clearance between K-rail
and footing pad. This is for K-rail anchored to the pavement.
(2) Approach roadway width measured normal to lanes. Use next highest width if the approach roadway
width is not shown in the table.
(3) Dependent upon the width of approach roadbed available at the time of bridge construction.
(4) Clear vehicular opening between temporary railings.
(5) See Index 204.8 for preliminary depth to span ratios. For more detailed information, contact the
Division of Engineering Services, Structure Design and refer to the Bridge Design Aids.
December 16, 2016
by the District designer to ensure that existing permitted and should be provided whenever
facilities (drainage, other bridges, or road- they can be obtained without requiring
ways) will not conflict with the falsework. alterations to existing adjacent improvements.
When recessed openings are required, the
The placement and removal of falsework
opening should be located a minimum
requires special consideration. During these
distance of 75 feet from the nearest edge of
operations, traffic should either be stopped for
the traveled way.
short intervals or diverted away from the span
where the placement or removal operations (4) Joint Openings. A joint access opening
are being performed. The method of traffic serving two or more parcels of land is
handling during these operations is to be desirable whenever feasible. If the property
included in the Special Provisions. line is not normal to the right of way line, care
should be taken in designing the joint opening
Topic 205 - Road Connections so that both owners are adequately served.
and Driveways (5) Surfacing. All points of private access should
be surfaced with adequate width and depth of
205.1 Access Openings on Expressways pavement to serve the anticipated traffic. The
Access openings are used only on expressways. surfacing should extend from the edge of the
The term access opening applies to openings traveled way to the right of way line.
through the right of way line which serve abutting
land ownerships whose remaining access rights Figure 205.1
have been acquired by the State.
Access Openings on
(1) Criteria for Location. Access openings should Expressways
not be spaced closer than one-half mile to an
adjacent public road intersection or to another
private access opening that is wider than
30 feet. When several access openings are
closely spaced, a frontage road should be
considered (see Index 104.3). To discourage
wrong-way movements, access openings
should be located directly opposite, or at least
300 feet from a median opening.
Sight distance equivalent to that required
RECESSED OPENING
for public road intersections shall be NOTES:
provided (see Index 405.1).
• By widening the expressway shoulder,
(2) Width. The normal access opening width deceleration lanes may be provided where
should be 30 feet. A greater width may result justified.
in large savings in right of way costs in some
instances, but should be considered with • This detail, without the recess, may be used
caution because of the possibility that public on conventional highways.
use might develop. Conversion of a private
205.2 Private Road Connections
opening into a public road connection requires
the consent of the CTC, which cannot be The minimum private road connection design is
committed in advance (see the Project shown on Figure 205.1. Sight distance
Development Procedures Manual). requirements for the minimum private road
connection are shown on Figure 405.7 (see
(3) Recessed Access Openings. Recessed access
Index 405.1(2)(c)).
openings, as shown on Figure 205.1, are
desirable at all points where private access is
December 16, 2016
205.3 Urban Driveways the driveway including the side slope

distances exceed the property frontage.
These instructions apply to the design of driveways
to serve property abutting on State highways in (d) When more than one driveway is to serve
cities or where urban type development is a given property, the total width of all
encountered. driveways should not exceed 70 percent
of the frontage where such a frontage is
Details for driveway construction are shown on the 100 feet or less. Where the frontage is
Standard Plans. Corner sight distance requirements more than 100 feet, the total driveway
are not applied to urban driveways. See Index width should not exceed 60 percent of the
405.1(2) for further information. frontage. In either case, the width of the
(1) Correlation with Local Standards. Where individual driveway should not exceed
there is a local requirement regulating those given in the preceding paragraphs.
driveway construction, the higher standard Where more than one driveway is
will normally govern. necessary to serve any one property, not
less than 20 feet of full height curb should
(2) Driveway Width. The width of driveways for
be provided between driveways. This
both residential and commercial usage is
distance between driveways also applies
measured at the throat, exclusive of any flares.
to projects where curbs and gutters are not
(“W” as shown in Standard Plan A87A).
to be placed.
(3) Residential Driveways. The width of single
(e) Certain urban commercial driveways may
residential driveways should be 12 feet
need to accommodate the maximum legal
minimum and 20 feet maximum. The width
vehicle. The width will be determined by
of a double residential driveway such as used
the use of truck turn templates.
for multiple dwellings should be 20 feet
minimum and 30 feet maximum. The width (5) Surfacing. Where curbs, gutters, and
selected should be based on an analysis of the sidewalks are to be placed, driveways should
anticipated volume, type and speed of traffic, be constructed of portland cement concrete.
location of buildings and garages, width of Where only curbs and gutters are to be placed
street, etc. and pedestrian traffic or adjacent
improvements do not warrant concrete
(4) Commercial Driveways. Commercial
driveway construction, the driveway may be
driveways should be limited to the following
paved with the same materials used for
maximum widths:
existing surfacing on the property to be
(a) When the driveway is used for one-way served.
traffic, the maximum width should be
(6) Pedestrian Access. Where sidewalks traverse
25 feet. If the driveway serves a large
driveways, the sidewalk shall continue across
parcel, where large volumes of vehicles or
the driveway to alert driveway users that they
large vehicles are expected, the entrance
are crossing a pedestrian walkway, and must
maximum width should be 40 feet and the
yield to pedestrians on the sidewalk.
exit maximum width should be 35 feet.
Driveway corner radii should also be
(b) When the driveway is used for two-way minimized to encourage low-speed turns by
traffic, the maximum width should be motorized vehicles and bicycles. For
35 feet. If the driveway serves a large accessibility requirements, see DIB 82.
parcel, where large volumes of vehicles or Provision of this feature, as indicated in the
large vehicles are expected, then the Standard Plans, may require the acquisition of
maximum width should be 45 feet. a construction easement or additional right of
way. Assessment of these needs must be
(c) When only one driveway serves a given
performed early enough in the design to allow
property, in no case should the width of
time for acquiring any necessary permits or
December 16, 2016
right of way. Additionally, designers should when accelerating onto the roadway. For paving at
consider the following: crossings with Class I bikeways (Bike Paths), see
Index 1003.1(6)
• In many cases providing the pathway
along the back of the driveway will lower 205.5 Financial Responsibility
the elevation at the back of the sidewalk.
Reconstructing or relocating any access openings,
Depending on grades behind the sidewalk
private road connections, or driveways required by
the potential may exist for roadway
revisions to the State highway facility should be
generated runoff to enter private property.
done at State expense by the State or its agents.
The need for features such as low berms
Reconstruction or relocation requested by others
within the construction easement, or
should be paid for by the requesting party.
installation of catch basins upstream of
the driveway should be determined.
Topic 206 - Pavement Transitions
When there are no sidewalks or other
pedestrian facilities that follow the highway, 206.1 General Transition Standards
the designer may develop driveway details Pavement transition and detour standards should be
that eliminate the flatter portion along the consistent with the section having the features built
back edge in lieu of using the Standard Plans to the highest design standards. The transition
for driveways. Refer to Topic 105 for should be made on a tangent section whenever
additional information related to pedestrian possible and should avoid locations with horizontal
facilities. and vertical sight distance restrictions. Whenever
205.4 Driveways on Frontage Roads and in feasible, the entire transition should be visible to
Rural Areas the driver of a vehicle approaching the narrower
section. The design should be such that
On frontage roads and in rural areas where the intersections at grade within the transition area are
maximum legal vehicle must be accommodated, avoided. For decision sight distance at lane drops,
standard truck-turn templates should be used to see Index 201.7.
determine driveway widths where the curb or edge
of traveled way is so close to the right of way line 206.2 Pavement Widenings
that a usable connection cannot be provided within (1) Through Lane Additions. Where through
the standard limits. lanes, climbing lanes, or passing lanes are
Where county or city regulations differ from the added, the minimum recommended distance
State's, it may be desirable to follow their over which to transition traffic onto the
regulations, particularly where jurisdiction of the additional width is 250 feet per lane. Figure
frontage road will ultimately be in their hands. 206.2 shows several examples of acceptable
methods for adding a lane in each direction to
Details for driveway construction are shown on the a two-lane highway.
Standard Plans. For corner sight distance, see
Index 405.1(2)(c). (2) Turning, Ramp, and Speed Change Lanes.
Transitions for lane additions, either for left or
Driveways connecting to State highways shall be right turns or to add a lane to a ramp, should
paved a minimum of 20 feet from the edge of typically occur over a length of 120 feet.
shoulder or to the edge of State right of way, Lengths shorter than 120 feet are acceptable
whichever is less to minimize or eliminate gravel where design speeds are below 45 miles per
from being scattered on the highway and to provide hour or for conditions as stated in Index
a paved surface for vehicles and bicycles to 405.2(2)(c).
accelerate and merge. Where larger design
vehicles are using the driveway (e.g., dump trucks, Where insufficient median width is available
flat bed trucks, moving vans, etc.), extend paving to provide for left turn lanes, through traffic
so the drive wheels will be on a paved surface will have to be shifted to the outside. See
Figures 405.2A, B and C for acceptable
December 16, 2016
Figure 206.2
Typical Two-lane to Four-lane Transitions
December 16, 2016
methods of widening pavement to provide for Figure 405.9 shows the standard taper to be
median turn lanes. used for dropping an acceleration lane at a
signalized intersection. This taper can also be
(3) Lane Widening. An increase in lane width can
used when transitioning median acceleration
occur at short radius curves which are
lanes.
widened for truck off-tracking, at ramp
terminals with large truck turning volumes, or Figures 405.2A, B and C show the
when new construction matches existing recommended methods of transitioning
roadways with narrow lane widths. Extensive pavement back into the median area on
transition lengths are not necessary as the conventional highways after the elimination of
widening does not restrict the driver’s left-turn lanes.
expectations. Transition tapers for these types
(3) Lane Reductions. At any location where lane
of situations should be at 10:1 (longitudinal to
widths are being reduced, the minimum length
lateral).
over which to accomplish the transition should
(4) Shoulder and Bicycle Lane Widening. be equal to WV. See Index 504.6 for mainline
Shoulder and bicycle lane widening should lane reductions at interchanges.
normally be accomplished in a manner that
(4) Shoulder Reduction. Shoulder reductions
provides a smooth transition.
should typically occur over a length equal to
206.3 Pavement Reductions ¾WV. However, when shoulder widths are
being reduced in conjunction with a lane
(1) Through Lane Drops. When a lane is to be addition or widening (as in Alt. A of Figure
dropped, it should be done by tapering over a 504.3K), the shoulder reduction should be
distance equal to WV, where W = Width of accomplished over the same distance as the
lane to be dropped and V = Design Speed. In addition or widening.
general, the transition should be on the right
so that traffic merges to the left. Figure 206.2 206.4 Temporary Freeway Transitions
provides several examples of acceptable lane
It is highly desirable that the design standards for a
drops at 4-lane to 2-lane transitions. The
temporary transition between the end of a freeway
exception to using the WV criteria is for the
construction unit and an existing highway should
lane drop/freeway merge movement on a
not change abruptly from the freeway standards.
branch connection which is accomplished
Temporary freeway transitions must be reviewed
using a 50:1 taper.
by the District approval authority or Project
(2) Ramp and Speed Change Lanes. As shown in Delivery Coordinator, depending upon the current
Figures 504.2A and 504.3L, the standard taper District Design Delegation Agreement.
for a ramp merge into a through traffic lane is
50:1 (longitudinal to lateral). Where ramp Topic 207 - Airway-Highway
lanes are dropped prior to the merge with the Clearances
through facility, the recommended taper is
50:1 for design speeds over 45 miles per hour, 207.1 Introduction
and the taper distance should be equal to WV
(1) Objects Affecting Navigable Airspace. An
for speeds below 45 miles per hour.
object is considered an obstruction to air
The "Ramp Meter Design Guidelines" also navigation if any portion of that object is of a
provide information on recommended and height greater than the approach and
minimum tapers for ramp lane merges. These transverse surfaces extending outward and
guideline values are typically used in retrofit upward from the airport runway. These
or restricted right-of-way situations, and are objects include overhead signs, light
acceptable for the specific conditions stated in standards, moving vehicles on the highway
the guidelines. and overcrossing structures, equipment used
during construction, and plants.
December 16, 2016
(2) Reference. The Federal Aviation Administra- The scaled maps accompanying FAA Form 7460-1
tion (FAA) has published a Federal Aviation should contain the following minimum
Regulation (FAR) relative to airspace information.
clearance entitled, Safe, Efficient Use, and
• Distance from project to nearest runway.
Preservation of the Navigable Airspace, dated
July 21, 2010. This is an approved reference • Elevation of runway thresholds.
to be used in conjunction with this manual.
• Relationship between the proposed highway
207.2 Clearances horizontal alignment and vertical profile to the
nearest runway or heliport primary surface.
(a) Civil Airports--See Figure 207.2A.
Include elevations of objects referenced to the
(b) Heliports--See Figure 207.2B. elevation of the end of the runway, such as
(c) Military Airports--See Figure 207.2C. overhead lights, signs, structures, landscaping,
and vehicles.
(d) Navy Carrier Landing Practice Fields--
See Figure 207.2D. One copy of FAA form 7460-1 should be
forwarded to the Division of Design for
207.3 Submittal of Airway-Highway information and one copy to the Division of
Clearance Data Aeronautics for information and land use
compatibility review.
The following procedure must be observed in
connection with airway-highway clearances in the
Topic 208 – Bridges, Grade
vicinity of airports and heliports.
Separation Structures, and
Notice to the FAA is required when highway
construction is planned near an airport (civil or
Structure Approach Embankment
military) or a heliport. A "Notice of Proposed 208.1 Bridge Lane and Shoulder Width
Construction or Alteration" should be submitted to
the FAA Administrator when required under (1) State Highways. The clear width of all
criteria listed in Paragraph 77.9 of the latest Federal bridges, including grade separation
Aviation Regulations, Part 77. Such notice should structures, shall equal the full width of the
be given as soon as highway alignment and grade traveled way and paved shoulders on the
are firmly established. It should be noted that these approaches with the following exceptions:
requirements apply to both permanent objects and (a) Bridges to be constructed as
construction equipment. Electronic filing of FAA replacements on existing 2-lane, 2-way
Form 7460-1, “Notice of Proposed Construction”, roads shall not have less than a 32-foot
is preferred by the FAA. This form and guidance wide roadbed for ADT less than 400,
for the submission may be found at and not less than 40-foot wide roadbed
https://oeaaa.faa.gov/oeaaa/external/portal.jsp. for ADT greater than 400. (see
When required, four copies of FAA Form 7460-1, Index 307.2).
and accompanying scaled maps should be sent to: (b) When the approach shoulder width is
Mail Processing Center less than 4 feet, the minimum offset on
Federal Aviation Administration each side shall be 4 feet, and shall be
Southwest Regional Office documented in accordance with
Obstruction Evaluation Group Index 82.2.
10101 Hillwood Parkway The width should be measured normal to the
Fort Worth, TX 76177 center line between faces of curb or railing
Fax: (817) 222-5920 measured at the gutter line. For offsets to
Copies of FAA Form 7460-1 may be obtained from safety shape barriers see Figure 208.1.
the Caltrans, Division of Aeronautics or at
https://oeaaa.faa.gov/oeaaa/external/portal.jsp.
December 16, 2016
Figure 207.2A
Airway-Highway Clearance Requirements
(Civil Airports)
December 16, 2016
Figure 207.2B
Airway-Highway Clearance
Requirements (Heliport)
NOTES:
(1) FATO dimensions “a” and “b” are equal to one and one-half times the overall length of the design helicopter,
except for transport category heliports, where “a” equals two times the rotor diameter (100 feet Min.) and “b”
equals two-times the rotor diameter (200 feet Min.). Check with heliport owner to verify helicopter category.
(2) Minimum vertical clearance is 17'-0" for freeways and 15'-0" for conventional highways and local roads, and
10'-0" for private roads.
(3) Contact the heliport owner/operator to determine the approved approach/departure paths.
Highway Clearance: Profile at pavement edge near airfield
* 10:1 for Military Heliports
** Final Approach/Take Off Area
December 16, 2016
Figure 207.2C
Airway-Highway Clearance
Requirements (Military Airports)
December 16, 2016
Figure 207.2D
Airway-Highway Clearance Requirements
(Navy Carrier Landing Practice Field)
December 16, 2016
Figure 208.1
Offsets to Safety-Shape Barriers
December 16, 2016
For horizontal and vertical clearances, see 208.4 Bridge Sidewalks

Topic 309.
Sidewalks on bridges should be provided wherever
(2) Roads Under Other Jurisdictions. there are sidewalks or other pedestrian facilities
(a) Overcrossing Widths--(See Index 308.1.) that follow the highway. The minimum width of a
bridge sidewalk shall be 6 feet. The
(b) Undercrossing Span Lengths--Initial recommended width should be 8 feet for pedestrian
construction should provide for the comfort. Bridges sidewalks in area types (see
ultimate requirements. In areas where the Index 81.2) with high levels of pedestrian activity
local jurisdiction has a definite plan of may need to be greater than 8 feet (see Figure
development, the ultimate right of way 208.10B).
width or at least that portion needed for
the roadbed and sidewalks should be 208.5 Open End Structures
spanned. Embankment end slopes at open end structures
If the undercrossing street or road has no should be no steeper than 1½:1 for all highways.
median, one should be provided where 208.6 Bicycle and Pedestrian Overcrossings
necessary to accommodate left-turn lanes and Undercrossings
or the center piers of the undercrossing
structure. A bicycle overcrossing (BOC) or undercrossing
(BUC) is a facility that provides a connection
Where it appears that a 2-lane road will be between bikeways or roads open to bicycling.
adequate for the foreseeable future, but no They are considered Class I bikeways, or in certain
right of way width has been established, a situations may be considered Class IV bikeways.
minimum span length sufficient for a 40- See Index 1003.1 for Class I bikeway guidance or
foot roadbed should be provided. DIB 89 for Class IV bikeways (separated
Additional span length should be provided bikeways) guidance.
to permit future sidewalks where there is a
foreseeable need. If it is reasonably A pedestrian overcrossing (POC) or undercrossing
foreseeable that more than two lanes will (PUC) is a facility that provides a connection
be required ultimately, a greater width between pedestrian walkways.
should be spanned. The minimum width of walkway for pedestrian
(c) For horizontal and vertical clearances, see overcrossing should be 8 feet. The minimum
Topic 309. vertical clearance of a pedestrian undercrossing
should be 10 feet. Skewed crossings should be
208.2 Cross Slope avoided.
The crown is normally centered on the bridge Class I bikeways are designed for the exclusive use
except for one-way bridges where a straight cross of bicyclists and pedestrians; equestrian access is
slope in one direction should be used. The cross prohibited. See Chapter 1000 for Class I bikeway
slope should be the same as for the approach design guidance and Index 208.7 for equestrian
pavement (see Index 301.2 and Index 203.9). undercrossing guidance. For additional
208.3 Median information about the need to separate bicyclists
from equestrian trails, see Index 1003.4.
On multilane divided highways a bridge median
that is 36 feet wide or less should be decked. POC’s and PUC’s must be designed to comply with
Exceptions require individual analysis. See DIB 82.
Chapter 7 of the Traffic Manual for median barrier See Topic 309 for vertical clearances.
warrants.
December 16, 2016
208.7 Equestrian Undercrossings and These facilities should be installed where necessary
Overcrossings as determined by consultation with the appropriate
affected entities.
Such structures should normally provide a clear
opening 10 feet high and 10 feet wide. Skewed A clear line of sight should be provided through the
crossings should be avoided. The structure should structure.
be straight so the entire length can be seen from 208.9 Railroad Underpasses and Overheads
each end. Sustained grades should be a maximum
of 10 percent. Decomposed granite or similar Generally, it is desirable to construct overheads
material should be used for the trail surface. While rather than underpasses whenever it is necessary
flexible pavement is permissible, a rigid pavement for a highway and railroad to cross. Railroads
should not be used. See Index 1003.4 for should be carried over highways only when there is
separation between bicycle paths and equestrian no other reasonable alternative.
trails. See DIB 82 for when trails are open to Some undesirable features of underpasses are:
pedestrians.
(a) They create bottlenecks for railroad operations.
Design guidance for equestrian overcrossings is
pending. (b) It is difficult to widen the highway.
208.8 Cattle Passes, Equipment, and Deer (c) Pumping plants are often required to drain the
Crossings highway.
Private cattle passes and equipment crossings may (d) They are likely to lead to cost participation
be constructed when economically justified by a controversies for initial and future construction.
right of way appraisal, as outlined in Section (e) Shooflies (temporary tracks) are generally
7.09.09.00 of the Right of Way Manual. required during construction.
The standard cattle pass should consist of either a (f) Railroads are concerned about the structure
standard box culvert with an opening 8 feet wide maintenance and liability costs they incur.
and 8 feet high or a metal pipe 120 inches in
diameter. The invert of metal pipe should be paved Advantages of overheads are:
with concrete or bituminous paving material. (a) Railroads can use most of their right of way for
If equestrian traffic is expected to use the culvert a maintenance.
minimum 10 feet wide by 10 feet high structure (b) Overheads can be widened at a relatively low
may be provided. However, the user of the facility cost and with little difficulty.
should be contacted to determine the specific
(c) Less damage may be incurred in the event of a
requirements.
derailment.
If conditions indicate a reasonable need for a larger
(d) Agreements for design and maintenance can be
than standard cattle pass, it may be provided if
reached more easily with railroads.
economically justified by the right of way
appraisal. (e) Initial costs are generally lower.
In some cases the installation of equipment or deer The State, the railroads, and the public in general
crossings is justified on the basis of public interest can usually benefit from the construction of an
or need rather than economics. Examples are: overhead structure rather than an underpass.
(a) A deer crossing or other structure for See Topic 309 for vertical clearances.
environmental protection purposes.
208.10 Bridge Barriers and Railings
(b) Equipment crossings for the Forest Service or
(1) General. There are four classes of railings,
other governmental agencies or as a right of
way obligation. each intended to perform a different function.
December 16, 2016
(a) Vehicular Barrier Railings--The primary The approved types of railings for use on
function of these railings is to retain and bridge structures are listed below and
redirect errant vehicles. illustrated in Figures 208.10A, B, and C.
Railing types not listed are no longer in
(b) Combination Vehicular Barrier and
general use; however, they may be specified
Pedestrian Railings--These railings per-
in those cases where it is desirable to match an
form the dual function of retaining both
existing condition.
vehicles and pedestrians on the bridge.
They consist of two parts--A concrete The District should specify in the bridge site
parapet barrier, generally with a sidewalk, data submittal the rail type to be used after
and metal handrailing or fence-type consideration has been given to the
railing. recommendations of the local agency (where
applicable) and the DES-SD.
(c) Pedestrian Railings--These railings pre-
vent pedestrians from accidentally falling (3) Vehicular Barriers. See Figure 208.10A.
from the structure and, in the case of
(a) Concrete Barrier Type 732 and 736--
fence-type railing, reduce the risk of
These vehicular barriers are for general
objects being dropped on the roadway
use adjacent to traffic. Figure 208.1
below. See DIB 82 for additional
illustrates the position of the barrier
requirements.
relative to the edge of traveled way.
(d) Bicycle Railings--These railings retain
(b) Concrete Barrier Type 80--Use of this
bicycles and riders on the structure. They
barrier is intended in scenic areas where
may be specifically designed for bicycles,
more see-through area is desired than is
or may be a combination type consisting
provided by a solid concrete parapet.
of a vehicular barrier surmounted by a
fence or metal handrail. (4) Combination Railings. See Figure 208.10B.
(2) Policies. To reduce the risk of objects being (a) Barrier Railing Type 732SW--This is the
dropped or thrown upon vehicles, protective barrier railing for general use when
screening in the form of fence-type railings sidewalks are provided on a bridge. It
should be installed along new overcrossing must be accompanied with a tubular
structure sidewalks in urban areas (Sec. 92.6 handrailing or a fence-type railing. See
California Streets and Highways Code). Index 208.4 for minimum width, however,
Screening should be considered for the this width may be varied as circumstances
opposite side of structures having one require.
sidewalk. Screening should be installed at (b) Barrier Railing Type 80SW--Similar to
such other locations determined to be the Type 80, modified with a raised
appropriate. sidewalk and tubular handrailing. It is
Railings and barriers with sidewalks should intended for use in lower speed scenic
not be used on structures with posted speeds areas where more see-through area is
greater than 45 miles per hour without barrier desired than is provided by a solid
separation. All structure railings with a concrete parapet. The minimum sidewalk
sidewalk in the Standard Plans are approved width is 6 feet; however, this width may
for posted speeds up to 45 miles per hour. be varied as circumstances require.
Any use of railings and barriers with (c) Chain Link Railing Type 7--This is the
sidewalks on structures with posted speeds fence-type railing for general use with
greater than 45 miles per hour shall have a Type 732SW or Type 80SW barrier
barrier separation between the roadway railing with sidewalk to reduce the risk of
and the sidewalk. The barrier separation type objects being dropped on the roadway
and the bridge rail selection requires approval below. When a sidewalk is provided on
by the HQ Traffic Liaison.
December 16, 2016
one side of a bridge and Type 732 barrier and Technical Services for more information.
railing on the other side, Type 7 railing Pedestrian railings and combination railings
may be placed on top of the Type 732 as consisting of a concrete barrier surmounted by
additional protection from dropped a fence or tubular railing are satisfactory for
objects. Consideration should be given to bicycles, if a minimum 42-inch height is met.
the effect of the Type 7 railing on sight Bicycles are not considered to operate on a
distance at the bridge ends and view over sidewalk, except in special cases where signs
the side of the bridge. Lighting fixtures specifically direct cyclists to use a bike path or
may be provided with Type 7 railings. the sidewalk.
(d) Chain Link Railing Type 6--This railing As a general policy, bicycle railings should be
may be used in lieu of Type 7 when installed at the following locations:
special architectural treatment is required.
(a) On a Class I bikeway, except that a lower
It should not be used on curved alignment
rail may be used if a curbed sidewalk, not
because of fabrication difficulties.
signed for bicycle use, separates the
(e) Tubular Handrailing--This railing is used bikeway from the rail or a shoulder at
with Type 732SW, and Type 80SW to least 8 feet wide exists on the other side of
increase the combined rail height for the the rail.
safety of pedestrians. It should be used in
(b) On the outside of a Class II or III
lieu of Type 7 where object dropping will
bikeway, unless a curbed sidewalk, not
not be a problem or at the ends of bridges
signed for bicycle use, separates the
to increase sight distance if fence-type
bikeway from the rail.
railing would restrict sight distance.
(c) In other locations where the designer
(5) Pedestrian Railings. See Figure 208.10C
deems it reasonable and appropriate.
(a) Chain Link Railing Type 3--This railing is
(7) Bridge Approach Railings. Approach
used on pedestrian structures to reduce the
railings shall be installed at the ends of
risk of objects being dropped on the
bridge railings exposed to approach traffic.
roadway below.
Refer to Chapter 7 of the Traffic Manual for
(b) Chain Link Railing Type 7 (Modified)--
placement and design criteria of guardrail.
This railing is similar to Type 7 except
that it is mounted on the structure at the 208.11 Structure Approach Embankment
sidewalk level.
(1) General. Structure approach embankment is
(c) Chain Link Railing--This railing is not as that portion of the fill material within
high as Types 3 or 7 and therefore, its use approximately 150 feet longitudinally of the
is restricted to those locations where structure. Refer to Figure 208.11A for limits,
object dropping or throwing will not be a the Standard Specifications, and Standard
problem. Special Provisions for more information.
(d) Chain Link Railing (Modification)-- Quality requirements for embankment
Existing railing may be modified for material are normally specified only in the
screening under the protective screening case of imported borrow. When select
policy. The DES-SD should be contacted material or local borrow for use in structure
for details. abutment embankments is shown on the plans,
(6) Bicycle Railing. The minimum height of the Resident Engineer (RE) is responsible for
bicycle rail in certain circumstances is assuring the adequacy of the quantity and
48 inches; however, in most situations quality of the specified material. The Project
42 inches above the deck surface is Engineer should include adequate information
appropriate. Contact DES, Office of Design and guidance in the RE File to assist the RE in
fulfilling this responsibility.
December 16, 2016
Figure 208.10A
Vehicular Railings for
Bridge Structures
December 16, 2016
Figure 208.10B
Combination Vehicular Barrier and Pedestrian Railings for Bridge
Structures
December 16, 2016
Figure 208.10C
Pedestrian Railings for
Bridge Structures
December 16, 2016
(2) Foundations and Embankment Design. responsible for the design of the structure
Overall performance of the highway approach approach drainage system, which includes:
to the bridge depends, to a significant degree,
• A geocomposite drain covered with filter
upon the long-term settlement/consolidation
fabric placed behind both the abutment
of the approach foundation and structure
wall and wingwalls, as indicated in Figure
abutment embankment. A design that
208.11B.
minimizes this post construction
settlement/consolidation is essential. Factors • A slotted plastic pipe drain, encapsulated
that influence settlement/consolidation include with treated permeable material, placed
soil types and depths, static and dynamic along the base of the inside face of the
loads, ground water level, adjacent operations, abutment wall as illustrated in Figure
and changes in any of the above. The PE must 208.11B.
follow the foundation and embankment
(4) Slope Treatment. See Topic 707, Slope
recommendations by the Division of
Treatment Under Structures, for guidance
Engineering Services, Geotechnical Services
regarding the treatment of bridge approach
(DES-GS) and District Materials Engineer
end slopes.
(DME). The DME and/or DES-GS must
approve any deviations from their The District Hydraulic Engineer or Project
recommendations including Construction Engineer must design a pipe outlet that ties
Change Orders (CCO’s). into the structure approach drainage system as
it exits the structure. A pipe outlet system
The relative compaction of material within the
should carry the collected water to a location
embankment limits must be at least
where it will not cause erosion. Storm Water
95 percent, except for the outer 5 feet of
Best Management Practices should be
embankment measured horizontally from the
incorporated. For further information on
side slope (see Figure 208.11A). The DME
Storm Water Management, visit the Division
and/or OSF may recommend using select
of Design Storm Water website.
material, local and/or imported borrow to
assure that the compaction requirements are Coordination with DES is necessary for the
met and that shrink/swell problems are exit location of the pipe system. The outlet
avoided. They may also recommend a height type should be chosen from the standard edge
and duration of embankment surcharge to drain outlet types shown in the Standard Plans
accelerate foundation consolidation. or tied into an underground drainage system.
The PE must review the drainage design to
Poor quality material, such as expansive soils,
ensure the adequacy of the drainage ties
must be precluded from structure abutment
between the structure approach drainage
embankments unless treated. If sufficient
system and either new or existing drainage
quality roadway excavation material is
facilities. For alternative details, see Bridge
unavailable for constructing of structure
Design Aids.
abutment embankments, the designer may
specify select material, local borrow, or
imported borrow to satisfy the design
Topic 209 - (currently not in use)
requirements.
(3) Abutment Drainage. Special attention must
be given to providing a positive drainage
system that minimizes the potential for water
damage to the structure approach
embankment, see Chapter 870 for further
details. The Division of Engineering Services
(DES), Structures Design (DES-SD) is
December 16, 2016
Figure 208.11A
Limits of Structure Approach Embankment Material
December 16, 2016
Figure 208.11B
Abutment Drainage Details
December 16, 2016
Topic 210 - Reinforced Earth to be used in a cut situation, a temporary

back cut or shoring system is required
Slopes and Earth Retaining behind the wall.
Systems
The District Project Engineer (PE) should
210.1 Introduction conduct an initial site visit and assessment to
determine all potential construction
Constructing roadways on new alignments, limitations. The preferred construction
widening roadways on an existing alignment, or method is top-down due to the reduced
repairing earth slopes damaged by landslides are shoring, excavation and backfilling. However,
situations that may require the use of reinforced this method is not always available or
earth slopes or earth retaining systems. Using cut appropriate based on the physical and
and embankment slopes that are configured at slope geotechnical site conditions. The site should
ratios that are stable without using reinforcement is also be examined for R/W or utility
usually preferred; however, topography, constraints that would restrict the type of
environmental concerns, and right of way (R/W) excavation or limit the use of some
limitations may require the need for reinforced equipment. In addition, the accessibility to the
earth slopes or an earth retaining system. site for construction and contractor staging
The need for reinforced earth slopes or an earth areas should be considered.
retaining system should be identified as early in the Table 210.2 summarizes the various
project development process as possible, preferably reinforced earth slopes and earth retaining
during the Project Initiation Document (PID) systems that are currently available for use,
phase. along with the method in which they are
210.2 Construction Methods and Types constructed.
(1) Construction Methods. (2) Reinforced Earth Slopes (PS&E by District
PE)
Both reinforced earth slopes and earth
retaining systems can be classified by the Reinforced earth slopes incorporate metallic
method in which they are constructed, either or non-metallic reinforcement in construction
top-down or bottom-up. of embankments and cut slopes with a slope
angle flatter than 70 degrees from the
• “Top-down” construction –This method horizontal plane. Reinforced earth slopes
of construction begins at the top of the should be used in conjunction with erosion
reinforced slope or earth retaining system mitigation measures to minimize future
and proceeds in lifts to the bottom of the maintenance costs. The slope face is typically
reinforced slope or earth retaining system. erosion protected with the use of systems such
If required, reinforcement is inserted into as geosynthetics, bio-stabilization, rock slope
the in situ material during excavation. protection, or reinforced concrete facing.
• “Bottom-up” construction – This method (3) Earth Retaining Systems
of construction begins at the bottom of the Earth retaining systems can be divided into
reinforced slope or earth retaining system, five major categories depending upon the
where a footing/leveling pad is nature of the design and whether they are
constructed, construction then proceeds designed by the owner (State designed), a
towards the top of the reinforced slope or Proprietary vendor or a combination thereof.
earth retaining system. If required, The term “State designed” as referenced
reinforcement is placed behind the face of herein is utilized to encompass earth retaining
the reinforced slope or earth retaining systems that are designed by the State or by
system. It should be noted that if a Local or Private entities on behalf of the State.
“Retaining Wall” earth retaining system is
December 16, 2016
Table 210.2
Types of Reinforced Earth Slopes and Earth Retaining Systems(1)
EARTH RETAINING SYSTEM Construction PS&E Typical Facing Recommended Ability to
Method(2) By Material Maximum Tolerate
Vertical Differential
Height, ft Settlement(3)
Reinforced Earth Slopes
Reinforced Embankments BU District PE Vegetation/Soil 160 E
Rock/Soil Anchors TD District PE Soil/Rock 130 E
State Designed Earth Retaining Systems with Standard Plans
Concrete Cantilever Wall, Type 1 & 1A BU District PE Concrete 36, 12, 22(4) P
Concrete L-Type Cantilever Wall, Type 5 BU District PE Concrete 12(4) P
Concrete Masonry Wall, Type 6 BU District PE Masonry 6(4) P
Crib Wall: Concrete, Steel BU District PE Concrete, Steel 50, 36, (4) P
State Designed Earth Retaining Systems Which Require Special Designs
Standard Plan Walls with modified wall BU Structure PE Concrete, Steel, 50 P-F
geometry, foundations or loading Timber
conditions
Non-Gravity Cantilevered Walls
Sheet Pile Wall TD Structure PE Steel 20 F
Soldier Pile Wall with Lagging TD/BU Structure PE Concrete, Steel, 20 F-G
Timber
Tangent Soldier Pile Wall TD/BU Structure PE Concrete 30 F
Secant Soldier Pile Wall TD Structure PE Concrete 30 F
Slurry Diaphragm Wall TD Structure PE Concrete, Shotcrete 80(5) F
Deep Soil Mixing Wall TD Structure PE Shotcrete 80(5) F-G
Anchored Wall (Structural or Ground TD Structure PE Concrete, Steel, 80(6) F-G
Anchors) Timber
Gravity Walls
Concrete Gravity Wall BU Structure PE Concrete 6 P
Rock Gravity Wall BU District PE Rock 13 E
Gabion Basket Wall BU District PE Wire & Rock 26 E
Soil Reinforcement Systems
Mechanically Stabilized Embankment BU Structure PE Concrete 50 G
Salvaged Material Retaining Wall BU District PE Steel, Timber 16 G
Soil Nail Wall TD Structure PE Concrete, Shotcrete 80 F
Tire Anchored Timber Wall BU District PE Timber 32 G
Proprietary Earth Retaining Systems (Pre-approved)
The list of Pre-approved systems is available at the website shown in Index 210.2(3)(c).
Proprietary Earth Retaining Systems (Pending)
These systems are under review by DES-SD. For more information, see Index 210.2(3)(d).
Experimental State Designed Earth Retaining Systems
Geosynthetic Reinforced Walls BU Structure PE/ Concrete Blocks, 65 E
District PE Steel, Vegetation,
Fabric
Mortarless Concrete Blocks Gravity Walls BU District PE Concrete Blocks 8 P
NOTES: 1. Comparative cost data is available from DES-SD. 4. Maximum Design Height
2. BU = Bottom Up; TD = Top Down 5. Anchors may be required
3. E = Excellent; G = Good; F = Fair; P = Poor 6. With lagging
December 16, 2016
No assignment of roles and responsibilities is • Crib Walls. The following types are
intended. The five categories are as follows: available:
(a) State Designed Earth Retaining Systems Concrete Crib Wall - This type of crib
which utilize Standard Plans (PS&E by wall may be used for design heights up to
District PE). 50 feet. Concrete crib walls are suited to
Standard Plans are available for a variety coastal areas and higher elevations where
of earth retaining systems (retaining salt air and deicing salts may limit the
walls). Loading conditions and foundation service life of other types of crib walls.
requirements are as shown on the See Standard Plans or further details.
Standard Plans. For sites with Steel Crib Wall - This type of crib wall
requirements that are not covered by the may be used for design heights up to
Standard Plans, a special design is 36 feet. Steel crib walls are light in
required. To assure conformance with the weight; easily transported and installed;
specific Standard Plan conditions and and, therefore, suited for relatively
requirements, and subsequent completion inaccessible installations and for
of the PS&E in a timely fashion, the emergency repairs. See Standard Plans
District PE should request a foundation for further details.
investigation for each location where a
Concrete crib walls constructed on
retaining wall is being considered.
horizontal alignments with curves or angle
Retaining walls that utilize Standard Plans
points require special details, particularly
are as follows:
when the wall face is battered. Because
• Retaining Wall Types 1 and 1A crib wall faces can be climbed, they are
(Concrete Cantilever). These walls not recommended for use in urban
have design heights up to 36 feet and locations where they may be accessible to
12 feet respectively, but are most the public.
economical below 20 feet. Concrete
(b) State Designed Earth Retaining Systems
cantilever walls can accommodate
which requires Special Designs.
traffic barriers, and drainage facilities
efficiently. See Standard Plans for Some locations will require a special
further details. design to accommodate ground contours,
traffic, utilities, man-made features, site
Retaining Wall Type 5 (Concrete L-Type
geology, economics, or aesthetics.
Cantilever). This wall has a design height
up to 12 feet. Although more costly than Some special design earth retaining
cantilever walls, these walls may be systems are as follows:
required where site restrictions do not
• Standard Plan Walls (PS&E by
allow for a footing projection beyond the
Structure PE). The design loadings,
face of the wall stem. See Standard Plans
heights, and types of walls in the
for further details.
Standard Plans cover frequent
Retaining Wall Type 6 (Concrete applications for earth retaining
Masonry Walls). These walls may be used systems. However, special designs
where the design height of the wall does are necessary if the imposed loading
not exceed 6 feet. These walls are exceeds that shown on the Standard
generally less costly than all other Plan. Railroad live loads; building
standard design walls or gravity walls. surcharge; loads imposed by sign
Where traffic is adjacent to the top of the structures, electroliers, or noise
wall, guardrail should be set back as noted barriers are examples of loading
in the Standard Plans. See Standard Plans conditions that will require special
or further details. designs. Foundation conditions that
December 16, 2016
require pile support for the wall and for the anchors. Economical wall
angle points in the wall geometry heights up to 80 feet are feasible.
necessitate a special design.
• Gravity Wall Systems that require
• Non-Gravity Cantilevered Walls special designs are Concrete Gravity,
(PS&E by Structure PE). These walls Rock Gravity, and Gabion Basket
include sheet pile walls, soldier pile Walls. Concrete Gravity Walls (PS&E
walls with lagging, tangent soldier by Structure PE). Concrete gravity
pile walls, secant soldier pile walls, walls are most economical at design
slurry diaphragm walls, and deep soil heights below 4 feet. However, they
mixing walls. These walls are most may be constructed at heights up to
practical in cut sections and are best 6 feet. These walls can be used in
suited for situations where excavation connection with a cantilever wall if
for a retaining wall with a footing is long lengths of wall with design
impractical because of traffic, utilities, heights of less than 4 feet are
existing buildings, or R/W required.
restrictions. In embankment sections,
• Rock Gravity Walls (PS&E by
a non-gravity cantilevered wall is a
District PE). Rock gravity walls
practical solution for a roadway
consist of rocks that are 100 pounds to
widening where design heights are
200 pounds, stacked on top of each
less than 15 feet. They are also
other at slight batter. These walls are
practical for slip-out corrections.
typically used in areas where a rock
Non-gravity cantilevered walls can
appearance is desirable for aesthetic
consist of concrete, steel, timber, or
reasons. Wall heights range from
cemented soil piles that may be either
1 foot 6 inches to 15 feet, but are most
driven into place or placed in drilled
economical for heights less than
holes and trenches.
10 feet.
• Anchored Walls (PS&E by Structure
• Gabion Basket Walls (PS&E by
PE). These walls are typically
District PE). Gabion basket walls use
composed of the same elements as
compartmented units filled with
non-gravity cantilevered walls, but
stones and can be constructed up to
derive additional lateral resistance
26 feet in height. Each unit is a
from ground anchors (tiebacks),
rectangular basket made of galvanized
concrete anchors, or pile anchors.
steel wire. The stone fill is 4 inches to
These anchors are located behind the
16 inches in size. Gabion basket
potential failure surfaces in the
walls are typically used for soil and
retained soil and are connected to the
stream bank stabilization. Service life
wall structurally. The method of
of the gabion basket wall is highly
support and anchorage depends on
dependent on the environment in
site conditions, design height, and
which they are placed. Corrosion,
loading imposed. The cost of these
abrasion, rock impact, fire and
walls is variable depending on earth
vandalism are examples of site-
retaining requirements, site geology,
specific factors that would influence
aesthetic consideration, and site
the service life of the wall and should
restraints, but is generally higher than
be taken into consideration by the
“Standard Design Walls” for the same
District PE during the design of the
wall geometry and loading conditions.
project. See Standard Plans for
Anchored walls may be used to
further details.
stabilize an unstable site provided that
adequate material exists at the site
December 16, 2016
• Soil Reinforcement Systems. Soil conditions permit their use, these

reinforcement systems consist of systems are generally the most
facing elements and soil reinforcing economical choice for wall heights
elements incorporated into a greater than 20 feet. They may also
compacted or in situ soil mass. The be the most economical system for
reinforced soil mass functions similar wall heights in the 10-foot to 20-foot
to a gravity wall. range, depending on the specific
project requirements.
Soil reinforcing elements can be any
material that provides tensile strength Because of the articulated nature of
and pullout resistance, and possesses the facing elements these systems use,
satisfactory creep characteristics and they can tolerate greater differential
service life. Generally, reinforcing settlement than can monolithic
elements are steel, but polymeric and conventional rigid retaining walls,
fiberglass systems may be used. such as concrete cantilever retaining
walls.
Facing elements for most systems are
either reinforced concrete, light gauge Steel elements used in this method are
steel, or treated wood. Polymeric sized to provide sacrificial steel to
reinforced walls may be faced with compensate for anticipated corrosion;
masonry-like elements or even and may be galvanized to provide
planted with local vegetation. additional protection.
Selection of facing type is governed
• Salvaged Material Retaining Wall
by aesthetics and service life.
(PS&E by District PE). This system
Special details are required when utilizes C-channel sections as soil
drainage structures, overhead sign reinforcement. Galvanized metal
supports or noise barriers on piles are beam guardrail elements, timber posts
within the reinforced soil mass. or concrete panels are used as facing
Concrete traffic barriers require a elements. Often these materials can
special design support slab when used be salvaged from projects. The
at the top of the facing of these District Recycle Coordinator should
systems. These systems cannot be be consulted as to the availability of
used where site restrictions do not salvaged materials.
allow necessary excavation or
• Soil Nail Wall (PS&E by Structure
placement of the soil reinforcing
PE). This system reinforces either the
elements.
original ground or an existing
Soil reinforcement systems that embankment during the excavation
require special design are as follows: process. Soil nailing is always
accomplished from the top-down in
• Mechanically Stabilized Embankment
stages that are typically 4 feet to 6 feet
(MSE) (PS&E by Structure PE). This
in height. After each stage of
system uses welded steel wire mats,
excavation, corrosion protected soil
steel strips or polymeric materials as
reinforcing elements, "soil nails", are
soil reinforcing elements. The facing
placed and grouted into holes which
elements are precast concrete. In
have been drilled at angles into the in
many cases, this system can be
situ material. The face of each stage
constructed using on-site backfill
of excavation is protected by a layer
materials.
of reinforced shotcrete. After the full
When the bottom-up construction height of wall has been excavated and
method is possible and other reinforced, a finish layer of concrete
December 16, 2016
facing is placed either by the “Pre-approval” status means that these

shotcreting method or by casting systems may be listed in the Special
within a face form. Provisions of the project as an Alternative
Earth Retaining System (AERS), see
When top-down construction is
Index 210.3, when considered appropriate
possible and conditions permit its use,
for a particular location. For a proprietary
soil nail wall systems are generally
system to be given “pre-approval” status,
the most economical choice for wall
the vendor must submit standard plans
heights greater than 10 feet. Wall
and design calculations to the Division of
heights in excess of 80 feet are
Engineering Services – Structure Design
feasible in specific locations.
(DES-SD) for their review and approval.
Because soil nailing is accomplished The Proprietary earth retaining systems
concurrent with excavation, and thus that have been pre-approved are included
results in an unloading of the in the Department’s Pre-Qualified
foundation, there is typically no Products List, located on the following
significant differential settlement. website:
Steel "soil nails" used in this method http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/esc/approved_p
roducts_list/.
are protected against corrosion either
by being epoxy coated or Design details and specifications of “pre-
encapsulated within a grout filled approved” proprietary earth retaining
corrugated plastic sheath, and systems may be found on the vendor
surrounded by portland cement grout websites listed in the Pre-Qualified
placed during construction. Soil nail Products List. New systems are added to
lengths typically range from 80 to the website list once they are pre-
100 percent of the wall height, the approved for use.
actual length depends on the nail
(d) Proprietary Earth Retaining Systems
spacing used and the competency of
(Pending).
the in situ soil.
The systems in this category have been
• Recycled Tire Anchor Timber (TAT)
submitted by vendors to DES-SD for
Walls (PS&E by District PE). This
evaluation. Upon approval of DES-SD,
system utilizes steel bars with
pending systems are added to the website
recycled tire sidewalls attached by
list of “pre-approved” proprietary earth
cross bars as soil reinforcing
retaining systems and included in the
elements. The facing elements are
project specific Special Provisions.
treated timber. TAT walls have a
rustic appearance, which makes them If a proprietary system is the only
suitable in rural environments. The retaining system deemed appropriate for
length of commercially available use at a specific location, the construction
timber post generally controls the of that system must be justified or
height of wall but heights up to designated an experimental construction
32 feet are feasible. feature in accordance with existing
Departmental Policy concerning sole
(c) Proprietary Earth Retaining Systems (Pre-
source purchases. See Index 110.10 for
approved).
additional guidance on the use of
These conventional retaining walls, proprietary items.
cribwalls, and soil reinforcement systems
are designed, manufactured, and marketed
by vendors. These systems are termed
“proprietary” because they are patented.
December 16, 2016
(e) Experimental State Designed Earth 210.3 Alternative Earth Retaining Systems
Retaining Systems. (AERS)
Every earth retaining system is evaluated Using the Alternative Earth Retaining Systems
before being approved for routine use by (AERS) procedure encourages competitive bidding
the Department. Newly introduced and potentially results in project cost savings.
designs, unproven combinations of Therefore, AERS must be considered in all projects
proprietary and non-proprietary designs or where earth retaining systems are required.
products, are considered experimental.
Once an experimental system has been The AERS procedure may result in one or more
evaluated and approved, it will be made earth retaining systems being included in the
available for routine use. The use of these contract bid package. Under this procedure, a fully
systems is only permitted upon detailed State designed earth retaining system will
consultation with the Division of be provided for each location, and will be used as
Engineering Services – Geotechnical the basis for payment. Additional systems may be
Services (DES-GS). presented in the contract documents as alternatives
to the fully detailed State design and can be
Some earth retaining systems which are considered for use at specified locations. The fully
currently considered experimental follow: detailed State designed earth retaining system may
• Geosynthetic Reinforced Walls be either a Standard Plan system or a special design
(PS&E by District PE). These system. Alternative systems may also be State
systems utilize geosynthetic material designed systems, “pre-approved” proprietary
as the soil reinforcing elements. The systems or experimental systems, as appropriate.
face of these walls can be left exposed The State designed alternative systems, both
if the geosynthetic material has been Standard Plan walls and special design systems, are
treated to prevent decay from ultra- to be completely designed and specified in the
violet rays. Concrete panels, PS&E. Alternative systems are to be listed in the
mortarless masonry, tar emulsion, or Special Provisions as AERS.
air blown mortar may be used as The AERS procedure requires the involvement of
facing materials or the face may be the District PE, DES-SD, and the DES-GS. The
seeded if a more aesthetic treatment is District PE should submit pertinent site information
preferred. Design is by DES-GS. (site plans, typical sections, etc.) to DES-GS for a
• Mortarless Concrete Block Gravity feasibility study as early as possible in the project
Walls (PS&E by District PE). These development process.
wall types consist of vertically Under the AERS procedure, parts of the PS&E
stacked, dry cast, concrete blocks. package which pertain to the earth retaining
This system utilizes the friction and systems will be prepared as follows:
shear developed between the blocks
and the combined weight of the • Contract plans for State designed systems can
blocks to retain the backfill. Some of be prepared by the District PE (Standard Plan
these walls have been used as erosion systems), the DES-GS (special design soil
protection at abutments and on reinforcement systems and experimental
embankments. They can be used as systems), or the Structure PE (Standard Plan
an aesthetic treatment for geosynthetic systems and special design systems).
material reinforced walls. All of these • “Pre-approved” proprietary systems that are
walls require a batter. Design is by determined, based on consultation with DES-
the DES-GS. SD, to be appropriate alternatives to the State
designed earth retaining system, are to be listed
in the Special Provisions.
December 16, 2016
• Specifications and Estimates shall be and when necessary referred to DES Structure
developed for the fully detailed State designed Design Services for additional study by the Office
system, which will be used as the basis for of Transportation Architecture.
payment. The wall area between the grade line and 6 feet
The earth retaining systems utilizing this procedure above it shall be free of any designed indentations
are to be measured and paid for by the square yard or protrusions that may snag errant vehicles.
area of the face of the earth retaining system. When alternative wall types are provided on
Should an AERS be constructed, payment will be projects with more than one wall site, any
made based on the measurements of the State restrictions as to the combination of wall types
designed system which was designated as the basis should be specified in the Special Provisions.
of payment. The contract price paid per square
yard is for all items of work involved and includes 210.6 Safety Railing, Fences, and Concrete
excavation, backfill, drainage system, reinforcing Barriers
steel, concrete, soil reinforcement, and facing. Any
Cable railing should be installed for employee
barrier, fence, or railing involved is measured and
protection in areas where employees may work
paid for as separate contract cost items.
adjacent to and above vertical faces of retaining
210.4 Cost Reduction Incentive Proposals walls, wingwalls, abutments, etc. where the vertical
(CRIP) fall is 4 feet or more.
Sometimes Contractors submit proposals for an If cable railing is required on a wall which is less
earth retaining system under Section 5-1.14 of the than 4 feet 6 inches tall and that wall is located
Standard Specifications, “Cost Reduction within the clear recovery zone, then the cable
Incentive.” The Contractor proposed system may railing should be placed behind the wall. See
modify or replace the earth retaining system Standard Plan B11-47 for details of cable railing.
permitted by the contract. The CRIP process Special designs for safety railing may be
allows vendors of proprietary earth retaining considered where aesthetic values of the area
systems an alternative method for having their warrant special treatment. In addition, if the
systems used prior to obtaining “pre-approval” (see retaining wall is accessible to the public and will
Index 210.2(c)). CRIP submittals are administered have pedestrians or bicycles either above or below
by the Resident Engineer. However, Contract the retaining wall, then the provisions of Index
Change Orders are not to be processed until the 208.10 shall apply.
CRIP is approved by Headquarters Construction
with review assistance provided by the District or Concrete barriers may be mounted on top of
Structure PE as appropriate. retaining walls. Details for concrete barriers
mounted on top of retaining walls Type 1 through 5
210.5 Aesthetic Consideration are shown in the Standard Plans. A concrete
The profile of the top of wall should be designed to barrier slab is required if a concrete barrier is to be
be as pleasing as the site conditions permit. All used at the top of a special design earth retaining
changes in the slope at the top of cast-in-place system. DES-SD should be contacted for
concrete walls should be rounded with vertical preparation of the plans involved in the special
curves at least 20 feet in length. Abrupt changes in design.
the top of the wall profile should be avoided by Retaining walls joining right of way fences should
using vertical curves, slopes, steps, or combinations be a minimum of 6 feet clear height.
thereof. Side slopes may be flattened or other
adjustments made to provide a pleasing profile. The District PE should examine the proposed
retaining wall location in relation to the provisions
Where walls are highly visible, special surface of Index 309.1 to ensure adequate horizontal
treatments or provisions for landscaping should be clearances to the structure or to determine the type
considered. The aesthetic treatment of walls should
be discussed with the District Landscape Architect
December 16, 2016
and placement of the appropriate roadside safety appropriate earth retaining system to use can be
devices. made.
210.7 Design Responsibility 210.8 Guidelines for Type Selection and
The Structure PE has primary responsibility for the Plan Preparation
structural design and preparation of the contract (1) Type Selection. Type selection for reinforced
documents (PS&E) for special design earth earth slopes and earth retaining systems
retaining systems involving Standard Plans non- should be based on considerations set forth in
gravity cantilevered walls, anchored walls, concrete Index 210.2.
and rock gravity walls, mechanically stabilized
embankment, and soil nail walls. The DES-GS has The District PE should request a feasibility
primary responsibility for the geotechnical design study for a reinforced slope or earth retaining
of all reinforced earth slopes and earth retaining system from DES-GS as early as possible in
systems. DES-SD will prepare the Specifications the project development process. After the
and Engineer's Estimate for contracts when the feasibility study, the District PE should
AERS procedure is used. DES-SD reviews and request an Advanced Planning Study (APS)
approves standard plan submittals for proprietary from DES-SD for all special design earth
earth retaining systems submitted by vendors. retaining systems that DES-SD may be
DES-SD and DES-GS assist Headquarters required to include in the PS&E.
Construction in evaluating the CRIP submitted by If the District PE decides that the course of
contractors. action favors an earth retaining system in
Districts may prepare contract plans, specifications, which the PS&E will be delivered by DES-
and engineer's estimate for Standard Plan retaining SD, then a Bridge Site Data Submittal – Non-
walls provided the foundation conditions and site Standard Retaining Wall/Noise Barrier must
requirements permit their use. A foundation be submitted to DES-Structure Design
investigation is required for all reinforced earth Services & Earthquake Engineering –
slopes and earth retaining systems. PS&E’s for Preliminary Investigations (PI) Branch. A
slurry walls, deep soil mixing walls, gabion walls, copy of this submittal will be forwarded to
tire anchored timber walls, salvaged material walls, DES-SD and DES-GS by PI.
and experimental walls will be prepared by the The Structure PE, with input from DES-GS
District PE with assistance from DES-GS. Earth and the District PE, will then type select the
retaining systems may be included in the PS&E as appropriate earth retaining system for the site
either highway or structure items. and project. After an earth retaining system
The time required for DES-SD to provide the has been type selected, then DES-GS will
special design of a retaining system is site and prepare a Geotechnical Design Report.
project dependent. Therefore, the request for a The process for type selecting and developing
special design should be submitted by the District the PS&E for reinforced earth slopes and earth
PE to DES-SD as far in advance as possible, but retaining systems is set forth in Figure 210.8.
not less than 6 months prior to PS&E delivery. At
All appropriate State designed and proprietary
least 3 months is required to conduct a foundation
earth retaining systems should be considered
investigation for an earth retaining system. A site
for inclusion in the contract documents to
plan, index map, cross sections, vertical and
promote competitive bidding, which can result
horizontal alignment, and utility and drainage
in cost savings.
requirements should be sent along with the request.
(2) Foundation Investigations. DES-GS should
DES-GS has the responsibility for preparing a
be requested to provide a foundation
feasibility study for AERS. The District PE should
recommendation for all sites involving a
submit project site information (site plans, typical
reinforced slope or an earth retaining system.
sections, etc.) as early in the planning stage as
Any log of test boring sheets accompanying
possible so that determination of the most
December 16, 2016
Figure 210.8
Type Selection and PS&E Process for Reinforced Earth Slopes
and Earth Retaining Systems
December 16, 2016
the foundation reports must be included with wall, the form and joint lines must
the contract plans as project information, for also be vertical. A sloping footing
the bidders use. should not be used in this situation
since efficiency of construction would
(3) Earth Retaining Systems with Standard Plans.
be lost.
The following guidelines should be used to
prepare the contract plans for earth retaining Sloping footing grades should be constant
systems, which are found in the Standard for the entire length of the wall. Breaks in
Plans: footing grade will complicate forming and
result in loss of economy. If breaks in
(a) Loads. All wall types selected must be
footing grade are necessary, a level
capable of supporting the field surcharge
stepped footing should be used for the
conditions. The design surcharges can be
entire wall.
found in the Standard Plans. Deviance
from these loadings will require a special • When the top of wall profile of crib
design walls is constant for the entire length,
(b) Footing Steps. For economy and ease of the bottom of wall profile may be
construction of wall Types 1 through 6, sloped to avoid steps in the top of
the following criteria should be used for wall. In this case, all steps to
layout of footing steps. compensate for changes of wall height
and original ground profile would be
• Distance between steps should be in made in the bottom of wall. The
multiples of 8 feet. maximum permissible slope is
6 percent. If vertical electroliers or
• A minimum number of steps should
fence posts are required on top of the
be used even if a slightly higher wall
wall, the crib wall should not be
is necessary. Small steps, less than
sloped. Sloping crib walls are
1 foot in height, should be avoided
permissible with guard railing with
unless the distance between steps is
vertical posts.
96 feet or more. The maximum
height of steps should be held to (d) Wall Joints. General details for required
4 feet. If the footing thickness wall joints on wall Types 1, 1A, 2, and 5
changes between steps, the bottom of are shown on Standard Plan B0-3.
footing elevation should be adjusted Expansion joints, Bridge Detail 3-3,
so that the top of footing remains at should be shown at maximum intervals of
the same elevation. 96 feet. Shorter spaces should be in
multiples of 8 feet. Expansion joints
(c) Sloping Footings. The following criteria
generally should be placed near angle
should be used for layout of sloping
points in the wall alignment. When
footings.
concrete barriers are used on top of
• The maximum permissible slope for retaining walls, the waterstop in the
reinforced concrete retaining walls is expansion joint must be extended 6 inches
3 percent. Maximum footing slope into the barrier. This detail should be
for masonry walls is 2 percent. shown or noted on the wall plans.
Weakened plane joints, Bridge Detail 3-2,
• When sloping footings are used, form
should be shown at nearly equal spaces
and joint lines are permitted to be between joints.
perpendicular and parallel to the
footing for ease of construction. (e) Drainage. Gutters should be used behind
walls in areas where it is necessary to
• In cases where vertical electroliers or carry off surface water or to prevent
fence posts are required on top of a scour. Low points in wall vertical
December 16, 2016
alignment or areas between return walls (b) Drainage. Gutters should be used behind
must be drained by downspouts passing walls in areas where it is necessary to
through the walls. Standard Plan B3-9 carry off surface water or to prevent
shows typical drainage details. Special scour. Low points in wall vertical
design of surface water drainage facilities alignment or areas between return walls
may be necessary depending on the must be drained by downspouts passing
amount of surface water anticipated. through the walls. Special design of
Where ground water is likely to occur in surface water drainage facilities will be
any quantity, special provisions must be necessary and should be prepared by
made to intercept the flow to prevent DES-SD. Where ground water is likely to
inundation of the backfill and unsightly occur in any quantity, special provisions
continuous flow through weep holes. must be made to intercept the flow to
prevent inundation of the backfill.
(f) Quantities. When the AERS procedure is
not utilized, quantities for each wall item (c) Quantities. When the AERS procedure is
of work are usually developed for not utilized, quantities for each item of
payment. The quantities for concrete, work are usually developed for payment.
expansion joint waterstop, structure Bid items must include, but not be limited
excavation, structure backfill, pervious to: excavation and backfill for the
backfill material, concrete barrier or embedment depth, soil reinforcement,
railing, and gutter concrete must also be facing elements, and concrete for leveling
tabulated. Quantities should be tabulated pad construction. Additional bid items for
on the plans for each wall. inclusion are any drainage system,
pervious backfill, concrete barrier,
(4) Soil Reinforcement Systems. The following
railings, and concrete gutters. Quantities
guidelines should be used to prepare the
should be tabulated on the plans for each
contract plans for soil reinforcement systems:
wall.
(a) Leveling Pads. Most soil reinforcement
(5) Earth Retaining Systems. The following
systems do not require extensive
miscellaneous details are applicable to all
foundation preparation. It may be
earth retaining systems:
necessary, however, to design a concrete
leveling pad on which to construct the (a) Utilities. Provisions must be made to
face elements. A reinforced concrete relocate or otherwise accommodate
leveling pad will be required in areas utilities conflicting with the retaining
prone to consolidation or frost wall. A utility opening for a Type 1 wall
disturbance. is shown on Standard Plan B3-9. Any
other utility openings will require special
• Steps in the leveling pad should be the
design details and should be reviewed by
same height as the height of the facing
DES-SD.
elements or thickness of the soil layer
between the soil reinforcement. (b) Electroliers and Signs. Details for
mounting electroliers and signs on earth
• Distance between steps in the leveling retaining systems are designed by DES-
pad should be in increments SD. Requests for preparation of details
equivalent to the length of individual should be made at least 3 months in
facing elements. advance of the PS&E submittal to District
• A minimum number of steps should Officer Engineer date. To accommodate
be used even if a slightly higher wall the base plates for overhead signs, a local
is necessary. enlargement may affect the horizontal
clearance to both the edge of pavement
and the right of way line. This type of
December 16, 2016
enlargement should be considered at the

time of establishing the wall layout and a
need for a Mandatory Design Exception
determined. For mounting details, furnish
DES-SD a complete cross section of the
roadway at the sign and the layout and
profile of the earth retaining system.
(c) Fence and Railing Post Pockets. Post
pocket details shown for cable railing in
the Standard Plans may also be used for
mounting chain link fence on top of
retaining walls. Special details may be
necessary to accommodate the
reinforcement in soil reinforcement
systems.
(d) Return Walls. Return walls should be
considered for use on the ends of the walls
to provide a finished appearance. Return
walls are necessary when wall offsets are
used or when the top of wall is stepped.
Return walls for soil reinforcement
systems will require special designs to
accommodate the overlapping of soil
reinforcing elements.
All special wall details such as sign bases,
utility openings, drainage features, fences,
and concrete barriers should be shown on
the plan sheet of the wall concerned or
included on a separate sheet with the wall
plan sheets. Details should be cross-
referenced on the wall sheets to the sheets
on which they are shown.
December 30, 2015
• For highways, ramps, and roads with curve

CHAPTER 300 radii of 300 feet or less, widening due to
GEOMETRIC CROSS SECTION offtracking in order to minimize bicycle and
vehicle conflicts must be considered. See
The selection of a cross section is based upon the Index 404.1 and Table 504.3A.
joint use of the transportation corridor by vehicles, • For lane widths on roads under other
including trucks, public transit, cyclists and
jurisdictions, see Topic 308.
pedestrians. Designers should recognize the
implications of this sharing of the transportation 301.2 Class II Bikeway (Bike Lane) Lane
corridor and are encouraged to consider not only Width
vehicular movement, but also movement of people,
distribution of goods, and provision of essential (1) General. Class II bikeways (bike lanes), for
services. Designers need also to consider the plan the preferential use of bicycles, may be
for the future of the route, consult Transportation established within the roadbed and shall be
Concept Reports for state routes. located immediately adjacent to a traffic
lane as allowed in this manual. A buffered
Topic 301 - Traveled Way bike lane may also be established within the
roadbed, separated by a marked buffer
Standards between the bike lane and the traffic lane or
The traveled way width is determined by the parking lane. See the California MUTCD for
number of lanes required to accommodate further buffered bike lane marking and signing
operational needs, terrain, safety and other guidance. Contraflow bike lanes are designed
concerns. The traveled way width includes the for bike travel in the opposite direction as
width of all lanes, but does not include the width of adjacent vehicular traffic, and are only
shoulders, sidewalks, curbs, dikes, gutters, or gutter allowed on one-way streets. See the
pans. See Topic 307 for State highway cross California MUTCD for contraflow bike lane
sections, and Topic 308 for road cross sections marking and signing guidance. Typical Class
under other jurisdictions. II bikeway configurations are illustrated in
Figure 301.2A. A bikeway located behind on-
Index 301.1 – Lane Width street parking, physical separation, or barrier
within the roadway is a Class IV bikeway
The minimum lane width on two-lane and
(separated bikeway). See DIB 89 for Class IV
multilane highways, ramps, collector-distributor
bikeway (separated bikeway) design guidance.
roads, and other appurtenant roadways shall be
12 feet, except as follows: The minimum Class II bike lane width shall
be 4 feet, except where:
• For conventional State highways with posted
• Adjacent to on-street parking, the
speeds less than or equal to 40 miles per
minimum bike lane should be 5 feet.
hour and AADTT (truck volume) less than
250 per lane that are in urban, city or town • Posted speeds are greater than 40 miles per
centers (rural main streets), the minimum hour, the minimum bike lane should be
lane width shall be 11 feet. The preferred lane 6 feet, or
width is 12 feet. See Index 81.3 for place type
definitions. • On highways with concrete curb and
gutter, a minimum width of 3 feet
Where a 2-lane conventional State highway measured from the bike lane stripe to
connects to a freeway within an interchange, the joint between the shoulder pavement
the lane width shall be 12 feet. and the gutter shall be provided.
Where a multilane State highway connects Class II bikeways may be included as part of
to a freeway within an interchange, the the shoulder width See Topic 302.
outer most lane of the highway in each
direction of travel shall be 12 feet.
December 16, 2016
As grades increase, downhill bicycle speeds 301.3 Cross Slopes

can increase, which increases the width
needed for the comfort of bicycle operation. (1) General. The purpose of sloping on roadway
If bicycle lanes are to be marked, additional cross sections is to provide a mechanism to
bike lane width is recommended to direct water (usually from precipitation) off
accommodate these higher bicycle speeds. the traveled way. Undesirable accumulations
See Index 204.5(4) for guidance on of water can lead to hydroplaning or other
accommodating bicyclists on uphill grades problems which can increase accident
where a Class II bikeway is not included. potential. See Topics 831 and 833 for
hydroplaning considerations. For roadways
If bike lanes are to be located on one-way with three (3) lanes or more sloped in the
streets, they may be placed on either or both same direction, see topic 833.2.
sides of the street. When only one bicycle
lane is provided, it should be located on the (2) Standards.
side of the street that presents the lowest (a) The standard cross slope to be used for
number of conflicts for bicyclists which new construction on the traveled way
facilitates turning movements and access to for all types of surfaces shall be
destinations on the street. 2 percent.
(2) On-Street Parking Adjacent to Class II (b) For resurfacing or widening (only when
Bikeways. Parking adjacent to bike lanes is necessary to match existing cross slope),
discussed in subsection (1) above and the minimum shall be 1.5 percent and
addressed in Table 302.1, Note (7). Part-time the maximum shall be 3 percent.
bike lanes with part-time on-street parking is However, the cross slope on 2-lane and
discouraged. This type of bike lane may only multilane HMA highways should be
be considered if the majority of bicycle travel increased to 2 percent if the cost is
occurs during the hours of parking reasonable.
prohibition. When such an installation is
(c) On unpaved roadway surfaces,
being considered refer to the California
including gravel and penetration
MUTCD and traffic operations for direction
treated earth, the cross slope shall be
regarding proper signing and marking.
2.5 percent to 5.0 percent.
(3) Reduction of Cross Section Elements Adjacent
On undivided highways with two or more
to Class II Bikeways. There are situations
lanes in a normal tangent section, the high
where it may be desirable to reduce the width
point of the crown should be centered on the
of the lanes in order to add or widen bike
pavement and the pavement sloped toward the
lanes or shoulders. In determining the
edges on a uniform grade.
appropriateness of narrower traffic lanes,
consideration should be given to factors such For rehabilitation and widening projects, the
as motor vehicle speeds, truck volumes, maximum algebraic difference in cross slope
alignment, bike lane width, sight distance, and between adjacent lanes of opposing traffic for
the presence of on-street parking. When on- either 2-lane or undivided multilane highways
street parking is permitted adjacent to a bike should be 6 percent. For new construction,
lane, or on a shoulder where bicycling is not the maximum shall be 4 percent.
prohibited, reducing the width of the adjacent
On divided highway roadbeds, the high point
traffic lane may allow for wider bike lanes or
of crown may be centered at, or left of, the
shoulders, to provide greater clearance
center of the traveled way, and preferably over
between bicyclists and driver-side doors when
a lane line (tent sections). This strategy may
opened.
be employed when adding lanes on the inside
of divided highways, or when widening an
existing "crowned" 2-lane highway to a 4-lane
divided highway by utilizing the existing
December 16, 2016
2-lane pavement as one of the divided See Index 1102.2 for shoulder width requirements
highway roadbeds. next to noise Barriers.
The maximum algebraic difference in cross When shoulders are less than standard width, see
slope between same direction traffic lanes of Index 204.5(4) for bicycle turnout considerations.
divided highway roadbeds should be
4 percent.
302.2 Cross Slopes
(1) General - When a roadway crosses a bridge
The maximum difference in cross slope
between the traveled way and the shoulder structure, the shoulders shall be in the same
should not exceed 8 percent. This applies to plane as the adjacent traveled way.
new construction as well as pavement overlay (2) Left Shoulders - In depressed median
projects. sections, shoulders to the left of traffic shall
At freeway entrances and exits, the maximum be sloped at 2 percent away from the
difference in cross slope between adjacent traveled way.
lanes, or between lanes and gore areas, should In paved median sections, shoulders to the
not exceed 5 percent. left of traffic shall be designed in the plane
of the traveled way. Maintenance paving
Topic 302 - Highway Shoulder beyond the edge of shoulder should be treated
Standards as appropriate for the site, but consideration
needs to be given to the added runoff and the
302.1 Width increased water depth on the pavement (see
discussion in Index 831.4(5) "Hydroplaning").
The shoulder widths given in Table 302.1 shall
be the minimum continuous usable width of (3) Right Shoulders- In normal tangent sections,
paved shoulder on highways. Typically, on-street shoulders to the right of traffic shall be
parking areas in urbanized areas is included in the sloped at 2 percent to 5 percent away from
shoulder. the traveled way.
Class II bikeways are typically part of the shoulder The above flexibility in the design of the right
width, see Index 301.2. Where rumble strips are shoulder allows the designer the ability to
placed in the shoulder, the shoulder shall be a conform to regional needs. Designers shall
minimum of 4 feet width to the right of the consider the following during shoulder cross
grooved rumble strip when a vertical element, slope design:
such as curb or guardrails present or a
• In most areas a 5 percent right shoulder
minimum of 3 feet width when a vertical
cross slope is desired to most
element is not present. Shoulder rumble strip must
expeditiously remove water from the
not be placed in the Class II bike lane. Consult the
pavement and to allow gutters to carry a
District Traffic Safety Engineer during selection of
maximum water volume between drainage
rumble strip options and with the California
inlets. The shoulders must have adequate
MUTCD for markings in combination with rumble
drainage interception to control the "water
strip. Also see Standard Plans for rumble strip
spread" as discussed in Table 831.3 and
details.
Index 831.4. Conveyance of water from
See Design Information Bulletin Number 79, for the total area transferring drainage and
2R, 3R, certain storm damage, protective rainwater across each lane and the
betterment, operational, and safety projects on two- quantity of intercepting drainage shall also
lane conventional highways and three-lane be a consideration in the selection of
conventional highways. shoulder cross slope. Hydroplaning is
discussed in Index 831.4 (5).
See Index 308.1 for shoulder width requirements
on city streets or county roads. See shoulder • In locations with snow removal operations
definition, Index 62.1(8). it is desirable for right shoulders to slope
December 30, 2015
Table 302.1
Mandatory Standards for Paved
Shoulder Widths on Highways
Highway Type Paved Shoulder Width (ft)
Left Right (8)
Freeways & Expressways
2 lanes (1) -- 8(6)
4 lanes (1) 5 10
6 or more lanes (1) 10 10
Auxiliary lanes -- 10
Freeway-to-freeway connections
Single and two-lane connections 5 10
Three-lane connections 10 10
Single-lane ramps 4(2) 8
Multilane ramps 4(2) 8(3)
Multilane undivided -- 10
Collector-Distributor 5 10
Conventional Highways
Multilane divided
4-lanes 5 8(7)
6-lanes or more 8 8(7)
Urban areas with posted speeds less than or equal to
45 mph and curbed medians 2(4) 8(7)
Multilane undivided -- 8(7)
2-lane
RRR See Index 307.3
New construction See Table 307.2
Slow-moving vehicle lane -- 4(5)
Local Facilities
Frontage roads See Index 310.1
Local facilities crossing State facilities See Index 308.1
NOTES:
(1) Total number of lanes in both directions including separate roadways (see Index 305.6). If a lane is added to one
side of a 4-lane facility (such as a truck climbing lane) then that side shall have 10 feet left and right shoulders.
See Index 62.1.
(2) May be reduced to 2 feet upon concurrence from the Project Delivery Coordinator that a restrictive situation
exists. 4 feet preferred in urban areas and/or when ramp is metered. See Index 504.3.
(3) May be reduced to 2 feet or 4 feet(4 feet preferred in urban areas) in the 2-lane section of a non-metered ramp,
which transitions from a single lane upon concurrence from the Project Delivery Coordinator that a restrictive
situation exists. May be reduced to 2 feet in ramp sections having 3 or more lanes. See Index 504.3(b).
(4) For posted speeds less than or equal to 35 mph, shoulder may be omitted (see Index 303.5(5)) except where
drainage flows toward the curbed median.
(5) On right side of climbing or passing lane section only. See Index 301.2(1) for minimum width if bike lanes are
present.
(6) 10-foot shoulders preferred.
(7) Where on-street parking is allowed, 10 feet shoulder width is preferred. Where bus stops are present, 10 feet
shoulder width is preferred for the length of the bus stop. If a Class II bikeway is present, minimum shoulder
width shall be 8 feet where on street parking is provided plus the minimum required width for the bike lane.
(8) Shoulders adjacent to abutment walls, retaining walls in cut locations, and noise barriers shall be not less than
10 feet wide. See Index 303.4 for minimum shoulder adjacent to bulbouts.
May 7, 2012
Figure 301.2A
Typical Class II Bikeway (Bike Lane) Cross Sections
NOTES:
(1) See Index 301.2 for additional guidance.
(2) For pavement marking guidance, see the California MUTCD, Section 9C.04.
December 16, 2016
away from traffic in the same plane as the • On undivided roadways.

traveled way. This design permits the
snow plowing crew to remove snow from • On roadways with unpaved shoulders or where
the lanes and the shoulders with the least paved shoulders width is less than 5 feet.
number of passes. • On roadways with Class II Bikeways.
• For 2-lane roads with 4-foot shoulders, The tapered edge is not to be placed on roadways:
see Index 307.2.
• Next to curbs, dikes, guardrails, barriers, walls,
• If shoulders are Portland cement concrete right-turn lanes, accelerations lanes and
and the District plans to convert shoulders landscape paving.
into through lanes within the 20 years
following construction, then shoulders are • Where the distance from the edge of the paved
to be built in the plane of the traveled way roadbed to the hinge point is less than 1 foot
and to lane standards for width and and there is not enough room to place the
structural section. (See Index 603.4). tapered edge.
• Deciding to construct pedestrian facilities • Within 3 feet of driveways or intersections.

and elements, where none exist, is an • Where pavement overlay thickness is less than
important consideration. Shoulders are not 0.15 foot.
required to be designed as accessible
pedestrian routes although it is legal for a Tapered edge is optional when the distance
pedestrian to traverse along a highway. In between consecutive minor roads or driveways is
urban, rural main street areas, or near less than 30 feet. See the Standard Plans for design
schools and bus stops with pedestrians and construction details regarding tapered edge.
present, pedestrian facilities should be
constructed. In rural areas where few or Topic 303 - Curbs, Dikes, and
no pedestrians exist, it would not be Side Gutters
reasonable or cost effective to construct
pedestrian facilities. This determination 303.1 General Policy
should involve the local agency and must Curb (including curb with gutter pan), dike, and
be consistent with the design guidance side gutter all serve specific purposes in the design
provided in Topic 105 and in Design of the roadway cross section. Curb is primarily
Information Bulletin 82, "Pedestrian used for channelization, access control, separation
Accessibility Guidelines for Highway between pedestrians and vehicles, and to enhance
Projects" for people with disabilities. delineation. Dike is specifically intended for
Shoulder slopes for superelevated curves are drainage and erosion control where stormwater
discussed in Index 202.2. runoff cannot be cost effectively conveyed beyond
the pavement by other means. Curb with gutter pan
See Index 307.2 for shoulder slopes on 2-lane serves the purpose of both curb and dike. Side
roads with 4-foot shoulders. gutters are intended to prevent runoff from a cut
302.3 Tapered Edge slope on the high side of a superelevated roadway
from running across the pavement and is discussed
The tapered edge is a sloped edge that is placed at further in Index 834.3.
the edge of the paved roadbed to provide a smooth
reentry for vehicles that leave the roadway. Its Aside from their positive aspects in performing
design is based on research performed by the certain functions, curbs and dikes can have
FHWA. undesirable effects. In general, curbs and dikes
should present the least potential obstruction, yet
The tapered edge is placed on all traversable perform their intended function. As operating
pavement edges either during new construction or speeds increase, lower curb and dike height is
on overlay projects irrespective of pavement types
and is most useful:
December 30, 2015
desirable. Curbs and dikes are not considered The use of curb should be avoided on facilities with
traffic barriers. posted speeds greater than or equal to 40 miles per
hour, except as noted in Table 303.1. For projects
On urban conventional highways where right of
where the use of curb is appropriate, it should be
way is costly and/or difficult to acquire, it is
the type shown in Table 303.1.
appropriate to consider the use of a “closed”
highway cross section with curb, or curb with 303.2 Curb Types and Uses
gutter pan. There are also some situations where
curb is appropriate in freeway settings. The Depending on their intended function, one of two
following criteria describe typical situations where general classifications of curb design is selected as
curb or curb with gutter pan may be appropriate: appropriate. The two general classifications are
vertical and sloped. Vertical curbs are nearly
(a) Where needed for channelization, delineation, vertical (approximate batter of 1:4) and vary in
or other means of improving traffic flow and height from 4 inches to 8 inches. Sloped curbs
safety. (approximate batter of 2:3 or flatter) vary in height
(b) At ramp connections with local streets for the from 3 inches to 6 inches.
delineation of pedestrians walkways and Sloped curbs are more easily mounted by motor
continuity of construction at a local facility. vehicles than vertical curbs. Since curbs are not
(c) As a replacement of existing curb with gutter generally adequate to prevent a vehicle from
pan and sidewalk. leaving the roadway, a suitable traffic barrier
should be provided where redirection of vehicles is
(d) On frontage roads on the side adjacent to the needed. A curb may be placed to discourage
freeway to deter vehicular damage to the vehicles from intentionally entering the area behind
freeway fence. the curb (e.g., truck offtracking). In most cases, the
(e) When appropriate to conform to local arterial curb will not prevent an errant vehicle from
street standards. mounting the curb.
(f) Where it may be necessary to solve or Curb with gutter pan may be provided to enhance
mitigate operational deficiencies through the visibility of the curb and thus improve
control or restriction of access of traffic delineation. This is most effective where the
movements to abutting properties or traveled adjacent pavement is a contrasting color or
ways. material. B2-4 and B4 curbs are appropriate for
enhancing delineation. Where curb with gutter pan
(g) In freeway entrance ramp gore areas (at the is intended as delineation and has no drainage
inlet nose) when the gore cross slope exceeds function, the gutter pan should be in the same plane
standards. as the adjacent pavement.
(h) At separation islands between a freeway and a The curb sections provided on the Standard Plans
collector-distributor to provide a positive are approved types to be used as stated below. The
separation between mainline traffic and following types are vertical curb, (for information
collector-distributor traffic. on side gutters, see Index 834.3):
(i) Where sidewalk is appropriate. (1) Types A1-6, A2-6, and A3-6. These curbs are
(j) To deter vehicular damage of traffic signal 6 inches high. Their main function is to
standards. provide a more positive deterrent to vehicles
than provided by sloped curbs. Specifically,
Dike is appropriate where controlling drainage is these curbs are used to separate pedestrians
not feasible via sheet flow or where it is necessary from vehicles, to control parking of vehicles,
to contain/direct runoff to interception devices. On and to deter vehicular damage of traffic signal
cut slopes, dike also protects the toe of slope from standards. They may also be used as raised
erosion. Dike may also be necessary to protect median islands in low speed environments
adjacent areas from flooding. (posted speed < 35 miles per hour). These
curbs do not constitute a barrier as they can be
December 30, 2015
Table 303.1
Selection of Curb Type
Posted Speeds (mph)

Location < 35 40 > 45
Freeways and Expressways
Collector-distributor Roads
See Index 504.3(11)
Ramps
Conventional Highways
- Frontage Roads (1) A or B-6 B-6 B-4
- Traffic Signals A or B-6 B-6 B-4
- Raised Traffic, Median Islands &
A or B-6 B-6 B-4 or D
Pedestrian Refuge Islands (2)
- Adjacent to Sidewalks A (3) A-6 B-6
- Bulbouts/curb extensions A NA NA
- Bridges (4) H, A3, or B3 H or B3 B3
NOTES:
(1) Based on the posted speed along the frontage road.
(2) See the National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 672 entitled “Roundabouts: An
Informational Guide, 2nd ed.” for information on curbs at roundabouts.
(3) Type A curb includes Types A1-6, A2-6, A1-8, and A2-8.
(4) Type H curb typically used in conjunction with Type A curbs next to sidewalks on approach roadway. Type
A3 curbs typically used with corresponding Type A curbs on median island of approach roadway. Type B3
curbs typically used with corresponding Type B curbs on approach roadway.
December 30, 2015
mounted except at low speeds and flat angles Gutter pans are typically 2 feet wide but may be
of approach. 1 foot to 4 feet in width, with a cross slope of
typically 8.33 percent to increase the hydraulic
(2) Types A1-8, A2-8, and A3-8. These 8-inch
capacity. Gutter pan cross slopes often need to be
high curbs may be used in lieu of 6-inch curbs
modified at curb ramps in order to meet
when requested by local authorities, if the
accessibility requirements. See Design Information
curb criteria stated under Index 303.1 are
Bulletin Number 82, “Pedestrian Accessibility
satisfied and posted speeds are 35 miles per
Guidelines for Highway Projects” for accessibility
hour or less. This type of curb may impede
standards. Warping of the gutter pan should be
curbside passenger loading and may make it
limited to the portion within 2 feet to 3 feet of the
more difficult to comply with curb ramp
gutter flow line to minimize adverse driving
design (see Design Information Bulletin
effects.
Number 82, “Pedestrian Accessibility
Guidelines for Highway Projects”). Curbs and gutter pans are cross section elements
considered entirely outside the traveled way, see
(3) Type H Curb. This type may be used on
Index 301.1.
bridges where posted speeds are 40 miles per
hour or less and where it is desired to match 303.3 Dike Types and Uses
the approach roadway curb. Type H curb is
often incorporated into bridge barrier/sidewalk Use of dike is intended for drainage control and
combination railings (See Index 208.10(4)). should not be used in place of curb. Dikes placed
adjoining the shoulder, as shown in Figures 307.2,
These types are sloped curbs: 307.4, and 307.5, provide a paved triangular gutter
(4) Types B1, B2, and B3 Curbs Types B1-6, within the shoulder area. The dike sections
B2-6, and B3-6 are 6 inches high. Type B1-4, provided on the Standard Plans are approved types
B2-4, and B3-4 are 4 inches high. Since all to be used as stated below. Dikes should be
have a 1:1½ slope or flatter on the face, they selected as illustrated in Figure 303.3. Dikes
are mounted more easily than Type A curbs. should be designed so that roadway runoff is
Typical uses of these curbs are for contained within the limits specified in Index
channelization including raised median 831.3. For most situations Type E dike is the
islands. B2 curb with gutter pan also serves as preferred dike type as discussed below.
drainage control. (1) Type A Dike. The use of Type A dike should
(5) Type B4 Curb. Type B4 curb with gutter pan be avoided. For RRR projects, Type A dike
is 3 inches high and is typically used on ramp may be used in cut sections with slopes
gores as described in Index 504.3(11). It may steeper than 3:1 and where existing conditions
also be appropriate where a lower curb is do not allow for construction of the wider
desirable. Type D or E dikes. Compacted embankment
material should be placed behind the back of
(6) Type D Curb. Type D curb is 4 inches or dike as shown in Figure 303.3.
6 inches high and is typically used for raised
traffic islands, collector-distributor separation (2) Type C Dike. This low dike, 2 inches in
islands, or raised medians when posted speeds height, may be used to confine small
equal or exceed 45 miles per hour. concentrations of runoff. The capacity of the
shoulder gutter formed by this dike is small.
(7) Type E Curb. This essentially is a rolled gutter Due to this limited capacity, the need for
used only in special drainage situations. installing an inlet immediately upstream of the
Curbs with gutter pans, along with the shoulder, beginning of this dike type should be
may provide the principal drainage system for the evaluated. This low dike can be traversed by
roadway. Inlets are provided in the gutter pan or a vehicle and allows the area beyond the
curb, or both. surfaced shoulder to be used as an emergency
recovery and parking area. The Type C dike
is the only dike that may be used in front of
May 7, 2012
Figure 303.3
Dike Type Selection and Placement(1)
December 30, 2015
guardrail. In such cases, it is not necessary to visibility between motorists, bicyclists, and
place compacted embankment material behind pedestrians. They are most appropriate for
Type C dike. urban conventional highways and Rural Main
Streets with posted speeds 35 miles per hour
(3) Type D Dike. This 6-inch high dike provides
or less. Curb extensions are not to extend into
about the same capacity as the Type A dike
Class II Bikeways (Bike Lanes). The corner
but has the same shape as the Type E dike.
curb radii should be the minimum needed to
The quantity of material in the Type D dike
accommodate the design vehicle, see Topic
ismore than twice that of a Type E dike. It
404.
should only be used where there is a need to
contain higher volumes of drainage. When used, bulbouts should be placed at all
Compacted embankment material should be corners of an intersection.
placed behind the back of dike as shown in
When used at mid-block crossing locations,
Figure 303.3. For RRR projects that do not
bulbouts should be used on both sides of the
widen pavement, compacted embankment
street.
material may be omitted on existing fill slopes
steeper than 3:1 when there is insufficient The curb face of the bulbout should be setback
room to place the embankment material. a minimum of 2 feet as shown in Figures
303.4A and B. See the California MUTCD
(4) Type E Dike. This 4-inch high dike provides
for on-street parking signs and markings.
more capacity than the Type C dike. Because
Type E dike is easier to construct than Type D Landscaping and appurtenant facilities located
dike, and has greater drainage capacity than within a bulbout are to comply per Topic 405.
Type C dike, it is the preferred dike type for Bulbouts are considered pedestrian facilities
most installations. Compacted embankment and as such, compliance with DIB 82 is
material should be placed behind the back of required. Avoid bulbouts on facilities where
dike as shown in Figure 303.3. For RRR highway grade lines exceed 5 percent.
projects that do not widen pavement,
compacted embankment material may be (2) Busbulbs. A busbulb is a bulbout longer than
omitted on existing fill slopes steeper than 3:1 25 feet which facilitates bus loading and
where there is insufficient room to place the unloading, and provides for enhanced bus
embankment material. mobility. Busbulbs reduce bus dwell times
and provide travel time benefits to transit
(5) Type F Dike. This 4-inch high dike is to be passengers. However, busbulbs can restrict
used where dike is necessary for drainage the mobility of vehicular and bicycle traffic
underneath a guardrail installation. This dike because they allow the bus to stop in their
is placed directly under the face of metal beam traveled way to load and unload passengers.
guardrail installations. Therefore, their impact on the mobility of the
303.4 Curb Extensions vehicular and bicycle traffic using the facility
must be taken into consideration, and pursuant
(1) Bulbouts. A bulbout is an extension of the to the California Vehicle Code, busbulbs or
sidewalk into the roadway when there is other transit stops which require a transit
marked on-street parking, see Index 402.3. vehicle to stop in the traveled way require
Bulbouts should comply with the guidance approval from the Department. In lieu of a
provided in Figures 303.4A and B; noting that busbulb, a busbay may be considered which
typical features are shown and that the will not impact the mobility of the vehicular
specific site conditions need to be taken into and bicycle users of the facility.
consideration. Bulbouts provide queuing
space and shorten crossing distances, thereby (3) Busbays. A busbay is an indentation in the
reducing pedestrian conflict time with curb which allows a bus to stop completely
mainline traffic. By placing the pedestrian outside of vehicular and bicycle lanes.
entry point closer to traffic, bulbouts improve
September 22, 2014
Figure 303.4A
Typical Bulbout with Class II Bikeway (Bike Lane)
September 22, 2014
Figure 303.4B
Typical Bulbout without Class II Bikeway (Bike Lane)
December 30, 2015
Busbays may be created by restricting on alignment and edge of shoulder govern the
street parking. positioning of the dike.
303.5 Position of Curbs and Dikes When the Type 14 structure approach slab is
used, concrete dikes are preferred. Hot mixed
Curbs located at the edge of the traveled way may asphalt dike will inevitably crack due to
have some effect on lateral position and speed of expansion and contraction at the
moving vehicles, depending on the curb approach/sleeper slab joint. A metal dike
configuration and appearance. Curbs with low, insert is used to carry the flow across the
sloped faces may encourage drivers to operate sealed joint. The insert acts as a water barrier
relatively close to them. Curbs with vertical faces to minimize erosion of the fill slope. Details
may encourage drivers to slow down and/or shy of the metal dike insert are shown in the
away from them and, therefore, it may be desirable structure approach plans provided by the
to incorporate some additional roadway width. Division of Engineering Services, (DES).
All dimensions to curbs (i.e., offsets) are from the (7) Bridges and Grade Separation Structures.
near edge of traveled way to bottom face of curb. When both roadbeds of a curbed divided
All dimensions to dikes are from the near edge of highway are carried across a single structure,
traveled way to flow line. Curb and dike offsets the median curbs on the structure should be in
should be in accordance with the following: the same location as on adjacent roadways.
(1) Through Lanes. The offset from the edge of (8) Approach Nose. The approach nose of islands
traveled way to the face of curb or dike flow should also be designed utilizing a parabolic
line should be no less than the shoulder width, flare, as discussed in Index 405.4.
as set forth in Table 302.1.
303.6 Curbs and Dikes on Frontage Roads
(2) Channelization. Island curbs used to
channelize intersection traffic movements and Streets
should be positioned as described in Index Continuous curbs or dikes are not necessarily
405.4. required on all frontage roads. Where curbs or
(3) Separate Turning Lanes. Curb offsets to the dikes are necessary for drainage control or other
right of right-turn lanes in urban areas may be reasons, they should be consistent with the
reduced to 2 feet if design exception approval guidelines established in this topic and placed as
for nonstandard shoulder width has been shown on Figure 307.4. Local curb standards
obtained in accordance with Index 82.2. No should be used when requested by local authorities
curb offset is required to the left of left-turn for roads and streets that will be relinquished to
lanes in urban areas unless there is a gutter them.
pan.
Topic 304 - Side Slopes
(4) Median Openings. Median openings (Figure
405.5) should not be separated with curb 304.1 Side Slope Standards
unless necessary to delineate areas occupied Slopes should be designed as flat as is reasonable.
by traffic signal standards. For new construction, widening, or where slopes
(5) Urban Conventional Highways. When the are otherwise being modified, embankment (fill)
posted speed is less than or equal to 35 miles slopes should be 4:1 or flatter. Factors affecting
per hour, no median curb offset is required if slope design are as follows:
there is no gutter pan. (a) Safety. Flatter slopes provide better recovery
(6) Structure Approach Slabs. When a dike is for errant vehicles that may run off the road.
required to protect the side slope from erosion, A cross slope of 6:1 or flatter is suggested for
it should be placed on the structure approach high speed roadways whenever it is
and sleeper slabs as well as aligned to tie into achievable. Cross slopes of 10:1 are
the end of the structure railing. The guardrail desirable.
December 30, 2015
Embankment slopes 4:1 or flatter are Architect approves compliance with the
recoverable for vehicles. Drivers who proposed slope designs.
encroach on recoverable slopes can generally
(c) Structural Integrity. Slopes steeper than 2:1
stop or slow down enough to return to the
require approval of District Maintenance. The
traveled way safely.
Geotechnical Design Report (See Topic 113)
A slope which is between 3:1 and 4:1 is will recommend a minimum slope required to
considered traversable, but not recoverable. prevent slope failure due to soil cohesiveness,
Since a high percentage of vehicles will reach loading, slip planes and other global stability
the toe of these slopes, the recovery area type failures. There are other important
should be extended beyond the toe of slope. issues found in the Geotechnical Design
The AASHTO Roadside Design Guide should Report affecting slope design such as the
be consulted for methods of determining the consistency of the soil likely to be exposed in
preferred extent of the runout area. cuts, identification of the presence of ground
water, and recommendations for rock fall.
Embankment slopes steeper than 3:1 should
be avoided when accessible by traffic. (d) Economics. Economic factors such as
District Traffic, and the AASHTO Roadside purchasing right of way, imported borrow, and
Design Guide should be consulted for environmental impacts frequently play a role
methods of determining the preferred in the decision of slope length and steepness.
treatment. In some cases, the cost of stabilizing, planting,
and maintaining steep slopes may exceed the
Regardless of slope steepness, it is desirable to
cost of additional grading and right of way to
round the top of slopes so an encroaching user
provide a flatter slope.
remains in contact with the ground. Likewise,
the toe of slopes should be rounded to prevent (e) Aesthetics. Flat, gentle, and smooth, well
users from nosing into the ground. transitioned slopes are visually more
satisfying than steep, obvious cuts and fills.
(b) Erosion Control. Slope designs steeper than
In addition, flatter slopes are more easily
4:1 must be approved by the District
revegetated, which helps visually integrate the
Landscape Architect in order to assure
transportation improvement within its
compliance with the regulations affecting
surrounding environment. Contact the District
Stormwater Pollution contained in the Federal
Landscape Architect when preparing a
Clean Water Act (see Index 82.4). Slope
contour grading plan.
steepness and length are two of the most
important factors affecting the erodibility of a In light grading where normal slopes catch in a
slope. Slopes should be designed as flat as distance less than 18 feet from the edge of the
possible to prevent erosion. However, since shoulder, a uniform catch point, at least 18 feet
there are other factors such as soil type, from the edge of the shoulder, should be used. This
climate, and exposure to the sun, District is done not only to improve errant vehicle recovery
Landscape Architecture and the District and aesthetics, but also to reduce grading costs.
Stormwater Coordinator must be contacted for Uniform slopes wider than 18 feet can be
erosion control requirements. constructed with large production equipment
thereby reducing earthwork costs.
A Storm Water Data Report (SWDR)
documents project information and Transition slopes should be provided between
considerations pertaining to Storm Water Best adjoining cuts and fills. Such slopes should
Management Practices (BMPs) and Erosion intersect the ground at the uniform catch point line.
Control methods. The SWDR is prepared and
In areas where heavy snowfall can be expected,
signed by key personnel (including the
consideration should be given to snow removal
District Landscape Architect) at the
problems and snow storage in slope design. It is
completion of each phase of a project. By
considered advisable to use flatter slopes in cuts on
signing the SWDR, the District Landscape
the southerly side of the roadway where this will
December 30, 2015
provide additional exposure of the pavement to the (a) To provide for drainage along the toe of the
sun. slope.
304.2 Clearance From Slope to Right of (b) To intercept and store loose material resulting
Way Line from slides, rock fall, and erosion.
The minimum clearance from the right of way line (c) For snow storage in special cases.
to catch point of a cut or fill slope should be 10 feet (d) To allow for planting.
for all types of cross sections. When feasible, at
least 15 feet should be provided. Where the widened area is greater than that
required for the normal gutter or ditch, it should be
Following are minimum clearances recommended flush with the edge of the shoulder and sloped
for cuts higher than 30 feet: upward or downward on a gentle slope, preferably
(a) Twenty feet for cuts from 30 feet to 50 feet 20:1 in areas of no snow; and downward on a
high. 10:1 slope in snow areas.
(b) Twenty-five feet for cuts from 50 feet to 304.4 Contour Grading and Slope
75 feet high. Rounding
(c) One-third the cut height for cuts above 75 feet, Contour grading, slope rounding and topsoil
but not to exceed a width of 50 feet. replacement are important factors in roadside
design to help make highway improvements
The foregoing clearance standards should apply to
compatible with the surrounding environment
all types of cross sections.
while comply with National Pollutant Discharge
304.3 Slope Benches and Cut Widening Elimination System permits (NPDES). Smooth,
flowing contours that tie gracefully into the
The necessity for benches, their width, and vertical
existing adjacent roadside and landforms are
spacing should be finalized only after an adequate
visually appealing and conducive to safe vehicle
materials investigation. Since greater user benefits
recovery (see Index 304.1), reduce the potential for
are realized from widening a cut than from
erosion and stormwater runoff, and reduce roadside
benching the slope, benches above grade should be
maintenance activities while contributing to the
used only where necessary. Benches above grade
long term success of revegetation planting.
should be used for such purposes as installation of
horizontal drains, control of surface erosion, or Contour grading plans are to be prepared to
intercepting falling rocks. Design of the bench facilitate anticipated roadside treatments and future
should be compatible with the geotechnical features maintenance activities. These plans should show
of the site. flattened slopes where right of way permits. The
tops and ends of all cut slopes should be rounded.
Benches should be at least 20 feet wide and sloped
Rock cut slopes should be irregular where possible
to form a valley at least 1 foot deep with the low
to provide a natural appearance and the tops and
point a minimum of 5 feet from the toe of the upper
ends should also be rounded. All slope designs
slope. Access for maintenance equipment should
should include consideration of an application of
be provided to the lowest bench, and if feasible to
local or imported topsoil and duff to promote the
all higher benches.
growth of vegetation, improve stormwater pollutant
In cuts over 150 feet in height, with slopes steeper filtration and control erosion. The calculation of
than 1½:1, a bench above grade may be desirable to the final grade for a project needs to take into
intercept rolling rocks. The Division of account the reapplication of topsoil and duff.
Engineering Services – Geotechnical Services
Local topsoil and duff material within the grading
(DES-GS) should be consulted for assistance in
limits should be identified on the plans, removed or
recommending special designs to contain falling
excavated, stockpiled, and reapplied. This is to be
and/or rolling rocks.
performed on all projects that include grading or
Cut widening may be necessary: earthwork unless the materials are determined to be
unsuitable.
December 30, 2015
Coordinate the development of contour grading inside shoulder. This width is dependent upon the
plans including, removal, stockpiling, suitability of type of facility, costs, topography, and right of way.
material and application of topsoil and duff with Consideration may be given to the possible need to
the District Landscape Architect. construct a wider median than prescribed in Cases
(1), (2), and (3), below, in order to provide for
304.5 Stepped Slopes future expansion to accommodate:
Stepped cut slopes should be used to encourage (a) Public Transit (rail and bus).
material revegetation from the adjacent plants.
Stepped slopes are a series of small benches 1 foot (b) Traffic needs more than 20 years after
to 2 feet wide. Generally, stepped slopes can be completion of construction.
used in rippable material on slopes 2:1 or steeper. Median width as presented in Case (1) below
Steps may be specified for slopes as flat as 3:1. applies to new construction, projects to increase
Steps are provided to capture loose material, seed, mainline capacity and to reconstruction projects.
and moisture. Topsoil should be reapplied to Any recommendation to provide additional median
stepped slopes to encourage revegetation. width should be identified and documented as early
For appearance, steps on small cuts viewed from as possible and must be justified in a Project Study
the roadway should be cut parallel to the road Report and/or Project Report. Attention should be
grade. Runoff is minimized on steps cut parallel to given to such items as initial costs, future costs for
roads with grades up to 10 percent, as long as the outside widening, the likelihood of future needs for
natural ravel from construction is left on the steps. added mixed flow or High-Occupancy Vehicle
Steps less than one-half full should not be cleaned. (HOV) lanes, traffic interruption, future mass
transit needs and right of way considerations. (For
High cuts viewed from surrounding areas should be instance, increasing median width may add little to
analyzed before a decision is made to form steps the cost of a project where an entire city block must
parallel to the roadway or horizontal. In some be acquired in any event.)
cases, horizontal steps may be more desirable.
Special study is also necessary when a sag occurs Median pedestrian refuge areas at intersections
in the vertical alignment within the cut. In all cases lessen the risk of pedestrian exposure to traffic.
at the ends of cuts, the steps should wrap around See Index 405.4(3) and DIB 82 for pedestrian
the rounded transition. refuge guidance.
The detail or contract special provisions should If additional width is justified, the minimum
allow about a 20 percent variation, expressed in median widths provided below should be increased
terms of tenths of a foot. Some irregularity will accordingly.
improve the appearance of the slope by making it Minimum median widths for the design year (as
appear more natural. described below) should be used in order to
In designing step width, the material's weathering accommodate the ultimate highway facility (type
characteristics should generally be considered. and number of lanes):
Widths over approximately 2 feet should be (1) Freeways and Expressways.
avoided because of prominence and excessive time
to achieve a weathered and natural appearance. (a) Urban Areas. Where managed lanes
Contact the DES-GS and the District Landscape (HOV, Express, etc) or transit facilities
Architect for more information about the width of are planned, the minimum median width
steps. should be 62 feet. Where there is little or
no likelihood of managed lanes or transit
Topic 305 - Median Standards facilities planned for the future, the
minimum median width should be 46 feet.
305.1 Width However, where physical and economic
Median width is expressed as the dimension limitations are such that a 46-foot median
between inside edges of traveled way, including the cannot be provided at reasonable cost, the
minimum median width for freeways and
December 30, 2015
expressways in urban areas should be factors are encountered, the basic median
36 feet. widths above may not be attainable. Where
such conditions exist, a narrower median,
(b) Rural Areas. The minimum median width
down to the limits given below, may be
for freeways and expressways in rural
allowed with adequate justification. (See
areas should be 62 feet.
Index 307.5.)
(2) Conventional Highways. Appropriate median
(a) Freeways and Expressways. In areas
widths for non-controlled access highways
where restrictive conditions prevail the
vary widely with the type of facility being
minimum median width shall be 22 feet.
designed. In Urban and Rural Main Street
areas, the minimum median width for (b) Conventional Highways. Median widths
multilane conventional highways should be should be consistent with requirements for
12 feet. However, this width would not two-way left-turn lanes or the need to
provide room for left-turn lanes at construct median barriers (as discussed in
intersections with raised curb medians, nor Index 305.1(2)), but may be reduced or
left-turn lanes in striped medians with room eliminated entirely in extreme situations.
for pedestrian refuge areas. Posted speed and
The above stated minimum median widths
left shoulder width can also affect median
should be increased at spot locations to
width. See Table 302.1.
accommodate the construction of bridge piers
Medians refuge areas at pedestrian crosswalks or other planned highway features while
and bicycle path crossings provide a space for maintaining standard cross section elements
pedestrians and bicyclists. They allow these such as inside shoulder width and horizontal
users to cross one direction of traffic at a time. clearance. If a bridge pier is to be located in a
Where medians are provided, they should tangent section, the additional width should be
allow access through them for pedestrians and developed between adjacent horizontal curves;
bicyclists as necessary. Bicycle crossings if it is to be located in a curve, then the
through paved medians should line up with additional width should be developed within
the bicycle path of travel and not require the limits of the curve. Provisions should be
bicyclists to utilize the pedestrian crosswalk. made for piers 6 feet wide or wider. Median
See Index 405.4 for additional requirements. widths in areas of multilevel interchanges or
other major structures should be coordinated
Where medians are provided for proposed
with the Division of Engineering Services,
future two-way left-turn lanes, median widths
Structures Design (DES-SD).
up to 14 feet may be provided to conform to
local agency standards (see Index 405.2). In Consideration should also be given to
rural areas the minimum median width for increasing the median width at unsignalized
multilane conventional highways shall be intersections on expressways and divided
12 feet. This provides the minimum space highways in order to provide a refuge area for
necessary to accommodate a median barrier large trucks attempting to cross the State
and 5-foot shoulders. Whenever possible, and route.
where it is appropriate, this minimum width
In any case, the median width should be the
should be increased to 30 feet or greater.
maximum attainable at reasonable cost based
At locations where a climbing or passing lane on site specific considerations of each project.
is added to a 2-lane conventional highway, a
See Index 613.5(2)(b) for paved median
4-foot median (or “soft barrier”) between
pavement structure requirements.
opposing traffic lanes should be used.
(3) Facilities under Restrictive Conditions.
305.2 Median Cross Slopes
Where certain restrictive conditions, including Unsurfaced medians up to 65 feet wide should be
steep mountainous terrain, extreme right of sloped downward from the adjoining shoulders to
way costs, and/or significant environmental form a shallow valley in the center. Cross slopes
December 30, 2015
should be 10:1 or flatter; 20:1 being preferred. See Index 302.1 for shoulder widths and Index
Slopes as steep as 6:1 are acceptable in exceptional 302.2 for shoulder cross slopes.
cases when necessary for drainage, stage
construction, etc. Cross slopes in medians greater Topic 306 - Right of Way
than 65 feet should be treated as separate roadways
(see Index 305.6). 306.1 General Standards
Paved medians, including those bordered by curbs, The right of way widths for State highways,
should be crowned at the center, sloping towards including frontage roads to be relinquished, should
the sides at the slope of the adjacent pavement. provide for installation, operation and maintenance
of all cross section elements needed depending
305.3 Median Barriers upon the type of facility, including median, traffic
See Chapter 7 of the Traffic Manual. lanes, bicycle lanes, outside shoulders, sidewalks,
recovery areas, slopes, sight lines, outer
305.4 Median Curbs separations, ramps, walls, transit facilities and
See Topic 303 for curb types and usage in medians other essential highway appurtenances. For
and Index 405.5(1) for curbs in median openings. minimum clearance from the right of way line to
the catch point of a cut or fill slope, see Index
305.5 Paved Medians 304.2. Fixed minimum widths of right of way,
(1) Freeways. except for 2-lane highways, are not specified
because dimensions of cross-sectional elements
(a) 6 or More Lanes--Medians 30 feet wide or may require narrow widths, and right of way need
less should be paved. not be of constant width. The minimum right of
(b) 4 Lanes--Medians 22 feet or less in width way width on new construction for 2-lane
should be paved. Medians between highways should be 150 feet.
22 feet and 30 feet wide should be paved 306.2 Right of Way Through the Public
only if a barrier is installed. With a Domain
barrier, medians wider than 30 feet should
not normally be paved. Right of way widths to be obtained or reserved for
highway purposes through lands of the United
Where medians are paved, each half States Government or the State of California are
generally should be paved in the same determined by laws and regulations of the agencies
plane as the adjacent traveled way. concerned.
(2) Nonfreeways. Unplanted curbed medians
generally are to be surfaced with minimum Topic 307 - Cross Sections for
0.15 foot of Portland cement concrete. State Highways
For additional information on median cross
307.1 Cross Section Selection
slopes see Index 305.2.
The cross section of a State highway is based upon
305.6 Separate Roadways the number of vehicles, including trucks, buses,
(1) General Policy. Separate grade lines are not bicycles, and safety, terrain, transit needs and
considered appropriate for medians less than pedestrians. Other factors such as sidewalks, bike
65 feet wide (see Index 204.7). paths and transit facilities, both existing and future
should be considered. For 2-lane roads the roadbed
(2) Median Design. The cross sections shown in
width is influenced by the factors discussed under
Figure 305.6 with a 23-foot graded area left of
Index 307.2. The roadbed width for multilane
traffic are examples of median treatment to
facilities should be adequate to provide capacity for
provide maneuvering room for out-of-control
the design hourly volume based upon capacity
users. This optional treatment may be used
considerations discussed under Index 102.1.
where extra recovery area is desired (see
Index 307.6).
September 22, 2014
Figure 305.6
Optional Median Designs for

Freeways with Separate Roadways
December 30, 2015
307.2 Two-lane Cross Sections for New 1 foot, so 3 feet is provided between the traffic lane
Construction and the longitudinal joint at the gutter pan.
Whenever possible, grate type inlets should not be
These standards are to be used for highways on located in bicycle paths of travel. See Index
new alignment as well as on existing highways 837.2(2) for further grate guidance.
where the width, alignment, grade, or other
geometric features are being upgraded. 307.3 Two-lane Cross Sections for 2R, 3R,
A 2-lane, 2-way roadbed consists of a 24-foot wide
and other Projects
traveled way plus paved shoulders. In order to Standards and guidelines for two-lane cross
provide structural support, the minimum paved sections on resurfacing and restoration (2R)
width of each shoulder should be 2 feet. Shoulders projects and resurfacing, restoration, and
less than 4 feet are not adequate for bicycles. rehabilitation (3R) projects are found in DIB 79
Where 4-foot shoulders are not possible, and Index 603.4. DIB 79 also includes screening
consideration should be given to providing turnouts criteria to determining whether the project fits 2R
for bicycles. See Index 204.5(4) for turnout or 3R.
information. See Topic 1003 and Index 301.2 for
3R design criteria apply to all structure and
information on bicycle design criteria and Figure
roadway 3R projects on two-lane conventional
307.2 for typical 2-lane cross sections.
highways and three-lane conventional highways
Shoulder widths based on design year traffic not classified as multilane conventional highways.
volumes shall conform to the standards given in
3R design criteria also apply to certain storm
Table 307.2.
damage, protective betterment, operational, and
safety nonfreeway improvement projects that are
Table 307.2 considered spot locations as described in detail in
DIB 79.
Shoulder Widths for Two-lane
Roadbed New Construction 3R criteria apply to geometric design features such
as lane and shoulder widths, horizontal and vertical
Projects alignment, stopping sight distance, structure width,
Two-way ADT Shoulder Width(1) cross slope, superelevation, side slope, clear
(Design Year) (ft) recovery zone, curb ramps, pavement edge drop,
dike, curb and gutter, and intersections. They may
Less than 400 4(2) also apply to such features as bike lanes, sidewalk,
Over 400 8(3) and drainage.
NOTES: 307.4 Multilane Divided Cross Sections

(1) See Index 302.1 for shoulder requirements The general geometric features of multilane divided
when bike lanes are present. cross sections are shown in Figure 307.4.
(2) Minimum bridge width is 32 feet (see Index Divided highways may be designed as two separate
208.1). one-way roads where appropriate to fit the terrain.
(3) See Index 405.3(2)(a) for shoulder Economy, pleasing appearance, and safety are
requirements adjacent to right-turn only lanes.
factors to be considered in this determination. The
alignment of each roadway may be independent of
On 2-lane roads with 4-foot shoulders, the shoulder
the other (see Indexes 204.8 and 305.6). Optional
slope may be increased to 7 percent for additional
median designs may be as shown on Figure 305.6.
drainage capacity where a dike is used. A design
exception to Index 302.2 will be required to 307.5 Multilane All Paved Cross Sections
document the decision to increase the slope. with Special Median Widths
Bicycles are not prohibited on conventional A multilane cross section with a narrow median is
highways: therefore, where the shoulder width is illustrated in Figure 307.5. This section is
4 feet, the gutter pan width should be reduced to
December 16, 2016
Figure 307.2
Geometric Cross Sections for
Two-lane Highways (New Construction)
December 16, 2016
Figure 307.4
Freeways and Expressways
December 16, 2016
Figure 307.5
All Paved Multilane Highways
December 30, 2015
appropriate in special circumstances where a wider conform to AASHTO standards if the local road or
median would not be justified. It should not be street is a Federal-aid route. Otherwise the cross
considered as an alternative to sections with the section should match the width of the city street or
median widths set forth under Index 305.1. It may county road adjoining the reconstructed portion, or
be used under the following conditions: the cross section should satisfy the local agency's
minimum standard for new construction.
(a) Widening of existing facilities.
Where a local facility within the State right of
(b) Locations where large excavation quantities
way crosses over or under a freeway or
would result if a multilane roadway cross
expressway but has no connection to the State
section with a basic median width were used.
facility, the minimum design standards for the
Examples are steep mountainous terrain and
cross section of the local facility within the
unstable mountainous areas.
State's right of way shall be those found in
(c) As an alternate cross section on 2-lane roads AASHTO. If the local agency has standards that
having frequent sight distance restrictions. exceed AASHTO standards, then the local agency
The median width should be selected in accordance standards should apply.
with the criteria set forth in Index 305.1(3). AASHTO standards for local roads and streets are
In general, the outside shoulder should be 8 feet given in AASHTO, A Policy on Geometric Design
wide (10 feet on freeways and expressways) as of Highways and Streets.
mandated in Table 302.1. Where large excavation It is important to note that AASHTO, A Policy on
quantities or other factors generate unreasonable Geometric Design of Highways and Streets,
costs, 4-foot shoulders may be considered. standards are based on functional classification and
However, a design exception is required except not on a Federal-aid System.
where 4-lane passing sections are constructed on 2- See Chapter 1 of AASHTO, A Policy on Geometric
lane highways. Where the roadbed width does not Design of Highways and Streets, for additional
contain 8-foot shoulders, emergency parking areas information on the AASHTO functional
clear of the traveled way should be provided by classifications of rural and urban arterials, collector
using daylighted cuts and other widened areas roads, and streets.
which develop during construction.
AASHTO, A Policy on Geometric Design of
307.6 Multilane Cross Sections for 2R and Highways and Streets, gives minimum lane and
3R Projects shoulder widths. When selecting a cross section,
the effects on capacity of commercial vehicles and
3R projects on freeways, expressways, and grades should be considered as discussed under
multilane conventional highways are required to Topic 102 and in the Transportation Research
meet new construction standards. Board, Highway Capacity Manual.
For additional information on 2R and 3R projects, The minimum width of 2-lane overcrossing
see DIB 79. structures shall not be less than 32 feet face of
307.7 Reconstruction Projects curb to face of curb.
Reconstruction projects on freeways, expressways, If the local agency has definite plans to widen the
and conventional highways are required to meet local street either concurrently or within 5 years
new construction standards. following freeway construction, the reconstruction
to be accomplished by the State should generally
Topic 308 - Cross Sections for conform to the widening planned by the local
Roads Under Other Jurisdictions agency. Stage construction should be considered
where the planned widening will occur beyond the
308.1 City Streets and County Roads 5-year period following freeway construction or
where the local agency has a master plan indicating
The width of local roads and streets that are to be an ultimate width greater than the existing facility.
reconstructed as part of a freeway project should
December 16, 2016
Where an undercrossing is involved, the initial 309.1(2)). While these objects are designed to
structure construction should provide for ultimate reduce the severity of accidents, efforts should
requirements. be made to maximize the distance between
any object and the edge of traveled way.
Where a local facility crosses over or under a
freeway or expressway and connects to the State Horizontal clearances are measured from the
facility (such as ramp terminal intersections), edge of the traveled way to the nearest point
the minimum design standards for the cross on the obstruction (usually the bottom).
section of the local facility shall be at least equal Consideration should be given to the planned
to those for a conventional highway with the ultimate traveled way width of the highway
exception that the outside shoulder width shall facility. Horizontal clearances greater than
match the approach roadway, but not less than those cited below under Subsection (3) -
4 feet, and as shown below. "Minimum Clearances" shall be provided
where necessary to meet horizontal
Where the 2-lane local facility connects to a
stopping sight distance requirements. See
freeway within an interchange, the lane width of
subsection (4) for high speed rail clearance
the local facility shall be 12 feet.
guidance. See discussion on "... technical
Where a multilane local facility connects to a reductions in design speed..." under
freeway within an interchange, the outer most Topic 101.
lane in each direction of the local facility shall be
(2) Clear Recovery Zone (CRZ). The roadside
12 feet.
environment can and should be made as safe
Shoulder width shall not be less than 5 feet when as practical. A clear recovery zone is an
railings or other lateral obstructions are unobstructed, relatively flat (4:1 or flatter) or
adjacent to the right edge of shoulder. gently sloping area beyond the edge of the
traveled way which affords the drivers of
If gutter pans are used, then the minimum
errant vehicles the opportunity to regain
shoulder width shall be 3 feet wider than the
control. The AASHTO Roadside Design
width of the gutter pan being used.
Guide provides detailed design guidance for
The minimum width for two-lane overcrossing creating a forgiving roadside environment.
structures at interchanges shall be 40 feet curb- See also Index 304.1 regarding side slopes.
to-curb.
The following clear recovery zone widths are
Topic 309 - Clearances the minimum desirable for the type of facility
indicated. Consideration should be given to
309.1 Horizontal Clearances for Highways increasing these widths based on traffic
volumes, operating speeds, terrain, and costs
(1) General. The horizontal clearance to all associated with a particular highway facility:
roadside objects should be based on
engineering judgment with the objective of • Freeways and Expressways – 30 feet
maximizing the distance between roadside • Conventional Highways – 20 feet*
objects and the edge of traveled way.
Engineering judgment should be exercised in * On conventional highways with posted
order to balance the achievement of horizontal speeds less than or equal to 35 miles per hour
clearance objectives and reduction of and curbs, clear recovery zone widths do not
maintenance cost and exposure to workers, apply. See minimum horizontal clearance,
with the prudent expenditure of available Index 309.1(3)(c).
funds.
(a) Necessary Highway Features.
Certain yielding types of fixed objects, such as
Fixed objects, when they are necessary
sand filled barrels, metal beam guardrail,
highway features, including, but not
breakaway wood posts, etc. may encroach
limited to, bridge piers, abutments,
within the clear recovery zone (see Index
December 16, 2016
retaining walls, and noise barriers closer clearance guidance. When discretionary
to the edge of traveled way than the fixed objects are constructed on freeways,
distances listed above should be expressways or conventional highways
eliminated, moved, redesigned to be made without curbs and posted speeds over
yielding, or shielded in accordance with 35 mph, they should be located beyond the
the following guidelines: clear recovery zone, at a minimum of
52 feet horizontally or 8 feet vertically up-
• Fixed objects, when they are
slope from the planned ultimate edge of
necessary highway features, should be
traveled way. If discretionary fixed
eliminated or moved outside the clear
objects are to be placed less than the
recovery zone to a location where
52 feet horizontally or less than the 8 feet
they are unlikely to be hit.
vertically up-slope, they should be made
• If necessary highway features such as breakaway or shielded behind existing
sign posts or light standards cannot be guardrail, barrier or other safety device.
eliminated or moved outside the clear Where compliance with the guidelines
recovery zone, they should be made stated in Subsections (2)(a) and (b) are
yielding with a breakaway feature. impractical, the minimum horizontal
• If a fixed object, when they are clearance cited in Subsection (3) Minimum
necessary highway features, cannot be Clearances shall apply to the unshielded
eliminated, moved outside the clear fixed object. These minimum horizontal
recovery zone, or modified to be clearances apply to yielding objects as well.
made yielding, it should be shielded (3) Minimum Clearances. The following
by guardrail, barrier or a crash minimum horizontal clearances shall apply
cushion. to all objects that are closer to the edge of
Shielding and breakaway features must be traveled way than the clear recovery zone
in conformance with the guidance found distances listed above:
in Chapter 7 of the Traffic Manual. For (a) The minimum horizontal clearance to all
input on the need for shielding at a objects, such as bridge rails and safety-
specific location, consult District Traffic shaped concrete barriers, as well as
Operations. sand-filled barrels, metal beam
Existing above-ground utilities and guardrail, etc., on all freeway and
existing large trees as defined in expressway facilities, including auxiliary
Index 902.2(2) should conform to the lanes, ramps, and collector-distributor
guidance associated with necessary roads, shall be equal to the standard
highway features stated above. When the shoulder width of the highway facility as
planting of trees is being considered, see stated in Table 302.1. A minimum
the additional discussion and standards in clearance of 4 feet shall be provided
Chapter 900. where the standard shoulder width is
less than 4 feet. Approach rail
(b) Discretionary Fixed Objects. connections to bridge rail may require
Discretionary fixed objects are features or special treatment to maintain the
facilities that are not necessary for the standard shoulder width.
safety, maintenance or operation of the (b) The minimum horizontal clearance to
highway, but may enhance livability and walls, such as abutment walls, retaining
sustainability. These may include, but are walls in cut locations, and noise barriers
not limited to, transportation art, gateway on all facilities, including auxiliary lanes,
monuments, solar panels, and ramps and collector-distributor roads,
memorial/historical plaques or markers. shall not be less than 10 feet per
See Subsection (4) for high speed rail Table 302.1.
December 16, 2016
(c) On conventional highways, frontage conventional highway with posted speeds over
roads, city streets and county roads 40 miles per hour, the nearest fixed object or
within the State right of way (all without feature associated with the operation of the
curbs), the minimum horizontal rail facility should be located a minimum of
clearance shall be the standard shoulder 52 feet horizontally from the planned ultimate
width as listed in Tables 302.1 and 307.2, edge of the traveled way. See Index 62.10 for
except that a minimum clearance of the definition of high speed rail. The terrain
4 feet shall be provided where the and the required highway features between the
standard shoulder width is less than edge of traveled way and the rail facility to be
4 feet. For RRR projects, widths are constructed must be evaluated to determine on
provided in DIB 79. a case-by-case basis whether or not shielding
behind guardrail, barrier or other safety device
On conventional highways with curbs,
in conformance with the guidance found in
typically in urban conditions, a minimum
Chapter 7 of the Traffic Manual is needed.
horizontal clearance of 1 foot 6 inches should
For input on the need for shielding at a
be provided beyond the face of curbs to any
specific location, consult District Traffic
obstruction. On curbed highway sections, a
Operations.
minimum clearance of 3 feet should be
provided along the curb returns of (5) Other Transportation Facilities. Contraflow
intersections and near the edges of driveways BRT, light rail facilities, and heavy rail
to allow for design vehicle offtracking (see facilities are considered fixed objects and the
Topic 404). Where sidewalks are located clearances noted in Index 309.1 apply.
immediately adjacent to curbs, fixed objects
Parallel BRT facilities are preferred to have
should be located beyond the back of sidewalk
the following minimum separation between
to provide an unobstructed area for
lanes:
pedestrians.
• Freeways and Expressways** – 4 feet
In areas without curbs, the face of Type 60
concrete barrier should be constructed • Conventional Highways (see also Index
integrally at the base of any retaining, pier, or 108.5)
abutment wall which faces traffic and is
o Posted Speeds over 40 miles per hour –
15 feet or less from the edge of traveled way
4 feet
(right or left of traffic and measured from the
face of wall). See Index 1102.2 for the o Posted Speeds equal or greater than
treatment of noise barriers. 25 miles per hour and up to 45 miles
per hour in an urban environment –
The minimum width of roadway openings
2 feet, with curbed separation, 4 feet
between Temporary Railing (Type K) on
with 2-foot curbed separation
bridge deck widening projects should be
recommended.
obtained from the HQ Transportation Permit
Program. ** See “A Guide for HOT Lane
Development”, FHWA, and Caltrans High
The HQ Transportation Permit Program must
Occupancy Vehicle Guidelines for
be consulted on the use of the route by
additional information.
overwidth loads.
See Chapter 7 of the Traffic Manual for other 309.2 Vertical Clearances
requirements pertaining to clear recovery (1) Major Structures.
zone, guardrail at fixed objects and
embankments, and crash cushions. (a) Freeways and Expressways, All
construction except overlay projects –
(4) High Speed Rail Clearances. When a high 16 feet 6 inches shall be the minimum
speed rail corridor is to be constructed vertical clearance over the roadbed of
longitudinally to a freeway, expressway or a the State facility (e.g., main lanes,
September 22, 2014
Table 309.2A
Minimum Vertical Clearances
Traveled Way Shoulder

Freeways and Expressways, New Construction,
16½ ft 16½ ft
Lane Additions, Reconstruction and Modification
Freeways and Expressways, Overlay Projects 16 ft 16 ft
All Projects on Conventional Highways and Local
15 ft 14½ ft
Facilities
Sign Structures 18 ft 18 ft
Pedestrian, Bicycle Overcrossings, and Minor Standard + 2 ft
Structures See 309.2(2)
Structures on the Rural and Single Interstate
See 309.2(3)
Routing System
September 22, 2014
Figure 309.2
Department of Defense
Rural and Single Interstate Routes
September 22, 2014
Table 309.2B
California Routes on the Rural and Single Interstate Routing System
ROUTE FROM TO
I-5 U. S. Border I-805 just N. of U. S. Border
I-5 I-805 N. of San Diego I-405 near El Toro
I-5 I-210 N. of Los Angeles Oregon State Line
I-8 I-805 near San Diego Arizona State Line
I-10 I-210 near Pomona Arizona State Line
I-15 I-8 near San Diego Nevada State Line
I-40 Junction at I-15 near Barstow Arizona State Line
I-80 I-680 near Cordelia Nevada State Line
I-205 Junction at I-580 Junction at I-5
I-210 I-5 N. of Los Angeles I-10 near Pomona
I-215 I-15 near Temecula I-15 near Devore

At or near south city limits of San Francisco to
I-280 Junction at I-680 in San Jose provide access to Hunter's Point
I-405 I-5 near El Toro Palo Verde Avenue just N. of I-605
I-505 Junction at I-80 Junction at I-5
I-580 I-680 near Dublin Junction at I-5
I-605 I-405 near Seal Beach I-210
I-680 Junction at I-280 in San Jose I-80 near Cordelia
I-805 I-5 just N. of U. S. Border I-5 N. of San Diego

December 16, 2016
shoulders, ramps, collector-distributor system for the facility and project type listed.
roads, speed change lanes, etc.). For the purposes of these vertical clearance
standards, all projects on the freeway and
(b) Freeways and Expressways, Overlay
expressway system other than overlay projects
Projects – 16 feet shall be the minimum
shall be considered to be covered by the "new
vertical clearance over the roadbed of
construction" standard.
the State facility.
When approved by a design exception (see
(c) Conventional Highways, Parkways, and
HDM Index 82.2) clearances less than the
Local Facilities, All Projects – 15 feet
values given above may be allowed on a case
shall be the minimum vertical clearance
by case basis given adequate justification
over the traveled way and 14 feet
based upon engineering judgment, economic,
6 inches shall be the minimum vertical
environmental or right of way considerations.
clearance over the shoulders of all
Typical instances where lesser values may be
portions of the roadbed.
approved are where the structure is protected
(2) Minor Structures. Pedestrian over-crossings by existing lower structures on either side or
shall have a minimum vertical clearance where a project includes an existing structure
2 feet greater than the standard for major that would not be feasible to modify to the
structures for the State facility in question. current standard. In no case should vertical
clearance be reduced below 15 feet over the
Sign structures shall have a vertical
traveled way or 14 feet 6 inches over the
clearance of 18 feet over the roadbed of the
shoulders over any portion of a State highway
State facility.
facility.
(3) Rural Interstates and Single Routing in Urban
Areas: This subset of the Interstate System is Efforts should be made to avoid decreasing
composed of all rural Interstates and a single the existing vertical clearance whenever
routing in urban areas. Those routes described possible and consideration should be given to
in Table 309.2B and Figure 309.2 are given the feasibility of increasing vertical clearance
special attention in regards to minimum on projects involving structural section
vertical clearance as a result of agreements removal and replacement. Any project that
between the FHWA and the Department of would reduce vertical clearances below
Defense. Vertical clearance for structures 16 feet 6 inches or lead to an increase in the
vertical clearance should be brought to the
on this system shall meet the standards
attention of the Project Delivery Coordinator
listed above for freeways and expressways.
In addition to the standards listed above, or District approval authority, depending upon
the current District Design Delegation
vertical clearances of less than 16 feet over
any portion of this system must be approved Agreement, the District Permit Engineer and
the Regional Permit Manager at the earliest
by FHWA in coordination with Surface
possible date.
Deployment and Distribution Command
Transportation Engineering Agency The Regional Permit Manager should be
(SDDCTEA). Documentation in the form of a informed of any changes (temporary or
Design Exception Fact Sheet must be permanent) in vertical clearance.
submitted to FHWA to obtain approval for
(5) Federal Aid Participation. Federal-aid
less than 16 feet of vertical clearance.
participation is normally limited to the
Vertical clearances of less than 16 feet over
following maximum vertical clearances unless
any Interstate will require FHWA/SDDCTEA
there are external controls such as the need to
notification. See
provide for falsework clearance or the vertical
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/design/090415.cfm
clearance is controlled by an adjacent
(4) General Information. The standards listed structure in a multi-structure interchange:
above and summarized in Table 309.2A are
the minimum allowable on the State highway
December 16, 2016
(a) Highway Facilities. 309.3 Tunnel Clearances

• 17 feet over freeways and (1) Horizontal Clearances. Tunnel construction
expressways. is so infrequent and costly that the width
should be considered on an individual basis.
• 15 feet 6 inches over other highways
For the minimum width standards for freeway
(15 feet over shoulders).
tunnels see Index 309.1.
• For pedestrian structures, 2 feet Normally, the minimum horizontal clearance
greater than the above values. on freeways should include the full roadbed
(b) Railroad Facilities. width of the approaches.
• 23 feet 4 inches over the top of rails In one-way tunnels on conventional
for non-electrified rail systems. highways the minimum side clearance from
the edge of the traveled way shall be 4 feet
• 24 feet 3 inches over the top of rails 6 inches on the left and 6 feet on the right.
for existing or proposed 25 kv For two-way tunnels, this clearance shall be
electrification. 6 feet on each side. This clearance provides
• 26 feet over the top of rails for space for bicycle lanes or for bicyclists who
existing or proposed 50 kv want to use the shoulder.
electrification. (2) Vertical Clearances. The minimum vertical
These clearances include an allowance for clearance shall be 15 feet measured at any
future ballasting of the rail facility. The cost point over the traveled way and 14 feet
of reconstructing or modifying any existing 6 inches above the gutter at the curb line.
railroad-highway grade separation structure On freeways and expressways, the vertical
solely to accommodate electrification will not clearance listed in Index 309.2(1)(a) shall be
be eligible for Federal-aid highway fund used. Cost weighed against the probability of
participation. Where a rail system is not over-height vehicles will be the determining
currently electrified, the railroad must have a factors.
plan adopted which specifies the intent to 309.4 Lateral Clearance for Elevated
electrify the subject rail segment within a
Structures
reasonable time frame in order to provide
clearances in excess of 23 feet 4 inches. Adequate clearance must be provided for
maintenance, repair, construction, or reconstruction
Any exceptions to the clearances listed above
of adjacent buildings and of the structure; to avoid
should be reviewed with the FHWA early in
damage to the structure from a building fire or to
the design phase to ensure that they will
buildings from a vehicle fire; to permit operation of
participate in the structure costs. All
equipment for fire fighting and other emergency
excessive clearances should be documented in
teams. The minimum horizontal clearance
the project files. Documentation must include
between elevated highway structures, such as
reasons for exception including the railroad’s
freeway viaducts and ramps, and adjoining
justification for increased vertical clearance
buildings or other structures shall be 15 feet for
based on an analysis of engineering,
single-deck structures and 20 feet for double-
operational and/or economic conditions at a
deck structures. Spot encroachments on this
specific structure location with appropriate
clearance shall be approved in accordance with
approval by the HQ Right of Way, Railroad
Index 82.2.
Agreement Coordinator and concurrence by
the FHWA. 309.5 Structures Across or Adjacent to
See Index 1003.1(2) for guidance on Class I Railroads
bikeway vertical clearance. Regulations governing clearances on railroads and
street railroads with reference to side and overhead
December 16, 2016
structures, parallel tracks, crossings of public roads, 309.5A for typical horizontal railroad
highways, and streets are established by the PUC. clearances and Figure 309.5B for limits of
The PUC requirements are minimums for all grade permanent vertical clearance envelope for
separated structures. The railroad clearances are grade separated structures.
much greater due to operational requirements.
Code of Federal Regulations 646.212(a)(2)
(1) Normal Horizontal and Vertical Clearances. provides that if the railroad establishes to the
Although General Order No. 26-D specifies a satisfaction of the Department and FHWA that
minimum vertical clearance of 22 feet it has definite demand and plans for
6 inches above tracks on which freight cars installation of additional tracks within a
not exceeding a height of 15 feet 6 inches are reasonable time, for grade separation
transported, a minimum of 23 feet 4 inches structures, Federal funds may be used to
should be used in design to allow for provide space for more tracks than are in
reballasting and normal maintenance of track. place.
Railroads on which freight cars are not
Vertical clearance greater than 23 feet
operated, should have a minimum vertical
4 inches may be approved on a site by site
clearance of 19 feet. See Index 309.2(5)(b)
basis where justified by the railroad to the
for FHWA maximums. In establishing the
satisfaction of the Department and the FHWA.
grade line, the District should consult the DES
A railroad’s justification for increased vertical
to obtain the depth of structures and false
clearance should be based on an analysis of
work requirements, if any (see Index
engineering, operational and/or economic
204.6(4)).
conditions and the need for future tracks at a
Horizontal clearance from piers, abutments, specific location. Contact the District Railroad
and barriers shall be 25 feet minimum to Coordinator for further information.
centerline of track. For clearances less than
25 feet, the piers supporting bridges over the Table 309.5A
railroads are to be heavy construction or are to Minimum Vertical Clearances
be protected by a reinforced concrete crash
wall. Piers are to be considered heavy
Above Highest Rail
construction if they have a cross-sectional area Type of Operation
equal to or greater than that required for the
crash wall where the larger of its dimension is Type of Structure Normal No Freight
parallel to the track. Freight Cars Operated
Crash walls for piers from 12 to 25 feet Highway
clearance from the centerline of track are to overhead and
have a minimum height of 6 feet above the top other structures 23' – 4" 19' – 0"
of rail. Piers less than 12 feet clearance from including through
the centerline of track are to have a minimum railroad bridges.
crash wall height of 12 feet above the top of
rail. Horizontal clearances other than those
stated above must be approved by the PUC At underpasses, General Order No. 26-D
and concurred by the affected railroad entity. establishes a minimum vertical clearance of
Coordinate early in the design phase of the 15 feet above any public road, highway or
project with the District Railroad Coordinator street. However, the greater clearances
when railroad agreements are required. specified under Index 309.2 shall be used.
For future planned track expansion, a For at grade crossings, all curbs, including
minimum horizontal clearance distance of median curbs, should be designed with 10 feet
20 feet between existing and future track of clearance from the track centerline
centerlines shall be provided for freight tracks measured normal thereto.
and 25 feet for commuter tracks. See Figure
December 16, 2016
(2) Off-track Maintenance Clearance. The 40 feet wide and have been constructed as part of a
18-foot horizontal clearance is intended for State highway project. Index 308.1 gives width
sections of railroad where the railroad criteria for city streets and county roads. These
company is using or definitely plans to use widths are also applicable to frontage roads.
off-track maintenance equipment. This However, the minimum paved 2-lane cross
clearance is provided on one side of the section width including 4-foot shoulders without
railroad right of way. curb and gutter shall be:
On Federal-aid projects, where site conditions • 32 feet if 12-foot lanes are to be provided;
are such that off-track maintenance clearance
at an overhead is obtained at additional cost, • 30 feet if 11-foot lanes are to be provided.
Federal-aid funds may participate in the costs The minimum paved 2-lane cross section width,
of such overhead designs that provide up to including 5-foot shoulders and curb and gutter
18 feet 2 inches horizontal clearance on one shall be:
side of the track. In such cases, the railroad is
required to present a statement that off-track • 34 feet if 12-foot lanes are to be provided;
maintenance equipment is being used, or is • 32 feet if 11-foot lanes are to be provided.
definitely planned to be used, along that
section of the railroad right of way crossed by 310.2 Outer Separation
the overhead structure. In urban areas and in mountainous terrain, the
(3) Walkway Clearances Adjacent to Railroads At width of the outer separation should be a minimum
Grade. All plans involving construction of 26 feet from edge of traveled way to edge of
adjacent to railroads at grade should be such traveled way. A greater width may be used where
that there is no encroachment on the walkway it is obtainable at reasonable additional cost, for
adjoining the track. Walkway requirements example, on an urban highway centered on a city
are set forth in General Order No. 118 of the block and paralleling the street grid.
PUC. Where excavations encroach into In rural areas, other than mountainous terrain, the
walkway areas, the contractor is required to outer separation should be a minimum of 40 feet
construct a temporary walkway with handrail wide from edge of traveled way to edge of traveled
as set forth in the contract special provisions. way.
(4) Approval. All plans involving clearances See Figure 307.4 for cross sections of outer
from a railroad track must be submitted to the separation and frontage road.
railroad for approval as to railroad interests.
Such clearances are also subject to approval 310.3 Headlight Glare
by the PUC. Care should be taken when designing new frontage
To avoid delays, early consideration must be roads to avoid the potential for headlight glare
given to railroad requirements when the interfering with the vision of motorists, bicyclists,
planning phase is started on a project. and pedestrians traveling in opposite directions on
the frontage roads and in the outer freeway lanes.
Topic 310 - Frontage Roads Consideration should also be given to bike and
pedestrians paths. To prevent headlight glare
310.1 Cross Section interference on new construction, the preferred
measures are for wider outer separations, revised
Frontage roads are normally relinquished to local
alignment and raised or lowered profiles.
agencies. When Caltrans and a county or city enter
into an agreement (cooperative agreement, freeway
agreement, or other type of binding agreement), the
CTC may relinquish to the county or city any
frontage or service road or outer highway within
that city or county. The relinquished right of way
(called a collateral facility) should be at least
September 22, 2014
Figure 309.5A
Typical Horizontal Railroad Clearance from Grade Separated Structures
NOTE:
The limits of the fence with barrier rail should extend to the limits of railroad right-of-way or a minimum of
25 feet beyond the centerline of the outermost existing track, future track or access roadway, whichever is
greater.
September 22, 2014
Figure 309.5B
Permanent Railroad Clearance Envelope
September 22, 2014
Table 309.5B
Minimum Horizontal Clearances to

Centerline of Nearest Track
Curved Track Clearances

When Space is Limited(1)
Type of Off-track Tangent Track Normal Curved Curves of 0° Curves of 12° or
Structure Maintenance Clearance Track (1) to 12° more
Clearance Clearance
Through rail-
None 8' – 0"(2)(4) 9' – 0"(2)(4)
road bridge
Highway over- 18' – 0" clear to 8' – 6"(4) 9' – 6"(4) 8' – 6" 8' – 6" + ½"(3) per
head and other (3)
face of pier or degree of curve.
structures (Min.)
abutment on
side railroad
requires for
equipment road.
Curbs 10' – 0"
NOTES:
(1) The minimum, in general, is one foot greater than for tangent track.
(2) With approval of P.U.C.
(3) Greater clearance necessary if walkway is required.
(4) Collision walls may be required. See Index 309.5(1).
March 7, 2014
patterns in intersections must be analyzed early in

CHAPTER 400 the planning phase and then followed through
INTERSECTIONS AT GRADE appropriately during the design phase of all
intersections on the State highway. It is
Intersections are planned points of conflict where Departmental policy to develop integrated
two or more roadways join or cross. At-grade multimodal projects in balance with community
intersections are among the most complicated goals, plans, and values.
elements on the highway system, and control the The Complete Intersections: A Guide to
efficiency, capacity, and safety for motorized and Reconstructing Intersections and Interchanges for
non-motorized users of the facility. The type and Bicyclists and Pedestrians contains a primer on the
operation of an intersection is important to the factors to consider when designing intersections. It
adjacent property owners, motorists, bicyclists, is published by the California Division of Traffic
pedestrians, transit operators, the trucking industry, Operations.
and the local community.
401.2 Human Factors
There are two basic types of at grade intersections:
crossing and circular. It is not recommended that (1) The Driver. An appreciation of driver
intersections have more than four legs. performance is essential to proper highway
Occasionally, local development and land uses design and operation. The suitability of a
create the need for a more complex intersection design rests as much on how safely and
design. Such intersections may require a specialized efficiently drivers are able to use the highway
intersection design to handle the specify traffic as on any other criterion.
demands at that location. In addition to the guidance Motorist’s perception and reaction time set the
in this manual, see Traffic Operations Policy standards for sight distance and length of
Directive (TOPD) Number 13-02: Intersection transitions. The driver’s ability to understand
Control Evaluation (ICE) for direction and and interpret the movements and crossing
procedures on the evaluation, comparison and times of the other vehicle drivers, bicyclists,
selection of the intersection types and control and pedestrians using the intersection is
strategies identified in Index 401.5. Also refer to the equally important when making decisions and
Complete Streets Intersection Guide for further their associated reactions. The designer needs
information. to keep in mind the user’s limitations and
therefore design intersections so that they meet
Topic 401 - Factors Affecting user expectation.
Design
(2) The Bicyclist. Bicyclist experience, skills and
Index 401.1 - General physical capabilities are factors in intersection
design. Intersections are to be designed to help
At-grade intersections must handle a variety of bicyclists understand how to traverse the
conflicts among users, which includes truck, transit, intersection. Chapter 1000 provides
pedestrians, and bicycles. These recurring conflicts intersection guidance for Class I and Class III
play a major role in the preparation of design stan- bikeways that intersect the State highway
dards and guidelines. Arriving, departing, merging, system. The guidance in this chapter
turning, and crossing paths of moving pedestrians, specifically relates to bicyclists that operate
bicycles, truck, and vehicular traffic have to be within intersections on the State highway
accommodated within a relatively small area. The system.
objective of designing an intersection is to
effectively balance the convenience, ease, and (3) The Pedestrian. Understanding how
comfort of the users, as well as the human factors, pedestrians will use an intersection is critical
with moving traffic (automobiles, trucks, because pedestrian volumes, their age ranges,
motorcycles, transit vehicles, bicycles, pedestrians, physical ability, etc. all factor in to their startup
etc.).The safety and mobility needs of motorist, time and the time it takes them to cross an
bicyclist and pedestrians as well as their movement intersection and thus, dictates how to design
March 7, 2014
the intersection to avoid potential conflicts complexity of a State highway and can result in
with bicyclists and motor vehicles. The busy intersections.
guidance in this chapter specifically relates to
Industrial development may require special attention
pedestrian travel within intersections on the
to the movement of large trucks.
State highway system. See Topic 105,
Pedestrian Facilities, Design Information Rural areas where farming occurs may require
Bulletin 82 - “Pedestrian Accessibility special attention for specialized farm equipment. In
Guidelines for Highway Projects,” the addition, rural cities or town centers (rural main
AASHTO Guide for the Planning, Design, and streets) also require special attention.
Operation of Pedestrian Facilities, and the Rural intersections in farm areas with low traffic
California Manual on Uniform Traffic Control volumes may have special visibility problems or
Devices (California MUTCD) for additional require shadowing of left-turn vehicles from high
guidance. speed approach traffic.
401.3 Traffic Considerations
Table 401.3
Good intersection design clearly indicates to
bicyclists and motorists how to traverse the Vehicle Characteristics Intersection Design
intersection (see Figure 403.6A). Designs that Element Affected
encourage merging traffic to yield to through
bicycle and motor vehicle traffic are desirable. Length Length of storage lane
The size, maneuverability, and other characteristics Width Lane width
of bicycles and motorized vehicles (automobiles, Height Clearance to overhead
trucks, transit vehicles, farm equipment, etc.) are all signs and signals
factors that influence the design of an intersection.
The differences in operating characteristics between Wheel base Corner radius and width
bicycles and motor vehicles should be considered of turning lanes
early in design. Acceleration Tapers and length of
Table 401.3 compares vehicle characteristics to acceleration lane
intersection design elements. Deceleration Tapers and length of
A design vehicle is a convenient means of deceleration lane
representing a particular segment of the vehicle
population. See Topic 404 for a further discussion
of the uses of design vehicles. There are many factors to be considered in the
design of intersections, with the goal to achieve a
Transit vehicles and how their stops interrelate with functional, safe and efficient intersection for all
an intersection, pedestrian desired walking patterns users of the facility. The location and level of use
and potential transfers to other transit facilities are by various modes will have an impact on
another critical factor to understand when designing intersection design, and therefore should be
an intersection. Transit stops and their placement considered early in the design process. In addition to
needs to take into account the required maintenance current levels of use, it is important to consider
operations that will be needed and usually supplied future travel patterns for vehicles, including trucks;
by the Transit Operator. pedestrian and bicycle demand and the future
401.4 The Physical Environment expansion of transit.
In highly developed urban areas, where right of way 401.5 Intersection Type
is usually limited, the volume of vehicular traffic, Intersection types are characterized by their basic
pedestrians, and bicyclists may be large, street geometric configuration, and the form of
parking exists, and transit stops (for both buses and intersection traffic control that is employed:
light rail) are available. All interact in a variety of
movements that contribute to and add to the
March 7, 2014
(1) Geometric Configurations Rapid Transit (BRT) or light rail facilities which can
have a large impact on other users of the
(a) Crossing-Type Intersections - “Tee” and 4-
intersection. Consideration of these modes should
legged intersections
be part of the early planning and design of
(b) Circular Intersections –roundabouts, traffic intersections.
circles, rotaries; however, only roundabouts
are acceptable for State highways. Topic 402 - Operational Features
(c) Alternative Intersection Designs – various Affecting Design
effective geometric alternatives to
traditional designs that can reduce crashes 402.1 Capacity
and their severity, improve operations, Adequate capacity to handle peak period traffic
reduce congestion and delay typically by demands is a basic goal of intersection design.
reducing or altering the number of conflict
points; these alternatives include geometric (1) Unsignalized Intersections. The “Highway
design features such as intersections with Capacity Manual”, provides methodology for
displaced left-turns or variations on U-turns. capacity analysis of unsignalized intersections
controlled by “STOP” or “YIELD” signs. The
(2) Intersection Control strategies, See California assumption is made that major street traffic is
MUTCD and Traffic Operations Policy not affected by the minor street movement.
Directive (TOPD) Number 13-02, Intersection Unsignalized intersections generally become
Control Evaluation for procedures and guidance candidates for signalization when traffic
on how to evaluate, compare and select from backups begin to develop on the cross street or
among the following intersection control when gaps in traffic are insufficient for drivers
strategies: to yield to crossing pedestrians. See the
(a) Two-Way Stop Controlled - for minor road California MUTCD, for signal warrants.
traffic Changes to intersection controls must be
coordinated with District Traffic Branch.
(b) All-Way Stop Control
(2) Signalized Intersections. See Topic 406 for
(c) Signal Control analysis of simple signalized intersections,
(d) Yield Control (Roundabout) including ramps. The analysis of complex and
alternative intersections should be referred to
Historically, crossing-type intersections with signal the District Traffic Branch; also see Traffic
or “STOP”-control have been used on the State Operations Policy Directive (TOPD) Number
highway system. However, other intersection types, 13-02.
given the appropriate circumstances may enhance
intersection performance through fewer or less (3) Roundabout Intersections. See TOPD Number
severe crashes and improve operations by reducing 13-02 for screening process and the
overall delay. Alternative intersection geometric Intersection Control Evaluation(ICE) Process
designs should be considered and evaluated early in Informational Guide for operational analysis
the project scoping, planning and decision-making methods and tools.
stages, as they may be more efficient, economical 402.2 Collisions
and safer solutions than traditional designs.
Alternative intersection designs can effectively (1) General. Intersections have a higher potential
balance the safety and mobility needs of the motor for conflict compared to other sections of the
vehicle drivers, transit riders, bicyclists and highway because travel is interrupted, traffic
pedestrians using the intersection. streams cross, and many types of turning
movements occur.
401.6 Transit
The type of traffic control affects the type of
Transit use may range from periodic buses, handled collisions. Signalized intersections tend to
as part of the normal mix of vehicular traffic, to Bus have more rear end and same-direction
July 1, 2015
sideswipes than intersections with “STOP”- Vehicle Code, but should have separate
control on minor legs. Roundabouts experience consideration of their needs, even separate facilities
few angle or crossing collisions. Roundabouts if volumes warrant. Pedestrians should not be
reduce the frequency and severity of collisions, prohibited from crossing one or more legs of an
especially when compared to the performance intersection, unless no other safe alternative exists.
of signalized intersections in high speed Pedestrians can be prohibited from crossing one or
environments. Other alternative intersection more legs of an intersection if a reasonable alternate
types are configurations to consider for route exists and there is a demonstrated need to do
minimizing the number of conflict points. so. All pedestrian facilities shall be ADA compliant
as outlined in DIB 82. Transit needs should be
(2) Undesirable Geometric Features.
determined early in the planning and design phase
• Inadequate approach sight distance. as their needs can have a large impact on the
performance of an intersection. Transit stops in the
• Inadequate corner sight distance.
vicinity of intersections should be evaluated for
• Steep grades. their effect on the safety and operation of the
intersection(s) under study. See Topic 108 for
• Five or more approaches. additional information.
• Presence of curves within 402.5 Speed-Change Areas
intersections(unless at roundabouts).
Speed-change areas for vehicles entering or leaving
• Inappropriately large curb radii. main streams of traffic are beneficial to the safety
• Long pedestrian crossing distances. and efficiency of an intersection. Entering traffic
merges most efficiently with through traffic when
• Intersection Angle <75 degrees (see Topic the merging angle is less than 15 degrees and when
403). speed differentials are at a minimum.
402.3 On-Street Parking
Topic 403 - Principles of
On-street parking generally decreases through-
traffic capacity, impedes traffic flow, and increases
Channelization
crash potential. Where the primary service of the 403.1 Preference to Major Movements
arterial is the movement of vehicles, it may be
desirable to prohibit on-street parking on State The provision of direct free-flowing high-standard
highways in urban and suburban expressways and alignment to give preference to major movements is
rural arterial sections. However, within urban and good channelization practice. This may require
suburban areas and in rural communities located on some degree of control of the minor movements
State highways, on-street parking should be such as stopping, funneling, or even eliminating
considered in order to accommodate existing land them. These controlling measures should conform
uses. Where adequate off-street parking facilities are to natural paths of movement and should be
not available, the designer should consider on-street introduced gradually to promote smooth and
parking, so that the proposed highway improvement efficient operation.
will be compatible with the land use. On-street 403.2 Areas of Conflict
parking as well as off-street parking needs to
comply with DIB82. See AASHTO, A Policy on Large multilane undivided intersection areas are
Geometric Design of Highways and Streets for undesirable. The hazards of conflicting movements
additional guidance related to on-street parking. are magnified when motorists, bicyclists, and
pedestrians are unable to anticipate movements of
402.4 Consider All Users other users within these areas. Channelization
Intersections should accommodate all users of the reduces areas of conflict by separating or regulating
facility, including vehicles, bicyclists, pedestrians traffic movements into definite paths of travel by the
and transit. Bicycles have all the rights and use of pavement markings or traffic islands.
responsibilities as motorist per the California
December 30, 2015
Multilane undivided intersections, even with bikeway crossings at railroads follow similar
signalization, are more difficult for pedestrians to guidance to Class I bikeway crossings at railroads,
cross. Providing pedestrian refuge islands enable see Index 1003.5(3), and Figure 403.3B.
pedestrians to cross fewer lanes at a time.
A characteristic of skewed intersection angles is that
See Index 403.7 for traffic island guidance when they result in larger intersections.
used as pedestrian refuge. Curb extensions shorten
When existing intersection angles are less than
crossing distance and increase visibility. See Index
75 degrees, the following retrofit improvement
303.4 for curb extensions.
strategies should be considered:
403.3 Angle of Intersection • Realign the subordinate intersection legs if the
A right angle (90°) intersection provides the most new alignment and intersection location(s) can
favorable conditions for intersecting and turning be designed without introducing new geometric
traffic movements. Specifically, a right angle or operational deficiencies.
provides:
• Provide acceleration lanes for difficult turning
• The shortest crossing distance for motor movements due to radius or limited visibility.
vehicles, bicycles, and pedestrians.
• Restrict problematic turning movements; e.g.
• Sight lines which optimize corner sight distance for minor road left turns with potentially limited
and the ability of motorists to judge the relative visibility.
position and speed of approach traffic.
• Provide refuge areas for pedestrians at very long
• Intersection geometry that can reduce vehicle crossings.
turning speeds so collisions are more easily
For additional guidance on the above and other
avoided and the severity of collisions are
improvement strategies, consult with the District
minimized.
Design Liaison or HQ Traffic Liaison.
• Intersection geometry that sends a message to Particular attention should be given to skewed
turning bicyclists and motorists that they are angles on curved alignment with regards to sight
making a turning movement and should yield as distance and visibility. Crossroads skewed to the
appropriate to through traffic on the roadway left have more restricted visibility for drivers of
they are leaving, to traffic on the receiving vans and trucks than crossroads skewed to the right.
roadway, and to pedestrians crossing the In addition, severely skewed intersection angles,
intersection. coupled with steep downgrades (generally over
Minor deviations from right angles are generally 4 percent) can increase the potential for high
acceptable provided that the potentially detrimental centered vehicles to overturn where the vehicle is on
impact on visibility and turning movements for a downgrade and must make a turn greater than
large trucks (see Topic 404) can be mitigated. 90 degrees onto a crossroad. These factors should
However, large deviations from right angles may be considered in the design of skewed intersections.
decrease visibility, hamper certain turning
403.4 Points of Conflict
operations, and will increase the size of the
intersection and therefore crossing distances for Channelization separates and clearly defines points
bicyclists and pedestrians, may encourage high of conflict within the intersection. Bicyclists,
speed turns, and may reduce yielding by turning pedestrians and motorists should be exposed to only
traffic. When a right angle cannot be provided due one conflict or confronted with one decision at a
to physical constraints, the interior angle should be time.
designed as close to 90 degrees as is practical, but Speed-change areas for diverging traffic should
should not be less than 75 degrees. Mitigation provide adequate length clear of the through lanes to
should be considered for the affected intersection permit vehicles to decelerate after leaving the
design features. (See Figure 403.3A). A 75 degree through lanes.
angle does not unreasonably increase the crossing
distance or generally decrease visibility. Class II
March 7, 2014
See AASHTO, A Policy on Geometric Design of 403.6 Turning Traffic

Highways and Streets for additional guidance on
speed-change lanes. A separate turning lane removes turning movements
from the intersection area. Abrupt changes in
Figure 403.3A alignment or sight distance should be avoided,
particularly where traffic turns into a separate
Angle of Intersection turning lane from a high-standard through facility.
(Minor Leg Skewed to the Right) For wide medians, consider the use of offset left-
turn lanes at both signalized and unsignalized
intersections. Opposing left-turn lanes are offset or
shifted as far to the left as practical by reducing the
width of separation immediately before the
intersection. Rather than aligning the left-turn lane
exactly parallel with and adjacent to the through
lane, the offset left-turn lane is separated from the
adjacent through lane. Offset left-turn lanes provide
improved visibility of opposing through traffic. For
further guidance on offset left-turn lanes, see
AASHTO, A Policy on Geometric Design of
Highways and Streets.
(1) Treatment of Intersections with Right-Turn-
Figure 403.3.B Only Lanes. Most motor vehicle/bicycle
collisions occur at intersections. For this
Class II Bikeway reason, intersection design should be
Crossing Railroad accomplished in a manner that will minimize
confusion by motorists and bicyclists,
eliminate ambiguity and induce all road users
to operate in accordance with the statutory
rules of the road in the California Vehicle
Code. Right-turn-only lanes should be
designed to meet user expectations and reduce
conflicts between vehicles and bicyclists.
Figure 403.6A illustrates a typical at-grade
intersection of multilane streets without right-
turn-only lanes. Bike lanes or shoulders are
included on all approaches. Some common
movements of motor vehicles and bicycles are
shown. A prevalent crash type is between
straight-through bicyclists and right-turning
motorists, who do not yield to through
bicyclists.
Optional right-turn lanes should not be used in
403.5 (Currently Not In Use) combination with right-turn-only lanes on
roads where bicycle travel is permitted. The
use of optional right-turn lanes in combination
with right-turn-only lanes is not recommended
in any case where a Class II bike lane is
present. This may increase the need for dual or
triple right-turn-only lanes, which have
May 7, 2012
Figure 403.6A
Typical Bicycle and Motor Vehicle Movements at Intersections of Multilane
Streets without Right-Turn-Only Lanes
NOTE:
Only one direction is shown for clarity.
July 1, 2015
Figure 403.6B
Bicycle Left-Turn-Only Lane
NOTES:
(1) For bicycle lane markings, see the California MUTCD.
(2) Bicycle detectors are necessary for signalized intersections.
(3) Left-turn bicycle lane should have receiving bike lane or shoulder.
December 16, 2016
challenges with visibility between turning 403.7 Refuge Areas

vehicles and pedestrians. Multiple right-turn-
only lanes should not be free right-turns when Traffic islands should be used to provide refuge
there is a pedestrian crossing. If there is a areas for bicyclists and pedestrians. See Index
pedestrian crossing on the receiving leg of 405.4 for further guidance.
multiple right-turn-only lanes, the intersection 403.8 Prohibited Turns
should be controlled by a pedestrian signal
head, or geometrically designed such that Traffic islands may be used to direct bicycle and
pedestrians cross only one turning lane at a motorized vehicle traffic streams in desired
time. directions and prevent undesirable movements.
Care should be taken so that islands used for this
Locations with right-turn-only lanes should purpose accommodate convenient and safe
provide a minimum 4-foot width for bicycle pedestrian and bicycle crossings, drainage, and
use between the right-turn and through lane striping options. See Topic 303.
when bikes are permitted, except where posted
speed is greater than 40 miles per hour, the 403.9 Effective Signal Control
minimum width should be 6 feet. At intersections with complex turning movements,
Configurations that create a weaving area channelization is required for effective signal
without defined lanes should not be used. control. Channelization permits the sorting of
For signing and delineation of bicycle lanes at approaching bicycles and motorized vehicles which
intersections, consult District Traffic may move through the intersection during separate
Operations. signal phases. Pedestrians may also have their own
signal phase. This requirement is of particular
Figure 403.6B depicts an intersection with a importance when traffic-actuated signal controls are
left-turn-only bicycle lane, which should be employed.
considered when bicycle left-turns are
common. A left-turn-only bicycle lane may be The California MUTCD has warrants for the
considered at any intersection and should placement of signals to control vehicular, bicycle
always be considered as a tool to provide and pedestrian traffic. Pedestrian activated devices,
mobility for bicyclists. Signing and signals or beacons are not required, but must be
delineation options for bicycle left-turn-only evaluated where directional, multilane, pedestrian
lanes are shown in the California MUTCD. crossings occur. These locations may include:
(2) Design of Intersections at Interchanges. The • Mid-block street crossings;

design of at-grade intersections at interchanges • Channelized turn lanes;
should be accomplished in a manner that will
minimize confusion of motorists, bicyclists, • Ramp entries and exits; and
and pedestrians. Higher speed, uncontrolled • Roundabouts.
entries and exits from freeway ramps should
not be used at the intersection of the ramps The evaluation, selection, programming and use of a
with the local road. The smallest curb return chosen device should be done with guidance from
radius should be used that accommodates the District Traffic Operations.
design vehicle. Intersections with interior 403.10 Installation of Traffic Control
angles close to 90 degrees reduce speeds at
Devices
conflict points between motorists, bicyclists,
and pedestrians. The intersection skew Channelization may provide locations for the
guidance in Index 403.3 applies to all ramp installation of essential traffic control devices, such
termini at the local road. as “STOP” and directional signs. See Index 405.4
for information about the design of traffic islands.
403.11 Summary
• Give preference to the major move(s).
December 30, 2015
• Reduce areas of conflict. 404.2 Design Considerations

• Reduce the duration of conflicts. It may not be necessary to provide for design
vehicle turning movements at all intersections along
• Cross traffic at right angles or skew no more the State route if the design vehicle’s route is
than 75 degrees. (90 degrees preferred.) restricted or it is not expected to use the cross street
• Separate points of conflict. frequently. Discuss with Traffic Operations and the
local agency before a turning movement is not
• Provide speed-change areas and separate turning provided. The goal is to minimize possible conflicts
lanes where appropriate. between vehicles, bicycles, pedestrians, and other
• Provide adequate width to shadow turning users of the roadway, while providing the minimum
traffic. curb radii appropriate for the given situation.
• Restrict undesirable moves with traffic islands. Both the tracking width and swept width should be
considered in the design of roadways for use of the
• Coordinate channelization with effective signal roadway by design vehicles.
control.
Tracking width lines delineate the path of the
• Install signs in traffic islands when necessary vehicle tires as the vehicle moves through the turn.
but avoid building conflicts one or more modes
of travel. Swept width lines delineate the path of the vehicle
body as the vehicle moves through the turn and will
• Consider all users. therefore always exceed the tracking width. The
following list of criteria is to be used to determine
403.12 Other Considerations
whether the roadway can accommodate the design
• An advantage of curbed islands is they can vehicle.
serve as pedestrian refuge. Where curbing is
(1) Traveled way.
appropriate, consideration should be given to
mountable curbs. See Topic 303 for more (a) To accommodate turn movements(e.g., at
guidance. intersections, driveways, alleys, etc.),the
travel way width and intersection design
• Avoid complex intersections that present should be such that tracking width and
multiple choices of movement to the motorist swept width lines for the design vehicle do
and bicyclist. not cross into any portion of the lane for
• Traffic safety should be considered. Collision opposing traffic. Encroachment into the
records provide a valuable guide to the type of shoulder and bike lane is permitted.
channelization needed. (b) Along the portion of roadway where there
are no turning options, vehicles are required
Topic 404 - Design Vehicles to stay within the lane lines. The tracking
404.1 General and swept widths lines for the design
vehicle shall stay within the lane as
Any vehicle, whether car, bus, truck, or recreational defined in Index 301.1 and Table 504.3A.
vehicle, while turning a curve, covers a wider path This includes no encroachment into Class II
than the width of the vehicle. The outer front tire bike lanes.
can generally follow a circular curve, but the inner
(2) Shoulders. Both tracking width and swept
rear tire will swing in toward the center of the curve.
width lines may encroach onto paved shoulders
Some terminology is vital to understanding the to accommodate turning. For design projects
engineering concepts related to design vehicles. See where the tracking width lines are shown to
Index 62.4 Interchanges and Intersection at Grade encroach onto paved shoulders, the shoulder
for terminology. pavement structure should be engineered to
sustain the weight of the design vehicle. See
Index 613 for general traffic loading
December 16, 2016
considerations and Index 626 for tied rigid accommodation to non-motorized users of the
shoulder guidance. At corners where no facility and appurtenances should be considered.
sidewalks are provided and pedestrians are
If both the tracking width and swept width lines
using the shoulder, a paved refuge area may be
meet the design guidance listed above, then the
provided outside the swept width of turning
geometry is adequate for that design vehicle.
vehicle.
Consideration should be given to pedestrian
(3) Curbs and Gutters. Tires may not mount curbs. crossing distance, motor vehicle speeds, truck
If curb and gutter are present and any portion of volumes, alignment, bicycle lane width, sight
the gutter pan is likewise encroached, the gutter distance, and the presence of on-street parking.
pan must be engineered to match the adjacent
Note that the STAA Design Vehicle has a template
shoulder pavement structure. See Index
with a 56-foot (minimum) and a 67-foot (longer)
613.5(2)(c) for gutter pan design guidance.
radius and the California Legal Design Vehicle has
(4) Edge of Pavement. To accommodate a turn, the a template with 50-foot (minimum) and 60-foot
swept width lines may cross the edge of (longer) radii. The longer radius templates are more
pavement provided there are no obstructions. conservative. The longer radius templates develop
The tracking width lines must remain on the less swept width and leave a margin of error for the
pavement structure, including the shoulder, truck driver. The longer radius templates should be
provided that the shoulder is designed to support used for conditions where the vehicle may not be
vehicular traffic. If truck volumes are high, required to stop before entering the intersection.
consideration of a wider shoulder is encouraged
The minimum radius template can be used if the
in order to preserve the pavement edge.
longer radius template does not clear all obstacles.
(5) Bicycle Lanes. Where bicycle lanes are The minimum radius templates demonstrate the
considered, the design guidance noted above tightest turn that the vehicles can navigate, assuming
applies. Vehicles are permitted to cross a a speed of less than 10 miles per hour.
bicycle lane to initiate or complete a turning
For offtracking lane width requirements on freeway
movement or for emergency parking on the
ramps, see Topic 504.
shoulder. See the California MUTCD for Class
II bike lane markings. 404.3 Design Tools
To accommodate turn movements (e.g., District Truck Managers should be consulted early
intersections, driveways, alleys, etc. are in the project to ensure compliance with the design
present), both tracking width and swept width vehicle guidance contained in Topic 404. Consult
lines may cross the broken white painted bicycle local agencies to verify the location of local truck
lane striping in advance of the right-turn, routes. Essentially, two options are available –
entering the bicycle lane when clear to do so. templates or computer software.
(6) Sidewalks. Tracking width and swept width • The turning templates in Figures 404.5A
lines must not encroach onto sidewalks or through G are a design aid for determining the
pedestrian refuge areas, without exception. swept width and/or tracking width of large
(7) Obstacles. Swept width lines may not encroach vehicles as they maneuver through a turn. The
upon obstacles including, but not limited to, templates can be used as overlays to evaluate
curbs, islands, sign structures, traffic the adequacy of the geometric layout of a curve
delineators/channelizers, traffic signals, lighting or intersection when reproduced on clear film
poles, guardrails, trees, cut slopes, and rock and scaled to match the highway drawings.
outcrops. These templates assume a vehicle speed of less
than 10 miles per hour.
(8) Appurtenances. Swept width lines do not
include side mirrors or other appurtenances • Computer software such as AutoTURN or
allowed by the California Vehicle Code, thus, AutoTrak can draw the swept width and/or
tracking width along any design curve within a
CADD drawing program such as MicroStation
December 30, 2015
or AutoCAD. Dimensions taken from the (c) STAA Vehicle – 53-Foot Trailer. Another
vehicle diagrams in Figures 404.5A through G category of vehicle allowed only on STAA
may be inputted into the computer program by routes has a maximum 53-foot trailer, a
creating a custom vehicle if the vehicle is not maximum 40-foot KPRA for two or more
already included in the software library. The axles, a maximum 38-foot KPRA for a
software can also create a vehicle turn template single axle, and unlimited overall length.
that conforms to any degree curve desired. This vehicle is not to be used as the design
vehicle as it is not the worst case for
404.4 Design Vehicles and Related offtracking due to its shorter KPRA. The
Definitions STAA Design Vehicle should be used
(1) The Surface Transportation Assistance Act of instead.
1982 (STAA). (2) California Legal.
(a) STAA Routes. STAA allows certain (a) California Legal Routes. Virtually all
longer trucks called STAA trucks to State routes off the STAA Network are
operate on the National Network. After California Legal routes. There are two
STAA was enacted, the Department types of California Legal routes, the
evaluated State routes for STAA truck regular California Legal routes and the
access and created Terminal Access and KPRA Advisory Routes. Advisory routes
Service Access routes which, together with have signs posted that state the maximum
the National Network, are called the STAA KPRA length that the route can
Network. Terminal Access routes allow accommodate without the vehicle
STAA access to terminals and facilities. offtracking outside the lane. KPRA
Service Access routes allow STAA trucks advisories range from 30 feet to 38 feet, in
one-mile access off the National Network, 2-foot increments. California Legal
but only at identified exits and only for vehicles are allowed to use both types of
designated services. Service Access routes California Legal routes. California Legal
are primarily local roads. A “Truck Route vehicles can also use the STAA Network.
Map,” indicating the National Network However, STAA trucks are not allowed on
routes and the Terminal Access routes is any California Legal routes. The Truck
posted on the Department’s Office of Route Map indicating the California Legal
Commercial Vehicle Operations website routes is posted on the Department’s
and is also available in printed form. Office of Commercial Vehicle Operations
(b) STAA Design Vehicle. The STAA design website.
vehicle is a truck tractor-semitrailer (b) California Legal Design Vehicle. The
combination with a 48-foot semitrailer, a California Legal vehicle is a truck tractor-
43-foot kingpin-to-rear-axle (KPRA) semitrailer with the following dimensions:
distance, an 8.5-foot body and axle width, the maximum overall length is 65 feet; the
and a 23-foot truck tractor wheelbase. maximum KPRA distance is 40 feet for
Note, a truck tractor is a non-load-carrying semitrailers with two or more axles, and
vehicle. There is also a STAA double 38 feet for semitrailers with a single axle;
(truck tractor-semitrailer-trailer); however, the maximum width is 8.5 feet. There are
the double is not used as the design vehicle also two categories of California Legal
due to its shorter turning radius. The doubles (truck tractor-semitrailer-trailer);
STAA Design Vehicle is shown in Figures however, the doubles are not used as the
404.5A and B. design vehicle due to their shorter turning
The STAA Design Vehicle in Figures radii. The California Legal Design Vehicle
404.5A or B should be used on the is shown in Figures 404.5C and D.
National Network, Terminal Access, The California Legal Design Vehicle in
California Legal, and Advisory routes. Figures 404.5C and D should only be used
December 16, 2016
when the STAA design vehicle is not used on a State highway. It may be used
feasible and with concurrence from the where the State highway intersects local
District Truck Manager. streets without commercial or industrial
traffic.
(3) 40-Foot Bus.
The 45-Foot Bus and Motorhome Design
(a) 40-Foot Bus Routes. All single-unit
Vehicle shown in Figure 404.5F should be
vehicles, including buses and motor trucks
used in the design of all interchanges and
up to 40 feet in length, are allowed on
intersections on all green routes indicated
virtually every route in California.
on the Bus and Motorhome Map for both
(b) 40-Foot Bus Design Vehicle. The 40-Foot new construction and rehabilitation
Bus Design Vehicle shown in Figure projects. Check also the longer standard
404.5E is an AASHTO standard. Its design vehicles on these routes as required
25-foot wheelbase and 40-foot length are – the STAA Design Vehicle and the
typical of city transit buses and some California Legal Design Vehicle in Indexes
intercity buses. At intersections where 404.4(1) and (2).
truck volumes are light or where the
(5) 60-Foot Articulated Bus.
predominate truck traffic consists of
mostly 3-axle units, the 40-foot bus may be (a) 60-Foot Articulated Bus Routes. The
used. Its wheel path sweeps a greater articulated bus is allowed a length of up to
width than 3-axle delivery trucks, as well 60 feet per CVC 35400(b)(3)(A). This bus
as smaller buses such as school buses. is used primarily by local transit agencies
for public transportation. There is no
(4) 45-Foot Bus & Motorhome.
master listing of such routes. Local transit
(a) 45-Foot Bus & Motorhome Routes. The agencies should be contacted to determine
“45-foot bus and motorhome” refers to bus possible routes within the proposed
and motorhomes over 40 feet in length, up project.
to and including 45 feet in length. These
(b) 60-Foot Articulated Bus Design Vehicle.
longer buses and motorhomes are allowed
The 60-Foot Articulated Bus Design
in California, but only on certain routes.
Vehicle shown in Figure 404.5G is an
The 45-foot tour bus became legal on the AASHTO standard. The routes served by
National Network in 1991 and later these buses should be designed to
allowed on some State routes in 1995. The accommodate the 60-Foot Articulated Bus
45-foot motorhome became legal in Design Vehicle.
California in 2001, but only on those
routes where the 45-foot bus was already 404.5 Turning Templates & Vehicle
allowed. A Bus and Motorhome Map Diagrams
indicating where these longer buses and Figures 404.5A through G are computer-generated
motorhomes are allowed and where they turning templates at an approximate scale of 1"=50'
are not allowed is posted on the and their associated vehicle diagrams for the design
Department’s Office of Commercial vehicles described in Index 404.3. The radius of the
Vehicle Operations website. template is measured to the outside front wheel path
(b) 45-Foot Bus and Motorhome Design at the beginning of the curve. Figures 404.5A
Vehicle. The 45-Foot Bus & Motorhome through G contain the terms defined as follows:
Design Vehicle shown in Figure 404.5F is (1) Tractor Width - Width of tractor body.
used by Caltrans for the longest allowable
bus and motorhome. Its wheelbase is (2) Trailer Width - Width of semitrailer body.
28.5 feet. It is also similar to the (3) Tractor Track - Tractor axle width, measured
AASHTO standard 45-foot bus. Typically from outside face of tires.
this should be the smallest design vehicle
December 16, 2016
(4) Trailer Track – Semitrailer axle width, sight distance to the lane nearest to and
measured from outside face of tires. farthest from the waiting vehicle, adequate
time should be obtained to make the
(5) Lock To Lock Time - The time in seconds that
necessary movement. On multilane
an average driver would take under normal
highways a 7-1/2 second criterion for the
driving conditions to turn the steering wheel of
outside lane, in both directions of travel,
a vehicle from the lock position on one side to
normally will provide increased sight
the lock position on the other side. The default
distance to the inside lanes. Consideration
in AutoTurn software is 6 seconds.
should be given to increasing these values
(6) Steering Lock Angle - The maximum angle that on downgrades steeper than 3 percent and
the steering wheels can be turned. It is further longer than 1 mile (see Index 201.3),
defined as the average of the maximum angles where there are high truck volumes on the
made by the left and right steering wheels with crossroad, or where the skew of the
the longitudinal axis of the vehicle. intersection substantially increases the
(7) Articulating Angle - The maximum angle distance traveled by the crossing vehicle.
between the tractor and semitrailer. In determining corner sight distance, a set
back distance for the vehicle waiting at the
Topic 405 - Intersection Design crossroad must be assumed. Set back for
Standards the driver of the vehicle on the crossroad
shall be a minimum of 10 feet plus the
405.1 Sight Distance shoulder width of the major road but
not less than 15 feet. Line of sight for
(1) Stopping Sight Distance. See Index 201.1 for
corner sight distance is to be determined
minimum stopping sight distance requirements.
from a 3 and 1/2-foot height at the location
(2) Corner Sight Distance. of the driver of the vehicle on the minor
(a) General--At unsignalized intersections a road to a 4 and 1/4-foot object height in the
center of the approaching lane of the major
substantially clear line of sight should be
maintained between the driver of a vehicle, road as illustrated in Figure 504.3I. If the
bicyclist or pedestrian waiting at the major road has a median barrier, a 2-foot
crossroad and the driver of an approaching object height should be used to determine
vehicle. Line of sight for all users should the median barrier set back.
be included in right of way, in order to In some cases the cost to obtain
preserve sight lines. 7-1/2 seconds of corner sight distances
Adequate time must be provided for the may be excessive. High costs may be
waiting user to either cross all lanes of attributable to right of way acquisition,
through traffic, cross the near lanes and building removal, extensive excavation, or
turn left, or turn right, without requiring immitigable environmental impacts. In
through traffic to radically alter their such cases a lesser value of corner sight
speed. distance, as described under the following
headings, may be used.
The values given in Table 405.1A provide
7-1/2 seconds for the driver on the (b) Public Road Intersections (Refer to
crossroad to complete the necessary Topic 205)--At unsignalized public road
maneuver while the approaching vehicle intersections (see Index 405.7) corner sight
travels at the assumed design speed of the distance values given in Table 405.1A
main highway. The 7-1/2 second criterion should be provided.
is normally applied to all lanes of through
traffic in order to cover all possible
maneuvers by the vehicle at the crossroad.
However, by providing the standard corner
May 7, 2012
Figure 404.5A
STAA Design Vehicle
56-Foot Radius
May 7, 2012
Figure 404.5B
STAA Design Vehicle
67-Foot Radius
May 7, 2012
Figure 404.5C
California Legal Design Vehicle
50-Foot Radius
May 7, 2012
Figure 404.5D
California Legal Design Vehicle
60-Foot Radius
May 7, 2012
Figure 404.5E
40-Foot Bus Design Vehicle
May 7, 2012
Figure 404.5F
45-Foot Bus & Motorhome Design Vehicle
May 7, 2012
Figure 404.5G
60-Foot Articulated Bus Design Vehicle
December 30, 2015
At signalized intersections the values for given in Table 201.7 should be used. In
corner sight distances given in computing and measuring decision sight
Table 405.1A should also be applied distance, the 3.5-foot eye height and the
whenever possible. Even though traffic 0.5-foot object height should be used, the
flows are designed to move at separate object being located on the side of the
times, unanticipated conflicts can occur intersection nearest the approaching driver.
due to violation of signal, right turns on
The application of the various sight distance
red, malfunction of the signal, or use of
requirements for the different types of
flashing red/yellow mode.
intersections is summarized in Table 405.1B.
Table 405.1A Table 405.1B
Corner Sight Distance Application of Sight Distance
(7-1/2 Second Criteria) Requirements
Design Speed Corner Sight
Intersection Sight Distance
(mph) Distance (ft)
Types Stopping Corner Decision
25 275 (1)
30 330 Private Roads X X
35 385
40 440 Public Streets and X X
45 495 Roads
50 550 Signalized X (2)
55 605
Intersections
60 660
65 715 State Route Inter- X X X
70 770 sections & Route
Direction
Changes, with or
Where restrictive conditions exist,
without Signals
similar to those listed in
Index 405.1(2)(a), the minimum value NOTES:
for corner sight distance at both
(1) Per Index 405.1(2)(c), the minimum corner sight
signalized and unsignalized intersections distance shall be equal to the stopping sight
shall be equal to the stopping sight distance as given in Table 201.1. See Index
distance as given in Table 201.1, 405.1(2)(a) for setback requirements.
measured as previously described. (2) Apply corner sight distance requirements at
(c) Private Road Intersections (Refer to signalized intersections whenever possible due to
unanticipated violations of the signals or
Index 205.2) and Rural Driveways (Refer malfunctions of the signals. See Index
to Index 205.4)--The minimum corner 405.1(2)(b).
sight distance shall be equal to the
stopping sight distance as given in
Table 201.1, measured as previously (4) Acceleration Lanes for Turning Moves onto
described. State Highways. At rural intersections, with
(d) Urban Driveways (Refer to Index 205.3)-- “STOP” control on the local cross road,
Corner sight distance requirements as acceleration lanes for left and right turns onto
described above are not applied to urban the State facility should be considered. At a
driveways. minimum, the following features should be
evaluated for both the major highway and the
(3) Decision Sight Distance. At intersections cross road:
where the State route turns or crosses another
State route, the decision sight distance values • divided versus undivided
December 30, 2015
• number of lanes (b) Approach Taper -- On conventional

highways without a median, an approach
• design speed taper provides space for a left-turn lane by
• gradient moving traffic laterally to the right. The
approach taper is unnecessary where a
• lane, shoulder and median width median is available for the full width of the
• traffic volume and composition of highway left-turn lane. Length of the approach
users, including trucks and transit vehicles taper is given by the formula on
Figures 405.2A, B and C.
• turning volumes
Figure 405.2A shows a standard left-turn
• horizontal curve radii channelization design in which all
• sight distance widening is to the right of approaching
traffic and the deceleration lane (see
• proximity of adjacent intersections below) begins at the end of the approach
• types of adjacent intersections taper. This design should be used in all
situations where space is available, usually
For additional information and guidance, refer in rural and semi-rural areas or in urban
to AASHTO, A Policy on Geometric Design of areas with high traffic speeds and/or
Highways and Streets, the Headquarters Traffic volumes.
Liaison, the District Design Liaison, and the
Project Delivery Coordinator. Figures 405.2B and 405.2C show alternate
designs foreshortened with the deceleration
405.2 Left-turn Channelization lane beginning at the 2/3 point of the
approach taper so that part of the
(1) General. The purpose of a left-turn lane is to
deceleration takes place in the through
expedite the movement of through traffic by,
traffic lane. Figure 405.2C is shortened
controlling the movement of turning traffic,
further by widening half (or other
increasing the capacity of the intersection, and
appropriate fraction) on each side. These
improving safety characteristics.
designs may be used in urban areas where
The District Traffic Branch normally constraints exist, speeds are moderate and
establishes the need for left-turn lanes. traffic volumes are relatively low.
(2) Design Elements. (c) Bay Taper -- A reversing curve along the
(a) Lane Width – The lane width for both left edge of the traveled way directs traffic
single and double left-turn lanes on into the left-turn lane. The length of this
State highways shall be 12 feet. bay taper should be short to clearly delin-
eate the left-turn move and to discourage
For conventional State highways with through traffic from drifting into the left-
posted speeds less than or equal to turn lane. Table 405.2A gives offset data
40 miles per hour and AADTT (truck for design of bay tapers. In urban areas,
volume) less than 250 per lane that are lengths of 60 feet and 90 feet are normally
in urban, city or town centers (rural used. Where space is restricted and speeds
main streets), the minimum lane width are low, a 60-foot bay taper is appropriate.
shall be 11 feet. On rural high-speed highways, a 120-foot
When considering lane width reductions length is considered appropriate.
adjacent to curbed medians, refer to Index (d) Deceleration Lane Length -- Design speed
303.5 for guidance on effective roadway of the roadway approaching the
width, which may vary depending on intersection should be the basis for
drivers’ lateral positioning and shy determining deceleration lane length. It is
distance from raised curbs. desirable that deceleration take place
entirely off the through traffic lanes.
December 30, 2015
Deceleration lane lengths are given in

Table 405.2B; the bay taper length is
Table 405.2A
included. Where partial deceleration is Bay Taper for Median
permitted on the through lanes, as in Speed-change Lanes
Figures 405.2B and 405.2C, design speeds
in Table 405.2B may be reduced
10 miles per hour to 20 miles per hour for
a lower entry speed. In urban areas where
cross streets are closely spaced and
deceleration lengths cannot be achieved,
the District Traffic branch should be
consulted for guidance.
(e) Storage Length -- At unsignalized inter-
sections, storage length may be based on
the number of turning vehicles likely to
arrive in an average 2-minute period
during the peak hour. At a minimum,
space for 2 vehicles should be provided at
25 feet per vehicle. If the peak hour truck
traffic is 10 percent or more, space for at
least one passenger car and one truck
should be provided. Bus usage may
require a longer storage length and should
be evaluated if their use is anticipated.
At signalized intersections, the storage
length may be based on one and one-half
to two times the average number of
vehicles that would store per signal cycle NOTES:
depending on cycle length, signal phasing, (1) The table gives offsets from a base line parallel to
and arrival and departure rates. At a the edge of traveled way at intervals measured from
minimum, storage length should be point "A". Add "E" for measurements from edge of
calculated in the same manner as traveled way.
unsignalized intersection. The District (2) Where edge of traveled way is a curve, neither base
Traffic Branch should be consulted for this line nor taper between B & C will be a tangent. Use
information. proportional offsets from B to C.
(3) The offset "E" is usually 2 ft along edge of traveled
When determining storage length, the end way for curbed medians; Use "E" = 0 ft. for striped
of the left-turn lane is typically placed at medians.
least 3 feet, but not more than 30 feet, from
the nearest edge of shoulder of the Table 405.2B
intersecting roadway. Although often set Deceleration Lane Length
by the placement of a crosswalk line or
limit line, the end of the storage lane Design Speed Length to
should always be located so that the (mph) Stop (ft)
appropriate turning template can be 30 235
accommodated. 40 315
50 435
60 530
December 30, 2015
(3) Double Left-turn Lanes. At signalized • High volumes of right-turning traffic

intersections on multilane conventional causing backup and delay on the through
highways and on multilane ramp terminals, lanes.
double left-turn lanes should be considered if
the left-turn demand is 300 vehicles per hour or • Conflicts between crossing pedestrians and
more. The lane widths and other design right-turning vehicles and bicycles.
elements of left-turn lanes given under • Frequent rear-end and sideswipe collisions
Index 405.2(2) applies to double as well as involving right-turning vehicles.
single left-turn lanes.
Where right-turn channelization is proposed,
The design of double left-turn lanes can be lower speed right-turn lanes should be
accomplished by adding one or two lanes in the provided to reduce the likelihood of conflicts
median. See "Guidelines for Reconstruction of between vehicles, pedestrians, and bicyclists.
Intersections", published by Headquarters,
Division of Traffic Operations, for the various (2) Design Elements.
treatments of double left-turn lanes. (a) Lane and Shoulder Width--Index 301.1
(4) Two-way Left-turn Lane (TWLTL). The shall be used for right-turn lane width
TWLTL consists of a striped lane in the requirements. Shoulder width shall be a
median of an arterial and is devised to address minimum of 4 feet. Although not
the special capacity and safety problems desirable, lane and shoulder widths less
associated with high-density strip develop- than those given above can be considered
ment. It can be used on 2-lane highways as for right-turn lanes under the following
well as multilane highways. Normally, the conditions pursuant to Index 82.2:
District Traffic Operations Branch should • In urban, city or town centers (rural
determine the need for a TWLTL. main streets) with posted speeds less
The minimum width for a TWLTL shall be than 40 miles per hour in severely
12 feet (see Index 301.1). The preferred width constrained situations, if truck or bus
is 14 feet. Wider TWLTL's are occasionally use is low, consideration may be given
provided to conform with local agency to reducing the right-turn lane width to
standards. However, TWLTL's wider than 10 feet.
14 feet are not recommended, and in no case • Shoulder widths may also be
should the width of a TWLTL exceed 16 feet. considered for reduction under
Additional width may encourage drivers in constricted situations. Whenever
opposite directions to use the TWLTL possible, at least a 2-foot shoulder
simultaneously. should be provided where the right-
405.3 Right-turn Channelization turn lane is adjacent to a curb. Entire
omission of the shoulder should only
(1) General. For right-turning traffic, delays are be considered in constrained situations
less critical and conflicts less severe than for and where an 11-foot lane can be
left-turning traffic. Nevertheless, right-turn constructed.
lanes can be justified on the basis of capacity,
analysis, and crash experience. Gutter pans can be included within a
shoulder, but cannot be included as
In rural areas a history of high speed rear-end part of the travel lane width.
collisions may warrant the addition of a right- Additional right of way for a future
turn lane. right-turn lane should be considered
In urban areas other factors may contribute to when an intersection is being designed.
the need such as:
May 7, 2012
Figure 405.2A
Standard Left-turn Channelization
July 1, 2015
Figure 405.2B
Minimum Median Left-turn Channelization
(Widening on one Side of Highway)
May 7, 2012
Figure 405.2C
Minimum Median Left-turn Channelization
(Widening on Both Sides in Urban Areas with Short Blocks)
December 30, 2015
(b) Curve Radius--Where pedestrians are right-turns create sight distance issues for
allowed to cross a free right-turning pedestrians and bicyclists crossing the off-
roadway, the curve radius should be such ramp, or pedestrians crossing the local road.
that the operating speed of vehicular traffic Also, rear-end collisions can occur as right-
is no more than 20 miles per hour at the turning drivers slow down or stop waiting for a
pedestrian crossing. See NCHRP Report gap in local street traffic. Free right-turns
672, “Roundabouts: An Informational usually end up with ”YIELD”, ”STOP”, or
Guide” for guidance on the determination signal controls thus defeating their purpose of
of design speed (fastest path) for turning increasing intersection capacity.
vehicles. See Index 504.3(3) for additional
information.
405.4 Traffic Islands
(c) Tapers--Approach tapers are usually un- A traffic island is an area between traffic lanes for
necessary since main line traffic need not channelization of bicycle and vehicle movements or
be shifted laterally to provide space for the for pedestrian refuge. An island may be defined by
right-turn lane. If, in some rare instances, a paint, raised pavement markers, curbs, pavement
lateral shift were needed, the approach edge, or other devices. The California MUTCD
taper would use the same formula as for a should be referenced when considering the
left-turn lane. placement of traffic islands at signalized and
unsignalized locations. For splitter island guidance
Bay tapers are treated as a mirror image of at roundabouts, see Index 405.10(13).
the left-turn bay taper.
Traffic islands usually serve more than one function.
(d) Deceleration Lane Length--The conditions These functions may be:
and principles of left-turn lane deceleration
apply to right-turn deceleration. Where full (a) Channelization to confine specific traffic
deceleration is desired off the high-speed movements into definite channels;
through lanes, the lengths in Table 405.2B (b) Divisional to separate traffic moving in the
should be used. Where partial deceleration same or opposite direction; and
is permitted on the through lanes because
(c) Refuge, to aid users crossing the roadway.
of limited right of way or other constraints,
average running speeds in Table 405.2B Generally, islands should present the least potential
may be reduced 10 miles per hour to conflict to approaching or crossing bicycles and
20 miles per hour for a lower entry speed. vehicles, and yet perform their intended function.
For example, if the main line speed is
(1) Design of Traffic Islands. Island sizes and
50 miles per hour and a 10 miles per hour
shapes vary from one intersection to another.
deceleration is permitted on the through
They should be large enough to command
lanes, the deceleration length may be that
attention. Channelizing islands should not be
required for 40 miles per hour.
less than 50 square feet in area, preferably
(e) Storage Length--Right-turn storage length 75 square feet. Curbed, elongated divisional
is determined in the same manner as left- median islands should not be less than 4 feet
turn storage length. See Index 405.2(2)(e). wide and 20 feet long. All traffic islands placed
in the path of a pedestrian crossing must
(3) Right-turn Lanes at Off-ramp Intersections.
comply with DIB 82. See the Standard Plans
Diamond off-ramps with a free right-turn at the
for typical island passageway details.
local street and separate right-turn off-ramps
around the outside of a loop will likely cause The approach end of each island should be
conflict as traffic volumes increase. Serious offset 3 feet to the left and 5 feet to the right of
conflicts occur when the right-turning vehicle approaching traffic, using standard 1:15
must weave across multiple lanes on the local parabolic flares, and clearly delineated so that
street in order to turn left at a major cross street it does not surprise the motorist or bicyclist.
close to the ramp terminal. Furthermore, free These offsets are in addition to the shoulder
December 30, 2015
widths shown in Table 302.1. Table 405.4 so slower pedestrians can wait for a gap in
gives standard parabolic flares to be used in traffic while reducing total crossing distance.
island design. On curved alignment, parabolic
At unsignalized intersections in rural city/town
flares may be omitted for small triangular
centers (rural main streets), suburban, or urban
traffic islands whose sides are less than 25 feet
areas, a pedestrian refuge should be provided
long.
between opposing traffic where pedestrians are
The approach nose of a divisional island allowed to cross 2 or more through traffic lanes
should be highly visible day and night with in one direction of travel, at marked or
appropriate use of signs (reflectorized or unmarked crosswalks. Pedestrian islands at
illuminated) and object markers. The approach signalized crosswalks should be considered,
nose should be offset 3 feet from the through taking into account crossing distance and
traffic to minimize accidental impacts. pedestrian activity. Note that signalized
pedestrian crossings must be timed to allow for
(2) Delineation of Traffic Islands. Generally,
pedestrians to cross. See the California
islands should present the least potential
MUTCD, Chapter 4E, for further guidance.
conflict to approaching traffic and yet perform
their intended function. See Index 303.2 for Traffic islands used as pedestrian refuge are to
appropriate curb type. Islands may be be large enough to provide a minimum of
designated as follows: 6 feet in the direction of pedestrian travel,
without exception.
(a) Raised paved areas outlined by curbs.
All traffic islands placed in the path of a
(b) Flush paved areas outlined by pavement
pedestrian crossing must be accessible, refer to
markings.
DIB 82 and the Standard Plans for further
(c) Unpaved areas (small unpaved areas guidance. An example of a traffic island that
should be avoided). serves as a pedestrian refuge is shown on
On facilities with posted speeds over 40 miles Figure 405.4.
per hour, the use of any type of curb is 405.5 Median Openings
discouraged. Where curbs are to be used, they
should be located at or outside of the shoulder (1) General. Median openings, sometimes called
edge, as discussed in Index 303.5. crossovers, provide for crossings of the median
at designated locations. Except for emergency
In rural areas, painted channelization sup- passageways in a median barrier, median
plemented with raised pavement markers may openings are not allowed on urban freeways.
be more appropriate than a raised curbed
channelization. This design is as forgiving as Median openings on expressways or divided
possible and decreases the consequence of a conventional highways should not be curbed
driver's or bicyclist’s failure to detect or except when the median between openings is
recognize the curbed island. Consideration for curbed, or it is necessary for delineation of
snow removal operations should be determined traffic signal standards and other necessary
where appropriate. hardware, or for protection of pedestrians. In
these special cases B4 curbs should be used.
In urban areas, posted speeds less than or equal An example of a median opening design is
to 40 miles per hour allow more frequent use shown on Figure 405.5.
of curbed islands. Local agency requirements
and matching existing conditions are factors to (2) Spacing and Location. By a combination of
consider. interchange ramps and emergency
passageways, provisions for access to the
(3) Pedestrian Refuge opposite side of a freeway may be provided for
Pedestrian refuge islands allow pedestrians to law enforcement, emergency, and maintenance
cross fewer lanes at a time while judging vehicles to avoid extreme out-of-direction
conflicts separately. They also provide a refuge travel. Access should not be more frequent
May 7, 2012
Table 405.4
Parabolic Curb Flares Commonly Used
OFFSET IN FEET FOR GIVEN "X" DISTANCE

Distance
L X 10 15 20 25 30 40 45 50 60 70 75 80 90 100 110 120
Length
of Flare
1:5 FLARES
25 00.80 1.80 3.20 5.00
50 00.40 1.60 3.60 6.40 10.00
1:10 FLARES
50 00.20 0.80 1.80 3.20 5.00
100 0.10 0.40 0.90 1.60 2.50 3.60 4.90 6.40 8.10 10.00
1:15 FLARES
45 00.15 0.59 1.33 2.37 3.00
75 00.09 0.36 0.80 1.42 2.22 3.20 4.36 5.00
90 0.07 0.30 0.67 1.19 1.85 2.67 3.63 4.74 6.00
120 00.06 0.22 0.50 0.89 1.39 2.00 2.72 3.56 4.50 5.56 6.72 8.00
December 30, 2015
important factor in designing median openings

Figure 405.4 is the path of the design vehicle making a
minimum left turn at 5 miles per hour to
Pedestrian Refuge Island 10 miles per hour. The length of median
opening varies with width of median and
angle of intersecting road.
Usually a median opening of 60 feet is
adequate for 90 degree intersections with
median widths of 22 feet or greater. When the
median width is less than 22 feet, a median
opening of 70 feet is needed. When the
intersection angle is other than 90 degrees, the
length of median opening should be
established by using truck turn templates (see
Index 404.3).
(4) Cross Slope. The cross slope in the median
opening should be limited to 5 percent.
Crossovers on curves with super elevation
exceeding 5 percent should be avoided. This
cross slope may be exceeded when an existing
2-lane roadbed is converted to a 4-lane
divided highway. The elevation of the new
construction should be based on the 5 percent
cross slope requirement when the existing
roadbed is raised to its ultimate elevation.
(5) References. For information related to the
design of intersections and median openings,
"A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways
and Streets," AASHTO, should be consulted.
405.6 Access Control
than at three-mile intervals. See Chapter 7 of
the Traffic Manual for additional information The basic guidance which govern the extent to
on the design of emergency passageways. which access rights are to be acquired at
interchanges (see Topic 104, Index 205.1 and 504.8
Emergency passageways should be located
and the PDPM) also apply to intersections at grade
only where decision sight distance is available
on expressways. Cases of access control which
(see Table 201.7).
frequently occur at intersections are shown in
Median openings at close intervals on other Figure 405.7. This illustration does not presume to
types of highways create conflicts with high cover all situations. Where required by traffic
speed through traffic. Median openings should conditions, access should be extended in order to
be spaced at intervals no closer than 1600 feet. ensure proper operation of the expressway lanes.
If a median opening falls within 300 feet of an Reasonable variations which observe the basic
access opening, it should be placed opposite principles referred to above are acceptable.
the access opening.
However, negative impacts on the mobility needs
(3) Length of Median Opening. For any three or of pedestrians, bicyclists, equestrians, and transit
four-leg intersection on a divided highway, users need to be assessed. Pedestrians and
the length of the median opening should be at bicyclists are sensitive to additional out of direction
least as great as the width of the crossroads travel.
pavement, median width, and shoulders. An
May 7, 2012
Figure 405.5
Typical Design for Median Openings

December 30, 2015
405.7 Public Road Intersections be accommodated and the mobility needs of

pedestrians and bicyclists, taking into consideration
The basic design to be used at right-angle public the amount of available right of way, the types of
road intersections on the State Highway System is adjoining land uses, the place types, the roadway
shown in Figure 405.7. The essential elements are width, and the number of lanes on the intersecting
sight distance (see Index 405.1) and the treatment street.
of the right-turn on and off the main highway.
Encroachment into opposing traffic lanes by the At urban intersections, the California truck or the
turning vehicle should be avoided or minimized. Bus Design Vehicle template may be used to
determine the corner radius. Where STAA truck
(1) Right-turn Onto the Main Highway. The access is allowed, the STAA Design Vehicle
combination of a circular curve joined by a template should be used giving consideration to
2:1 taper on the crossroads and a 75-foot taper factors mentioned above. See Index 404.3.
on the main highway is designed to fit the
wheel paths of the appropriate turning Smaller radii of 15 feet to 25 feet are appropriate at
template chosen by the designer. minor cross streets where few trucks or buses are
turning. Local agency standards may be appropriate
It is desirable to keep the right-turn as tight as in urban and suburban areas.
practical, so the “STOP” or “YIELD” sign on
the minor leg can be placed close to the inter- Encroachment into opposing traffic lanes must be
section. avoided.
(2) Right-turn Off the Main Highway. The 405.9 Widening of 2-lane Roads at
combination of a circular curve joined by a Signalized Intersections
150-foot taper on the main highway and a
4:1 taper on the crossroads is designed to fit Two-lane State highways may be widened at
the wheel paths of the appropriate turning intersections to 4-lanes whenever signals are
template and to move the rear of the vehicle installed. Sometimes it may be necessary to widen
off the main highway. Deceleration and the intersecting road. The minimum design is
storage lanes may be provided when necessary shown in Figure 405.9. More elaborate treatment
(see Index 405.3). may be warranted by the volume and pattern of
traffic movements. Unusual turning movement
(3) Alternate Designs. Offsets are given in Figure patterns may possibly call for a different shape of
405.7 for right angle intersections. For skew widening.
angles, roadway curvature, and possibly other
reasons, variations to the right-angle design The impact on pedestrian and bicycle traffic
are permitted, but the basic rule is still to mobility of larger intersections should be assessed
approximate the wheel paths of the design before a decision is made to widen an intersection.
vehicle. 405.10 Roundabouts
A three-center curve is an alternate treatment Roundabout intersections on the State highway
that may be used at the discretion of the system must be developed and evaluated in
designer. accordance with National Cooperative Highway
Intersections are major consideration in Research Program (NCHRP) Report 672 entitled
bicycle path design as well. See Indexes 403.6 “Roundabouts: An Informational Guide, 2nd ed.”
and 1003.1(4) for general bicycle path (NCHRP Guide 2) dated October 2010 and Traffic
intersection design guidance. Also see Section Operations Policy Directive (TOPD) Number
5.3 of the AASHTO Guide for the Planning, 13-02. Also see Index 401.5 for general
Design, and Operation of Bicycle Facilities. information and guidance. See Figure 405.10
Roundabout Geometric Elements for nomenclature
405.8 City Street Returns and Corner Radii associated with roundabouts. Signs, striping and
The pavement width and corner radius at city street markings at roundabouts are to comply with the
intersections is determined by the type of vehicle to California MUTCD.
May 7, 2012
Figure 405.7
Public Road Intersections
March 7, 2014
Figure 405.9
Widening of Two-lane Roads at Signalized Intersections
December 16, 2016
A roundabout is a form of circular intersection in Index 103.2. If a second lane is not needed
which traffic travels counterclockwise around a until 10 or more years, it may be better to
central island and entering traffic must yield to the phase the improvements. Construct the first
circulating traffic. Roundabouts feature, among phase of the roundabout so at the 20-year
other things, a central island, a circulatory roadway, design period, an additional lane can be easily
and splitter islands on each approach. Roundabouts added. In order to comply with the 10-year
rely upon two basic and important operating design period guidance provided in
principles: Index 103.2, the initial project must provide
the right of way needed for utility relocations,
(a) Speed reduction at the entry and through the
a shared-use path designed for a Class I
intersection will be achieved through geometric
Bikeway, and all other features other than
design and,
pavement, lighting, and striping in their
(b) The yield-at-entry rule, which requires traffic ultimate locations.
entering the intersection to yield to traffic that
In some locations, it may not be practical to
is traveling in the circulatory roadway.
build a single lane roundabout that will
Benefits of roundabouts are: operate for 10 years. Geometric constraints
and other conflicts may preclude widening to
• Fewer conflict points typically result in fewer
the ultimate configuration. In such cases,
collisions with less severity. Over half of
other intersection configurations or control
vehicle to vehicle points of conflict associated
strategies addressed in Index 401.5 may need
with intersections are eliminated with the use
to be considered.
of a roundabout. Additionally, a roundabout
separates the points of conflict which eases the When staging improvements, see NCHRP
ability of the users to identify a conflict and Guide 2, Section 6.12.
helps prevent conflicts from becoming
(2) Design Vehicles - See Topic 404.
collisions.
The turning path for the design vehicle, see
• Roundabouts are designed to reduce the Index 404.5, dictates many of the roundabout
vehicular speeds at intersections. Lower speeds dimensions. The design vehicle tracking and
lessens the vehicular collision severity. swept width are to be used when designing all
Likewise, studies indicate that pedestrian and the entries and exits, where design vehicles
bicyclist collisions with motorized vehicles at are unrestricted (see Index 404.2), and the
lower speeds significantly reduce their severity. circulatory roadway. The percentage of trucks
• Roundabouts allow continuous free flow of and their lane utilization is an important
vehicles and bicycles when no conflicts exist. consideration on multilane roundabouts when
This results in less noise and air pollution and determining if the design will allow trucks to
reduces overall delays at roundabout stay within their own lane or encroach into the
intersections. adjacent lane. If permit vehicles larger than
the design vehicle occasionally use the
Except as indicated in this Index, the standards proposed roundabout, they can be
elsewhere in this manual do not apply to accommodated by having removable signs or
roundabouts. For the application of design other removable features in the central island
standards, the approach ends of the splitter islands or around the circular path to ensure their
define the boundary of a roundabout intersection, swept path can negotiate the roundabout.
see Figure 405.10. The design standards elsewhere Roundabouts should not be overdesigned for
in this manual apply to the approach legs beyond the occasional permit vehicle.
the approach ends of the splitter islands.
To accurately simulate the design vehicle
(1) Design Period. swept width traveling through a roundabout,
First consider the design of a single lane the minimum speed of the design vehicle used
roundabout per the design period guidance in in computer simulation software (e.g., Auto
December 16, 2016
TURN) should be 10 miles per hour through single-unit delivery vehicles are also to be
the roundabout. able to navigate the roundabout without using
the truck apron, if one is present.
(3) Inscribed Circle Diameter.
The inscribed diameter ranges given above are
At single lane roundabouts, the size of the
typical values, design may be larger or
inscribed circle is largely dependent upon the
smaller. Site location constraints and
turning requirements of the design vehicle.
performance checks will determine if the
The inscribed circle diameter (ICD) must be
diameter is appropriate for the location.
large enough to accommodate: (a) the STAA
design vehicle for all roundabouts on the (4) Entry Speeds.
National Network and on Terminal Access
Lowering the speed of vehicles entering and
routes; and, (b) the California Legal design
traveling through the roundabout is a primary
vehicle on all non-STAA route intersections
design objective that is achieved by approach
on California Legal routes and California
alignment and entry geometry.
Legal KPRA Advisory routes, while
maintaining adequate deflection curvature to The following entry speeds should not be
ensure appropriate travel speeds for smaller exceeded:
vehicles. The design vehicle is to navigate the
• Single lane entry, 25 miles per hour.
roundabout with the front tractor wheels off
the truck apron, if one is present. Transit • Multilane entry, 30 miles per hour.
vehicles, fire engines and single-unit delivery
A bypass lane is not included in the number of
vehicles are also to be able to navigate the
entry lanes. A bypass prohibits entry into the
roundabout without using the truck apron, if
circulatory roadway.
one is present. The inscribed circle diameter
for a single lane roundabout generally ranges Entry speeds are to be determined through
between 105 feet to 150 feet to accommodate fastest path analysis. Fastest path is the
the California Legal design vehicle and smoothest, flattest path possible for a single
130 feet to 180 feet to accommodate the vehicle in the absence of other traffic and
STAA design vehicle. ignoring all lane markings. The fastest path
analysis should begin at least 165 feet from
At multilane roundabouts, the inscribed circle
the inscribed circle diameter and should not
diameter is to achieve adequate alignment of
bring the path closer than 3 feet from a stripe
the natural vehicle path while maintaining
nor 5 feet from the face of a curb. These
deflection curvature to ensure appropriate
distances are minimums and the fastest path
travel speeds. To achieve both of these design
may occur further away from the curbs and
objectives requires a slightly larger diameter
striping depending on the roundabout
than used for a single lane roundabout. The
configuration. For fastest path evaluation, see
inscribed circle diameter for a multilane
NCHRP Guide 2, Section 6.7.1.
(2-lane) roundabout generally ranges between
150 feet to 220 feet to accommodate the (5) Exit Design.
California Legal design vehicle for non-STAA
Similar to entry design, exit design flexibility
route intersections on California Legal routes
is required to achieve the optimal balance
and California Legal KPRA Advisory routes,
between competing design variables and
and 165 feet to 220 feet to accommodate the
project objectives to provide adequate
STAA design vehicle for roundabouts on the
capacity and, essentially, safety while
National Network and on Terminal Access
minimizing excessive property impacts and
routes. Similar to a single lane roundabout, the
costs. Thus, the selection of a curved versus
design vehicle is to be able to navigate a
tangential design is to be based upon the
multilane roundabout with the front tractor
balance of each of these criteria. Exit design
wheels staying off the truck apron, if one is
is influenced by the place type, pedestrian
present. Transit vehicles, fire engines and
demand, bicyclist needs, the design vehicle
December 16, 2016
and physical constraints. The exit curb radii (8) Bicyclist Use.
are usually larger than the entry curb radii in
(a) General. Bicyclists may choose to travel
order to minimize the likelihood of congestion
in the circular roadway of a roundabout by
and crashes at the exits. However, the desire
taking a lane, while others may decide to
to minimize congestion at the exits needs to be
travel using the shared-use path to bypass
balanced with the need to maintain an
the circular roadway. Therefore, the
appropriate operating speed through the
approach and circular roadways, as well
pedestrian crossing. Therefore, the exit path
as the shared-use path all need to be
radius should not be significantly greater than
designed for the mobility needs of
the circulating path radius to ensure low
bicyclists. See the California MUTCD for
speeds are maintained at the pedestrian
the signs and markings used at
crossing.
roundabouts.
(6) Number of Legs Serving the Roundabout.
(b) Bicyclist Use of the Circular Roadway.
Intersections with more than four legs are Single lane roundabouts do not require
often difficult to manage operationally. bicyclists to change lanes in the circular
Roundabouts are a proven traffic control roadway to select the appropriate lane for
device in such situations. However, it is their direction of travel, so they tend to be
necessary to ensure that the design vehicle can comfortable for bicyclists to use. Even
maneuver through all unrestricted legs of the two-lane roundabouts, which may have
roundabout. straighter paths of travel that can lead to
faster vehicular traveling speeds, appear
(7) Pedestrian Use.
to be comfortable for bicyclists that prefer
Sidewalks around the circular roadway are to to travel like vehicles. Roundabouts that
be designed as shared-use paths, see Index have more than two circular lanes can
405.10(8)(c). However, the guidance in create complexities in signing and
Design Information Bulletin (DIB) 82 striping(see the California MUTCD for
Pedestrian Accessibility Guidelines for guidance), and their operating speed may
Highway Projects must also be followed when cause some bicyclists to decide to bypass
designing these shared-use facilities around a the circular roadway and use the bicycle
roundabout. If there is a difference in the ramp that provides access to the shared-
standards, the guidance in DIB 82 is to be use path around the roundabout.
followed. In addition,
(c) Bicyclists Use of the Shared-Use Path.
(a) Pedestrian curb ramps need to be The shared-use path is to be designed
differentiated from bike ramps: using the guidance in Index 1003.1 for
Class I Bikeways and in NCHRP Guide 2
• The detectable warning surface
Section 6.8.2.2. However, the accessibility
(truncated domes) differentiates a
guidance in DIB 82 must also be followed
pedestrian curb ramp from a bicycle
when designing these shared-use facilities
ramp.
around a roundabout. If there is a
• Detectable warning surface is required difference in the standards, the
on curb ramps. They are not to be accessibility guidance in DIB 82 is to be
used on a bike ramp. followed to ensure the facility is
accessible to pedestrians with disabilities.
(b) Truck aprons and mountable curbs are not
to be placed in the pedestrian crossing Bicycle ramps are to be located to avoid
areas. confusion as curb ramps for pedestrians.
Also see Index 405.10(7) for guidance on
(c) See the California MUTCD for the signs
how to differentiate the two types of
and markings used at roundabouts.
ramps. The design details and width of the
ramp are also important to the bicyclist.
December 16, 2016
Bicyclists approaching the bicycle ramp island (i.e., landscaping and esthetic features)
need to be provided the choice of merging may be needed.
left into the lane or moving right to use
(11) Speed Consistency.
the bicycle ramp. Bicycle ramps should
be placed at a 35 to 45 degree angle to the Consistency in operating speeds between the
departure roadway and the sidewalk to various movements within the roundabout can
enable the bicyclists to use the ramp and minimize collisions between traffic streams.
discourage bicyclists from entering the The operating speeds between competing
shared-use path at a speed that is traffic streams and between consecutive
detrimental to the pedestrians. The shared- geometric elements should be minimized such
use path should be designated as Class I that the maximum speed differential between
Bikeways; however, appropriate them is no more than 15 miles per hour; it is
regulatory signs may need to be posted if preferred that the operating speed differential
the local jurisdiction has a law(s) that be less than 10 miles per hour.
prohibit bicyclists from riding on a (12) Path Alignment (Natural Path).
sidewalk.
As two traffic streams approach the
A landscape buffer or strip between the roundabout in adjacent lanes, drivers and
shared-use/Class I Bikeway and the bicyclists will be guided by lane markings up
circular roadway of the roundabout is to the entrance line. At the yield point, they
needed and should be a minimum of 2 feet will continue along their natural trajectory into
wide. the circulatory roadway. The speed and
Pedestrian crossings may also be used by orientation of the design vehicle at the
bicyclists; thus, these shared-use crossings entrance line determines what can be
need to be designed for both bicyclist and described as its natural path. The geometry of
pedestrian needs. the exits also affects the natural path that the
design vehicle travels. The natural path of two
(9) Transit Use.
vehicles are not to overlap, see NCHRP Guide
Transit vehicles and buses will not have 2, Section 6.7.2.
difficulty negotiating a roundabout when it
(13) Splitter Islands.
has been designed using the California Legal
design vehicle or the STAA design vehicle. Splitter islands (also called separator islands,
However, to minimize passenger discomfort, a divisional islands, or median islands) will be
roundabout should be designed such that the provided on all roundabouts. The purpose is
transit vehicle or bus does not use the truck to provide refuge for pedestrians, assist in
apron, if one is present. controlling speeds, guide traffic into the
roundabout, physically separate entering and
(10) Stopping Sight Distance and Visibility.
exiting traffic streams, and deter wrongway
See Index 201.1 for stopping sight distance movements.
guidance at roundabouts.
The total length of the raised island should be
A domed or mounded central island, between at least 50 feet although 100 feet is desirable.
3.5 to 6 feet high, is needed to focus attention On higher speed roadways, splitter island
on the approach and through roundabout lengths of 150 feet or more is beneficial.
alignment. A domed central island provides a Additionally, the splitter island should extend
visual screen from downstream alignment and beyond the end of the exit curve to prevent
other distractions and provides a visual cue for exiting traffic from crossing into the path of
vehicles approaching the roundabout. approaching traffic. The splitter island width
should be a minimum of 6 feet at the
In high speed environments, additional
pedestrian crossing to adequately provide
lighting of, and vertical elements in the central
refuge for pedestrians.
March 7, 2014
Figure 405.10
Roundabout Geometric Elements
NOTE:
This figure is provided to only show nomenclature and is not to be used for design details.
December 16, 2016
Posted speeds on the approach roadway (19) Maintenance.

greater than or equal to 45 miles per hour
Contact the District Maintenance Engineer
require the splitter island length, as measured
and appropriate Regional Manager for
from the inscribed circle diameter, to be
maintenance strategies and practices including
200 feet. In some instances, a longer splitter
seasonal operations, maintenance resources,
island may be desirable. Concrete curb is to be
and specialized equipment. Maintenance
provided on the right side of the approach
responsibilities may also include multiple
roadway equal to the length of the splitter
state, county, and city agencies where
island from the inscribed circle diameter.
coordination of maintenance efforts and
(14) Access Control. funding is needed.
The access control standards in Index 504.3(3) Consider maintenance of the central island.
and 504.8 apply to roundabouts at interchange Provide a maintenance vehicle pullout within
ramp intersections. The dimensions shown in the central island beyond the truck apron, so
Index 504.8 are to be measured from the maintenance vehicles will not conflict with
inscribed circle diameter. circulating trucks.
Driveways should not be placed within (20) Snow Areas.
100 feet from the inscribed circle diameter.
In climate regions where snowfall requires the
(15) Lighting. use of snow removal equipment, consider the
equipment to be used. Design ICD’s as well
Lighting is required at all roundabouts. See
as entrance and exit geometry to
NCHRP Report 672 Chapter 8, the Traffic
accommodate snow removal equipment and
Manual Chapter 9 as well as consult with the
plow limitations. Check with District
District Traffic Safety Engineer.
Maintenance for their requirements and
(16) Landscaping. limitations. Geometric elements to consider
Landscaping should be designed such that that facilitate snow removal are; mountable
drivers and bicyclists can observe the signing curb, tapering the ends of curbs down to allow
and shape of the roundabout as they approach, plows to ride over curbs, plowing
allowing adequate visibility for making accommodation in both directions, providing
decisions within the roundabout. The snow storage space within the central island,
landscaping of the central island can enhance and providing minimum entry/exit widths to
the intersection by making it a focal point, by accommodate the plow blade. Mountable
promoting lower speeds and by breaking the curb may be used if sidewalk/shared use path
headlight glare of oncoming vehicles or is not contiguous to the curb. Provide a
bicycles. It is desirable to create a domed or planter or textured pavement between the path
mounded central island, between 3.5 to 6 feet and the roadway. Snow storage areas must be
high, to increase the visibility of the designed to prevent snow melt from entering
intersection on the approach. Contact the the circulating lanes where it can freeze.
District Landscape Architecture Unit to Snow storage areas must not block pedestrian
provide technical assistance in designing the paths.
roundabout landscaping. (21) Utilities.
(17) Vertical Clearance. Utility access openings (manholes) should not
The vertical clearance guidance provided in be located within the traveled way within the
Index 309.2 applies to roundabouts. boundary of the roundabout. Roundabouts do
not have shoulders to accommodate traffic
(18) Drainage Design. while manholes are accessed. Manholes
See Chapter 800 to 890 for further guidance. should not be allowed within the circulating
roadway to avoid closing down the
intersection during access. If a manhole is
December 16, 2016
absolutely necessary within the boundary of intersection is shared two ways instead of three
the inscribed diameter, place it in the central ways as in the diamond case.
island and off of the truck apron. Provide a
maintenance vehicle pullout to allow access to Table 406
the manhole without blocking truck traffic.
Vehicle Traffic Flow Conditions at
Topic 406 - Ramp Intersection Intersections at Various Levels of
Capacity Analysis Operation
The following procedure for ramp intersection
analysis may be used to estimate the capacity of
any signalized intersection where the phasing is ILV/hr Description
relatively simple. It is useful in analyzing the need
for additional turning and through traffic lanes. For
< 1200:
a more complete analysis refer to the Highway
Capacity Manual. Stable flow with slight, but acceptable delay.
Occasional signal loading may develop. Free
(a) Ramp Intersection Analysis--For the typical
midblock operations.
local street interchange there is usually a
critical intersection of a ramp and the 1200-1500:
crossroads that establishes the capacity of the
interchange. The capacity of a point where Unstable flow with considerable delays possible.
lanes of traffic intersect is 1500 vehicles per Some vehicles occasionally wait two or more
hour. This is expressed as intersecting lane cycles to pass through the intersection. Continuous
vehicles per hour (ILV/hr). Table 406 gives backup occurs on some approaches.
values of ILV/hr for various traffic flow 1500 (Capacity):
conditions.
Stop-and-go operation with severe delay and heavy
If a single-lane approach at a normal congestion(1). Traffic volume is limited by
intersection has a demand volume of 1000 vph, maximum discharge rates of each phase.
for example, then the intersecting single-lane Continuous backup in varying degrees occurs on all
approach volume cannot exceed 500 vph approaches. Where downstream capacity is
without delay. restrictive, mainline congestion can impede orderly
The three examples that follow illustrate the discharge through the intersection.
simplicity of analyzing ramp intersections NOTE:
using this 1500 ILV/hr concept.
(1) The amount of congestion depends on how much
(b) Diamond Interchange--The critical intersection the ILV/hr value exceeds 1500. Observed flow
of a diamond type interchange must rates will normally not exceed 1500 ILV/hr, and the
accommodate demands of three conflicting excess will be delayed in a queue.
travel paths. As traffic volumes approach
capacity, signalization will be needed. For the
spread diamond (Figure 406A), basic capacity
analysis is made on the assumption that 3-
phase signalization is employed. For the tight
diamond (Figure 406B), it is assumed that 4-
phase signal timing is used.
(c) 2 Quadrant Cloverleaf--Because this inter-
change design (Figure 406C) permits 2-phase
signalization, it will have higher capacities on
the approach roadways. The critical
March 7, 2014
Figure 406A
Spread Diamond
December 30, 2015
Figure 406B
Tight Diamond
December 30, 2015
Figure 406C
Two-quadrant Cloverleaf
July 1, 2015
• Projects to increase mainline capacity when

CHAPTER 500 existing interchanges do not meet interchange
TRAFFIC INTERCHANGES spacing requirements.
See Index 504.7 for additional technical
Topic 501 - General requirements related to interchange spacing.
Procedures and documentation requirements are
Index 501.1 - Concepts provided in PDPM Chapter 27. See the FHWA
A traffic interchange is a combination of ramps and publication “Interstate System Access Informational
grade separations at the junction of two or more Guide.”
highways for the purpose of reducing or eliminating
traffic conflicts, to improve safety, and increase Topic 502 - Interchange Types
traffic capacity. Crossing conflicts are reduced by
grade separations. Turning conflicts are either 502.1 General
eliminated or minimized, depending upon the type The selection of an interchange type and its design
of interchange design. are influenced by many factors including the
following: speed, volume, and composition of traffic
501.2 Warrants
to be served (e.g., trucks, vehicles, bicycles, and
All connections to freeways are by traffic pedestrians), number of intersecting legs, and
interchanges. An interchange or separation may be arrangement of the local street system (e.g., traffic
warranted as part of an expressway (or in special control devices, topography, right of way controls),
cases at the junction of two non-access controlled local planning, proximity of adjacent interchanges,
highways), to improve safety or eliminate a community impact, and cost.
bottleneck, or where topography does not lend itself
The cost of a structure is a considerable investment
to the construction of an intersection.
where the life of a structure may be 50 to 100 years,
501.3 Spacing far beyond that of the project traffic study
projections. New or significant modifications to
The minimum interchange spacing shall be
interchanges should take into consideration future
one mile in urban areas, two miles outside of
needs of the system; the ultimate configuration for
urban areas, and two miles between freeway-to-
the freeway and the potential for local land
freeway interchanges and other interchanges.
development well beyond the 20-year traffic study.
The minimum interchange spacing on Interstates
Choose an interchange type that is compatible with
outside of urban areas shall be three miles. These
or can easily be modified to accommodate the future
minimum distances are measured between
growth of the system.
centerlines of adjacent intersecting roadways. To
improve operations of closely spaced interchanges Even though interchanges are designed to fit
the use of auxiliary lanes, grade separated ramps, specific conditions and controls, it is desirable that
collector-distributor roads, and/or ramp metering the pattern of interchange ramps along a freeway
may be warranted. follow some degree of consistency. It is frequently
desirable to rearrange portions of the local street
The standards contained within this Index apply to:
system in connection with freeway construction in
• New interchanges.
• Modifications to existing interchanges including
access control revisions for new ramps or the
relocation/elimination of existing ramps.
December 30, 2015
order to affect the most desirable overall plan for At local road interchanges it is preferable to
mobility and community development. minimize elevation changes on the local road and
instead elevate or depress the freeway. Such
Interchange types are characterized by the basic
designs have the least impact on those users most
shapes of ramps: namely, diamond, loop,
affected by the elevation changes, such as
directional, hook, or variations of these types.
pedestrians and bicyclists.
Many interchange designs are combinations of these
basic types. Schematic interchange patterns are Class II bikeways designed through interchanges
illustrated in Figure 502.2 and Figure 502.3. These should be accomplished considering the mobility of
are classified as: (a) Local street interchanges and bicyclists and should be designed in a manner that
(b) Freeway-to-freeway interchanges. See will minimize confusion by motorists and bicyclists.
AASHTO, A Policy on Geometric Design of Designs which allow high speed merges at on- and
Highways and Streets, for additional examples. off-ramps to local streets and conventional
highways have a large impact on bicycle and
502.2 Local Street Interchanges pedestrian mobility and should not be used.
The Department’s philosophy for highway design Designers should work closely with the Local
has evolved over time. DD-64 Complete Streets, Agency when designing bicycle facilities through
DP-22 Context Sensitive Solutions, DP-05 interchanges to ensure that the shoulder width is not
Multimodal Alternatives and other policies and reduced through the interchange area. If
guidance are a result of that evolution in design maintaining a consistent shoulder width is not
philosophy. No longer are freeway interchanges feasible, the Class II bikeway must end at the
designed with only the needs of motorists in mind. previous local road intersection. A solution on how
Pedestrian and bicycle traffic needs are to be to best provide for bicycle travel to connect both
considered along with the motorized traffic. Local sides of the freeway should be developed in
road interchanges ramp termini should be consultation with the Local Agency and community
perpendicular to the local road. The high speed, as well as with the consideration of the local bicycle
shallow angle, ramp termini of the past are plan.
problematic for pedestrians and bicyclists to (a) Diamond Interchange--The simplest form of
navigate. Vehicle speeds are reduced by the right interchange is the diamond. Diamond
angle turn, allowing drivers to better respond to interchanges provide a high standard of ramp
bicycle and pedestrian conflicts. For new alignment, direct turning maneuvers at the
construction or major reconstruction consideration crossroads, and usually have minimum
must be given to orienting ramps at right angles to construction costs. The diamond type is
local streets. For freeways where bicycles are adaptable to a wide range of traffic volumes, as
permitted to us the freeway, ramps need to be well as the needs of transit, bicyclists, and
designed so that bicyclists can exit and enter the pedestrians. The capacity is limited by the
freeway without crossing the higher speed ramp capacity of the intersection of the ramps at the
traffic. See Index 400 for type, design, and capacity crossroad. This capacity may be increased by
of intersections at the ramp terminus with the local widening the ramps to two or three lanes at the
road. crossroad and by widening the crossroad in the
An interchange is expected to have an on- and off- intersection area. Crossroad widening will
ramp for each direction of travel. If an off-ramp increase the length of undercrossings and the
does not have a corresponding on-ramp, that off- width of overcrossings, thus adding to the
ramp would be considered an isolated off-ramp. bridge cost. Roundabouts may provide the
Isolated off-ramps or partial interchanges shall necessary capacity without expensive crossroad
not be used because of the potential for wrong- widening between the ramp termini. Ramp
way movements. In general, interchanges with all intersection capacity analysis is discussed in
ramps connecting with a single cross street are Topic 406.
preferred. The compact diamond (Type L-1) is most
adaptable where the freeway is depressed or
May 7, 2012
Figure 502.2
Typical Local Street Interchanges
May 7, 2012
Figure 502.2
Typical Local Street Interchanges
(continued)
May 7, 2012
elevated and the cross street retains a straight Special attention should always be given to exit
profile. Type L-1's are suitable where physical, ramps that end in a hook to ensure that adequate
geometric or right of way restrictions do not sight distance around the curve, adequate
permit a spread diamond configuration. deceleration length prior to the curve or end of
Compact diamonds have the disadvantage of anticipated queue, and adequate superelevation
requiring wider overcrossing or longer span for anticipated driving speeds can be developed.
undercrossing to provide corner sight distance Type L-6 can only be considered when all other
and have limited capacity between intersections. interchange types are not acceptable.
Once the area around the interchange is
(c) Cloverleaf Interchanges--The simplest
developed, Type L-1 is challenging to expand to
cloverleaf interchange is the two-quadrant
accommodate growth.
cloverleaf, Type L-7 or Type L-8, or a
The spread diamond (Type L-2) is adaptable combination where the two loops are on the
where the grade of the cross street is changed to same side of the cross street. Type L-7
pass over or under the freeway. The ramp eliminates the need for left-turn storage lanes,
terminals are spread in order to achieve on or under the structure, thus reducing the
maximum sight distance and minimum structure costs. These interchanges should be
intersection cross slope, commensurate with used only in connection with controls which
construction and right of way costs, travel preclude the use of diamond ramps in all four
distance, and general appearance. A spread quadrants. These controls include right of way
diamond has the advantage of flatter ramp controls, a railroad track paralleling the cross
grades, greater crossroads left-turn storage street, and a short weaving distance to the next
capacity, and the flexibility of permitting the interchange.
construction of future loop ramps if required.
The Type L-9, partial cloverleaf interchange,
The split diamond with braids (Type L-3) may provides loop on-ramps in addition to the four
be appropriate where two major crossroads are diamond-type ramps. This interchange is
closely spaced. suitable for large volume turning movements.
Left-turn movements from the crossroads are
(b) Interchanges with Parallel Street Systems--
eliminated, thereby permitting two-phase
Types L-4, L-5 and L-6 are interchange systems
operation at the ramp intersections when
used where the freeway alignment is placed
signalized. Because of this feature, the Type L-
between parallel streets. Types L-4 and L-5 are
9 interchange usually has capacity to handle the
used where the parallel streets will operate with
higher volume traffic on the crossroad.
one-way traffic. In Type L-4 slip ramps merge
with the frontage street and in Type L-5 the The four-quadrant cloverleaf interchange (Type
ramps terminate at the intersection of the L-10) offers free-flow characteristics for all
frontage road with the cross street, forming five- movements. It has the disadvantage of a higher
legged intersections. In Type L-6 the freeway cost than a diamond or partial cloverleaf design,
ramps connect with two-way parallel streets. as well as a relatively short weaving section
The parallel streets in the Types L-4, L-5 and L- between the loop ramps which limits capacity.
6 situation are usually too close to the freeway For this reason this type of interchange is not
to permit ramp intersections on the cross street desirable. Collector-distributor roads should be
between the parallel frontage streets. incorporated in the design of four-quadrant
cloverleaf interchanges to separate the weaving
The "hook" ramps of the Type L-6 are often
conflicts from the through freeway traffic.
forced into tight situations that lead to less than
desirable geometrics. The radius of the curve at (d) Trumpet Interchanges--A trumpet design, Type
the approach to the intersection should exceed L-11 or L-12, may be used when a crossroads
150 feet and a tangent of at least 150 feet should terminates at a freeway. This design should not
be provided between the last curve on the ramp be used if future extension of the crossroads is
and the ramp terminal. probable. The diamond interchange is
December 30, 2015
preferable if future extension of the crossroads Interstate routes shall maintain route
is expected. continuity. Where both the designated route
and heavier traffic volume route are
(e) Single Point Interchange (SPI)--The Type L-13
present, the interchange configuration shall
is a concept which essentially combines two
keep the designated route to the left through
separate diamond ramp intersections into one
the interchange.
large at-grade intersection. It is also known as
an urban interchange. Additional information on (2) Design Considerations.
SPI’s is provided in the Single Point
(a) Cost--The differential cost between
Interchange Planning, Design and Operational
interchange types is often significant. A
Guidelines (SPI Guidelines), issued by
cost-effective approach will tend to assure
memorandum on June 15, 2001.
that an interchange is neither over nor
Type L-13 requires approximately the same underdesigned. Decisions as to the relative
right of way as the compact diamond. values of the previously mentioned
However, the construction cost is substantially parameters must be consistent with
higher due to the structure requirements. The decisions reached on adjacent main line
capacity of the L-13 can exceed that of a freeways.
compact diamond if long signal times can be
(b) System Balance--The freeway-to-freeway
provided and left turning volumes are balanced.
interchange is a critical link in the total
This additional capacity may be offset if nearby freeway system. The level of traffic
intersection queues interfere with weaving and service provided will have impact upon the
storage between intersections. The mobility and overall effectiveness of the
disadvantages of the L-13 are: 1) future entire roadway system. For instance,
expansion of the interchange is extremely traffic patterns will adjust to avoid
difficult; 2) stage construction for retrofit repetitive bottlenecks, and to the greatest
situations is costly; 3) long structure spans degree possible, to temporary closures,
require higher than normal profiles and deeper accidents, etc. The freeway-to-freeway
structure depths; and 4) poor bicycle and interchange should provide flexibility to
pedestrian circulation. respond to these needs so as to maximize
the cost effectiveness of the total system.
(f) Other Types of Interchanges--New or
experimental interchanges must have the Project (c) Provide for all Traffic Movements--All
Delivery Coordinator and Headquarters Traffic interchanges must provide for each of the
Liaison’s concurrence before selection. eight basic movements (or four basic
Concurrence may require additional studies and movements in the case of a three-legged
documentation. interchange), except in the most extreme
circumstances. Less than “full
502.3 Freeway-to-Freeway Interchanges interchanges” may be considered on a
(1) General. The function of the freeway-to- case-by-case basis for applications
freeway interchange is to link freeway requiring special access for managed lanes
segments together so as to provide the highest (e.g., transit, HOVs, HOT lanes) or park
level of service in terms of mobility. and ride lots. Partial interchanges usually
Parameters such as cost, environment, have undesirable operational
community values, traffic volumes, route characteristics. If circumstances exist
continuity, driver expectation and safety should where a partial interchange is considered
all be considered. Route continuity, providing appropriate as an initial phase
for the designated route to continue as the improvement, then commitments need to
through movement through an interchange, be included in the request to accommodate
reduces lane changes, simplifies signing, and the ultimate design. These commitments
reduces driver confusion. may include purchasing the right of way
March 7, 2014
required during the initial phase standards consistent with cost and level of
improvements. service.
(d) Local Traffic Service--In metropolitan (3) Types. Several freeway-to-freeway inter-
areas a freeway-to-freeway interchange is change design configurations are shown on
usually superimposed over an existing Figure 502.3. Many combinations and
street system. Local and through traffic variations may be formed from these basic
requirements are often in conflict. interchange types.
Combinations of local and freeway-to- (a) Four-Level-Interchange--Direct
freeway interchanges can result in designs connections are appropriate in lieu of loops
that are both costly and so complex that the when required by traffic demands or other
important design concepts of simplicity specific site conditions. The Type F-1
and consistency are compromised. interchange with all direct connections
Therefore, alternate plans separating local provides the maximum in mobility and
and freeway-to-freeway interchanges safety. However, the high costs associated
should be fully explored. Less than with this design require that the benefits be
desirable local interchange spacing may fully substantiated.
result; however, this may be compensated
The Type F-1 Alternative "A" interchange
for by upgrading the adjacent local
utilizes a single divergence ramp for traffic
interchanges and street system.
bound for the other freeway; then provides
Local traffic service interchanges should a secondary directional split. Each
not be located within freeway-to-freeway entrance ramp on a Type F-1A interchange
interchanges unless geometric standards is provided separately. The advantages of
and level of service will be substantially the Type F-1A are: 1) reduced driver
maintained. confusion since there is only one exit to the
other freeway, and 2) operations at the
(e) Alignment--It is not considered practical to
entrance may be improved since the ramps
establish fixed freeway-to-freeway
merge with the mainline one at a time.
interchange alignment standards. An
interchange must be designed to fit into its The Type F-1 Alternative "B" interchange
environment. Alignment is often provides separate directional exit ramps
controlled by external factors such as and then merges the entering traffic into a
terrain, buildings, street patterns, route single ramp before converging with the
adoptions, and community value mainline. Since the Type F-1B combines
considerations. Normally, loops have radii traffic from two ramps before entering the
in the range of 150 feet to 200 feet and freeway, it is important to verify that
direct connections should have minimum adequate weaving capacity is provided
radii of 850 feet. Larger radii may be beyond the entrance. Separating the
proper in situations where the skew or directional split of exiting traffic reduces
other site conditions will result in minimal the volume to each of the two ramps and
increased costs. Direct connection radii of therefore may improve the level of service
at least 1,150 feet are desirable from a of the weave section prior to the exit.
traffic operational standpoint. High
Design for a four-level interchange may
alignment and sight distance standards
combine the configuration of the Type F1-
should be provided where possible.
A and F1-B interchange to best suit the
Drivers have been conditioned to expect a conditions at a given location.
certain standard of excellence on
(b) Combination Interchanges--The three-
California freeways. The designer's
quadrant cloverleaf, Type F-2, with one
challenge is to provide the highest possible
direct connection may be necessary where
December 30, 2015
a single move carries too much traffic for a

loop ramp or where the one quadrant is
Topic 503 - Interchange Design
restricted by environmental, topographic, Procedure
or right of way controls.
503.1 Basic Data
The two-loop, two-direct connection
interchange, Type F-3, is often an Data relative to community service, traffic, physical
appropriate solution. The weaving and economic factors, and potential area
conflicts which ordinarily constitute the development which may materially affect design,
most restrictive traffic constraint are should be obtained prior to interchange design.
eliminated, yet cost and right of way Specifically, the following information should be
requirements may be kept within available:
reasonable bounds. Consideration should (a) The location and standards of existing and
be given to providing an auxiliary lane in proposed local streets including types of traffic
advance of the loop off-ramps to provide control.
for vehicle deceleration.
(b) Existing, proposed and potential for
(c) Four-Quadrant Cloverleaf--The four- development of land, including such
quadrant cloverleaf with collector- developments as employment centers, retail
distributor roads, Type F-4, is ordinarily services and shopping centers, recreational
the most economical freeway-to-freeway facilities, housing developments, schools, and
interchange solution when all turning other institutions.
movements are provided. The four-
(c) A vehicle traffic flow diagram showing average
quadrant cloverleaf is generally applicable
daily traffic and design hourly volumes, as well
in situations where turning volumes are
as time of day (a.m. or p.m.), anticipated on the
low enough to be accommodated in the
freeway ramps and affected local streets or
short weaving sections. It should be
roads.
designed with collector-distributor roads to
separate weaving conflicts from the (d) Current and future bicycle and pedestrian access
through freeway traffic. through the community.
(d) Freeway Terminal Junction--Types F-5, (e) The relationship with adjacent interchanges.
F-6, F-7, and F-8 are examples of
(f) The location of major utilities, railroads, or
interchange designs where one freeway
airports.
terminates at the junction with another
freeway. In general, the standard of (g) The presence of dedicated lanes and associated
alignment provided on the left or median ramps and connections, including HOV lanes,
lane connection from the terminating Bus (BRT) lanes and Express lanes.
freeway should equal or approach as near
(h) The planned ultimate build-out for the freeway
as possible that of the terminating freeway.
facility.
Terminating the median lane on a loop
should be avoided. It is preferable that (i) Existing and planned rail facilities.
both the designated route and the major
503.2 Reviews
traffic volume be to the left at the branch
connection diverge. The choice between Interchanges are among the major design features
Types F-7 and F-8 should include which are to be reviewed by the Project Delivery
considerations of traffic volumes, and Coordinator and/or District Design Liaison, HQ
route continuity. When these Traffic Liaison, other Headquarters staff, and the
considerations are in conflict, the choice is FHWA Transportation Engineer, as appropriate.
made on the basis of judgment of their Major design features include the freeway
relative merits. alignment, geometric cross
May 7, 2012
Figure 502.3
Typical Freeway-to-freeway Interchanges

May 7, 2012
Figure 502.3
Typical Freeway-to-freeway Interchanges

(continued)
December 30, 2015
section, geometric design and intersection control of should apply for the first curve after the exit
ramp termini, location of separation structures, from a collector-distributor road. The range of
closing of local roads, frontage road construction, minimum "DL" (distance) vs. "R" (radius) is
bicycle and pedestrian facilities and work on local given in the table in Figure 504.2B. Strong
roads. Particularly close involvement should occur consideration should be given to lengthening
during preparation of the Project Study Report and the "DL" distance given in the table when the
Project Report (see the Project Development subsequent curve is a descending loop or hook
Procedures Manual). Such reviews can be ramp, or if the upstream condition is a
particularly valuable when exceptions to mandatory sustained downgrade (see AASHTO, A Policy
or advisory design standards are being considered on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets,
and alternatives are being sought. The geometric for additional information).
features of all interchanges or modifications to
The exit nose shown on Figure 504.2B may be
existing interchanges must be approved by the
located downstream of the 23-foot dimension;
Project Delivery Coordinator.
however, the maximum paved width between
the mainline and ramp shoulder edges should
Topic 504 - Interchange Design be 20 feet. Also, see pavement cross slope
Standards requirements in Index 504.2(5).
504.1 General Contrasting surface treatment beyond the gore
pavement should be provided on both entrance
Topic 504 discusses the standards that pertain to and exit ramps as shown on Figures 504.2A,
both local service interchanges (various ramp 504.2B, and 504.3L. This treatment can both
configurations) and freeway-to-freeway enhance aesthetics and minimize maintenance
connections. The design standards, policies and efforts. It should be designed so that a driver
practices covered in Indexes 504.2, and 504.5 will be able to identify and differentiate the
through 504.8 are typically common to both ramp contrasting surface treatment from the
and connector interchange types. Indexes 504.3 and pavement areas that are intended for regular or
504.4 separately discuss ramp standards and occasional vehicular use (e.g., traveled way,
freeway-to-freeway connector standards, shoulders, paved gore, etc.).
respectively.
Consult with the District Landscape Architect,
504.2 Freeway Entrances and Exits District Materials Engineer, and District
(1) Basic Policy. All freeway entrances and Maintenance Engineer to determine the
exits, except for direct connections with appropriate contrasting surface treatment of the
median High-Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) facility at a specific location.
lanes, Express Toll lanes or BRT lanes, shall Refer to the HOV Guidelines for additional
connect to the right of through traffic. information specific to direct connections to
(2) Standard Designs. Design of freeway entrances HOV lanes.
and exits should conform to the standard (3) Location on a Curve. Freeway entrances and
designs illustrated in Figure 504.2A-B (single exits should be located on tangent sections
lane), and Figure 504.3L (two-lane entrances wherever possible in order to provide
and exits) and/or Figure 504.4 (diverging maximum sight distance and optimum traffic
branch connections), as appropriate. operation. Where curve locations are
The minimum deceleration length shown on necessary, the ramp entrance and exit tapers
Figure 504.2B shall be provided prior to the should be curved also. The radius of the exit
first curve beyond the exit nose to assure taper should be about the same as the freeway
adequate distance for vehicles to decelerate edge of traveled way in order to develop the
before entering the curve. The same standard same degree of divergence as the standard
design (see Figure 504.2C).
December 16, 2016
Figure 504.2A
Single Lane Freeway Entrance
May 7, 2012
Figure 504.2B
Single Lane Freeway Exit

May 7, 2012
On entrance ramps the distance from the inlet Decision sight distance given in Table
nose (14-foot point) to the end of the 201.7 should be provided at freeway exits
acceleration lane taper should equal the sum of and branch connectors. At secondary exits
the distances shown on Figure 504.2A. The on collector-distributor roads, a minimum
50:1 (longitudinal to lateral) taper may be of 600 feet of decision sight distance
curved to fit the conditions, and the 3,000-foot should be provided. In all cases, sight
radius curve may be adjusted (see Figure distance is measured to the center of ramp
504.2A, note 3). lane right of the nose.
When an exit must be located where physical (b) Freeway Entrance--The design speed at the
restrictions to visibility cannot be corrected by inlet nose should be consistent with
cut widening or object removal, an auxiliary approach alignment standards. If the
lane in advance of the exit should be provided. approach is a branch connection or
The length of auxiliary lane should be a diamond ramp with high alignment
minimum 600 feet, 1,000 feet preferred. standards, the design speed should be at
least 50 miles per hour.
(4) Design Speed Considerations. In the design of
interchanges it is important to provide vertical (c) Ramps--See Index 504.3(1)(a).
and horizontal alignment standards which are
(d) Freeway-to-Freeway Connections--See
consistent with driving conditions expected on
Index 504.4(2).
branch connections. Sight distance on crest
vertical curves should be consistent with (5) Grades. Grades for freeway entrances and
expected approach speeds. exits are controlled primarily by the
requirements of sight distance. Ramp profile
(a) Freeway Exit--The design speed at the exit
grades should not exceed 8 percent with the
nose should be 50 miles per hour or greater
exception of descending entrance ramps and
for both ramps and branch connections.
ascending exit ramps, where a 1 percent
steeper grade is allowed. However, the
Figure 504.2C 1 percent steeper grade should be avoided on
Location of Freeway Ramps descending loops to minimize overdriving of
on a Curve the ramp (see Index 504.3 (8)).
Profile grade considerations are of particular
concern through entrance and exit gore areas.
In some instances the profile of the ramp or
connector, or a combination of profile and
cross slope, is sufficiently different than that of
the freeway through lanes that grade breaks
across the gore may become necessary. Where
adjacent lanes or lanes and paved gore areas at
freeway entrances and exits are not in the same
plane, the algebraic difference in pavement
cross slope should not exceed 5 percent (see
Index 301.2).The paved gore area is typically
that area between the diverging or converging
edge of traveled ways and the 23-foot point.
In addition to the effects of terrain, grade lines
are also controlled by structure clearances (see
Indexes 204.6 and 309.2). Grade lines for
overcrossing and undercrossing roadways
December 30, 2015
should conform to the requirements of HDM interchanges to accommodate bicyclists and

Topic 104 Roads Under Other Jurisdictions. pedestrians. See Topic 116 and the California
MUTCD for additional guidance.
(a) Freeway Exits--Vertical curves located just
beyond the exit nose should be designed 504.3 Ramps
with a minimum 50 miles per hour
(1) General.
stopping sight distance. Beyond this point,
progressively lower design speeds may be (a) Design Speed--When ramps terminate at
used to accommodate loop ramps and other an intersection at which all traffic is
geometric features. expected to make a turning movement, the
Ascending off-ramps should join the minimum design speed along the ramp
crossroads on a reasonably flat grade to should be 25 miles per hour. When a
expedite truck starts from a stopped “through” movement is provided at the
condition. If the ramp ends in a crest ramp terminus, the minimum ramp design
vertical curve, the last 50 feet of the ramp speed should meet or exceed the design
should be on a 5 percent grade or less. speed of the highway facility for which the
through movement is provided. The
There may be cases where a drainage
feature is necessary to prevent crossroads design speed along the ramp will vary
water from draining onto the ramp. depending on alignment and controls at
each end of the ramp. An acceptable
On descending off-ramps, the sag vertical approach is to set design speeds of
curve at the ramp terminal should be a 25 miles per hour and 50 miles per hour at
minimum of 100 feet in length. the ramp terminus and exit nose,
(b) Freeway Entrances--Entrance profiles respectively, the appropriate design speed
should approximately parallel the profile of for any intermediate point on the ramp is
the freeway for at least 100 feet prior to the then based on its location relative to those
inlet nose to provide intervisibility in two points. When short radius curves with
merging situations. The vertical curve at relatively lower design speeds are used, the
the inlet nose should be consistent with vertical sight distance should be consistent
approach alignment standards. with approach vehicle speeds. See Index
504.2(4) for additional information
Where truck volumes (three-axle or more) regarding design speed for ramps.
exceed 20 per hour on ascending entrance
ramps to freeways and expressways with (b) Lane Width--Ramp lanes shall be a
sustained upgrades exceeding 2 percent, a minimum of 12 feet in width. Where
1,500-foot length of auxiliary lane should ramps have curve radii of 300 feet or
be provided in order to ensure satisfactory less, measured along the outside edge of
operating conditions. Additional length traveled way for single lane ramps or
may be warranted based on the thorough along the outside lane line for multilane
analysis of the site specific grades, traffic ramps, with a central angle greater than
volumes, and calculated speeds; and after 60 degrees, the single ramp lane, or the
consultation with the HQ Traffic Liaison lane furthest to the right if the ramp is
and the Project Delivery Coordinator or multilane, shall be widened in
District Design Liaison. Also, see Index accordance with Table 504.3 in order to
204.5 "Sustained Grades". accommodate large truck wheel paths.
See Topic 404. Consideration may be
(6) Bus Stops. See Index 108.2 and 303.4 for given to widening more than one lane on a
general information. multilane ramp with short radius curves if
(7) Bicycle and Pedestrian Conditions. On there is a likelihood of considerable transit
freeways where bicycle or pedestrian travel is or truck usage of that lane.
not prohibited, provisions need to be made at
December 16, 2016
Table 504.3 any project that proposes additional capacity,

modification of an existing interchange, or
Ramp Widening for Trucks construction of a new interchange, within the
Ramp Radius Widening Lane Width freeway corridors identified in the Ramp
(ft) (ft) (ft) Metering Development Plan (RMDP),
regardless of funding source. Projects
<150 6 18
designed for new or existing freeway segments
150 – 179 4 16
experiencing recurring traffic congestion
180 – 209 3 15
and/or a high frequency of vehicle collisions
210 – 249 2 14
may include provisions for entrance ramp
250 – 299 1 13
metering, whether or not the freeway segment
>300 0 12
locations are listed in the RMDP.
All geometric designs for ramp metering
(c) Shoulder Width--Shoulder widths for installations must be discussed with the Project
ramps shall be as indicated in Table Delivery Coordinator or District Design
302.1. Typical ramp shoulder widths are Liaison. Design features or elements which
4 feet on the left and 8 feet on the right. deviate from the mandatory and advisory
(d) Lane Drops--Typically, lane drops are to design standards require the approvals
be accomplished over a distance equal to described in Index 82.2.
WV. Where ramps are metered, the See the RMDM for ramp metering guidance,
recommended lane drop taper past the procedures, and policies to be used in
meter limit line is 50 to 1 (longitudinal to conjunction with the guidance in this manual.
lateral). Depending on approach geometry Where traffic-related ramp metering guidance
and speed, the lane drop transition between is noted in this Chapter, reference is made to
the limit line and the 6-foot separation the RMDM for exception instructions and
point should be accomplished with a taper further information.
of between 30:1 and 50:1 (longitudinal to
lateral). This is further explained in Index Geometric ramp design for operational
504.3(2)(b) for metered multilane entrance improvement projects which include ramp
ramps. However, the lane drop taper metering should be based on current peak-hour
past the limit line shall not be less than traffic volume. If this current data is not
15 to 1. available it should be obtained before
proceeding with design. Peak hour traffic data
Lane drop tapers should not extend beyond from the annual Caltrans Traffic Volumes book
the 6-foot point (the beginning of the is not adequate for this application.
weaving length) without the provision of
an auxiliary lane. The design advice and typical designs that
follow should not be directly applied to ramp
(e) Lane Additions -- Lane additions to ramps meter installation projects, especially retrofit
are usually accomplished by use of a designs. Every effort should be made by the
120-foot bay taper. See Table 405.2A for designer to exceed the recommended minimum
the geometrics of bay tapers. standards provided herein, where conditions
(2) Ramp Metering are not restrictive.
Caltrans Deputy Directive (DD) No. 35-R1, (a) Metered Freeway Entrance Ramps
Ramp Metering, contains the statewide policy (1 General Purpose (GP) + 1 HOV
for ramp metering which delegates Preferential Lane)
responsibility for its implementation in part According to the RMDM, a High-
through the Ramp Metering Design Manual Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) preferential
(RMDM). DD 35-R1 specifies that provisions lane shall be provided where ramp meters
for entrance ramp metering shall be included in are installed, and each HOV preferential
December 16, 2016
lane should be metered. See the RMDM (vph), or other engineering judgement exist
for exception procedures from the Ramp in support of an exception to the HOV
Metering policy. See Figures 504.3A and preferential lane, see Figures 504.3C and
504.3B for typical freeway entrance ramp 504.3D. In restrictive conditions, a
metering (1 GP Lane + 1 HOV Preferential minimum 500-foot auxiliary lane should be
Lane). provided beyond the ramp convergence
point when truck volumes (3-axle or more)
Due to the operational benefits of an
are 5 percent or greater on ascending
auxiliary lane, the merge from the metered
entrance ramps to freeways with sustained
entrance ramp to the freeway should
upgrades exceeding 3 percent (i.e., at least
include an auxiliary lane with a minimum
throughout the merge area).
length of 300 feet beyond the ramp
convergence point. See Figure 504.3A. In general, the vehicle occupancy
requirement for ramp meter HOV
Where truck volumes (3-axle or more) are
preferential lanes is typically two or more
5 percent or greater on ascending entrance
persons per vehicle. At some locations, a
ramps to freeways with sustained upgrades
higher vehicle occupancy requirement may
exceeding 3 percent (i.e., at least
be necessary. The occupancy should be
throughout the merge area), a minimum
based on the HOV demand and should
1000-foot length of auxiliary lane should
match with other HOV facilities in the
be provided beyond the ramp convergence
vicinity.
point. For additional guidance see
AASHTO, A Policy on Geometric Design A HOV preferential lane should typically
of Highways and Streets. be placed on the left; however, demand
and operational characteristics at the ramp
When ramp volumes exceed 1,500 vph, a
entrance may dictate otherwise. Design of
1,000-foot minimum length of auxiliary
the HOV preferential lane at a metered
lane should be provided beyond the ramp
entrance ramp requires the review and
convergence point. If an auxiliary lane is
concurrence of the Caltrans District Traffic
included, the ramp lane transition may be
Operations Branch responsible for ramp
extended to the convergence point.
metering.
However, the proximity of the nearest
interchange may warrant weaving analysis Access to the HOV preferential lane may
to determine the acceptability of extending be provided in a variety of ways depending
the ramp lane transition beyond the 6-foot on interchange type and available storage
separation point. A longer auxiliary lane length for queued vehicles. Where queued
should be considered where mainline/ramp vehicles in the general purpose (GP) lane
gradients and truck volumes warrant may block access to the HOV preferential
additional length. lane, consider providing direct or separate
access. To avoid trapping GP traffic in an
(b) HOV Preferential Lane
HOV preferential lane, the signing and
Ramp meter installations should operate in pavement marking at the ramp entrance
conjunction with, and complement other should direct motorists into the GP lane(s).
transportation management system See the RMDM, Chapter 3 for signing and
elements and transportation modes. As pavement markings. Designs should
such, ramp meter installations should consider pedestrian/bicycle volumes,
include preferential treatment of carpools especially when the entrance ramp is
and transit riders. Specific treatment(s) located near a school or the local highway
must be tailored to the unique conditions at facility includes a designated bicycle lane
each ramp location. or route. See Index 403.6 for right-turn-
Where restrictive conditions, vehicle only lane guidance where bicycle travel is
volumes less than 500 vehicles per hour permitted. Contact the HQ Traffic Liaison
December 16, 2016
Figure 504.3A
Typical Freeway Entrance Loop Ramp Metering
(1 GP Lane + 1 HOV Preferential Lane)
December 16, 2016
Figure 504.3B
Typical Successive Freeway Entrance Ramp Metering
December 16, 2016
Figure 504.3C
Restrictive Condition Freeway Entrance Ramp Metering
(1 GP Lane)
December 16, 2016
Figure 504.3D
Restrictive Condition Freeway Entrance Loop Ramp Metering
(1 GP Lane)
December 16, 2016
and the Project Delivery Coordinator or Three-lane metered ramps are typically
District Design Liaison to discuss the needed to serve peak (i.e., commute) hour
application of specific design and/or traffic along urban and suburban freeway
general issues related to the design of corridors. The adverse effects of bus and
HOV preferential lane access. truck traffic on the operation of these
ramps (i.e., off-tracking, sight restriction,
Signing for a HOV preferential lane
acceleration characteristics on upgrades,
should be placed to clearly indicate which
etc.) is minimized when the ramp
lane is designated for HOVs. Real-time
alignment is tangential or consists of
signing at the ramp entrance, such as an
curve radii not less 300 feet. Proposed
overhead changeable message sign, may
three-lane loop and four-lane entrance
be necessary at some locations if
ramps require the review and concurrence
pavement delineation and normal signing
of the Caltrans Headquarters Traffic
do not provide drivers with adequate lane
Operations Liaison and approval by the
usage information. To avoid leading
Deputy District Director of Traffic
Single-Occupancy Vehicles (SOV) into a
Operations.
HOV preferential lane, pavement
delineation at the ramp entrance should On multi-lane entrance ramps, the multi-
lead drivers into the SOV lane. lane segment should transition to a single
lane width between the ramp meter limit
(c) Metered Multilane Freeway Entrance
line and the 6-foot separation point (from
Ramps
the mainline edge of traveled way).
The number of metered lanes at an
The lane drop transition should be
entrance ramp is the number of both
accomplished with a taper of 50:1
metered general purpose (GP) and high-
(longitudinal to lateral) unless a lesser
occupancy vehicle (HOV) preferential
taper is warranted by site and/or project
lanes at the limit line. The minimum
specific conditions which control the ramp
number of metered GP lanes is
geometry and/or anticipated maximum
determined based on GP traffic demand.
speed of ramp traffic. For example,
The number of metered HOV preferential
"loop" entrance ramps would normally not
lanes is determined based on HOV
allow traffic to attain speeds which would
demand using the same guidelines as GP
warrant a 50:1 (longitudinal to lateral)
traffic demand, as well as the HOV
lane drop taper. Also, in retrofit
preferential lane policy.
situations, existing physical,
A multilane ramp segment may be environmental or right of way constraints
provided to increase vehicle storage may make it impractical to provide a 50:1
within the available ramp length. At on- taper, especially if the maximum
ramps with peak hour volume between anticipated approach speed will be less
500 and 900, a two-lane ramp meter may than 50 miles per hour. Therefore,
be provided to double the vehicles stored depending on approach geometry and
within the available storage area. See speed, the lane drop transition between the
RMDM for additional multilane freeway limit line and the 6-foot separation point
entrance ramp guidance. should be accomplished with a taper of
Figures 504.3E and 504.3F illustrate between 30:1 and 50:1 (longitudinal to
typical designs for metered multilane lateral). However, the lane drop taper
diagonal and loop freeway entrance past the limit line shall not be less than
ramps. On multilane loop ramps, 15 to 1.
typically only the right lane needs to be
widened to accommodate design vehicle
off-tracking. See Index 504.3(1)(b).
December 16, 2016
Figure 504.3E
Typical Multilane Freeway Diagonal Entrance Ramp Metering
(2 GP Lanes + 1 HOV Preferential Lane)
December 16, 2016
Figure 504.3F
Typical Multilane Freeway Loop Entrance Ramp Metering
December 16, 2016
The merge from the metered entrance for a design speed of 50 miles per
ramp to the freeway should include a hour minimum.
300-foot minimum auxiliary lane beyond
All lane drop transitions on connectors
the ramp convergence point.
shall be accomplished with a taper of
Where truck volumes (3-axle or more) are 50:1 (longitudinal to lateral) minimum,
5 percent or greater on ascending entrance (see Figures 504.3G and 504.3H).
ramps to freeways with sustained
See RMDM Section 1.11 for additional
upgrades exceeding 3 percent (i.e. at least
metered freeway-to-freeway connector
throughout the merge area), a minimum
guidance.
1,000 feet length of auxiliary lane should
be provided beyond the ramp convergence (e) Queue Storage Length
point. AASHTO, A Policy on Geometric In order to maximize the effectiveness of
Design of Highways and Streets, provides operational strategies, an important design
additional guidance on acceleration lane consideration for a ramp meter system is
length on grades. providing adequate storage for queues.
When ramp volumes exceed 1,500 vph, a Storage length design requires the review
1,000-foot minimum length of auxiliary and concurrence of the Caltrans District
lane should be provided beyond the ramp Traffic Operations Branch responsible for
convergence point. If an auxiliary lane is ramp metering. See RMDM Section 1.4
included, the ramp lane transition may be for detailed queue storage length design
extended to the convergence point. guidance.
However, the proximity of the nearest To minimize the impact on local street
interchange may warrant weaving analysis operation, every effort should be made to
to determine the acceptability of meet the recommended storage length.
extending the ramp lane transition beyond Wherever feasible, ramp metering storage
the 6-foot separation point. A longer should be contained on the ramp by either
auxiliary lane should be considered where widening or lengthening it.
mainline/ramp gradients and truck Improvements to the local street system in
volumes warrant additional length. the vicinity of the ramp should also be
(d) Metered Freeway-to-Freeway Connectors thoroughly investigated where there is
insufficient storage length on the ramp
Freeway-to-freeway connectors may also
and the ramp queue will adversely affect
be metered. The need to meter a freeway-
local street operation. Note that excessive
to-freeway connector should be
queue length may also impact the mobility
determined on an individual basis.
of pedestrians and bicyclists. The storage
Because connector ramps provide a link
length that can be provided on the ramp
between two high speed facilities, drivers
may be limited by the weaving distance to
do not expect to stop, nor do they expect
the next off-ramp and/or available right of
to approach a stopped vehicle.
way. Local street improvements can
The installation of ramp meters on include widening or restriping the street(s)
connector ramps shall be limited to or intersection(s) to provide additional
those facilities which meet or exceed the storage or capacity. Signal timing
following geometric design criteria: revisions along the corridor feeding the
ramp can also enhance the storage
• Standard lane and shoulder widths.
capability. These will require
• "Tail light" sight distance, coordination with the local agency
measured from a 3 ½ feet eye height consistent with the regional traffic
to a 2-foot object height, is provided operations strategy.
December 16, 2016
Figure 504.3G
Typical Freeway-to-Freeway Connector Ramp Metering
December 16, 2016
Figure 504.3H
Typical Freeway-to-Freeway Connector Ramp Metering
December 16, 2016
It is the responsibility of the Department, HOV preferential lane is underutilized,

on Department initiated projects, to there is a need for additional queue
mitigate the effect of ramp metering, for storage for the GP lanes, or an alternate
initial as well as future operational entrance ramp HOV preferential lane is
impacts, to local streets that lead to available within 1½ miles. See the
metered freeway entrance ramps. It is the RMDM for procedures when considering
responsibility of developers and/or local conversion of a HOV preferential lane to a
agencies, to mitigate any impact to GP lane at a metered entrance ramp.
existing ramp meter facilities, future ramp
(j) Enforcement Areas and Maintenance
meter installations, or local streets, when
Pullouts
those impacts are attributable to new
development and/or local agency roadway Division of Traffic Operations policy
improvement projects. requires a paved enforcement area to be
provided on all projects that include new
(f) Pavement Structure
or reconstructed metered entrance ramps
In planning for the possibility of future or connectors.
widening, the pavement structure for the
See the RMDM for exception procedures
ramp shoulders should be equal to the
to this policy.
ramp traveled way pavement structure. In
locations where failure of loop detectors Enforcement areas are used by the
due to flexible pavement deterioration is a California Highway Patrol (CHP) to
concern, a Portland Cement Concrete enforce minimum vehicle occupancy
(PCC) pad may be considered on new requirements. The paved enforcement
construction and rehabilitation projects. area should be placed on the right side of
The concrete pad should cover the a metered entrance ramp, downstream of
metering detector loop area upstream and the metering signals, and as close to the
downstream of the limit line. limit line as practical to facilitate CHP
enforcement. See Figures 504.3A to
(g) Meter Signal Location
504.3H for the typical layout and
For the location of ramp meter signal dimensions of enforcement areas.
standards, see the RMDM, Chapter 2.
The District Traffic Operations Branch
(h) Limit Line Location responsible for ramp metering must
coordinate enforcement issues with the
The limit line location will be determined
CHP. The CHP Area Commander must
by the selected transition taper, but should
be contacted during the Project Report
be a minimum of 75 feet upstream of the
stage, prior to design, to discuss any
23-foot separation point. See the RMDM
variations needed to the CHP enforcement
Section 1.7 for additional guidance.
area designs shown in this manual.
(i) Modifications to Existing HOV Variations to enforcement area
Preferential Lanes dimensions or location require the review
Changes in traffic conditions, proposals and concurrence of the CHP and the
for interchange modifications, recurrent Caltrans District Traffic Operations
operational problems affecting the local Branch responsible for ramp metering.
facility, or the need to further improve Division of Traffic Operations policy
mainline operations through more requires a paved Maintenance Vehicle
restrictive metering are opportunities to Pullout (MVP) to be provided at a
reevaluate the need for a HOV location for maintenance and operations
preferential lane. Typically, an existing personnel to access controller cabinets.
HOV preferential lane may be considered The MVP should be placed upstream or
for conversion to a GP lane if the existing next to controller cabinets. The MVP and
December 16, 2016
the controller cabinets should be placed concrete barrier or metal beam guardrail
on the same side of the entrance ramp. At channelization feature should be set back
loop entrance ramps, locate the MVP to from the crossroad edge of shoulder 20 to
the inside of the loop ramp. A paved 50 feet with a raised traffic island placed
walkway should be provided between the from the ramp termini to the begin point
MVP and the controller cabinets. See of the separation feature. See Index 405.4
RMDM Section 2.4 for controller cabinet for further traffic island guidance.
placement. See Topic 309, Clearances, Consult the District Traffic Safety Branch
for placement guidance of fixed objects for available options.
such as controller cabinets. Refer to
• Vehicles turning left onto an on-ramp are
HDM Index 107.2 and the Standard Plans
to be prevented, to the maximum extent
for the layout and pavement structure
feasible, from turning prematurely onto
section details of an MVP. See the
the off-ramp by placing or extending a
RMDM for exception procedures to this
curbed median on the crossroad to
policy.
physically discourage this move.
(3) Location and Design of Ramp Intersections on Attention needs to be given to
the Crossroads. accommodating truck turn templates for
Factors which influence the location of ramp design vehicles entering and exiting the
intersections on the crossroads include sight freeway. See Index 404.5 for further
distance, construction and right of way costs, turning template guidance. Truck aprons
bicycle and pedestrian mobility, circuitous could be provided if the size of an
travel for left-turn movements, crossroads intersections becomes too large for an
gradient at ramp intersections, storage occasional truck. See Index 405.10,
requirements for left-turn movements off the Roundabouts, and the references therein
crossroads, and the proximity of other local for design guidance on truck aprons.
road or bicycle path intersections. Isolated off-ramps are to be avoided to
Ramp intersections with local roads are minimize the potential for wrong-way
intersections at grade. Chapter 400 and the movements. If the isolated off-ramp is
references therein contain general guidance. necessary, the leading curb return from the
For ramp intersections, a wrong-way perspective of a vehicle on the crossroad
movement onto an off-ramp can have severe approaching from the same side as the off-
consequences. The California MUTCD also ramp is made with a short radius curve of 3 to
contains guidance for signing and striping to 5 feet. State or local roads and driveways
deter wrong-way movements. opposite isolated off-ramps are to be avoided
as there is no corresponding on-ramp for cross
Interchange Types L-7, L-8, and L-9 are traffic to take. See this chapter for further
partial cloverleaf designs with ramps at a right interchange and ramp guidance.
angle to the crossroad where the off-ramps
and on-ramps are adjacent to each other on the Ramp terminals should connect where the
same side of the crossroad that offer benefits grade of the overcrossing is 4 percent or less
for non-motorized travel modes; however, to avoid potential overturning of trucks.
additional design considerations as follows For left-turn maneuvers from an off-ramp at
may be appropriate in order to deter wrong- an unsignalized intersection, the length of
way movements: crossroads open to view should be greater
than the product of the prevailing speed of
• The entrance and exit ramps should be
vehicles on the crossroads, and the time
clearly visible from the crossroad.
required for a stopped vehicle on the ramp to
Concrete barrier or metal beam guardrail
execute a left-turn maneuver. This time is
placed between the ramps can block the
estimated to be 7½ seconds.
view from the crossroad. If feasible, the
December 16, 2016
When proposing uncontrolled entries and exits Where intersections are closely spaced, traffic
from freeway ramps with local roads, see the operations are often inhibited by short weave
Design of Intersections at Interchanges distance, storage lengths, and signal phasing.
guidance in Index 403.6(2). In addition it is difficult to provide proper
signing and delineation. The District Traffic
Horizontal sight restrictions may be caused by
Branch should be consulted regarding traffic
bridge railings, bridge piers, or slopes. Sight
engineering studies needed to determine the
distance is measured between the center of the
appropriate signage, delineation, and form of
outside lane approaching the ramp and the eye
intersection control.
of the driver of the ramp vehicle assumed
8 feet back from the edge of shoulder at the (4) Superelevation for Ramps. The factors
crossroads. Figure 504.3I illustrates the controlling superelevation rates discussed in
determination of ramp setback from an Topic 202 apply also to ramps. As indicated
overcrossing structure on the basis of sight in Table 202.2 use the 12 percent emax rate
distance controlled by the bridge rail. The except where snow and ice conditions prevail.
same relationship exists for sight distance In restrictive cases where the length of curve
controlled by bridge piers or slopes. is too short to develop standard
Where ramp set back for the 7½ second superelevation, the highest obtainable rate
criterion is unobtainable, sight distance should should be used (see Index 202.5). If feasible,
be provided by flaring the end of the the curve radius can be increased to reduce the
overcrossing structures or setting back the standard superelevation rate. Both edge of
piers or end slopes of an undercrossing traveled way and edge of shoulder should be
structure. examined at ramp junctions to assure a
smooth transition.
If signals are warranted within 5 years of
construction, consideration may be given to Under certain restrictive conditions the
installing signals initially in lieu of providing standard superelevation rate discussed above
horizontal sight distance which meets the may not be required on the curve nearest the
7½ second criterion. See Part 4 of the ramp intersection of a ramp. The specific
California MUTCD, 4B.107(CA). However, conditions under which lower superelevation
this is not desirable and corner sight distance rates would be considered must be evaluated
commensurate with design speed should be on a case-by-case basis and must be discussed
provided where obtainable (see AASHTO, A with the Project Delivery Coordinator or the
Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and District Design Liaison and then documented
Streets). as required by the Project Delivery
Coordinator.
For additional information on sight distance
requirements at signalized intersections, see (5) Single-lane Ramps. Single lane ramps are
Index 405.1. those ramps that either enter into or exit from
the freeway as a single lane. These ramps are
The minimum distance (curb return to often widened near the ramp intersection with
curb return) between ramp intersections the crossroads to accommodate turning
and local road intersections shall be movements onto or from the ramp. When
400 feet. additional lanes are provided near an entrance
The preferred minimum distance should be ramp intersection, the lane drop should be
500 feet. This does not apply to Resurfacing, accomplished over a distance equal to WV.
Restoration and Rehabilitation (3R), ramp The lane to be dropped should be on the right
widening, restriping or other projects which so that traffic merges left.
do not reconfigure the interchange. This Exit ramps in metropolitan areas may require
standard does apply to projects proposing to multiple lanes at the intersection with the
realign a local street. crossroads to provide additional storage and
capacity. If the length of a single lane ramp
December 16, 2016
Figure 504.3I
Location of Ramp Intersections
on the Crossroads
NOTE:
(1) See the California MUTCD for limit line placement and guidance.
December 16, 2016
exceeds 1,000 feet, an additional lane should distance. Curve radii of less than 120 feet
be provided on the ramp to permit passing should also be avoided. Extremely tight
maneuvers. Figure 504.3J illustrates curves lead to increased off-tracking by trucks
alternative ways of transitioning a single lane and increase the potential for vehicles to enter
exit ramp to two lanes. The decision to use the curve with excessive speed. Therefore,
Alternate A or Alternate B is generally based consider providing the ramp lane pavement
on providing the additional lane for the minor structure on shoulders for curves with a radius
movement. less than 300 feet (see Indexes 626.1 and
636.1).
(6) Two-lane Exit Ramps. Where design year
estimated volumes exceed 1500 equivalent Of particular concern in the design of loop
passenger cars per hour, a 2-lane ramp should ramps are the constraints imposed on large
be provided. trucks. Research indicates that trucks often
enter loops with excessive speed, either due to
Provisions should be made for possible
inadequate deceleration on exit ramps or due
widening to three or more lanes at the
to driver efforts to maintain speed on entrance
crossroads intersection. Figure 504.3K
ramps to facilitate acceleration and merging.
illustrates the standard design for a 2-lane exit.
Where the loop is of short radius and is also
An auxiliary lane approximately 1,300 feet
on a steep descent (over 6 percent), it is
long should be provided in advance of a 2-
important to develop the standard 2/3 full
lane exit. For volumes less than 1500 but
superelevation rate by the beginning of the
more than 900, a one-lane width exit ramp
curve (see Index 504.2(5)). When
should be provided with provision for adding
accommodating design vehicles in Rural
an auxiliary lane and an additional lane on the
Developing Corridors that are largely
ramp.
composed of industrial, commercial or retail
(7) Two-lane Entrance Ramps. These ramps are buildings located separately from housing, the
discouraged in congested corridors. Early following considerations may be necessary to
discussion with the HQ Traffic Liaison and meet the standard 2/3 full superelevation rate
Project Delivery Coordinator or District on loop entrance ramps:
Design Liaison is recommended whenever
two-lane entrance ramps are being considered. • Begin the ramp with a short tangent
(75 feet to 100 feet) that diverges from the
(8) Loop Ramps. Normally, loop ramps should cross street at an angle of 4 to 9 degrees.
have one lane and shoulders unless a second
lane is needed for capacity or ramp metering • Provide additional tangent length as site
purposes. Consideration should be given to conditions allow.
providing a directional ramp when loop The Angle of Intersection guidance in Index
volumes exceed 1500 vehicles per hour. If 403.3 applies to all on-ramps including loops.
two lanes are provided, normally only the
right lane needs to be widened for trucks. See (9) Distance Between Successive On-ramps. The
Topic 404 for additional discussion on lane minimum distance between two successive
widths and design of ramp intersections to on-ramps to a freeway lane should be the
accommodate the design vehicle. See Index distance needed to provide the standard on-
504.3(1) for a discussion regarding on-ramp ramp acceleration taper shown on Figure
widening for trucks. 504.2A. This distance should be about
1,000 feet unless the upstream ramp adds an
Radii for loop ramps should normally range auxiliary lane in which case the downstream
from 150 feet to 200 feet. Increasing the radii ramp should merge with the auxiliary lane in a
beyond 200 feet is typically not cost effective standard 50:1 (longitudinal to lateral)
as the slight increase in design speed is convergence. The distance between on-ramp
usually outweighed by the increased right of noses will then be controlled by interchange
way requirements and the increased travel geometry.
December 16, 2016
Figure 504.3J
Transition to Two-lane Exit Ramp
December 16, 2016
Figure 504.3K
Two-Lane Connectors and Exit Ramps

December 16, 2016
(10) Distance Between Successive Exits. The 504.4 Freeway-to-Freeway Connections

minimum distance between successive exit
ramps for guide signing should be 1,000 feet (1) General. All of the design criteria discussed
in Indexes 501.3, 504.2 and 504.3 apply to
on the freeway and 600 feet on collector-
freeway to freeway connectors, except as
distributor roads.
discussed or modified below.
(11) Curbs. Curbs should not be used on-ramps
except in the following locations: (2) Design Speed. The design speed for single
lane directional and all branch connections
(a) A Type D curb or 4-inch Type B curb (see should be a minimum of 50 miles per hour.
Index 303.2) may be used on both sides of When smaller radius curves, with lower
the separation between freeway lanes and design speeds, are used the vertical sight
a parallel collector-distributor road. distance should be consistent with
(b) A B4 curb may be used as shown in approaching vehicle speeds. Design speed for
Figure 504.2A to control drainage or loop connectors should be consistent with the
where the gore cross slope would be radii guidance discussed in Index 504.3(8).
greater than allowed in Index 504.2(5). (3) Grades. The maximum profile grade on
When the optional B4 curb is used at the freeway-to-freeway connections should not
entrance ramp inlet nose, the shoulder exceed 6 percent. Flatter grades and longer
adjacent to the curb should be the same vertical curves than those used on ramps are
width as the ramp shoulder approaching needed to obtain increased stopping sight
the curb. The B4 gutter pan can be distance for higher design speeds.
included as part of the shoulder width. As
stated in Index 405.4(2), curbs are (4) Shoulder Width.
typically discouraged where posted speeds (a) Single-lane and Two-lane Connections--
are over 40 miles per hour. The The width of shoulders on single-lane
appropriateness of curbs at gore areas and two-lane (except as described
must be determined on a case-by-case below) freeway-to-freeway connectors
basis. shall be 5 feet on the left and 10 feet on
(c) Curbs may be used where necessary at the the right. A single lane freeway-to-
ramp connection with the local street for freeway connector that has been
the protection of pedestrians, for widened to two lanes solely to provide
channelization, and to provide passing opportunities and not due to
compatibility with the local facility. capacity requirements shall have a
5-foot left shoulder and at least a 5-foot
(d) The Type E curb may be used only in right shoulder (see Index 504.4(5)).
special drainage situations, for example,
where drainage parallels and flows against (b) Three-lane Connections--The width of
the face of a retaining wall. shoulders on three-lane connectors
shall be 10 feet on both the left and
In general, curbs should not be used on the right sides.
high side of ramps or in off-ramp gore areas
except at collector-distributor roads. The off- (5) Single-lane Connections. Freeway-to-freeway
tracking of trucks should be analyzed when connectors may be single lane or multilane.
considering curbs on ramps. Where design year volume is between 900 and
1500 equivalent passenger cars per hour,
(12) Dikes. Dikes may be used where necessary to initial construction should provide a single
control drainage. For additional information lane connection with the capability of adding
see Index 303.3. an additional lane. Single lane directional
connectors should be designed using the
general configurations shown on Figure
504.2A and 504.2B, but utilizing the flatter
December 16, 2016
divergence angle shown in Figure 504.4. Liaison and Project Delivery Coordinator
Single lane loop connectors may use a diverge should take place as early as possible. Issues
angle of as much as that shown on Figure of particular concern are adequate
504.2B for ramps, if necessary. The choice deceleration lengths to the end of the queue,
will depend upon interchange configuration potential need to widen shoulders if sight
and driver expectancy. Single lane connectors distance is restricted (particularly on-ramps
in excess of 1,000 feet in length should be with 5-foot shoulders on each side), and the
widened to two lanes to provide for passing potential for queuing back onto the freeway.
maneuvers (see Index 504.4(4)).
504.5 Auxiliary Lanes
(6) Branch Connections. A branch connection is
defined as a multilane connection between In order to ensure satisfactory operating conditions,
two freeways. A branch connection should be auxiliary lanes may be added to the basic width of
traveled way.
provided when the design year volume
exceeds 1500 equivalent passenger cars per Where an entrance ramp of one interchange is
hour. closely followed by an exit ramp of another
interchange, the acceleration and deceleration lanes
Merging branch connections should be
designed as shown in Figure 504.3L. should be joined with an auxiliary lane. Auxiliary
lanes are frequently used when the weaving
Diverging branch connections should be
distance, measured as shown in Figure 504.2A is
designed as shown in Figure 504.4. The
less than 2,000 feet. Where interchanges are more
diverging branch connection leaves the main
widely spaced and ramp volumes are high, the need
freeway lanes on a flatter angle shown in
Figure 504.4 than the standard 2-lane ramp for an auxiliary lane between the interchanges
should be determined in accordance with Index
exit connection shown in Figure 504.3J. The
504.7.
standard ramp exit connects to a local street.
The diverging branch connection connects to Auxiliary lanes may be used for the orientation of
another freeway and has a flatter angle that traffic at 2-lane ramps or branch connections as
allows a higher departure speed. illustrated on Figure 504.3K and Figure 504.4. The
length and number of auxiliary lanes in advance of
At a branch merge, a 2,500-foot length of
2-lane exits are based on percentages of turning
auxiliary lane should be provided beyond the
merge of one lane of the inlet, except where it traffic and a weaving analysis.
does not appear that capacity on the freeway Auxiliary lanes should be considered on all
will be reached until five or more years after freeway entrance ramps with significant truck
the 20 year design period. In this case the volumes. The grade, volumes and speeds should be
length of auxiliary lane should be a minimum analyzed to determine the need for auxiliary lanes.
of 1,000 feet. For diverging connections An auxiliary lane would allow entrance ramp
where less than capacity conditions beyond traffic to accelerate to a higher speed before
the design year are anticipated, the length of merging with mainline traffic, or simply provide
auxiliary lane in advance of the exit should be more opportunity to merge. See Index 504.2 for
1,300 feet. specific requirements.
(7) Lane Drops. The lane drop taper on a 504.6 Mainline Lane Reduction at
freeway-to-freeway connector should not be Interchanges
less than WV.
The basic number of mainline lanes should not be
(8) Metering. Any decision to meter freeway-to- dropped through a local service interchange. The
freeway connectors must be carefully same standard should also be applied to freeway-
considered as driver expectancy on these types to-freeway interchanges where less than 35 percent
of facilities is for high-speed uninterrupted of the traffic is turning (see Figure 504.4). Where
flow. If metering is anticipated on a more than 35 percent of the freeway traffic is
connector, discussions with the HQ Traffic turning, consideration may be given to reducing the
May 7, 2012
Figure 504.4
Diverging Branch Connections
December 16, 2016
number of lanes. No decision to reduce the number Pages 234-238 of the 1965 Highway Capacity
of lanes should be made without the approval of the Manual (HCM) provide a method for determining
District Traffic Operations Unit. Additionally, the adequacy of weaving sections near single lane
adequate structure clearance (both horizontal and ramps. It is often referred to as the LOS D method.
vertical) should be provided to accommodate future This method is also documented in Traffic Bulletin
construction of the dropped lane if required. 4 which is available from the District Division of
Traffic Operations. The LOS D method can be
Where the reduction in traffic volumes is sufficient
used to project volumes along a weaving section.
to warrant a decrease in the basic number of lanes,
These volumes can be compared to the capacities
a preferred location for the lane drop is beyond the
along the same weaving section.
influence of an interchange and preferably at least
one-half mile from the nearest exit or inlet nose. It Volumes in passenger car equivalents per hour
is desirable to drop the right lane on tangent (PCEPH) should be adjusted for freeway grade and
alignment with a straight or sag profile so vehicles truck volumes. Table 504.7C and Figures 504.7D
can merge left with good visibility to the pavement and E are reprinted from the 1965 HCM and
markings in the merge area (see Index 201.7). provide information regarding vehicle distribution
by lane.
504.7 Weaving Sections
The results obtained from Figure 504.7A (the
A weaving section is a length of one-way roadway Leisch Method) for single-lane ramps with an
where vehicles are crossing paths, changing lanes, auxiliary lane and weaving rates exceeding
or merging with through traffic as they enter or exit 2500 PCEPH should be checked using the LOS D
a freeway or collector-distributor road. method.
A single weaving section has an inlet at the Weaving capacity analyses other than those
upstream end and an exit at the downstream end. A described above should not be used on California
multiple weaving section is characterized by more highways. Other methods, such as the one
than one point of entry followed by one or more contained in the 1994 HCM, may not always
points of exit. produce accurate results.
A rough approximation for adequate length of a The criteria contained within this Index apply to:
weaving section is one foot of length per weaving
vehicle per hour. This rate will approximately • New interchanges.
provide a Level of Service (LOS) C.
• Modifications to existing interchanges
There are various methods for analyzing weaving including access control revisions for new
sections. Two methods which provide valid results ramps or the relocation/elimination of existing
are described below. ramps.
The Leisch method, which is usually considered the • Projects to increase mainline capacity when
easiest to use, is illustrated in Figure 504.7A. This existing interchanges do not meet interchange
method was developed by Jack Leisch & spacing requirements.
Associates and may be used to determine the length
of weaving sections for both freeways and Weaving sections in urban areas should be
collector-distributor roads. The Leisch weaving designed for LOS C or D. Weaving sections in
charts determine the level of service for the rural areas should be designed for LOS B or C.
weaving volumes for the length of the weaving Design rates for lane balanced weaving sections
where at least one ramp or connector will be two
section from the first panel on the lower left of the
chart. The analysis is dependent on whether the lanes should not result in a LOS lower than the
middle of LOS D using Figure 504.7A. Mainline
section is balanced or unbalanced, as defined in
Figure 504.7B. The level of service for the total through capacity is optimized when weaving
volume over all lanes of the weaving section is then movements operate at least one level of service
better than the mainline level of service. In
found from the panels on the right of the chart. The
weaving chart should not be extrapolated. determining acceptable hourly operating volumes,
peak hour factors should be used.
December 16, 2016
The minimum weaving length, measured as In Case 3 if the crossroads is near the ramp junction
shown on Figures 504.2A and 504.2B shall be at the local road, full access control should be
2,000 feet in urban areas, 5,000 feet outside acquired on the local road from the junction to the
urban areas, and 5,000 feet between freeway-to- intersection with the crossroad.
freeway interchanges and other interchanges.
Case 6 represents a slip ramp design. If the ramp is
The volumes used must be volumes unconstrained
perpendicular to the local/frontage road refer to
by metering regardless of whether metering will be
Case 3. In Case 6 if the crossroad is near the ramp
used. It should be noted that a weaving analysis
junction to the local/frontage road, access control
must be considered over an entire freeway segment
should be acquired on the opposite side of the local
as weaving can be affected by other nearby ramps.
road from the junction.
The District Traffic Operations Branch should be
consulted for difficult weaving analysis problems.
504.8 Access Control
Access rights shall be acquired along
interchange ramps to their junction with the
nearest public road. At such junctions, for new
construction, access control should extend 100 feet
beyond the end of the curb return or ramp radius in
urban areas and 300 feet in rural areas, or as far as
necessary to ensure that entry onto the facility does
not impair operational characteristics. Access
control shall extend at least 50 feet beyond the
end of the curb return, ramp radius, or taper.
Typical examples of access control at interchanges
are shown in Figure 504.8. These illustrations do
not presume to cover all situations or to indicate the
most desirable designs for all cases. When there is
state-owned access control on both sides of a local
road, a maintenance agreement may be needed.
For new construction or major reconstruction,
access rights shall be acquired on the opposite
side of the local road from ramp terminals to
preclude driveways or local roads within the
ramp intersection. This access control would
limit the volume of traffic and the number of
phases at the intersection of the ramp and local
facility, thereby optimizing capacity and operation
of the ramp. Through a combination of access
control and the use of raised median islands along
the local facility, right–in/right-out access may be
permitted beyond 200 feet from the ramp
intersection. The length of access control on both
sides of the local facility should match. See
504.3(3) for local road intersection.
In Case 2 consider private ownership within the
loop only if access to the property is an adequate
distance from the ramp junction to preserve
operational integrity.
December 16, 2016
Figure 504.7A
Design Curve for Freeway and Collector Weaving
December 16, 2016
Figure 504.7B
Lane Configuration of Weaving Sections
December 16, 2016
Table 504.7C
Percent of Through Traffic Remaining in Outer Through Lane
(Level of Service D Procedure)
Total Volume of Approximate Percentage of Through(1) Traffic Remaining in the Outer Through
Through Traffic, Lane in the Vicinity of Ramp Terminals at Level of Service D
One Direction (2)
(vph) 8-Lane Freeway 6-Lane(3)Freeway 4-Lane(4)Freeway
6500 and over 10 - -

6000 - 6499 10 - -
5500 - 5999 10 - -
5000 - 5499 9 - -
4500 - 4999 9 18 -
4000 - 4499 8 14 -
3500 - 3999 8 10 -
3000 - 3499 8 6 40
2500 - 2999 8 6 35
2000 - 2499 8 6 30
1500 - 1999 8 6 25
Up to 1499 8 6 20
NOTES:
(1) Traffic not involved in a ramp movement within 4,000 feet in either direction.
(2) 4 lanes one-way.
December 16, 2016
Figure 504.7D
Percentage Distribution of On- and Off-ramp Traffic
in Outer Through Lane and Auxiliary Lane
December 16, 2016
Figure 504.7E
Percentage of Ramp Traffic in the Outer Through Lane

(No Auxiliary Lane)
A - NORMAL CALCULATION B - CHECK CALCULATIONS
2 LANES ONE-WAY BECAUSE % IN THE OUTER THROUGH LANE AT 1,500’ IS

BELOW DASHED LINE, RECALCULATE ASSUMING ON-RAMP TRAFFIC IS
"THROUGH TRAFFIC" = 2,400 VPH THROUGH TRAFFIC.
"ON-RAMP" = 800 VPH
AMOUNT IN THE OUTER THROUGH LANE AT 1
AMOUNT IN THE OUTER THROUGH LANE AT 1 THROUGH (FROM TABLE 504.7C) 0.40 X 3,200 = 1,280
THROUGH (FROM TABLE 504.7C) = 0.30 X 2,400 = 720 SINCE CALCULATION B (1,280) IS GREATER THAN
ON-RAMP (FROM CHART ABOVE) = 0.30 X 800 = 240 CALCULATION A (960) USE 1,280.
960
*THESE PERCENTAGES ARE NOT NECESSARILY THE DISTRIBUTIONS UNDER FREE FLOW OR LIGHT RAMP TRAFFIC, BUT UNDER
PRESSURE OF HIGH VOLUMES IN THE RIGHT LANES AT THE LOCATION BEING CONSIDERED AND WITH AVAILABLE ROOM IN
OTHER LANES.
NOTE:
IF RAMP PERCENTAGE IN THE OUTER THROUGH LANE AT POINT UNDER CONSIDERATION IS BELOW DASHED LINE, THEN
AMOUNT IN THE OUTER THROUGH LANE SHOULD BE RECALCULATED ASSUMING RAMP TRAFFIC IS THROUGH TRAFFIC. USE
HIGHER VALUE. SEE EXAMPLE ABOVE.
December 16, 2016
Figure 504.8
Typical Examples of Access
Control at Interchanges
December 16, 2016
Figure 504.8 (cont.)

Typical Examples of Access
Control at Interchanges
May 7, 2012
The guidelines and standards found in this manual

CHAPTERS 600 – 670 should be considered minimum standards and
PAVEMENT ENGINEERING should not preclude sound engineering judgment
based on experience and knowledge of the local
conditions. Sound engineering judgment must still
CHAPTER 600 be used to determine if more stringent standards
GENERAL ASPECTS are required.
Topic 601 - Introduction Topic 602 – Pavement Structure

Pavement engineering involves the determination Layers
of the type and thickness of pavement surface
Index 602.1 Description
course, base, and subbase layers that in
combination are cost effective and structurally Pavement structures are comprised of one or more
adequate for the projected traffic loading and layers of select materials placed above the
specific project conditions. This combination of subgrade. The basic pavement layers of the
roadbed materials placed in layers above the roadway are shown in Figure 602.1 and discussed
subgrade (also known as basement soil) is referred below.
to as the "pavement" or the "pavement structure".
(1) Subgrade. Also referred to as basement soil,
The Department guidelines and standards for the subgrade is that portion of the roadbed
pavements described in this manual are based on consisting of native or treated soil on which
extensive engineering research and field surface course, base, subbase, or a layer of any
experience, including the following: other material is placed. Subgrade may be
composed of either in-place material that is
• Theoretical concepts in pavement engineering exposed from excavation, or embankment
and analysis. material that is placed to elevate the roadway
• Data obtained from test track studies and above the surrounding ground. Subgrade soil
experimental sections. characteristics are discussed in Topic 614.
• Research on materials characteristics, testing (2) Subbase. Unbound or treated
methods, and equipment. aggregate/granular material that is placed on
the subgrade as a foundation or working
• Observation of performance throughout the platform for the base. It functions primarily as
State and the nation. structural support but it can also minimize the
The pavement should be engineered using the intrusion of fines from the subgrade into the
standards and guidance described in this manual to pavement structure, improve drainage, and
ensure consistency throughout the State and minimize frost action damage. The subbase
provide a pavement structure that will have generally consists of lower quality materials
adequate strength, ride quality, and durability to than the base but better than the subgrade
carry the projected traffic loads for the design life soils. Subbase may not be needed in areas
of each project. The final pavement structure for with higher quality subgrade (California R-
each project should be based on a thorough value > 40) or where it is more cost effective
investigation of specific project conditions to build a thicker base layer. Further
including subgrade soils and structural materials, discussion on subbase materials and concepts
environmental conditions, projected traffic, cost can be found in Chapter 660.
effectiveness, and the performance of other (3) Base. Select, processed, and/or treated
pavements in the same area or similar climatic and aggregate material that is placed immediately
traffic conditions. These factors are discussed in below the surface course. It provides
Chapter 610 of this manual. additional load distribution and contributes to
May 7, 2012
drainage and frost resistance. Base may be These types of pavements rely on the
one or multiple layers treated with cement, substantially higher stiffness of the
asphalt or other binder material, or may concrete slab to distribute the traffic loads
consist of untreated aggregate. In some cases, over a relatively wide area of underlying
the base may include a drainage layer to drain layers and the subgrade. Some rigid
water that seeps into the base. The aggregate concrete slabs have reinforcing steel to
in base is typically a higher quality material help resist cracking due to temperature
than that used in subbase. Further discussion changes and repeated loading. Procedures
on base materials and concepts can be found for rigid pavements can be found in
in Chapter 660. Chapter 620.
(4) Surface Course. One or more layers of the (c) Composite Pavements. These are
pavement structure engineered to pavements comprised of both flexible
accommodate and distribute traffic loads, (asphalt binder mixes) and rigid (cement
provide skid resistance, minimize concrete) layers over underlying layers of
disintegrating effects of climate, reduce stabilized or unstabilized base or subbase
tire/pavement noise, improve surface drainage, materials. Currently, for purposes of the
and minimize infiltration of surface water into procedures in this manual, only pavements
the underlying base, subbase and subgrade. with a flexible layer over a rigid surface
Sometimes referred to as the surface layer, the layer are considered to be composite
surface course may be composed of a single pavements. In California, such pavements
layer, constructed in one or more lifts of the consist mostly of existing rigid pavements
same material, or multiple layers of different (typically Portland cement concrete) that
materials. have had a flexible surface course overlay
such as hot mix asphalt (HMA) (formerly
Depending on the type of base or subbase
known as asphalt concrete), open graded
layers, surface courses are used to characterize
friction course (OGFC) (formerly known
pavements into the following three categories:
as open graded asphalt concrete), or
(a) Flexible Pavements. These are pavements rubberized hot mix asphalt (RHMA)
engineered to bend or flex when loaded. (formerly known as rubberized asphalt
Flexible pavements transmit and distribute concrete). See Chapter 640 for additional
traffic loads to the underlying layers. The information on composite pavements.
highest quality layer is the surface course,
(5) Non-Structural Wearing Course. On some
which typically consists of one or more
pavements, a non-structural wearing course is
layers of asphalt binder mixes and may or
placed to protect the surface course from wear
may not incorporate underlying layers of
and tear from tire/pavement interaction, the
base and/or subbase. These types of
weather, and other environmental factors.
pavements are called "flexible" because
Examples of non-structural wearing courses
the total pavement structure bends (or
include OGFC, various types of surface seals,
flexes) to accommodate deflection
and added surface course thickness to allow
bending under traffic loads. Procedures
for chain wear or grinding. Although non-
for flexible pavements can be found in
structural wearing courses are not given a
Chapter 630.
structural value in the procedures and tables
(b) Rigid Pavements. These are pavements found in this manual, they will improve the
with a rigid surface course typically a slab service life of the pavement by protecting it
of Portland cement concrete (or a variety from traffic and environmental effects.
of specialty hydraulic cement concrete
(6) Others. Depending on the type of pavement
mixes used for rapid strength concrete)
built and the subgrade or existing soil
over underlying layers of stabilized or
conditions encountered, additional layers may
unstabilized base or subbase materials.
May 7, 2012
be included in the pavement. Some of these projects such as lane/shoulders additions, auxiliary
layers include: lanes, climbing or passing lanes, etc., the existing
adjacent pavement condition should be
(a) Interlayers can be used between pavement
investigated to determine if rehabilitation or
layers or within pavement layers to
pavement preservation is warranted. If warranted,
reinforce pavement and/or improve
combining rehabilitation or pavement preservation
resistance to reflective cracking of the
work with widening is strongly encouraged.
pavement structure.
Combining widening with work on existing
(b) Bond Breakers are used to prevent pavement can minimize traffic delay and long-
bonding between two pavement layers term costs. For example, grinding the adjoining
such as rigid pavement surface course to a rigid pavement lane next to the proposed widening
stabilized base. can improve constructability and provide a
(c) Tack Coats are used to bond a layer of smoother pavement surface for the widening. For
asphalt binder mix to underlying existing flexible pavement projects, a minimum of
pavement layers or between layers of 0.15 foot overlay over the widening and existing
asphalt binder mixes where multiple lifts pavement should be used to eliminate pavement
are required. joints which are susceptible to water intrusion and
early fatigue failure.
(d) Prime Coats can be used on aggregate
base prior to paving for better bonding and Additional guidance and requirements on
to act as water proofing of the aggregate widening existing facilities, including possible
base. options as well as certain circumstances that may
justify adding rehabilitation or pavement
(e) Leveling Courses are used to fill and level preservation work to widening, or deferring it, are
surface irregularities and ruts before discussed in Index 612.3.
placing overlays.
603.3 Pavement Preservation
Topic 603 – Types of Pavement Pavement Preservation has two main categories or
Projects programs:
(1) Preventive Maintenance. Preventive
603.1 New Construction
maintenance projects are used to provide
New construction is the building of a new facility. preventive treatments to preserve pavements
This includes new roadways, interchanges or in good condition. These projects are
grade separation crossings, and new parking lots typically done by Department Maintenance
or safety roadside rest areas. forces or through the Major Maintenance
Program. The District Maintenance Engineer
603.2 Widening
typically determines which preventive
Widening projects involve the construction of treatment to apply and when. Examples of
additional width to improve traffic flow and preventive maintenance projects include:
increase capacity on an existing highway facility.
Widening may involve adding lanes (including • Removal and replacement of a non-
transit or bicycle lanes), shoulders, pullouts for structural wearing course (for example,
maintenance/transit traffic; or widening existing open graded friction courses);
lane, shoulder or pullouts. • Thin non-structural overlays less than or
It is often not cost-effective or desirable to widen a equal to 0.08 foot (or 0.10 foot when
highway without correcting for bad ride and major needed to enhance compaction in colder
structural problems in adjacent pavements when temperatures);
that work is needed. Therefore, on widening
November 2, 2012
Figure 602.1
Basic Pavement Layers of the Roadway
NOTES:
1. These illustrations are only to show nomenclature and are not to be used for geometric cross section
details. For these, see Chapter 300.
2. Pavement drainage design, both on divided and undivided highways, are illustrated and discussed under
Chapter 650.
3. Only flexible and rigid pavements shown. Composite pavements are the same as rigid pavements with a
flexible layer overlay.
4. See Index 626.2 for criteria for when and how to use flexible or rigid shoulders.
May 7, 2012
• Replacing joint seals; crack sealing; Maintenance) projects than to roadway

grinding or grooving rigid pavement rehabilitation projects. CAPM projects
surface to improve friction; involve non-structural overlays and repairs,
which do not require Traffic Index
• Grinding rigid pavement to eliminate calculations or deflection studies. CAPM
rutting from chain wear; projects include all appropriate items or work
• Seal coats; slurry seals; and necessary to construct and address impacts
microsurfacing. from the pavement. See DIB 82 for required
work regarding accessibility for persons with
Traffic safety and other operational disabilities. Limited drainage and traffic
improvements, geometric upgrades, or operational work can also be included when
widening are normally not included in appropriate, but they do not include major
preventative maintenance projects. Strategies facility upgrades like widening, geometric
and guidelines on preventive maintenance upgrades, or roadside upgrades. Further
treatments currently used by the Department information on CAPM strategies, including
are available in the Maintenance Policy appropriate drainage/operational work and
Directive. Note that such strategies are other guidance for CAPM projects, can be
periodically updated. found in the CAPM Guidelines.
(2) Capital Preventive Maintenance (CAPM). Examples of CAPM projects include:
Capital Preventive Maintenance (CAPM) is a
program of short-term (5 to less than 20 years) • Surface course overlays less than or equal
repair projects agreed to between the to 0.20 foot (0.25 foot if International
Department and FHWA in 1994. Detailed Roughness Index >170 in/mile).
information regarding the CAPM program can
• Removal and replacement of surface
be found in Design Information Bulletin 81.
course (not to exceed the depth of the
CAPM Guidelines available on the
surface course overlay).
Department Pavement website and in Chapters
620, 630 and 640 of this manual. • Surface in-place recycling projects.
(Overlay to not exceed 0.20 foot for Hot
The primary purpose of the CAPM program is
Mix Asphalt and 0.15 foot for Rubberized
to repair pavement exhibiting minor surface
Hot Mix Asphalt.)
distress and/or triggered ride (International
Roughness Index (IRI) greater than 170 inches • Individual rigid pavement slab
per mile) as determined by the Pavement replacements or punchout repairs.
Condition Survey (PCS) and the Pavement
Management System (PMS). Ride • Diamond grinding of rigid pavements to
improvement and preservation of eliminate faulting or restore ride quality to
serviceability are key elements of this an acceptable level.
program. Timely application of CAPM • Dowel bar retrofit.
treatments will postpone the need for major
roadway rehabilitation and is generally more Items that are not considered CAPM include:
cost effective than having to rehabilitate • Crack, seat, and overlay of rigid
pavements exhibiting major distress. CAPM pavements.
gives the districts the flexibility to make the
most effective use of all funds available in the • Surface course overlays greater than
biennial State Highway Operation and 0.25 foot.
Protection Plan (SHOPP). • Removal and replacement of more than
Since the CAPM program is part of pavement 0.25 foot of the surface course (unless the
preservation, CAPM projects are more closely work is incidental to maintaining an
related to preventive maintenance (Major existing vertical clearance or to conform
to existing bridges or pavements).
November 2, 2012
• Lane/shoulder replacements (including • Crack, seat, and overlay of rigid pavements

pulverization and other base regardless of overlay thickness.
restoration/recycling projects).
• Lane/shoulder replacements.
Projects that require these types of treatments
Roadway rehabilitation strategies for rigid,
are roadway rehabilitation projects and should
flexible and composite pavements are discussed in
meet those standards, see Index 603.4.
Chapters 620, 630 and 640. Additional
603.4 Roadway Rehabilitation information and guidance on roadway
rehabilitation, including determining whether the
The primary purpose of roadway rehabilitation
project fits 2R or 3R screening criteria, and other
projects is to return roadways that exhibit major
rehabilitation projects may also be found in the
structural distress, to good condition. Many of
Design Information Bulletin, Number 79 - "Design
these structural distresses indicate failure of the
Guidance and Standards for Roadway
surface course and underlying base layers.
Rehabilitation Projects" and in the PDPM Chapter
Roadway rehabilitation work is generally regarded
9, Article 5.
as major, non-routine maintenance work
engineered to preserve and extend the service life 603.5 Reconstruction
as well as provide upgrades to enhance safety
Pavement reconstruction is the replacement of the
where needed. As described in Design
entire existing pavement structure by the
Information Bulletin 79, Section 1.2, rehabilitation
placement of the equivalent or increased pavement
criteria also apply to minor projects and certain
structure. Reconstruction usually requires the
other projects in addition to roadway rehabilitation
complete removal and replacement of the existing
projects. Roadway rehabilitation is different from
pavement structure utilizing either new or recycled
pavement preservation that simply preserves or
materials. Reconstruction is required when a
repairs the facility to a good condition.
pavement has either failed or has become
Roadway rehabilitation projects are divided into structurally or functionally outdated.
2R (Resurfacing and Restoration) and 3R
Reconstruction features typically include the
(Resurfacing, Restoration and Rehabilitation).
addition of lanes, as well as significant change to
Roadway rehabilitation projects should address
the horizontal or vertical alignment of the
other highway appurtenances such as pedestrian
highway. Although reconstruction is often done
and bicyclist facilities, drainage facilities lighting,
for other reasons than pavement repair
signal controllers, and fencing that are failing,
(realignment, vertical curve correction, improve
worn out or functionally obsolete. Also, unlike
vertical clearance, etc.), it can be done as an option
pavement preservation projects, geometric
to rehabilitation when the existing pavement meets
enhancements and operational improvements may
any of the following conditions:
be added to roadway rehabilitation work if such
work is critical or required by FHWA standards. • Is in a substantially distressed condition and
Where conditions warrant, quieter pavement rehabilitation strategies will not restore the
strategies could be used to reduce tire/pavement pavement to a good condition; or
noise. In certain cases, where traditional noise
abatement is infeasible, quieter pavement • Grade restrictions prevent overlaying the
strategies may be considered as an alternative. pavement to meet the pavement design life
See Chapter 1100 for additional information on requirements for a rehabilitation project; or
highway traffic noise abatement. • Life cycle costs for rehabilitation are greater
Examples of roadway rehabilitation projects than those for reconstruction.
include: Reconstruction differs from lane/shoulder
• Overlay. replacement roadway rehabilitation options in that
lane/shoulder replacements typically involve
• Removal and replacement of the surface replacing isolated portions of the roadway width
course. whereas reconstruction is the removal and
November 2, 2012
replacement of the entire roadway width. and specifications for a Contractor to bid and
Incidental rebuilding of existing pavements for build the project.
rehabilitation in order to conform to bridges,
The PE coordinates with the Structures
existing pavement, or meet vertical clearance
District Liaison Engineer and Division of
standards are also considered a rehabilitation and
Engineering Services (DES) staff for the
not reconstruction. Storm or earthquake damage
proper selection and engineering of any
repair (i.e., catastrophic) also are not considered
structure approach system including the
reconstruction projects.
adequacy of all drainage ties between the
Pavement reconstruction projects are to follow the structure approach drainage features and other
same standards as new construction found in this new or existing drainage facilities. The PE
manual unless noted otherwise. should contact the Structures District Liaison
Engineer as early as possible in the project
603.6 Temporary Pavements and Detours development process to facilitate timely
Temporary pavements and detours are constructed review and project scheduling.
to temporarily carry traffic anticipated during (3) District Materials Engineer (DME). The
construction. These types of pavements should be DME is responsible for materials information
engineered using the standards and procedures for for pavement projects in the district. The
new construction except where noted otherwise. District Materials Unit is responsible for
conducting or reviewing the findings of a
Topic 604 - Roles and preliminary soils and other materials
Responsibilities investigation to evaluate the quality of the
materials available for constructing the
604.1 Roles and Responsibilities for project. The DME prepares or reviews the
Pavement Engineering Materials Report for each project; provides
The roles and responsibilities listed below apply recommendations to and in continuous
only to pavement engineering. consultation with the Project Engineer
throughout planning and design, and with the
(1) Pavement Engineer. The pavement engineer PE and Resident Engineer during construction;
is the engineer who performs pavement and coordinates Materials information with the
calculations, develops pavement structure Department functional units, Material
recommendations, details, or plans. The Engineering and Testing Services (METS),
pavement engineer can be the Project Headquarters functional units, local agencies,
Engineer, District Materials Engineer, District industry, and consultants.
Maintenance Engineer, consultant, or other
staff engineer responsible for this task. (4) District Pavement Advisor (DPA). The DPA
manages and coordinates overall pavement
(2) Project Engineer (PE). The PE is the strategies for the District. They are primarily
registered civil engineer in responsible charge involved in pavement management such as
of appropriate project development documents identifying future pavement preservation,
(i.e., Project Study Report, Project Report, and rehabilitation, and reconstruction needs, and
PS&E) and coordinates all aspects of project prioritizing pavement projects to meet those
development. The PE is responsible for needs. The DPA establishes pavement
project technical decisions, engineering projects and reviews planning documents
quality (quality control), and estimates. This prepared by the PE for consistency with
includes collaborating with the District overall District and statewide goals for
Materials Engineer, District Pavement Advisor pavements. The District Pavement Advisor is
and other subject matter experts regarding typically either the District Maintenance
pavement details and selecting pavement Engineer or another individual within District
strategy for new and rehabilitation projects. Maintenance.
The PE clearly conveys pavement related
decisions and information on the project plans
November 2, 2012
(5) Pavement Program (PP). The PP, within the Reports based upon studies and
Division of Maintenance (DOM) is information supplied by the District.
responsible for statewide standards and
• Structure Design (SD): Structure Design
guidelines for the pavement engineering
is responsible for selecting the type of
process. The DOM Assistant Division Chief
structure approach system to be used when
for Pavement Program serves as the State
the construction or rehabilitation of a
Pavement Engineer for the Department.
structure approach slab is necessary.
The PP Office of Concrete Pavement and
Pavement Foundations (OCPPF) and Asphalt 604.2 Other Resources
Pavement (OAP) are responsible for The following resources provide additional
maintaining pavement engineering standards, standards and guidance related to pavement
specifications, standard plans, design engineering. Much of this information can be
methodologies, design software, and practices found on the Department Pavement website, see
that are used state wide. OCPPF and OAP category (5) below.
also provide technical expertise on material
properties and products for pavements. (1) Standard Plans. These are collections of
OCPPF and OAP work closely with the commonly used engineering details intended
District Materials Engineers, Maintenance to provide consistency for contractors, resident
Engineers, and Resident Engineers to engineers and maintenance engineers in
investigate ongoing field and materials issues. defining the scope of work for projects, assist
in the biddability of the project contract plans,
(6) State Pavement Engineer. The State and assist maintenance in maintaining the
Pavement Engineer provides leadership and facility. The standard plans were developed
commitment to ensure safe, effective, and based on research and field experience and in
environmentally sensitive highway pavements consultation with industry. Standard plans for
that improve mobility across California. The pavement should not be altered or modified
State Pavement Engineer is responsible for without the prior written approval of the
conveying clear direction and priorities on Chief, Office of Concrete Pavement and
pavement initiatives, policies, and standards Pavement Foundations. Standard plans for
that reflect departmental goals; and for the pavements can be found on the Department
implementation of pavement policies, Pavement website.
standards, and specifications.
(2) Standard Specifications and Standard Special
(7) Division of Engineering Services (DES). The Provisions. The Standard Specifications
following units within DES provide services provide material descriptions, properties and
that relate to pavements: work quality requirements, contract
administration requirements, and measurement
• Materials and Geotechnical Services:
The Materials and Geotechnical Services and payment clauses for items used in the
project. The Standard Special Provisions are
subdivision consists of the Materials unit
additional specification standards used to
(formerly Materials Engineering and
modify the Standard Specifications including
Testing Services (METS)) and the
descriptions, quality requirements, and
Geotechnical Services (GS) unit. The
measurement and payment for the project
Materials unit is responsible for
work and materials. When no Standard
conducting laboratory testing, field
testing, specialized field inspections, and Specification or Standard Special Provision
exists for new or proprietary items, the
maintaining the test method procedures
Pavement Program must review and concur
forthe Department. The GS unit provides
with a special provision. For further
the Districts, Structures, and Headquarters
information, see the Specifications section on
with expertise and guidance in soil related
investigations and groundwater issues, GS the Department Pavement website.
prepares or reviews Geotechnical Design
November 2, 2012
(3) Pavement Technical Guidance. Pavement of pavements. This document is not a

Technical Guidance is a collection of standards manual or guideline, rather, it
supplemental guidance and manuals regarding supplements the standards, definitions, and
pavement engineering which is intended to guidance in this manual. Because of copyright
assist project engineers, pavement engineers, issues, the Pavement Interactive Guide is only
materials engineers, consultants, construction available to Department employees on the
oversight personnel, and maintenance workers Pavement intranet, or internal, website.
in making informed decisions on pavement
(7) The AASHTO “Guide for Design of Pavement
structural engineering, constructability and
Structures. Although not adopted by the
maintainability issues. Information includes,
Department, the AASHTO "Guide for Design
but is not limited to, resources for assistance in
of Pavement Structures" is a comprehensive
decision making, rigid, flexible and composite
reference guide that provides background that
pavement rehabilitation strategies, pavement
is helpful to those involved in engineering of
preservation strategies, and guidelines for the
pavement structures. This reference is on file
use of various products and materials.
in the Pavement Program and a copy should
Technical assistance is also available from the
be available in each District. Engineering
Pavement Program to assist with pavements
procedures included in the AASHTO Guide
that utilize new materials, methods, and
are used by FHWA to check the adequacy of
products. These Technical Guidance
the specific pavement structures adopted for
documents may be accessed on the
the Department projects, as well as the
Department Pavement website.
procedures and standards included in Chapters
(4) Supplemental District Standards and 600 - 670 of this manual.
Guidance. Some Districts have developed
additional pavement standards and guidance to Topic 605 – Record Keeping
address local issues. Such guidance adds to or
supplements the standards found in this 605.1 Documentation
manual, the Standard Plans, the Standard One complete copy of the documentation for the
Specifications, and Standard Special type of pavement selected should be retained in
Provisions. District guidance does not replace permanent District Project History files as well as
minimum statewide standards unless the State subsequent updates of construction changes to the
Pavement Engineer has approved an pavement structure. The documentation must
exception. Supplemental District Guidance contain the following:
can be obtained by contacting the District
Materials Engineer. • Pavement design life (including both the
construction year and design year),
(5) Department Pavement website. The
Department Pavement website provides a one- • The California R-values and unified soil
stop resource for those seeking to find classification of the subgrade soil,
standards, guidance, reports, approved • The California R-value(s) or strength
software, and other resource tools related to properties for the materials selected for the
pavements. The Department Pavement subbase and/or base layers,
website can be accessed at
http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/esc/Translab/OPD/Division • The Traffic Index (TI) for each pavement
ofDesign-Pavement-Program.htm. structure, and
(6) Pavement Interactive Guide. The Pavement • Life cycle cost analysis (including the data
Interactive Guide is a reference tool developed required for the life-cycle cost analysis) and
by the Department in partnership with other other factors mentioned in Topic 619.
states. It includes discussion and definitions
to terms and practices used in pavement
engineering that are intended to aid design
engineers in obtaining a better understanding
November 2, 2012
605.2 Subsequent Revisions • Utilize experimental products or procedures

(such as mechanistic-empirical engineering
Any subsequent changes in pavement structures
method) not covered in the engineering tables
must be documented and processed in accordance
or methods found in this manual or
with the appropriate instructions stated above and
accompanying technical guidance.
with proper reference to the original design.
Special designs must be submitted to the
Topic 606 - Research and Special Headquarters Pavement Program, Office of
Designs Concrete Pavement and Pavement Foundations
(OCPPF) either electronically or as hard copies.
606.1 Research and Experimentation Hard copy submittals must be in duplicate. All
submittals must include the proposed pavement
Research and experimentation are undertaken on structure(s) and a location strip map (project title
an ongoing basis to provide improved methods sheet is acceptable). The letter of transmittal
and standards, which take advantage of new
should include the following:
technology, materials, and practices. They may
involve investigations of new materials, • Pavement design life, including both the
construction methods, and/or new engineering construction year and design year
procedures. Submittal of new ideas by (See Topic 612).
Headquarters and District staff, especially those
• The California R-value(s) and unified soil
involved in the engineering, construction,
classification of the subgrade soil(s)
maintenance, paving materials, and performance
(See Indexes 614.2 and 614.3).
of the pavement, is encouraged. Research
proposals should be sent to the Division of • The California R-value(s) or strength
Research and Innovation in Headquarters for properties for the materials selected for the
review and consideration. Suggestions for research subbase and/or base layers (See Tables 663.1A
studies and changes in pavement standards may and 663.1B).
also be submitted to the State Pavement Engineer.
The Pavement Program must approve pilot • The Traffic Index (TI) for each pavement
projects and experimental construction features structure (See Indexes 613.3 & 613.4).
before undertaking such projects. District • Justification for the “special” design(s).
Maintenance should also be engaged in the
discussion involving pilot projects and OCPPF will act as the Headquarters focal point to
experimental construction features. Experimental obtain concurrence of Pavement Program and
sections must be clearly marked so that District other Headquarters functional units as needed
Maintenance can easily locate and maintain such prior to OCPPF granting approval of the “special”
sites. designs.
606.2 Special Designs 606.3 Mechanistic-Empirical Design

Special designs must be fully justified and Mechanistic-Empirical (ME) Design is currently
submitted to the Headquarters Pavement Program, under development by the Department, FHWA,
Office of Concrete Pavement and Pavement AASHTO and other States. On March 10, 2005,
Foundations (OCPPF) for approval. “Special” the Department committed to develop ME Design
designs defined as those designs that meet either as an alternative and possible replacement of
or both of the following criteria: current methods. The Department is currently
working on the procedures and criteria for
• Involve products, methods, or strategies which performing this analysis. Until the criteria are
either reduce the structural thickness to less established and the methodology verified,
than what is determined by the standards and ME Design will be considered experimental and
procedures of this manual and accompanying cannot, at this time, be used to engineer pavements
technical guidance, or on the State highway system or other roads
maintained by the State.
November 2, 2012

The use of proprietary materials and methods on
State highway projects is discussed in
Topic 110.10.
May 7, 2012
• Cost comparisons (initial and life-cycle)

CHAPTER 610 The above factors should be thoroughly
PAVEMENT ENGINEERING investigated when selecting a pavement structure
CONSIDERATIONS and addressed specifically in all project documents
(PSSR, PSR, PR, PS&E, etc). The final decision
Topic 611 - Factors In Selecting on pavement type should be the most economical
design based on life-cycle cost analysis (see
Pavement Type Topic 619.)
Index 611.1 Pavement Type Selection The principal factors considered in selecting
The types of pavement generally considered for pavement structures are discussed as follows in
new construction and rehabilitation in California Topics 612 through 619.
are rigid, flexible and composite pavements. Rigid
pavement should be considered as a potential Topic 612 - Pavement Design Life
alternative for all Interstate and other high traffic 612.1 Definition
volume interregional freeways. Flexible pavement
should be considered as a potential alternative for Pavement design life, also referred to as
all other State highway facilities. Composite performance period, is the period of time that a
pavement, which consists of a flexible layer over a newly constructed or rehabilitated pavement is
rigid pavement have mostly been used for engineered to perform before reaching a condition
maintenance and rehabilitation of rigid pavements that requires CAPM, (see Index 603.4). The
on State highway facilities. selected pavement design life varies depending on
the characteristics of the highway facility, the
611.2 Selection Criteria objective of the project, and projected traffic
Because physical conditions and other factors volume and loading. The strategy or pavement
considered in selecting pavement type vary structure selected for any project should provide
significantly from location to location, the Project the minimum pavement design life that meets or
Engineer must evaluate each project individually to exceeds the objective of the project as described in
determine the most appropriate and cost-effective Topics 612 through 619.
pavement type to be used. The evaluation should 612.2 New Construction and Reconstruction
be based on good engineering judgment utilizing
the best information available during the planning The minimum pavement design life for new
and design phases of the project together with a construction and reconstruction projects shall
systematic consideration of the following project be no less than the values in Table 612.2 or the
specific conditions: project design period (see Index 103.2),
whichever is greater.
• Pavement design life
612.3 Widening
• Traffic considerations
Additional consideration is needed when
• Soils characteristics
determining the design life for pavement widening.
• Weather (climate zones) Factors to consider include the remaining service
life of the adjacent pavement, planned future
• Existing pavement type and condition
projects (including maintenance and rehabilitation),
• Availability of materials and future corridor plans for any additional lane
• Recycling widening and shoulders. The pavement design
life for widening projects shall either match the
• Maintainability remaining pavement service
• Constructibility
July 24, 2009
Table 612.2
Pavement Design Life for New Construction and Reconstruction
Pavement Design Life (Years)
AADT(3) <150,000(1) AADT ≥ 150,000(1)
Facility or
and
AADTT <15,000(1)
(4) AADTT ≥ 15,000(1)
Mainline Traveled Way 20 or 40 (2) 40

Ramp Traveled Way 20 or 40 (2) 40
Shoulders:
≤5 ft wide Match adjacent traveled way 40
>5 ft wide: First 2 ft Match adjacent traveled way 40
Remaining width (5) 20 20
Intersections 20 or 40 (2) 40
Roadside Facilities 20 20
NOTES:
(1) Projected mainline AADT and AADTT in both directions, 20 years after construction
(2) Use design life with lowest life-cycle cost (See Topic 619)
(3) Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT)
(4) Annual Average Daily Truck Traffic (AADTT)
(5) If the shoulder is expected to be converted to a traffic lane with the pavement design life, it should
be engineered to match the same pavement design life as the adjacent traveled way.
November 2, 2012
life of the adjacent roadway (but not less than life cycle cost analysis procedures. Life-cycle cost
the project design period as defined in analysis is discussed further in Topic 619.
Index 103.2), or the pavement design life values
in Table 612.2 depending on which has the
612.6 Temporary Pavements and Detours
lowest life-cycle costs. Life-cycle cost analysis is Temporary pavements and detours should be
discussed further in Topic 619. engineered to accommodate the anticipated traffic
When widening a roadway, the existing pavement loading that the pavement will experience during
should be rehabilitated and brought up to the same the construction period. The minimum design life
life expectancy as the new widened portion of the for temporary pavements and detours should be no
roadway. less than the construction period for the project.
This period may range from a few months to
612.4 Pavement Preservation several years depending on the type, size and
complexity of the project.
(1) Preventive Maintenance: Because preventive
maintenance projects involve non-structural 612.7 Non-Structural Wearing Courses
overlays, seals, grinds, or repairs, they are not
engineered to meet a minimum structural As described in Index 602.1(5), a non-structural
design life like other types of pavement wearing course is used on some pavements to
projects. Their intended goal is to extend the ensure that the underlying layers will be protected
service life of an existing pavement structure from wear and tear from tire/pavement interaction,
while it is in good condition. Typically, for the weather, and other environmental factors for the
preventive maintenance, the added service life intended design life of the pavement. Because non-
can vary from a couple of years to over structural wearing courses are not considered to
7 years depending on the strategy being used contribute to pavement structural capacity, they are
and the condition of the existing pavement. not expected to meet the same design life criteria as
the structural layers. However, when selecting
(2) Capital Preventive Maintenance: The materials, mix designs and thickness of these
strategies used for CAPM projects have been courses, appropriate evaluation and sound
engineered to extend the service life of a engineering judgment should be used to optimize
pavement that exhibits minor distress and/or performance and minimize the need for
triggered ride (International Roughness Index maintenance of the wearing course and the
(IRI) greater than 170 inches per mile) by a underlying structural layers. Based on experience,
minimum of 5 years. Some strategies such as a properly engineered non-structural wearing
rigid pavement diamond grinding, slab course placed on new pavement should perform
replacement, punchout repairs, and dowel bar adequately for 10 or more years, and 5 or more
retrofit can last at least 10 years. years when placed on existing pavement as a part
of rehabilitation or preventive maintenance.
612.5 Roadway Rehabilitation
The minimum pavement design life for roadway Topic 613 - Traffic Considerations
rehabilitation projects shall be 20 years except
for roadways with existing rigid pavements or 613.1 Overview
with a current Annual Average Daily Traffic Pavements are engineered to carry the truck traffic
(AADT) of at least 15,000 vehicles, where the loads expected during the pavement design life.
minimum pavement design life shall be 20 or Truck traffic, which includes transit vehicles trucks
40 years depending on which design life has the and truck-trailers, is the primary factor affecting
lowest life-cycle costs. At the discretion of the pavement design life and its serviceability.
District, a 40-year pavement design life may be Passenger cars and pickups are
considered and evaluated for all projects with an
AADT less than 15,000 using the Department’s
May 7, 2012
considered to have negligible effect when responsible for developing traffic projections
determining traffic loads. (including truck volumes, equivalent single
axle loads, and TIs) used for planning and
Truck traffic information that is currently required
engineering of State highways in the District.
for pavement engineering includes projected
The Project Engineer should coordinate with
volume for each of four categories of truck and
the forecasting unit in their District early in the
transit vehicle types by axle classification (2-, 3-, 4-
project development process to obtain the
, and 5-axles or more). When the Department
required traffic projections.
adopts the Mechanistic – Empirical (ME) design
method, additional information such as axle (2) Design Year Annual Average Daily Truck
configurations (single, tandem, tridem, and quad), Traffic (AADTT): An expansion factor obtained
axle loads, and number of load repetitions would from the traffic forecasting unit is used to
also be required. This information is used to project current AADTT to the design year
estimate anticipated traffic loading and AADTT for each axle classification (see Table
performance of the pavement structure. The 613.3A). In its simplest form, the expansion
Department currently estimates traffic loading by factor is a straight-line projection of the current
using established constants for a 10-, 20-, 30-, or one-way AADTT data. When using the
40-year pavement design life to convert truck straight-line projection, the truck traffic data is
traffic data into 18-kip equivalent single axle loads projected to find the AADTT at the midway of
(ESALs). The total projected ESALs during the the design life. This represents the average one-
pavement design life are in turn converted into a way AADTT for each axle classification during
Traffic Index (TI) that is used to determine the pavement design life.
minimum pavement thickness. Another method for
When other than a straight-line projection of
estimating pavement loading known as Axle Load
current truck traffic data is used for engineering
Spectra is currently under development by the
purposes, the procedure to be followed in
Department for future use with the Mechanistic-
developing design year traffic projections will
Empirical (ME) design procedure.
depend on travel forecast information for the
613.2 Traffic Volume Projections region. In such cases, the projections require a
coordinated effort from the District's Division
(1) Traffic Volume and Loading Data. In order to of Transportation Planning and Traffic
determine expected traffic loads on a pavement Operations, working closely with the Regional
it is first necessary to determine projected Agencies to establish realistic values for truck
traffic volumes during the design life for the traffic growth rates based on travel patterns,
facility. land use changes, and other socioeconomic
Traffic volume or loading on State highways factors.
can come from vehicle counts and Due to various changes in travel patterns, land
classification, weigh-in-motion (WIM) stations, use changes, and other socioeconomic factors
or the Truck Traffic (Annual Average Daily that may significantly affect design year traffic
Truck Traffic) on California State Highways projections, the TI for facilities with longer
published annually by Headquarters Division service life, such as a 30- or 40-year design life
of Traffic Operations. Current and projected require more effort to determine than for a 10-
traffic volume by vehicle classification must be or 20-year design life. For this reason, the
obtained for each project in accordance with Project Engineer should involve District
the procedures found in this Topic. Transportation Planning and/or Traffic
Districts typically have established a unit Operations in determining a realistic and
within Traffic Operations or Planning appropriate TI for each project early in the
specifically responsible for providing travel project development process. In the absence of
forecast information. These units are 30- or 40-year traffic projection data,
20-year projection data may be extrapolated to
May 7, 2012
30- and 40-year values by applying the These lane distribution factors are shown in
expansion factors. Table 613.3B.
613.3 Traffic Index Calculation (3) Traffic Index (TI). The Traffic Index (TI) is a
measure of the number of ESALs expected in
The Traffic Index (TI) is determined using the the traffic lane over the pavement design life of
following procedures: the facility. The TI does not vary linearly with
(1) Determine the Projected Equivalent Single the ESALs but rather according to the
Axle Loads (ESALs). The information obtained following exponential formula and the values
from traffic projections and Truck Weight presented in Table 613.3C. The TI is
Studies is used to develop 18-kip Equivalent determined to the nearest 0.5.
Single Axle Load (ESAL) constants that
 (ESAL × LDF ) 
0.119
represent the estimated total accumulated
TI = 9.0 ×  
traffic loading for each heavy vehicle (trucks  10 6 
and buses and each of the four truck types
during the pavement design life. Typically, Where:
buses are assumed to be included in the truck TI = Traffic Index
counts due to their relatively low number in
comparison to trucks. However, for facilities ESAL = Total number of cumulative 18-
with high percentage of buses such as high- kip Equivalent Single Axle Loads
occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes and exclusive LDF = Lane Distribution Factor (see Table
bus-only lanes, projected bus volumes need to 613.3B)
be included in the projection used to determine
ESALs. The ESAL constants are used as Index 613.4 contains additional requirements
multipliers of the projected AADTT for each and considerations for determining projected
truck type to determine the total cumulative traffic loads.
ESALs and in turn the Traffic Index (TI) 613.4 Axle Load Spectra
during the design life for the pavement (see
Index 613.3(3)). The ESALs and the resulting (1) Development of Axle Load Spectra. Axle load
TI are the same magnitude for both flexible, spectra is an alternative method of measuring
rigid, and composite pavement alternatives. heavy vehicle loads that is currently under
The current 10-, 20-, 30-, and 40-year ESAL development for the future mechanistic-
constants are shown in Table 613.3A. empirical design method. Axle load spectra is
a representation of normalized axle load
(2) Lane Distribution Factors. Truck/bus traffic distribution developed from weigh-in-motion
on multilane highways normally varies by lane (WIM) data for each axle type (single, tandem,
with the lightest volumes generally in the tridem, and quad) and truck class (FHWA
median lanes and heaviest volumes in the vehicle classes 4 through 13). Axle load
outside lanes. Buses are also typically found in spectra do not involve conversion of projected
HOV lanes. For this reason, the distribution of traffic loads into equivalent single axle loads
truck/bus traffic by lanes must be considered in (ESALs), instead traffic load applications for
the engineering for all multilane facilities to each truck class and axle type are directly
ensure that traffic loads are appropriately characterized by the number of axles within
distributed. Because of the uncertainties and each axle load range.
the variability of lane distribution of trucks on
multilane freeways and expressways, statewide In order to accurately predict traffic load
lane distribution factors have been established related damage on a pavement structure, it is
for pavement engineering of highway facilities important to develop both spatial and temporal
in California. axle load spectra for different truck loadings
and pavements. The following data is needed
to develop axle load spectra:
November 2, 2012
Table 613.3A
ESAL Constants
Vehicle Type 10-Year 20-Year 30-Year 40-Year
(By Axle Classification) Constants Constants Constants Constants
2-axle trucks or buses 690 1,380 2,070 2,760
3-axle trucks or buses 1,840 3,680 5,520 7,360
4-axle trucks 2,940 5,880 8,820 11,760
5 or more-axle trucks 6,890 13,780 20,670 27,560
Table 613.3B
Lane Distribution Factors for Multilane Highways
Factors to be Applied to Projected Annual Average Daily Truck Traffic
Number of Mixed Flow (AADTT)
Lanes in One Direction Mixed Flow Lanes (see Notes 1-6)
Lane 1 Lane 2 Lane 3 Lane 4
One 1.0 - - -
Two 1.0 1.0 - -
Three 0.2 0.8 0.8 -
Four 0.2 0.2 0.8 0.8
NOTES:
1. Lane 1 is next to the centerline or median.
2. For more than four lanes in one direction, use a factor of 0.8 for the outer two lanes plus any auxiliary/collector
lanes, use a factor of 0.2 for other mixed flow through lanes.
3. For HOV lanes and other inside lanes (non truck lanes), use a factor of 0.2. However, as noted in Index
613.5(1)(b), the TI should not be less than 10 for a 20-year pavement design life, or than 11 for a 40-year
pavement design life. Additionally, for freeways and expressways, the maximum TI must not exceed 11 or 12
for a 20-year and 40-year design life, respectively.
4. If trucks are permitted to use HOV or other inside lanes, HOV and/or other inside lanes shall be designed to the
same standards as found in this table for the outside lanes.
5. For lanes devoted exclusively to buses and/or trucks, use a factor of 1.0 based on projected AADTT of mixed-
flow lanes for auxiliary and truck lanes, and a separate AADTT based on expected bus traffic for exclusive bus-
only lanes.
6. The lane distribution factors in this table represent minimum factors and, based on knowledge of local traffic
conditions and sound engineering judgment, higher values should be used for specific locations when warranted.
September 1, 2006
Table 613.3C
Conversion of ESAL to Traffic Index
ESAL (1) TI (2) ESAL (1) TI (2)

4,710 6,600,000
5.0 11.5
10,900 9,490,000
5.5 12.0
23,500 13,500,000
6.0 12.5
47,300 18,900,000
6.5 13.0
89,800 26,100,000
7.0 13.5
164,000 35,600,000
7.5 14.0
288,000 48,100,000
8.0 14.5
487,000 64,300,000
8.5 15.0
798,000 84,700,000
9.0 15.5
1,270,000 112,000,000
9.5 16.0
1,980,000 144,000,000
10.0 16.5
3,020,000 186,000,000
10.5 17.0
4,500,000 238,000,000
11.0 17.5 (3)
6,600,000 303,000,000
Notes:
(1) For ESALs less than 5,000 or greater than 300,000,000, use the TI equation to calculate design TI, see Index 613.3(3).
(2) The determination of the TI closer than 0.5 is not justified. No interpolations should be made.
(3) For TI’s greater than 17.5, use the TI equation, see Index 613.3(3).
September 1, 2006
• Truck class (FHWA Class 4 for buses mitigate sudden and unexpected pavement
through Class 13 for 7+ axle multi-trailer deterioration due to increased volumes or
combinations) loading patterns.
• Axle type (single, tandem, tridem, and In this edition of the Highway Design Manual,
quad) axle load spectra are not used to engineer
pavements.
• Axle load range for each axle type and
truck class (3 to 102 kips) 613.5 Specific Traffic Loading
• The number of axle load applications Considerations
within each axle load range by axle type (1) Traveled Way.
and truck class
(a) Mainline Lanes. Because each lane for a
• The percentage of the total number of multilane highway with 3 or more lanes in
axle applications within each axle load each direction may have a different load
range with respect to each axle type, truck distribution factor (see Table 613.3B),
class, and year of data. These are the multiple TIs may be generated for the
normalized values of axle load mainline lanes which can result in different
applications for each axle type and truck pavement thickness for each lane. Such a
class design with different thickness for each
The aforementioned data are obtained from lane would create complications for
traffic volume counts and WIM data for vehicle constructing the pavement. Therefore, the
classification, and axle type and weight. decision to use a single or multiple TI’s for
Traffic counts and WIM stations should be the pavement engineering of mainline lanes
deployed widely to ensure that projected for a multilane highway with 3 or more
volume estimates for each vehicle class and lanes in each direction should be based on
axle type are in line with the actual volumes a thorough consideration of constructibility
and growth rates. issues discussed in Index 618.2 together
with sound engineering judgment. If one
(2) Use of Axle Load Spectra in Pavement TI is used, it should be the one that
Engineering: Pavement engineering produces the most conservative pavement
calculations using axle load spectra are structure.
generally more complex than those using
ESALs or Traffic Index (TI) because loading (b) Freeway Lanes. TI for new freeway lanes,
cannot be reduced to one equivalent number. including widening, auxiliary lanes, and
However, the load spectra approach of high-occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes,
quantifying traffic loads offers a more practical should be the greater of either the
and realistic representation of traffic loading calculated value, 10.0 for a 20-year
than using TI or ESALs. Due to its better pavement design life, or 11.0 for a 40-year
performance modeling, axle load spectra will pavement design life. For roadway
be used in the Mechanistic-Empirical rehabilitation projects, use the calculated
(M-E) design method currently under TI.
development to evaluate traffic loading over (c) Ramps and Connectors:
the design life for new and rehabilitated
pavements. This information will be used to 1. Connectors. AADTT and TI's for
validate original pavement design loading freeway-to-freeway connectors should
assumptions, and to continuously monitor be determined the same way as for
pavement performance given the loading mainline traffic.
spectrum. Axle load spectral data will also be
used to facilitate effective and pro-active
deployment of maintenance efforts and in the
development of appropriate strategies to
November 2, 2012
2. Ramps to Weigh Stations. Pavement

structure for ramps to weigh stations
Table 613.5A
should be engineered using the Traffic Index (TI) Values for
mainline ESALs and the load Ramps and Connectors
distribution factor of 1.0 for exclusive
truck lanes as noted in Table 613.3B. Ramp Truck Minimum Traffic Index (TI)
3. Other Ramps. Estimating future truck Traffic 20–Yr 40–Yr Design
traffic on ramps is more difficult than Classification Design Life Life (1)
on through traffic lanes. It is typically
Light 8.0 9.0
more difficult to accurately forecast
ramp AADTT because of a much Medium 10.0 11.0
greater impact of commercial and
Heavy 12.0 14.0
industrial development on ramp truck
traffic than it is on mainline truck NOTE:
traffic. (1) Based on straight line extrapolation of
If reliable truck traffic forecasts are not 20-year ESALs.
available, ramps should be engineered
using the 10-, 20-, and (2) Shoulders.
40-year TI values given in
Table 613.5A for light, medium, and (a) Purpose and Objectives.
heavy truck traffic ramp classifications. Shoulder pavement structures must be
Design life TI should be the greater of designed and constructed to assure that the
the calculated TI or the TI values in following performance objectives are met:
Table 613.5A.
• Be safely and economically
The three ramp classifications are defined maintained.
as follows:
• Enhance the performance of adjacent
• Light Traffic Ramps - Ramps serving travel lanes.
undeveloped or residential areas with
light to no truck traffic predicted • Be structurally adequate to handle
during the pavement design life. maintenance and emergency vehicles
and to serve as emergency parking.
• Medium Traffic Ramps - Ramps in
metropolitan areas, business districts, • Accommodate pedestrians and
or where increased truck traffic is bicyclists as necessary.
likely to develop because of • Provide versatility in using the
anticipated commercial development shoulders as temporary detours for
within the pavement design life construction or maintenance activities
• Heavy Traffic Ramps - Ramps that in the future.
will or currently serve industrial • Make it easier and more cost-effective
areas, truck terminals, truck stops, to convert into a traffic lane as part of a
and/or maritime shipping facilities. future widening.
The final decision on ramp truck traffic • Simplify the Contractor’s operation
classification rests with the District. which leads to reduced working days
and lower unit prices.
Shoulders do not need to be designed to
traffic lane standards to meet these
objectives. To achieve these performance
November 2, 2012
objectives, the following design standards may be tapered from the lane surface
apply for shoulders on the State highway. course thickness to the shoulder pavement
edge thickness of no less the 0.35 foot to
(b) New Construction and Reconstruction.
address different cross slope conditions
New or reconstructed shoulders shall be
(see Figure 613.5A).
engineered to match the TI of the
adjacent traffic lane when any of the For all other cases, the minimum TI for
following conditions apply: the shoulder shall match the TI of the
adjacent traffic lane for the first 2 feet of
• the shoulder width is less than
the outside shoulder width and 1 foot of
5 feet.
the inside shoulder measured from the
• the median width is 14 feet or less. edge of traveled way. See Figure 613.5B.
See Index 305.5 for further paved
For the remaining width of the shoulder,
median guidance.
the TI shall:
• on roads with less than two lanes in
• be no less than 2 percent of the
the direction of travel and there is a
projected ESALs of the adjacent
sustained (greater than 1 mile in
traffic lane or a TI of 5, whichever is
length) grade of over 4 percent
greater.
without a truck climbing lane.
• not exceed 9.
• the shoulders are adjacent to
exclusive truck or bus only lanes, or Treated permeable bases needed to
weigh station ramps. This standard perpetuate an existing treated permeable
does not apply to mixed use base under the adjacent lane may be
(automobile plus bus) lanes, including included underneath the pavement. Non-
high-occupancy vehicle (HOV) and permeable treated bases, such as lean
toll (HOT) lanes. concrete base, are not to be included
underneath the pavement.
The shoulder may also be engineered to
match the TI of the adjacent traffic lane The total depth of the shoulder
provided that: pavement structure (depth from the
surface to the subgrade) shall match the
• There is an identified plan (such as
pavement structure grading plane of the
Regional Transportation Plan,
adjacent traffic lane.
Metropolitan Transportation Plan,
Interregional Improvement Plan) to Matching the grading plane of the shoulder
convert a shoulder into a traffic lane pavement structure to that of the adjacent
within the next 20 years. traffic lane can be accomplished by
increasing the depth of the aggregate base
• The shoulder is designed following the
and/or subbase as needed (see Figure
lane width and cross slope guidance in
613.5B). This will provide a path for water
Topic 301.
in the pavement structure to drain away
• Agreement is obtained by the Program from the lane and into the shoulder. It can
Fund Manager or Agency funding the also provide a more cost effective means to
project. upgrade the shoulder to a traffic lane in the
When the above conditions apply and the future. Although using a thinner overall
shoulder and lane will both be constructed shoulder pavement structure than the
as part of the same project, the shoulder traveled way requires less material and
pavement structure should match the may appear to reduce construction costs,
adjacent traffic lane for ease of the added costs of time and labor to the
construction. For asphalt pavements, the Contractor to build the step between the
thickness of the shoulder surface course
November 2, 2012
Figure 613.5A
Shoulder Design for TI Equal to Adjacent Lane TI
NOTES:
* Applies to concrete and asphalt pavements.
** For asphalt pavement, minimum thickness of surface course ≥ 0.35’.
November 2, 2012
Figure 613.5B
Shoulder Design for TI Less Than Adjacent Lane TI
NOTES:
*** For rigid pavement, minimum thickness of surface course is ≥ 0.60’ (0.75’ for High Mountain or High
Dessert Climate Region)
For flexible pavement, minimum thickness of surface course is ≥ 0.35’
November 2, 2012
traveled way and shoulder can offset any pavement structure of the existing
perceived savings from reduced materials. shoulder.
For asphalt shoulders, the thickness of the • There is an identified plan that the
asphalt layer (not including nonstructural widened shoulder will be converted or
wearing surface) should not be less than replaced with a traffic lane within
0.35 foot or the thickness of the asphalt 20 years.
layer of the adjacent traffic lane, whichever
is less. • The widened shoulder will be used as a
temporary detour as discussed in Index
For concrete shoulders, a pavement 613.5(2)(f).
structure of 0.70 foot undoweled jointed
plain concrete pavement (0.85 foot in High For all other cases, widening of the existing
Mountain and High Desert climate regions) shoulder should match the pavement
over aggregate base is sufficient to meet structure of the existing shoulder. For
the requirement of the TI not exceeding 9.0 shoulders left in place, repair any existing
and provide adequate structure for distresses prior to overlaying.
maintenance equipment and temporary (d) Pavement Preservation.
traffic detours.
Shoulder preservation should be done in
An alternate shoulder design is to taper the conjunction with work on the adjacent
surface course from the surface course traffic lanes to assure that the shoulder
thickness of the adjacent traffic lane to no pavement structure will meet the
less than 0.60 foot (0.75 foot in High performance requirements stated in Index
Mountain and High Desert climate regions) 613.5(2)(a). Shoulders can be preserved
for concrete and 0.35 foot for asphalt at the by:
edge of shoulder (see Figure 613.5B).
• Sealing cracks greater than ¼ inch in
Bases and subbases for new or width,
reconstructed shoulders should extend at
least 1 foot beyond the edge of shoulder as • Grinding out rolled up sections next to
shown in Figures 613.5A and 613.5B. concrete pavement,
(c) Widening. • Fog or slurry sealing asphalt surfaces,

Existing shoulders do not need to be • Limiting digouts of failed locations.
replaced or upgraded to new construction For CAPM projects, the following
or reconstruction standards as part of a additional strategies can be considered if
shoulder widening project unless the warranted:
following conditions exist:
• Milling and replacing 0.15 foot of
• Adding or widening lanes will require oxidized and cracked surfaces can be
removal of all or a portion of the considered either prior to an overlay or
existing shoulder. as a stand-alone action.
• The existing shoulder of 5 feet or less • Grinding of concrete shoulders if the
in width is being widened and the adjacent traffic lane is being ground.
existing shoulder does not meet the
current standards for new construction Shoulder preservation strategies should be
or reconstruction. For shoulders wider identified and discussed with District
than 5 feet, the District and Program Maintenance and the Headquarters
Fund Manager/Agency determines Pavement Reviewer during the scoping
whether to reconstruct the entire phase of the project or whenever a change
shoulder to new construction or in strategy is proposed.
reconstruction standards, or match the
November 2, 2012
(e) Roadway Rehabilitation. maintain the existing surface. Where the

existing shoulders have little to no cracking
The goal in roadway rehabilitation projects
and are older than 3 years from the last
is to maintain existing shoulders wherever
treatment, a fog seal or slurry seal with
possible. The TI is not a consideration in
digouts is all that is needed.
choosing the shoulder rehabilitation
strategy unless it has been determined that Existing concrete shoulders typically only
the shoulder needs to be replaced for one of require sealing any unsealed cracks ½ inch
the following reasons: or wider or replacing the joint seals.
Shoulders should be sealed if the adjacent
• The shoulder will be used to
traffic lanes are sealed. If shoulders are
temporarily detour traffic during
spalled, the spalls should be repaired and
construction and the existing shoulder
any shattered slabs replaced. Grinding
does not provide adequate structure to
should not be done, even if the shoulder is
handle the expected loads.
faulted or curled unless the adjacent traffic
• The adjacent lane is being replaced as lane is also being ground.
part of the project. In this situation, if
Shoulder rehabilitation strategies should be
the shoulder is wider than 5 feet,
identified and discussed with District
replace only two feet of the outside
Maintenance and the Headquarters
shoulder (1 foot of inside shoulder)
Pavement Reviewer during the scoping
adjacent to the traffic lane. For
phase of the project or whenever a change
shoulders 5 feet wide or less, replace
in strategy is proposed.
the entire shoulder.
(f) Temporary Detours.
• The existing shoulder exhibits
extensive distress and/or settlement When existing shoulders will be used to
and it is agreed to by the Headquarters stage traffic during construction, the
Pavement Reviewer that replacement is existing shoulder pavement structure
the only viable option. should be checked for structural adequacy.
If the existing shoulder is not structurally
For replacements other than temporary
adequate or if it is a new shoulder,
traffic detours, use the standards for new
calculate the TI based on the actual truck
construction and reconstruction in Index
traffic expected to be encountered during
613.5(2)(b). For temporary traffic detours,
construction. Design the shoulder based on
see Index 613.5(2)(f) for further
the requirements for new or reconstructed
discussion.
shoulders in Index 613.5(2)(b) except the
Regardless of whether or not the TI is TI may exceed 9. Do not use treated bases
considered, shoulder rehabilitation repairs for temporary detours. For existing
of the existing shoulder are often necessary shoulders, remove the surface course layer
and should be done in conjunction with and replace with a new surface course
work on the adjacent traffic lanes to assure sufficiently thick enough to support
that the shoulder pavement will meet the temporary traffic loads.
performance requirements stated in Index
(g) Conversion to Lane.
613.5(2)(a).
If a decision has been made to convert an
Existing asphalt shoulders can typically be
existing shoulder to a portion of a traffic
maintained as part of a rehabilitation
lane, a deflection study must be performed
project by milling and replacing 0.15 feet
to determine the structural adequacy of the
of asphalt surface plus digouts of failed
in place asphalt shoulder. The condition of
areas to remove oxidized layers. This can
the existing shoulder must also be
be done either prior to an overlay or to
evaluated for undulating grade, rolled-up
November 2, 2012
hot mix asphalt at the rigid pavement joint, At some intersections, the level of truck/transit
surface cracking, raveling, brittleness, traffic from all approaches may add more loads
oxidation, etc. on the pavement than what the mainline
pavement was designed for. Separate ESAL/TI
The converted facility must provide a
or load spectra calculations should be
roadway that is structurally adequate for
performed at intersections when any of the
the proposed pavement design life. This is
following criteria apply:
necessary to eliminate or minimize the
likelihood of excessive maintenance or • Two or more State highways intersect
rehabilitation being required in a relatively (including ramps to/from State highways)
short time because of inadequate structural
• Truck traffic on the local road exceeds 25
strength and deterioration of the existing
percent of the truck traffic on the State
pavement structure.
highway.
If the existing shoulder is determined to be
• Ramp connecting a State highway to a
structurally inadequate for the proposed
local road is classified as Medium or
pavement design life, then the shoulder
Heavy as described in Index 613.5(1)(c).
should be upgraded or replaced in
accordance with the standards for new In these cases, combine the traffic
construction and reconstruction discussed counts/ESALs of the approaches to calculate
in Index 613.5(2)(b). the TI or load spectra for all approaches
combined. If the resulting TI or load spectra
(h) Other.
are higher than what is calculated for the
• Tracking and Sweep Width Lines. mainline, then the intersections will need to be
engineered using the combined TI or load
For projects where the tracking width
spectra.
and sweep width lines are shown to
encroach onto the paved shoulders, the For all roundabout designs, look at the traffic
shoulder pavement structure must be projections for each turning movement of each
engineered to sustain the weight of the leg of the roundabout, then, sum up the
design vehicle. If curb and gutter are truck/transit traffic volumes using each
present and any portion of the gutter quadrant of the roundabout. From the total
pan is likewise encroached, the gutter truck traffic volume, generate an ESAL/TI or
pan must be engineered to match the load spectra for each quadrant. Choose the
adjacent shoulder pavement structure. quadrant with the highest TI or load spectra to
See Topic 404 for design vehicle design the entire roundabout.
guidance.
Special attention should be given to truck and
• Minimizing Worker Exposure. transit traffic behavior (turning and stopping)
to determine the loading patterns and to select
Consult with District Maintenance and
the most appropriate materials.
the Headquarters Program Advisor
during the scoping phase on options for The limits for engineering pavement at an
minimizing maintenance worker intersection should include intersection
exposure to maintain shoulders. approaches and departures, to the greater of the
following distances:
• Concrete shoulders and asphalt
pavement structure. • For signalized intersections, the limits of
the approach should extend past the
Do not place concrete shoulders
furthest set of signal loop detectors where
adjacent to asphalt pavement structure.
trucks do the majority of their braking; or
(3) Intersections. Future AADTT and TI’s for
• For “STOP” controlled intersections the
intersections should be determined for each
limits for the approach should be long
approach the same way as for mainline traffic.
November 2, 2012
enough to cover the distance trucks will be Subgrade is the natural soil or rock material
braking and stopping either at the stop bar underlying the pavement structure. Unlike
or behind other trucks and vehicles; or concrete and steel whose characteristics are fairly
uniform, the engineering properties of subgrade
• 100 feet.
soils may vary widely over the length of a project.
The limits for the intersection departures
Pavements are engineered to distribute stresses
should match the limits of the approach in the
imposed by traffic to the subgrade. For this reason,
opposing lane to address rutting caused by
subgrade condition is a principal factor in selecting
truck acceleration.
the pavement structure. Before a pavement is
For further assistance on this subject, contact engineered, the structural quality of the subgrade
either your District Materials Engineer, or soils must be evaluated to ensure that it has
Headquarters Pavement Program – Office of adequate strength to carry the predicted traffic
Concrete Pavement and Pavement Foundations. loads during the design life of the pavement. The
(4) Roadside Facilities. The pavement for safety pavement must also be engineered to limit the
roadside rest areas, including parking lots, expansion and loss of density of the subgrade soil.
should meet or exceed the TI requirements 614.2 Unified Soil Classification System
found in Table 613.5B for a 20-year pavement (USCS)
design life for new/reconstructed or
rehabilitated pavements. The USCS classifies soils according to their grain
size distribution and plasticity. Therefore, only a
Table 613.5B sieve analysis and Atterberg limits (liquid limit,
plastic limit, and plasticity index) are necessary to
Minimum TI’s for Safety Roadside classify a soil in this system. Based on grain size
Rest Areas distribution, soils are classified as either (1) coarse
grained (more than 50 percent retained on the
Minimum TI No. 200 sieve), or (2) fine grained (50 percent or
Facility Usage
(20-Year) more passes the No. 200 sieve). Coarse grained
Truck Ramps & Roads 8.0 (1) soils are further classified as gravels (50 percent or
more of coarse fraction retained on the
Truck Parking Areas 6.0 (1) No. 4 sieve) or sands (50 percent or more of coarse
fraction passes the No. 4 sieve); while fine grained
Auto Roads 5.5 soils are classified as inorganic or organic silts and
clays and by their liquid limit (equal to or less than
Auto Parking Areas 5.0 50 percent, or greater than 50 percent). The USCS
also includes peat and other highly organic soils,
NOTE:
which are compressible and not recommended for
(1) For safety roadside rest areas next to all Interstates roadway construction. Peat and other highly
and those State Routes with AADTT greater than organic soils should be removed wherever possible
15,000 use Table 613.5A medium truck traffic for prior to placing the pavement structure.
truck ramps, truck roads, and a minimum TI of 9.0
for truck parking areas. The USCS based on ASTM D 2487 is summarized
in Table 614.2.
Topic 614 - Soil Characteristics
614.3 California R-Value
614.1 Engineering Considerations The California R-value is the measure of resistance
California is a geologically active state with a wide to deformation of the soils under wheel loading and
variety of soil types throughout. Thorough saturated soil conditions. It is used to determine the
understanding of the native soils in a project area is bearing value of the subgrade. Determination of R-
essential to properly engineer or update a highway value for subgrade is provided under California
facility. Test (CT) 301. Typical R-values used by the
November 2, 2012
Table 614.2
Unified Soil Classification System (from ASTM D 2487)
Major
Classification
Classification Sub-Groups Description
Symbol
Group
Well-graded gravels and gravel-sand mixtures,

GW
little or no fines
Clean
Gravels
Gravels Poorly graded gravels and gravel-sand
GP
50% or more of coarse mixtures, little or no fines
fraction retained on the
No. 4 sieve GM Silty gravels, gravel-sand-silt mixtures
Gravels
Coarse Grained with
Soils Fines GC Clayey gravels, gravel-sand-clay mixtures
More than 50%
retained on the
Well-graded sands and gravelly sands, little or
No. 200 sieve SW
no fines
Clean
Sands Sands
Poorly graded sands and gravelly sands, little or
SP
50% or more of coarse no fines
fraction passes the
No. 4 sieve Sands SM Silty sands, sand-silt mixtures
with
Fines SC Clayey sands, sand-clay mixtures
Inorganic silts, very fine sands, rock four, silty

ML
or clayey fine sands
Silts and Clays Inorganic clays of low to medium plasticity,

CL
Liquid Limit 50% or less gravelly/sandy/silty/lean clays
Fine Grained
Organic silts and organic silty clays of low
Soils OL
plasticity
More than 50%
passes the
Inorganic silts, micaceous or diatomaceous fine
No. 200 sieve MH
sands or silts, elastic silts
Silts and Clays
Liquid Limit greater than 50% CH Inorganic clays of high plasticity, fat clays
OH Organic clays of medium to high plasticity
Highly Organic Soils PT Peat, muck, and other highly organic soils
Prefix: G = Gravel, S = Sand, M = Silt, C = Clay, O = Organic

Suffix: W = Well Graded, P = Poorly Graded, M = Silty, L = Clay, LL < 50%, H = Clay, LL > 50%
November 2, 2012
Department range from five for very soft material construction costs that exceed potential
to 80 for treated base material. materials cost savings.
The California R-value is determined based on the 614.4 Expansive soils
following separate measurements under CT 301:
With an expansive subgrade (Plasticity Index
• The exudation pressure test determines the greater than 12), special engineering or
thickness of cover or pavement structure construction considerations will be required.
required to prevent plastic deformation of the Engineering alternatives, which have been used to
soil under imposed wheel loads. compensate for expansive soils, are:
• The expansion pressure test determines the (a) Treating expansive soil with lime or other
pavement thickness or weight of cover required additives to reduce expansion in the presence
to withstand the expansion pressure of the soil. of moisture. Lime is often used with highly
Because some soils, such as coarse grained gravels plastic, fine-grained soils. When mixed and
and sands, may exhibit a higher California R-value compacted, the plasticity and swelling potential
test result than would normally be required for of clay soils are reduced and workability
pavement design, the California R-value for increased, as lime combines with the clay
subgrade soils used for pavement design should be particles. It also increases the California R-
limited to no more than 50 unless agreed to value of the subgrade. Soil treated with lime is
otherwise by the District Materials Engineer. Local considered to be lime treated subbase. Lime
experience with these soils should govern in treated subbase is discussed further in Chapter
assigning R-value on subgrade.The California R- 660.
value of subgrade within a project may vary (b) Replacing the expansive material with a non-
substantially but cost and constructability should be expansive material to a depth where the
considered in specifying one or several California seasonal moisture content will remain nearly
R-value(s) for the project. Engineering judgment constant.
should be exercised in selecting appropriate
California R-values for the project to assure a (c) Providing a pavement structure of sufficient
reasonably "balanced design" which will avoid thickness to counteract the expansion pressure.
excessive costs resulting from over conservatism. (d) Utilizing two-stage construction by placing a
The following should be considered when selecting base or subbase to permit the underlying
California R-values for a project: material to expand and stabilize before placing
• If the measured California R-values are in a leveling and surface courses.
narrow range with some scattered higher (e) Stabilizing the moisture content by minimizing
values, the lowest California R-value should be the access of water through surface and
selected for the pavement design. subsurface drainage and the use of a waterproof
• If there are a few exceptionally low California membrane (i.e., geomembrane, asphalt
R-values and they represent a relatively small saturated fabric, or rubberized asphalt
volume of subgrade or they are concentrated in membrane).
a small area, it may be more cost effective to (f) Relocating the project alignment to a more
remove or treat these materials. suitable soil condition.
• Where changing geological formations and soil Treatment (e) is considered to be the most effective
types are encountered along the length of a approach if relocation is not feasible such as in the
project, it may be cost-effective to design more San Joaquin Delta. The District Materials Engineer
than one pavement structure to accommodate determines which treatment(s) is/are practical.
major differences in R-values that extend over
The California R-value of the subgrade can be
a considerable length. Care should be exercised
raised above 10 by treatment to a minimum depth
to avoid many variations in the pavement
of 0.65 foot with an approved stabilizing agent
structure that may result in increased
such as lime, cement, asphalt, or fly ash. Native
November 2, 2012
soil samples should be taken, treated, and tested to 614.5 Subgrade Enhancement Geotextile
determine the California R-value for the treated (SEG)
subgrade. For pavement structure design, the
maximum California R-value that can be specified The placement of subgrade enhancement geotextile
for treated subgrade regardless of test results is 40. (SEG), formerly called subgrade enhancement
Treating the subgrade does not eliminate or reduce fabric (SEF), below the pavement will provide
the required aggregate subbase for rigid or subgrade enhancement by bridging soft areas and
composite pavements in the rigid pavement catalog providing a separation between soft subgrade fines
(see Topic 623). With HMA, treated subgrade can susceptible to pumping and high quality subbase or
be substituted for all or part of the required base materials. On weak subgrades, the use of
aggregate subbase layer. Since aggregate subbase SEG can provide for stabilization (the coincident
has a gravel factor (Gf) of 1.0, the actual thickness function of separation and reinforcement). As the
and the gravel equivalent (GE) are equal. When the soft soil undergoes deformation, properly placed
treated subgrade is substituted for aggregate geotextile when stretched will develop tensile
subbase for flexible pavements, the actual thickness stress. Locations that may require placement of
of the treated subgrade layer is obtained by SEG include areas with the following soil
dividing the GE by the appropriate Gf. The Gf is characteristics:
determined based on unconfined compressive • Poor (low strength) soils which are classified in
strength (UCS) of the treated material as follows: the unified soil classification system (USCS) as
sandy clay (SC), silty clay (CL), high plastic
UCS ( psi )
G f = 0.9 + clay (CH), silt (ML), high plasticity or
1000 micaceous silt (MH), organic silt (OL), organic
This equation is only valid for UCS of 300 psi or clay (OH), and peat & mulch (PT).
more. The gravel factor Gf should be a minimum • Low undrained shear strength (equivalent to
of 1.2. The maximum Gf allowed using this California R-value <20).
equation is 1.7. Because the treatment of subgrade
soil may be less expensive than the base material, • High water table, and high soil sensitivity.
the calculated base thickness can be reduced and Subgrade soils with R-value <20 are considered
the treated subgrade thickness increased because of poor or weak soils and require SEG to provide
cost considerations. The base thickness is reduced reinforcement as the primary function and
by the corresponding gravel equivalency provided separation as the secondary function. However,
by the lime treated subgrade soil or subbase. The pavements constructed over subgrade soils with
maximum thickness of lime treated subgrade is R-value up to 40 can especially benefit from
limited to 2 feet. separation if the soil contains an appreciable
Rigid or composite pavement should not be amount of fines, depending on type and treatment
specified in areas with expansive soils unless the of the base layer. The SEG when placed with
pavement has been adequately treated to address aggregate subbase provides a working platform for
soil expansion. Flexible pavement may be access of construction equipment, mainly on
specified in areas where expansive soils are present subgrades with R-values of 5 to 10.
with the understanding that periodic maintenance The use of SEG on weak subgrades (with
would be required. R-value <20) can raise the effective R-value of
The District Materials Engineer should be such soils to 20. Therefore, the benefit of using
contacted to assist with the selection of the most SEG on such weak soils can be realized though
appropriate method to treat expansive soils for using thinner aggregate bases or subbases in
individual projects. Final decision as to which flexible pavement design. Likewise, SEG can also
treatment to use rests with the District. affect the design of rigid pavements by providing a
stronger subgrade system.
The method of determining the functions realized
from the use of SEG and the selection of the
November 2, 2012
appropriate properties of the SEG based on project • Partial-depth reconstruction is specified.

specifics are explained in the “Subgrade
• Existing buried utilities would have to be
Enhancement Geotextile Guide” on the Department
moved.
Pavement website.
• Interim widening projects are required on
614.6 Other Considerations low-volume roads, intersection
(1) Fill. Because the quality of excavated material channelization, or frontage roads.
may vary substantially along the project length, Locations where the 2.5 feet of compaction
the pavement design over a fill section should depth is waived must be shown on the typical
be based on the minimum California R-value or cross sections of the project plan. If soft
unified soil classification of the material that is material below this depth is encountered, it
to be excavated as part of the project. If there must be removed and replaced with suitable
is any excavated material that should not be excavated material, imported borrow or
used, it should be identified in the Materials subgrade enhancement fabric. Location(s)
Report and noted as appropriate in the PS&E. where the Special Provisions apply should be
(2) Imported Borrow. Imported borrow is used in shown on the typical cross section(s).
the construction of embankments when
sufficient quantity of quality material is not Topic 615 - Climate
available. The pavement design should be
based on the minimum California R-value of The effects that climate will have on pavement
imported borrow or excavated fill material on must be considered as part of pavement
the project. When imported borrow of desired engineering. Temperatures will cause pavements
quality is not economically available or when to expand and contract creating pressures that can
all of the earthwork consists of borrow, the cause pavements to buckle or crack. Binders in
California R-value specified for the borrow flexible pavements will also become softer at
becomes the design R-value. Since no higher temperatures and more brittle at colder
minimum California R-value is required by the temperatures. Precipitation can increase the
Standard Specifications for imported borrow, a potential for water to infiltrate the base and subbase
minimum R-value for the imported borrow layers, thereby resulting in increased susceptibility
material placed within 4 feet of the grading to erosion and weakening of the pavement
plane must be specified in the Materials Report structural strength. In freeze/thaw environments,
and in the project plans. the expansion and contraction of water as it goes
through freeze and thaw cycles, plus the use of
(3) Compaction. Compaction is densification of salts, sands, chains, and snow plows, create
the soil by mechanical means. The Standard additional stresses on pavements. Solar radiation
Specifications require no less than 95 percent can also cause some pavements to oxidize. To help
relative compaction be obtained for a minimum account for the effects of various climatic
depth of 2.5 feet below finished grade for the conditions on pavement performance, the State has
width of the traveled way and auxiliary lanes been divided into the following nine climate
plus 3 feet on each side. The 2.5 feet depth of regions.
compaction should not be waived for the
traveled way, auxiliary lanes, and ramps on • North Coast
State highways. • Central Coast
These specifications sometimes can be waived • South Coast
by special provision with approval from the
• Low Mountain
District Materials Engineer, when any of the
following conditions apply: • High Mountain
• A portion of a local road is being replaced • South Mountain
with a stronger pavement structure.
• Inland Valley
November 2, 2012
• Desert • Existing appurtenant features (median barriers,

drainage facilities, curbs and dikes, lateral and
• High Desert
overhead clearances, and structures which may
Figure 615.1 provides a representation of where limit the new or rehabilitated pavement
these regions are. A more detailed map along with structure.)
a detailed list of where State routes fall within each
climate region can be found on the Department Topic 617 - Materials
Pavement website.
617.1 Availability of Materials
In conjunction with this map, designs, standards,
plans, and specifications have been and are being The availability of suitable materials such as
developed to tailor pavement standards and subbase and base materials, aggregates, binders,
practices to meet each of these climatic conditions. and cements for pavements should be considered in
The standards and practices found in this manual, the selection of pavement type. The availability of
the Standard Plans, Standard Specifications, and commercially produced mixes and the equipment
Special Provisions should be considered as the capabilities of area contractors may also influence
minimum requirements to meet the needs of each the selection of pavement type, particularly on
climate region. Districts may also have additional small widening, reconstruction or rehabilitation
requirements based on their local conditions. Final projects. Materials which are locally available or
decision for the need for any requirements that require less energy to produce and transport to the
exceed the requirements found in this manual, the project site should be used whenever possible.
Standard Plans, Standard Specifications, and 617.2 Recycling
Standard Special Provisions rests with the District.
The Department encourages and seeks
Topic 616 - Existing Pavement opportunities to utilize recycled materials in
Type and Condition construction projects whenever such materials meet
the minimum engineering standards and are
The type and condition of pavement on existing economically viable. Accordingly, consideration
adjacent lanes or facilities should be considered should be given on every project to use materials
when selecting new pavement structures or recycled from existing pavements as well as other
rehabilitation/preservation strategies. The selection recycled materials such as scrap tires. Existing
process and choice made by the engineer is pavements can be recycled for use as subbase and
influenced by their experience and knowledge of base materials, or as a partial substitute for
existing facilities in the immediate area that have aggregate in flexible surface course for
given adequate service. Providing continuity of rehabilitation or reconstruction projects. The
existing pavement type will also ensure consistency decision to use recycled materials however should
in maintenance operations. be made on a case-by-case basis based on a
thorough evaluation of material properties,
In reviewing existing pavement type and condition, performance experience in prior projects,
the following factors should be considered: benefit/cost analysis, and engineering judgment.
• Type of pavement on existing adjacent lanes or Additional information on use of recycled
facilities pavements is available in Index 110.11 and on the
• Performance of similar pavements in the
project area Candidates for recycling flexible pavement surface
courses are those with uniform asphalt content.
• Corridor continuity
The existence of heavy crack-sealant, numerous
• Maintaining or changing grade profile patches, open-graded friction course, and heavy
seal coats make the new recycled hot mix asphalt
• Existing pavement widening with a similar
design inconsistent thereby resulting in mix
material
properties that are more difficult to control. To
avoid this problem when it occurs and still use the
November 2, 2012
Figure 615.1
Pavement Climate Regions
November 2, 2012
recycle option, for flexible pavement, a minimum Minimizing exposure to traffic through appropriate
of 0.08 foot should be milled off prior to the pavement type selection and sound engineering
recycling operation. Light crack sealing (less than practices should always be a high priority. The
5 percent of the pavement) or a uniform single seal District Maintenance Engineer and Maintenance
coat will not influence the pavement engineering Supervisor responsible for maintaining the project
sufficiently to require milling. after it is built should be consulted for
recommendations on addressing maintainability.
The Department has established a minimum mill
depth of 0.15 foot for recycling flexible pavement 618.2 Constructibility
surface courses. Since existing surface course
thickness will have slight variations, the recycling Construction issues that influence pavement type
strategy should leave at least the bottom 0.15 foot selection include: size and complexity of the
of the existing flexible surface course in place. project, stage construction, lane closure
This is to insure the milling machine does not requirements, traffic control and safety during
loosen base material and possibly contaminate the construction, construction windows when the
recycled material. As mentioned in Index project must be completed, and other
110.11(2), recycling of existing hot mix asphalt constructibility issues that have the potential of
must be considered, in all cases, as an alternative to generating contract change orders.
placing 100 percent new hot mix asphalt. The Project Engineer must be cognizant of the
issues involved in constructing a pavement, and
Topic 618 - Maintainability and provide plans and specifications that both meets
Constructibility performance standards and requirements. The
Construction Engineer for the area where the
618.1 Maintainability pavement will be built should be consulted
regarding constructibility during the project
Maintainability is the ability of a highway facility
development process. The recommendations given
to be restored in a timely and cost-effective way
by Construction should be weighed against other
with minimal traffic exposure to the workers and
recommendations and requirements for the
minimal traffic delays to the traveling public. It is
pavement. Constructibility recommendations
an important factor in the selection of pavement
should be accommodated where practical, provide
type and pertinent appurtenances. Maintainability
minimum performance requirements, safety, and
issues should be considered throughout the project
maintainability. Some constructibility items that
development process to ensure that maintenance
should be addressed in the project include:
needs are adequately addressed in the engineering
and construction of the pavement structure. For • Clearance width of paving machines to barriers
example, while a project may be constructible and and hinge points.
built in a timely and cost-effective manner, it may
• Access for delivery trucks and construction
create conditions requiring increased worker
equipment.
exposure and increased maintenance effort that is
more expensive and labor intensive to maintain. • Public safety and convenience.
Another example is the pavement drainage systems • Time and cost of placing multiple thin lifts of
that need frequent replacement and often do not different materials as opposed to thicker lifts of
provide access for cleanout. a single material. (For example, sometimes it
Besides the minimum considerations for the safety is more efficient and less costly to place one
of the public and construction workers found in this thick lift of aggregate base rather than two thin
manual, the Standard Specifications, and other lifts of aggregate base and subbase).
Department manuals and guidance, greater • The impact of combined lifts of different
emphasis should also be placed on the safety of materials on long-term performance or
maintenance personnel and long-term maintenance maintenance of the pavement. (For example, it
costs over the service life for the proposed project may seem to be a good idea to combine layers
rather than on constructibility or initial costs. of portland cement concrete and lean concrete
November 2, 2012
base into a single layer to make it easier to identify and measure the impacts of splitting a
construct, but combining these layers has a project into two or more projects.
negative impact on the pavement performance
LCCA must conform to the procedures and data in
and will lead to untimely failure).
the Life-Cycle Cost Analysis Procedures Manual.
• Time and cost of using multiple types of hot LCCA must be completed for any project with a
mix asphalt on a project in an area away from pavement cost component except for the following:
commercial hot mix asphalt sources.
• Major maintenance projects.
Topic 619 - Life-Cycle Cost • Minor A and Minor B projects.
Analysis • Projects using Permit Engineering Evaluation
Reports (PEER).
619.1 Life-Cycle Cost Analysis
• Maintenance pullouts.
Life-cycle cost analysis (LCCA) is a useful tool for
comparing the value of alternative pavement • Landscape.
structures and strategies. LCCA is an economic For the above exempted projects, the Project
analysis that compares initial cost, future cost, and Manager and the Project Development Team (PDT)
user delay cost of different pavement alternatives. will determine on a case-by-case basis if and how a
LCCA is an integral part of the decision making life-cycle cost analysis should be performed and
process for selecting pavement type and design documented. Information on how to document life-
strategy. It can be used to compare life-cycle cost cycle costs can be found in the Department’s
for: Project Development Procedures Manual, Chapter
• Different pavement types (rigid, flexible, 8.
composite).
• Different rehabilitation strategies.
• Different pavement design lives (20 vs. 40,
etc).
LCCA comparisons must be made between
properly engineered, viable pavement structures
that would be approved for construction if selected.
The alternatives being evaluated should also have
identical improvements. For example, comparing
20-year rehabilitation vs. 40-year rehabilitation or
flexible pavement new construction vs. rigid
pavement new construction, provide an identical
improvement. Conversely, comparing pavement
rehabilitation to new construction, or pavement
overlay to pavement widening are not identical
improvements.
LCCA can also be useful to determine the value of
combining several projects into a single project.
For example, combining a pavement rehabilitation
project with a pavement widening project may
reduce overall user delay and construction cost. In
such case, LCCA can help determine if combining
projects can reduce overall user delay and
construction cost for more efficient and cost-
effective projects. LCCA could also be used to
May 7, 2012
621.3 Precast Panel Concrete Pavement

CHAPTER 620 (PPCP)
RIGID PAVEMENT PPCPs use panels that are precast off-site instead
of cast-in-place. The precast panels can be linked
Topic 621 - Types of Rigid together with dowel bars and tie bars or can be
Pavements post-tensioned after placement. PPCP offers the
advantages of:
Index 621.1 Jointed Plain Concrete
Pavement (JPCP) • Improved concrete mixing and curing in a
precast yard.
JPCP is the most common type of rigid pavement
used by the Department. JPCP is engineered with • Reduced pavement thicknesses, which is
longitudinal and transverse joints to control where beneficial when there are profile grade
cracking occurs in the slabs (see Figure 621.1). restrictions such as vertical clearances.
JPCPs do not contain steel reinforcement, other • Shorter lane closure times, which is beneficial
than tie bars and dowel bars (see Index 622.4 for when there are short construction windows.
tie bars and dowel bars). Additional guidance for
JPCP can be found in the “Guide for Design and The primary disadvantage of PPCP is the high cost
Construction of New Jointed Plain Concrete of precasting. PPCP also needs a smoothly
Pavements” on the Department Pavement website. leveled base underneath the precast panels during
construction to even out the loads on the slab and
621.2 Continuously Reinforced Concrete avoid uneven deflection that could lead to faulting
Pavement (CRCP) at the joints, slab settlement, and premature
cracking. PPCP is currently used on an
Although the Department has used CRCP on a
experimental basis in California, and must follow
limited basis in the past, CRCP is still a relatively
the procedures for experimental projects and
new concept to California. For this reason, the
special designs discussed in Topic 606.
Department has decided not to use CRCP for TIs
less than 11.5 or in High Mountain and High
Desert climate regions. Since CRCP uses
Topic 622 - Engineering
reinforcing steel rather than weakened plane joints Requirements
for crack control, saw cutting of transverse joints
is not required for CRCP. Longitudinal joints are 622.1 Engineering Properties
still used. Transverse random cracks are expected Table 622.1 shows the rigid pavement engineering
in the slab, usually at 3-foot to 5-foot intervals (see properties that were used to develop the rigid
Figure 621.1). The continuous reinforcement in pavement catalog in Index 623.1. The values are
the pavement holds the cracks tightly together. based on Department specifications and
CRCP typically costs more initially than JPCP due experience with materials used in California. The
to the added cost of the reinforcement. However, predominant type of concrete used in California
CRCP is typically more cost-effective over the life for rigid pavement is Portland cement concrete.
of the pavement on high volume routes due to Other types of hydraulic cement concrete are
improved long-term performance and reduced sometimes used for special conditions such as
maintenance. Because there are no sawn rapid strength concrete.
transverse joints, properly built CRCP should have
better ride quality and less maintenance than
JPCP. Additional CRCP guidance are under
development and when completed will be posted
in the “Continuously Reinforced Concrete
Pavement Design Guide” on the Department
Pavement website.
September 1, 2006
Figure 621.1
Types of Rigid Pavement

May 7, 2012
(1) Smoothness. The smoothness of a pavement manholes. Isolation joints are filled with a
impacts its ride quality, overall durability, and joint filler material to keep cracks from
performance. Ride quality (measured by the propagating through the joint and to prevent
smoothness of ride) is also the highest concern water/dirt infiltration.
listed in public surveys on pavement
(4) Expansion. Expansion joints (known
condition. Smoothness specifications have
previously as pressure relief joints) are similar
been improved and incentive/disincentive
in purpose to isolation joints except they are
specifications have been developed to assure
used where there is a need to allow for a large
that smoothness values are achieved in
expansion, greater than ½ inch, between slabs
construction. Incentive/disincentive
or pavements. Expansion joints are typically
specifications can be used where the project
used where CRCP abuts up to bridges,
meets the warrants for the smoothness
structure approach slabs or other types of rigid
specification. For up to date, additional
pavements. Expansion joints are also used
information on smoothness and application of
with PPCP. Expansion joints are typically not
specifications see the smoothness page on the
used with JPCP.
Additional information on rigid pavement joints
622.2 Performance Factors and when, where, and how to place them can be
The performance factors used to engineer rigid found in the Standard Plans, Standard
pavements are shown in Table 622.2. The Specifications/Special Provisions, Pavement
pavement structure in Index 623.1 is expected to Interactive Guide, and the Department Pavement
meet or exceed all of the performance factors in website.
Table 622.2. The performance factors in the table
622.4 Dowel Bars and Tie Bars
are end-of-design life criteria.
Dowel bars are smooth round bars that act as load
622.3 Pavement Joints transfer devices across pavement joints. Dowel
(1) Construction. Construction joints (sometimes bars are typically placed across transverse joints of
called contact or cold joint) are joints between jointed plain and precast panel concrete pavement.
slabs that result when concrete is placed at In limited situations, dowel bars are placed across
different times. Construction joints can be longitudinal joints. See Standard Plans for further
transverse or longitudinal and are constructed details. Tie bars are deformed bars (i.e., rebar) or
in all types of rigid pavements. Tie bars are connectors that are used to hold the faces of
typically used at construction joints to connect abutting rigid slabs in contact. Tie bars are
the adjoining slabs together so that the typically placed across longitudinal joints. Further
construction joint will be tightly closed. details regarding dowel bars and tie bars can be
found in the Standard Plans and Pavement
(2) Contraction. Longitudinal and transverse Technical Guidance on the Department Pavement
contraction joints (also known as weakened website.
plane joints) are sawed into new pavement to
control the location and geometry of New or reconstructed rigid pavements and lane
shrinkage, curling, and thermal cracking. replacements shall be doweled except as noted
below:
(3) Isolation. Isolation joints are used to separate
dissimilar pavements/structures in order to • Rigid shoulders placed or reconstructed next
lessen compressive stresses that could cause to a nondoweled rigid lane may be
excessive cracking. Examples of dissimilar nondoweled.
pavements/structures include different joint
• Rigid shoulders placed or reconstructed next
patterns, different types of rigid pavement
to a widened slab may be nondoweled and
(e.g., CRCP/JPCP), structure approach slabs,
untied (see Standard Plan P-2).
building foundations, drainage inlets, and
July 24, 2009
Table 622.1
Rigid Pavement Engineering Properties
Property Values
Transverse joint spacing 13.5 ft average

Initial IRI immediately after construction 63 in/mile max
Reliability 90%
Unit weight 150 lb/ft3
Poisson’s ratio 0.20
Coefficient of thermal expansion 6.0 x 10-6/ °F
Thermal conductivity Btu
1.25
hr - ft - °F
Heat capacity Btu
0.28
lbm - °F
Permanent curl/warp effective temperature Top of slab is 10 °F cooler than bottom of slab
difference
Surface layer/base interface Unbonded
Surface shortwave absorptivity 0.85
Cement type Type II Portland Cement
Cement material content (cement + flyash) 24 lb/ft3
Water: cementitious material ratio 0.42
PCC zero-stress temperature 100.9 °F
Ultimate shrinkage at 40% relative humidity 537 microstrain
Reversible shrinkage (% of ultimate shrinkage) 50%
Time to develop ultimate shrinkage 35 days
Modulus of rupture or flexural strength (28 days) 625 psi
Dowel bar diameter 1.5 in (1.25 in for rigid pavement thickness
< 0.70 ft)
November 2, 2012
For individual slab replacements, the placement of

Table 622.2 dowel bars is determined on a project-by-project
basis based on proposed design life, construction
Rigid Pavement Performance work windows, existence of dowel bars in adjacent
Factors slabs, condition of adjacent slabs, and other
pertinent factors. For further information on slab
Factor Value replacements, see Standard Plan P8, the “Slab
Replacement Guide” and supplementary “Design
General Tools for Slab and Lane Replacements” on the
Design Life Determined per
Topic 612 622.5 Joint Seals
Terminal IRI (1) at 160 in/mile max (1) General. Joint and crack seals are used to
end of design life protect wide joints (joints 3/8 inch or wider)
from infiltration of surface moisture and
JPCP only intrusion of incompressible materials.
Transverse cracking 10% of slabs max Infiltration of surface moisture and intrusion
at end of design life of incompressible materials into joints is
minimized when a narrow joint is used.
Longitudinal 10% of slabs max
cracking at end of (2) New Construction, Widening, and
design life Reconstruction. Joints are not sealed for new
construction, widening, or for reconstruction
Corner cracking at 10% of slabs max except for the following conditions:
end of design life
• isolation joints,
Average joint 0.10 inch max
faulting at end of • expansion joints,
design life • longitudinal construction joints in all
CRCP only desert and mountain climate regions, and
• transverse joints in JPCP in all desert and
Punchouts at end of 10 per mile max
mountain climate regions.
design life
(3) Preservation and Rehabilitation. To be
NOTE: effective, existing joint seals should be
(1) The International Roughness Index (IRI) is replaced every 10 to 15 years depending on
a nationally recognized method for the type used. As part of preservation or
measuring the smoothness of pavements. rehabilitation strategies, existing joint seals
should be replaced when the pavement is
ground, replaced or dowel bar retrofitted.
• Rigid pavement should not be tied to adjacent Previously unsealed joints should be reviewed
rigid pavement when the spacing of transverse to determine if joint sealing is warranted in
joints of adjacent slabs is not the same. accordance with the criteria in the
• No more than 50 feet width of rigid pavement Maintenance Technical Advisory Guide. The
should be tied together to preclude random condition of the existing joints and joint seals
longitudinal cracks from occurring due to the should be reviewed with the District
pavement acting as one large rigid slab. In Maintenance Engineer to determine if joint
order to maintain some load transfer across the seal replacement is warranted.
longitudinal joint, Standard Plan P18 includes (4) Selection of Joint Seal Material. Various
details for placing dowel bars in the products are available for sealing joints with
longitudinal joint for this situation. each one differing in cost and service life.
November 2, 2012
The type of joint sealant is selected based on bonding including a liberal application of wax
the following criteria: curing compound, or slurry seals. Application
rates may be found in the Standard Specifications.
• Project environment.
For specific recommendations on how to prevent
In mountain and high desert climate bonding between rigid pavement and lean concrete
regions where chains are used during base, consult the District Materials Engineer.
winter storms, joint sealants that use
backer rods are not recommended. Severe
622.7 Texturing
climate conditions (such as in the Longitudinal tining is the typical texturing for new
mountains or deserts) will require more pavements. Grooving is typically done to
durable sealants and/or more frequent rehabilitate existing pavement texture or to
replacement. improve surface friction. Grinding is typically
done to restore a smooth riding surface on existing
• Type of roadway.
pavements or for individual slab replacements.
Interstate or State highway, and Grooving or grinding are options on new
corresponding traffic characteristics pavement in lieu of longitudinal tining where there
including traffic volumes and percentage is a desire to minimize noise levels on rigid
of truck traffic. pavement.
• Condition of existing reservoir. 622.8 Transitions and Anchors
If the sides of in-place joint faces are Transitions and anchors are used at transverse
variable in condition, do not use joints to minimize deterioration or faulting of the
preformed compression seal. joint where rigid pavement abuts to flexible
pavement, a different rigid pavement type, or in
• Expected performance.
some cases, a bridge. For JPCP, a pavement end
If suitable for intended use and site anchor or transition should be used at transitions to
conditions, the sealant with the longest flexible pavement. For CRCP, a terminal
service life is preferred. anchor or terminal joint shall be used at all
The joint sealant selected should match transitions to or from structure approach slabs,
JPCP, PPCP, or flexible pavement. Standard
the type of existing joint sealant being left
Plans include a variety of details for these
in place.
transitions.
• Cost effectiveness.
Life cycle cost analysis (LCCA) is used to
select the appropriate sealant type. Procedure for New and
Joint sealants should not last longer than Reconstruction Projects
the pavement being sealed. 623.1 Catalog
For additional information on various joint seal Tables 623.1B through M contain the minimum
products and selection guidance, consult the thickness for rigid pavement surface layers, base,
Maintenance Technical Advisory Guide on the and subbase for all types of projects. All JPCP
Department Pavement website. structures shown are doweled. The tables are
622.6 Bond Breaker categorized by subgrade soil type and climate
regions. Figure 623.1 is used to determine which
When placing rigid pavement over a lean concrete table to use to select the pavement structure.
base, it is important to avoid bonding between the
two layers. Bonding can cause cracks and joints in The steps for selecting the appropriate rigid
the lean concrete base to reflect through the rigid pavement structure are as follows:
pavement, which will lead to premature cracking. (1) Determine the Soil Type for the Existing
Several methods are available for preventing Subgrade. Soil types for existing subgrade are
November 2, 2012
categorized into Types I, II, and III as shown Table 623.1A

in Table 623.1A. Soils are classified by the
Unified Soil Classification System (USCS). If
a soil can be classified in more than one type Relationship Between Subgrade
in Table 623.1A, then the engineer should Type(1)
choose the more conservative design based on
the less stable soil. Subgrade is discussed in Unified Soil
California
Topic 614. Subgrade Classification
R-value
Type(2) System
(2) Determine Climate Region. Find the location (R)
(USCS)
of the project on the Pavement Climate Map.
The Pavement Climate Map is discussed in SC, SP, SM,
Topic 615. I R > 40 SW, GC, GP,
GM, GW
(3) Select the Appropriate Table (Tables 623.1B
through M). Select the table that applies to the CH (PI < 12),
II 10 < R < 40
project based on subgrade, soil type, and CL, MH, ML
climate region. Use Figure 623.1 to determine
which table applies to the project.
III R < 10 CH (PI >12)
(4) Determine Whether Pavement Has Lateral
Support Along Both Longitudinal Joints. The
NOTES:
pavement is considered laterally supported if it
is tied to an adjacent lane, has tied rigid (1) See Topic 614 for further discussion on
shoulders, or has a widened slab. If lateral subgrade and USCS.
support is provided along only one (2) Choose more conservative soil type (i.e., use
longitudinal joint, then the pavement is soil with a lower R-value or USCS) if native
considered to have no lateral support. As soil can be classified by more than one type.
shown in Tables 623.1B through M, pavement
thicknesses are reduced slightly for slabs Legend
engineered with lateral support along both PI = Plasticity Index
longitudinal joints.
623.2 Mechanistic-Empirical Method
(5) Select Pavement Structure. Using the Traffic
Index provided or calculated from the traffic For information on Mechanistic-Empirical Design
projections, select the desired pavement application and requirements, see Index 606.3.
structure from the list of alternatives provided.
Note that although the pavement structures
listed for each Traffic Index are considered to
be acceptable for the climate, soil conditions,
and design life desired, they should not be
considered as equal designs. Some designs
will perform better than others, have lower
maintenance/repair costs, and/or lower
construction life-cycle costs. Sound
engineering judgment should be used in
selecting the option that is most effective for
the location. For these reasons, the rigid
pavement structures in these tables cannot be
used as substitutes for the pavement structures
recommended in approved Materials Reports
or shown in approved contract plans.
July 1, 2008
Figure 623.1
Rigid Pavement Catalog Decision Tree

November 2, 2012
Table 623.1B
Rigid Pavement Catalog (North Coast, Type I Subgrade Soil)(1), (2), (3), (4),(5)
Rigid Pavement Structural Depth
TI With Lateral Support (ft) Without Lateral Support (ft)
0.70 JPCP 0.70 JPCP 0.70 JPCP 0.70 JPCP 0.70 JPCP 0.70 JPCP 0.70 JPCP 0.70 JPCP
<9 0.35 LCB 0.25 HMA-A 0.50 AB 0.35 ATPB 0.35 LCB 0.25 HMA-A 0.50 AB 0.35 ATPB
0.35 AB 0.35 AB
9.5 to 10 0.35 LCB 0.25 HMA-A 0.60 AB 0.35 ATPB 0.35 LCB 0.25HMA-A 0.60 AB 0.35 ATPB
0.40 AB 0.40 AB
10.5 to 0.70 JPCP 0.70 JPCP 0.70 JPCP 0.75 JPCP 0.75 JPCP 0.75 JPCP
11 0.35 LCB 0.25 HMA-A 0.70 AB 0.35 LCB 0.25 HMA-A 0.70 AB
11.5 to 0.75 JPCP 0.75 JPCP 0.75 CRCP 0.80 JPCP 0.80 JPCP 0.80 CRCP
12 0.35 LCB 0.25 HMA-A 0.35 HMA-A 0.35 LCB 0.25HMA-A 0.40 HMA-A
13 0.35 LCB 0.25 HMA-A 0.25 HMA-A 0.50 LCB 0.50 HMA-A 0.50 HMA-A
> 17 1.00 JPCP 1.00 JPCP 0.90 CRCP 1.10 JPCP 1.10 JPCP 1.00 CRCP
0.35 LCB 0.25 HMA-A 0.25 HMA-A 0.35LCB 0.25 HMA-A 0.25 HMA-A
<9
NOTES:
(1) Thicknesses shown for JPCP are for doweled pavement only. The thickness shown in these tables are not valid for
nondoweled JPCP.
(2) Includes 0.03 ft sacrificial wearing course for future grinding of JPCP/CRCP.
(3) Portland cement concrete may be substituted for LCB when justified for constructibility or traffic handling. If Portland
cement concrete is used in lieu of LCB, it must be placed in a separate lift than JPCP and must not be bonded to the JPCP.
(4) If ATPB is needed for TIs > 10.0 to perpetuate an existing treated permeable layer, place the ATPB between the surface layer
(JPCP or CRCP) and the base layer. No deduction is made to the thickness of the base and subbase layers on account of the
ATPB.
(5) Place a Bond Breaker between JPCP and LCB in all cases
Legend:
JPCP = Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement ATPB = Asphalt Treated Permeable Base
CRCP = Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement AB = Class 2 Aggregate Base
LCB = Lean Concrete Base TI = Traffic Index
HMA-A = Hot Mix Asphalt (Type A)
May 7, 2012
Table 623.1C
Rigid Pavement Catalog (North Coast, Type II Subgrade Soil) (1), (2), (3), (4), (5)
0.50 AS 0.50 AS 0.80 AB 0.50 AS 0.50 AS 0.80 AB
9.5 to 10 0.35 LCB 0.25 HMA-A 1.00 AB 0.35 ATPB 0.35 LCB 0.25 HMA-A 1.00 AB 0.35 ATPB
0.50 AS 0.50 AS 0.80 AB 0.50 AS 0.50 AS 0.80 AB
0.70 JPCP 0.70 JPCP 0.70 JPCP 0.75 JPCP 0.75 JPCP 0.75 JPCP
10.5 to
0.35 LCB 0.25 HMA-A 1.30 AB 0.35 LCB 0.25 HMA-A 1.30 AB
11
0.60 AS 0.60 AS 0.60 AS 0.60 AS
0.75 JPCP 0.75 JPCP 0.75 CRCP 0.80 JPCP 0.80 JPCP 0.80 CRCP
11.5 to
0.35 LCB 0.25 HMA-A 0.25 HMA-A 0.35 LCB 0.25 HMA-A 0.25 HMA-A
12
0.60 AS 0.60 AS 0.60 AS 0.60 AS 0.60 AS 0.60 AS
12.5 to
13
0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS
13.5 to
14
0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS
14.5 to
15
0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS
15.5 to
0.35 LCB 0.25HMA-A 0.25 HMA-A 0.35 LCB 0.25 HMA-A 0.25 HMA-A
16
0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS
16.5 to
17
0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS
> 17 0.35 LCB 0.25 HMA-A 0.25 HMA-A 0.35 LCB 0.25 HMA-A 0.25 HMA-A
0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS
NOTES:
nondoweled JPCP.
ATPB.
Legend:
LCB = Lean Concrete Base AS = Class 2 Aggregate Subbase
HMA-A = Hot Mix Asphalt (Type A) TI = Traffic Index
May 7, 2012
Table 623.1D
Rigid Pavement Catalog
(South Coast/Central Coast, Type I Subgrade Soil) (1), (2), (3), (4), (5)
0.35 AB 0.35 AB
0.40 AB 0.40 AB
10.5 to 11 0.35 LCB 0.25 HMA-A 0.70 AB 0.35 LCB 0.25 HMA-A 0.70 AB
11.5 to 12 0.35 LCB 0.25 HMA-A 0.25 HMA-A 0.35 LCB 0.25 HMA-A 0.25 HMA-A
15.5 to 16 0.35 LCB 0.25 HMA-A 0.25 HMA-A 0.35LCB 0.25 HMA-A 0.25 HMA-A
NOTES:
(1) Thicknesses shown for JPCP are for doweled pavement only. The thickness shown in these tables are not valid for nondoweled JPCP.
(3) Portland cement concrete may be substituted for LCB when justified for constructibility or traffic handling. If Portland cement
concrete is used in lieu of LCB, it must be placed in a separate lift than JPCP and must not be bonded to the JPCP.
(4) If ATPB is needed for TIs > 10.0 to perpetuate an existing treated permeable layer, place the ATPB between the surface layer (JPCP
or CRCP) and the base layer. No deduction is made to the thickness of the base and subbase layers on account of the ATPB.
Legend:
May 7, 2012
Table 623.1E
(South Coast/Central Coast, Type II Subgrade Soil) (1), (2), (3), (4), (5)
0.50 AS 0.50 AS 0.80 AB 0.50 AS 0.50 AS 0.80 AB
0.50 AS 0.50 AS 0.80 AB 0.50 AS 0.50 AS 0.80 AB
0.60 AS 0.60 AS 0.60 AS 0.60 AS
0.60 AS 0.60 AS 0.60 AS 0.60 AS 0.60 AS 0.60 AS
0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS
0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS
0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS
0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS
0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS
0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS
NOTES:
(1) Thicknesses shown for JPCP are for doweled pavement only. The thickness shown in these tables are not valid for nondoweled
JPCP.
Legend:
May 7, 2012
Table 623.1F
Rigid Pavement Catalog (Inland Valley, Type I Subgrade Soil) (1), (2), (3), (4), (5)
0.35 AB 0.35 AB
0.40 AB 0.40 AB
> 17
NOTES:
nondoweled JPCP.
ATPB.
Legend:
May 7, 2012
Table 623.1G
Rigid Pavement Catalog (Inland Valley, Type II Subgrade Soil) (1), (2), (3), (4), (5)
0.50 AS 0.50 AS 0.80 AB 0.50 AS 0.50 AS 0.80 AB
0.50 AS 0.50 AS 0.80 AB 0.50 AS 0.50 AS 0.80 AB
10.5 to
11
0.60 AS 0.60 AS 0.60 AS 0.60 AS
11.5 to
12
0.60 AS 0.60 AS 0.60 AS 0.60 AS 0.60 AS 0.60 AS
12.5 to
13
0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS
13.5 to
14
0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS
14.5 to
15
0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS
15.5 to
0.35 LCB 0.25HMA-A 0.25 HMA-A 0.35 LCB 0.25 HMA-A 0.25 HMA-A
16
0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS
16.5 to
17
0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS
0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS
NOTES:
nondoweled JPCP.
ATPB.
Legend:
May 7, 2012
Table 623.1H
Rigid Pavement Catalog (Desert, Type I Subgrade Soil) (1), (2), (3), (4), (5)
0.40 AB 0.40 AB
0.40 AB 0.40 AB
> 17
NOTES:
nondoweled JPCP.
ATPB.
Legend:
May 7, 2012
Table 623.1I
Rigid Pavement Catalog (Desert, Type II Subgrade Soil) (1), (2), (3), (4), (5)
0.50 AS 0.50 AS 0.80 AB 0.60 AS 0.60 AS 0.80 AB
0.50 AS 0.50 AS 0.80 AB 0.60 AS 0.60 AS 0.80 AB
10.5 to
11
0.60 AS 0.60 AS 0.60 AS 0.60 AS
11.5 to
12
0.60 AS 0.60 AS 0.60 AS 0.60 AS 0.60 AS 0.60 AS
12.5 to
13
0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS
13.5 to
14
0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS
14.5 to
15
0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS
15.5 to
16
0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS
16.5 to
17
0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS
0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS
NOTES:
(1) Thicknesses shown are for doweled JPCP only. Not valid for nondoweled JPCP.
ATPB.
Legend:
May 7, 2012
Table 623.1J
(Low Mountain/South Mountain, Type I Subgrade Soil) (1), (2), (3), (4), (5)
0.40 AB 0.40 AB
0.40 AB 0.40 AB
NOTES:
Legend:
May 7, 2012
Table 623.1K
(Low Mountain/South Mountain, Type II Subgrade Soil) (1), (2), (3), (4), (5)
0.50 AS 0.50 AS 0.80 AB 0.50 AS 0.50 AS 0.80 AB
0.50 AS 0.50 AS 0.80 AB 0.50 AS 0.50 AS 0.80 AB
10.5 to
11
0.60 AS 0.60 AS 0.60 AS 0.60 AS
11.5 to
12
0.60 AS 0.60 AS 0.60 AS 0.60 AS 0.60 AS 0.60 AS
12.5 to
13
0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS
13.5 to
14
0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS
14.5 to
15
0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS
15.5 to
16
0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS
16.5 to
17
0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS
0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS
NOTES:
JPCP.
Legend:
May 7, 2012
Table 623.1L
(High Mountain/High Desert, Type I Subgrade Soil) (1), (2), (3), (4), (5)
0.40 AB 0.40 AB
0.40 AB 0.40 AB
0.95 JPCP 0.95 JPCP 1.05 JPCP 1.05 JPCP

11.5 to 12 0.35 LCB 0.25 HMA-A 0.35 LCB 0.25 HMA-A






> 17
0.35 LCB 0.25 HMA-A 0.35 LCB 0.25 HMA-A
NOTES:
(2) Includes 0.15 ft sacrificial wearing course for future grinding of JPCP.
Legend:
May 7, 2012
Table 623.1M
(High Mountain/High Desert, Type II Subgrade Soil) (1), (2), (3), (4), (5)
0.50 AS 0.50 AS 0.80 AB 0.50 AS 0.50 AS 0.80 AB
0.50 AS 0.50 AS 0.80 AB 0.50 AS 0.50 AS 0.80 AB
10.5 to
11
0.60 AS 0.60 AS 0.60 AS 0.60 AS
11.5 to
0.35 LCB 0.25 HMA-A 0.35 LCB 0.25 HMA-A
12
0.60 AS 0.60 AS 0.60 AS 0.60 AS
12.5 to
0.35 LCB 0.25 HMA-A 0.35 LCB 0.25 HMA-A
13
0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS
13.5 to
0.35 LCB 0.25 HMA-A 0.35 LCB 0.25 HMA-A
14
0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS
14.5 to
0.35 LCB 0.25 HMA-A 0.35 LCB 0.25 HMA-A
15
0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS
15.5 to
0.35 LCB 0.25 HMA-A 0.35 LCB 0.23 HMA-A
16
0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS
16.5 to
0.35 LCB 0.25 HMA-A 0.35 LCB 0.25 HMA-A
17
0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS
> 17 0.35 LCB 0.25 HMA-A 0.35 LCB 0.25 HMA-A
0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS 0.70 AS
NOTES:
JPCP.
(2) Includes 0.15 ft sacrificial wearing course for future grinding of JPCP.
Legend:
November 2, 2012
Topic 624 – Engineering The roadway rehabilitation requirements for

overlays (see Index 625.1(2)) and preparation of
Procedures for Pavement existing pavement surface (Index 625.1(3)) apply
Preservation to CAPM projects. Additional details and
information regarding CAPM policies and
624.1 Preventive Maintenance strategies can be found in Design Information
Examples of rigid pavement preventive Bulletin 81 “Capital Preventive Maintenance
maintenance strategies include the following or Guidelines” as well as the “Rigid Pavement
combinations of the following: CAPM and Rehabilitation Guidelines for
Designers.” Both can be found on the Department
• Seal random cracks. Pavement website.
• Joint seal, repair/replace existing joint seals.
• Spall repair.
Procedures for Pavement and
• Grooving. Roadway Rehabilitation
• Grinding to restore surface texture.
625.1 Rigid Pavement Rehabilitation
• Special surface treatments (such as Strategies
methacrylate, polyester concrete, and others).
These strategies are normally used on bridge (1) Strategies. An overview of rigid pavement
decks but can be applied, in limited situations, strategies for roadway rehabilitation is
to rigid pavements for repair of problem areas. discussed in the “Rigid Pavement CAPM and
Rehabilitation Guidelines for Designers,”
Rigid pavement preventive maintenance strategies which can be found on the Department
are discussed further in the Maintenance Manual, Pavement website. Some rehabilitation
Chapter B. strategies discussed in the guide include the
following or combinations of the following:
624.2 Capital Preventive Maintenance
(CAPM) (a) Lane replacement. Lane replacements are
engineered using the catalogs found in
CAPM strategies include the following or
Index 623.1. Attention should be given to
combinations of the following:
maintaining existing drainage patterns
(a) Slab replacement. The use of rapid strength underneath the surface layer, (see Chapter
concrete in the replacement of concrete slabs 650 for further guidance). For further
should be given consideration to minimize information see “Design Tools for Slab
traffic impacts and open the facility to traffic and Lane Replacements,” on the
in a minimal amount of time. Slab Department Pavement website.
replacements may include replacing existing
(b) Unbonded rigid overlay with flexible
cement treated base or lean concrete base with
interlayer. To determine the thickness of
rapid strength concrete. For further
the rigid layer, use the rigid layer
information (including information on rapid
thicknesses for new pavement found in
strength concrete) see the “Slab Replacement
Index 623.1. Include a 0.10 foot
Guidelines” on the Department Pavement
minimum flexible interlayer between the
website.
existing pavement and rigid overlay. The
(b) Grinding to correct faulting. interlayer may need to be thicker if it is
used temporarily for traffic handling.
(c) Dowel bar retrofit. Guidelines for selecting
and engineering dowel bar retrofit projects can (c) Crack, seat, and flexible overlay. The
be found on the Department Pavement minimum standard thicknesses for a
website. 20-year design life using this strategy are
found in Table 625.1.
November 2, 2012
Table 625.1 is for a 20-year pavement (flexible and rigid). The Materials Report
design life. There are currently no should include a reminder of these
standard crack, seat, and flexible overlay preparations. Crack sealants should be placed
designs for pavement design lives greater ¼ inch below grade to allow for expansion
than 20 years. For projects with longer (i.e., recess fill) and to alleviate a potential
than 20-year pavement design life, bump if an overlay is placed. For information
consider lane replacement, unbonded and criteria for slab replacements, see Chapter
overlays, or consult Headquarters Office 2 of the Slab Replacement Guidelines on the
of Concrete Pavement and Pavement Department Pavement website.
Foundations for possible experimental
(4) Selection. The selection of the appropriate
designs.
strategy should be based upon life-cycle costs,
For crack, seat, and asphalt overlay load transfer efficiency of the joints, materials
projects, a nonstructural wearing course testing, ride quality, safety, maintainability,
(such as an open graded friction course) constructibility, visual inspection of pavement
may be placed in addition to (but not as a distress, and other factors listed in Chapter
substitute for) the thickness found in Table 610. The Materials Report should discuss any
625.1. Once a rigid pavement has been historical problems observed in the
cracked, seated, and overlaid with asphalt performance of rigid pavement constructed
pavement it is considered to be a with aggregates found near the proposed
composite pavement and subsequent project and subjected to similar physical and
preservation and rehabilitation strategies environmental conditions.
are determined in accordance with the
guidelines found in Chapter 640.
(d) Flexible overlay (without crack and seat). For information on Mechanistic-Empirical Design
If the existing rigid pavement (JPCP) will application and requirements, see Index 606.3.
not be cracked and seated, for a 20-year
design life, add an additional 0.10 foot
Topic 626 - Other Considerations
HMA to the minimum standard 626.1 Traveled Way
thicknesses of HMA surface course layer
given in Table 625.1. Since the maximum (1) Mainline. No additional considerations.
thickness for RHMA-G is 0.20 foot (see (2) Ramps and Connectors. If tied rigid shoulders
Index 631.3), no additional thickness is or widened slabs are used on the mainline,
needed if RHMA-G is used for the then the ramp or connector gore area
overlay. (including ramp traveled way adjacent to the
(2) Overlay Limits. On overlay projects, the gore area) should also be constructed with
entire traveled way and paved shoulder rigid pavement (see Figure 626.1). This will
shall be overlaid. Not only does this help minimize deterioration of the joint between
provide a smoother finished surface, it also flexible and rigid pavement. When the ramp
benefits bicyclists and pedestrians when they or connector traveled way is rigid pavement,
need to use the shoulder. utilize the same base and thickness for the
gore area as that to be used under the ramp
(3) Preparation of Existing Pavement. Existing traveled way, especially when concrete
pavement distresses should be repaired before shoulders are utilized on the mainline. Note
overlaying the pavement. Cracks wider than that in order to optimize constructability, any
¼ inch should be sealed; loose pavement concrete pavement structure used for mainline
removed and patched; spalls repaired; and concrete shoulders should still be perpetuated
broken slabs or punchouts replaced. Existing through the gore area. If the base is Treated
thermoplastic traffic striping and above grade Permeable Base (TPB) under the ramp’s
pavement markers should be removed. This
applies to both lanes and adjacent shoulders
May 7, 2012
Table 625.1
Minimum Standard Thicknesses for Crack, Seat, and Flexible Overlay(1)

0.35′ HMA
0.35′ HMA 0.20′ RHMA-G
GPI or
TI <12.0 SAMI-F or SAMI-R SAMI-R
SAMI-R
0.10′ HMA (LC) 0.10′ HMA (LC)
0.10′ HMA (LC)
0.20′ RHMA-G
0.40′ HMA 0.20′ RHMA-G
0.15′ HMA
TI ≥12.0 GPI or SAMI-R SAMI-R
SAMI-F or SAMI-R
0.15′ HMA (LC) 0.15′ HMA (LC)
0.10′ HMA (LC)
NOTE:
(1) If the existing rigid pavement is not cracked and seated, add minimum of 0.10 foot HMA above the
SAMI layer.
Legend:
HMA = Hot Mix Asphalt
HMA (LC) = Hot Mix Asphalt Leveling Course
RHMA-G = Rubberized Hot Mix Asphalt (Gap Graded)
GPI = Geosynthetic Pavement Interlayer
SAMI-R = Stress Absorbing Membrane Interlayer (Rubberized)
November 2, 2012
Figure 626.1
Rigid Pavement at Ramp or Connector Gore Area
November 2, 2012
traveled way and shoulder, TPB should still be needs to match the lane cross slope which may
utilized in the ramp gore areas as well. require a design exception (see Index 302.2
for further discussion).
(3) Ramp Termini. Rigid pavement is sometimes
placed at ramp termini instead of flexible The pavement structure for the tied rigid
pavement where there is projected heavy truck shoulder should match the pavement structure
traffic (as defined in Index 613.5(1)(c)) of the adjacent traffic lane. Special
topreclude pavement failure such as rutting or delineation of concrete shoulders may be
shoving from vehicular braking, turning required to deter the use of the shoulder as a
movements, and oil dripping from vehicles. traveled lane. District Traffic Operations
Once a design TI is selected for the ramp in should be consulted to determine the potential
accordance with Index 613.5, follow the need for anything more than the standard edge
requirements in Index 623.1 to engineer the stripe.
rigid pavement structure for the ramp termini.
Tied rigid shoulders are the most adaptable to
The length of rigid pavement to be placed at
future widening and conversion to a lane.
the termini will depend on the geometric
They should be the preferred shoulder type
alignment of the ramp, ramp grades, and the
when future widening is planned within the
length of queues of stopped traffic. The rigid
design life of the pavement or where the
pavement should extend to the first set of
shoulder will be used temporarily as a truck or
signal loops on signalized intersections. A
bus lane. Where the shoulder is expected to
length of 150 feet should be considered the
be converted into a traffic lane in the future,
minimum on unsignalized intersections.
the shoulder should be built to the same
Special care should be taken to assure skid
geometric and pavement standards as the lane.
resistance in conformance with current
Additionally, the shoulder width should match
standard specifications in the braking area,
the width of the future lane.
especially where oil drippage is concentrated.
End anchors or transitions should be used at (2) Widened Slab. Widened slabs involve
flexible/rigid pavement joints. The constructing the concrete panel for the lane
Department Pavement website has additional adjacent to the shoulder 14 feet wide in lieu of
information and training for engineering the prescribed lane width. The additional
pavement for intersections and rigid ramp width becomes part of the shoulder width and
termini. provides lateral support to the adjacent lane.
Widened slabs provide as good or better
626.2 Shoulder lateral support than tied rigid shoulders at a
The types of shoulders that are used for rigid lower initial cost provided that trucks and
pavements are shown in Figure 626.2A and can be buses are kept at least 2 feet from the edge of
categorized into the following three types: the slab. A rumble strip or a raised pavement
marking next to the pavement edge line of
(1) Tied Rigid Shoulders. These are shoulders widened concrete slabs helps discourage
that are built with rigid pavement that are tied trucks and buses from driving on the outside
to the adjacent lane with tie bars. These 2 feet of the slab. The use of rumble strips or
shoulders provide lateral support to the raised markings requires approval from
adjacent lane, which improves the long-term District Traffic Operations.
performance of the adjacent lane, reducing the
need for maintenance or repair of the lane. To Widened slabs are most useful in areas where
obtain the maximum benefit, these shoulders lateral support is desired but future widening
should be built monolithically with the is not anticipated or where there is a need to
adjacent lane (i.e., no contact joints). This have a different cross slope on the shoulder
will create aggregate interlock between the than that of the adjacent lane.
lane and shoulder, which provides increased (3) Untied Shoulders. Untied shoulders are
lateral support. In order to build the lane and flexible shoulders that are not built with a
shoulder integrally, the shoulder cross slope
November 2, 2012
widened slab or rigid shoulders that are not In those instances where flexible shoulders are
tied to the adjacent lane and not built adjacent used with rigid pavement, the minimum
to a widened slab. These shoulders do not flexible shoulder thickness should be
provide lateral support to the adjacent lane. determined in accordance with Topic 633.
Although non-supported shoulders may have
These conditions apply to all rigid pavement
lower initial costs, they do not perform as well
projects including new construction,
as tied rigid shoulders or widened slabs, which
reconstruction, widening, adjacent lane
can lead to higher maintenance costs, user
replacements, and shoulder replacements.
delays, and life cycle costs.
Typically existing flexible shoulders next to
(4) Selection Criteria. It is preferred that rigid pavement are not replaced for
shoulders be constructed of the same material rehabilitation projects that involve only
as the traveled way pavement (in order to grinding, dowel bar retrofits, and individual
facilitate construction, improve pavement slab replacements. Consideration should be
performance, and reduce maintenance cost). given to replacing flexible shoulders with tied
However, shoulders adjacent to rigid rigid shoulders or widened slabs when the
pavement traffic lanes can be either rigid or adjacent lane is being replaced or overlaid
flexible with the following conditions: with a rigid pavement. The District
determines when an existing flexible shoulder
(a) Tied rigid shoulders shall be used for:
is replaced with a rigid shoulder or widened
• Rigid pavements constructed in the slab.
High Mountain and High Desert
The shoulder pavement structure selected must
climate regions (see climate map in
meet or exceed the pavement design life
Topic 615).
standards in Topic 612. In selecting whether
• Paved buffers between rigid High- to construct rigid or flexible shoulders the
Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) lanes following factors should be considered:
and rigid mixed flow lanes. Same • Life-cycle cost of the shoulder.
for High-Occupancy Toll (HOT)
lanes. • Ability and safety of maintenance crews to
maintain the shoulder. In confined areas,
• Rigid ramps to and from truck
such as in front of retaining walls or
inspection stations.
narrow shoulders, and on high volume
(b) Either tied rigid shoulders or widened roadways (AADT > 150,000)
slabs shall be used for: consideration should be given to
engineering a shoulder that requires the
• Continuously reinforced concrete least amount of maintenance, even if it is
pavement. more expensive to construct.
• Horizontal radii 300 feet or less. • Future plans to widen the facility or
• Truck and bus only lanes. convert the shoulder to a traffic lane.
Where tied rigid shoulders or widened slabs • Width of shoulder. When shoulder widths
are used, they shall continue through ramp are less than 5 feet, tied rigid shoulders are
and gore areas (see Figure 626.2B). preferable to a widened rigid slab and
narrow flexible shoulder, less than 3 feet,
Because heavy trucks cause deterioration by
for both constructibility and
repeated heavy loading on the outside edge of
maintainability.
pavement, at the corners, and the midpoint of
the slab, widened slabs or tied rigid shoulders • For projects where the tracking width lines
should be used for heavy truck routes with a are shown to encroach onto paved
TI greater than or equal to 14.0. shoulders or any portion of the gutter pan,
tied rigid shoulders and the gutter pan
November 2, 2012
structure must be engineered to sustain the Use guidelines for intersections in Index 626.3
weight of the design vehicle. See Topic for further information.
404 for design vehicle guidance.
(2) Park and Ride Facilities. Flexible pavement
See Index 1003.5(1)) for surface quality should be used for park and ride facilities. If
guidance for highways open to bicyclists. transit buses access the park and ride facility,
use the procedures for bus pads in this Index
626.3 Intersections for engineering bus access.
Standard joint spacing patterns found in the (3) Bus Pads. Bus pads are subjected to similar
Standard Plans do not apply to intersections. stresses as intersections; however, it is not
Special paving details for intersections need to be practical to engineer rigid bus pads according
included in the project plans. Special to the Traffic Index, or according to bus
consideration needs to be given to the following counts. The minimum pavement structure for
features when engineering a rigid pavement bus pads should be 0.85 foot JPCP with dowel
intersection: bars at transverse joints on top of 0.5 foot lean
• Intersection limits. concrete base or Type A hot mix asphalt
(0.75 foot CRCP may be substituted for
• Joint types and joint spacing. 0.85 foot JPCP). For Type II soil as described
• Joint patterns. in Table 623.1A, include 0.5 foot of aggregate
subbase. Type III soil should be treated in
• Slab dimensions. accordance with Index 614.4. Where local
• Pavement joints at utilities. standards are more conservative than the
pavement structures mentioned above, local
• Dowel bar and tie bar placement. standards should govern.
Additional information and training is available on Relative slab dimensions for bus pads should
the Department Pavement website. be approximately 1:1 to 1:1.25, transverse-to-
626.4 Roadside Facilities longitudinal. The width of the bus pad should
be no less than the width of the bus plus 4 feet.
(1) Safety Roadside Rest Areas and Vista Points. If the bus pad extends into the traveled way,
If rigid pavement is selected for some site- the rigid bus pad should extend for the full
specific reason(s), the pavement structures width of the lane occupied by buses. The
used should be sufficient to handle projected minimum length of the bus pad should be 1.5
loads at most roadside facilities. To select the times the length of the bus(es) that will use the
pavement structure, determine the Traffic pad at any given time. This will provide some
Index either from traffic studies and leeway for variations in where the bus stops.
projections developed for the project or the Additional length of rigid pavement should be
values found in Table 613.5B, whichever is considered for approaches and departures from
greater. Then select the appropriate pavement the bus pad since these locations may be
structure from the catalog in Index 623.1. subjected to the same stresses from buses as
Joint spacing patterns found in the Standard the pad. A 115-foot length of bus pad (which
Plans do not apply to parking areas. Joint is approximately 250 percent to 300 percent
patterns should be engineered as square as times the length of typical 40-foot buses)
possible. Relative slab dimensions should be should provide sufficient length for bus
approximately 1:1 to 1:1.25, transverse-to- approach and departure. The decision whether
longitudinal. Transverse and longitudinal to use rigid pavement for bus approach and
joints should be perpendicular to each other. departure to/from bus pads is the
Joints are doweled in one direction and tied in responsibility of the District.
the other in accordance with Index 622.4. An end anchor may improve long-term
Special attention should be given to joint performance at the flexible-to-rigid pavement
patterns around utility covers and manholes. transition. Doweled transverse joints should
May 7, 2012
Figure 626.2A
Rigid Pavement and Shoulder Details
May 7, 2012
Figure 626.2B
Rigid Shoulders Through Ramp and Gore Areas
November 2, 2012
be perpendicular to the longitudinal joint at

maximum 15 feet spacing, but consider
skewing (at 1:6 typical) entrance/exit
transverse flexible-to-rigid transitions, note
that since acute corners can fail prematurely,
acute corners should be rounded (see
Figure 626.4). Special care should be taken to
assure skid resistance in conformance with
current Standard Specifications in the braking
area, especially where oil drippage is
concentrated.
July 24, 2009
Figure 626.4
Rigid Bus Pad
July 1, 2008
CHAPTER 630 631.3 Rubberized Hot Mix Asphalt

(RHMA)
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
Rubberized asphalt is formulated by mixing
granulated (crumb) rubber with hot asphalt to form
Topic 631 - Types of Flexible an elastic binder with less susceptibility to
Pavements & Materials temperature changes. The rubberized asphalt is
substituted for the regular asphalt as the binder for
the flexible pavement. This is called the wet
Index 631.1 - Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) method. Other methods of using rubber in flexible
HMA consists of a mixture of asphalt binder and a pavements are available. See Asphalt Rubber
graded aggregate ranging from coarse to very fine Usages Guide (ARUG), available on the
particles. The aggregate can be treated and the Department Pavement website, for further details.
binder can be modified. HMA could be made from RHMA is generally specified to retard reflection
new or recycled material. Examples of recycled cracking, resist thermal stresses created by wide
asphalt include, but are not limited to, hot and cold temperature variations and add flexibility to a
in-place recycling. HMA is classified by type structural overlay. At present, the Department
depending on the specified aggregate quality and uses gap-graded (RHMA-G) and open-graded
mix design criteria appropriate for the project (RHMA-O) rubberized asphalt. The difference
conditions. HMA types are found in the Standard between the two is in the gradation of the
Specifications and Standard Special Provisions. aggregate. RHMA-O is used only as a non-
structural wearing course. RHMA-G can be used
631.2 Open Graded Friction Course as either a surface course or a non-structural
(OGFC) wearing course. RHMA should be considered the
OGFC (formerly known as open graded asphalt strategy of choice when evaluating alternatives for
concrete (OGAC)) is a non-structural wearing a project. If RHMA is found to be inappropriate
course used primarily on HMA. It is occasionally due to availability, constructibility, environmental
used with modified binders on rigid pavements. factors, or cost, it shall be documented in the
The primary benefit of using OGFC is the scoping document, Project Initiation Document
improvement of wet weather skid resistance, (PID), or Project Report (PR).
reduced potential for hydroplaning, reduced water The minimum thickness for RHMA (any type)
splash and spray, and reduced night time wet should be 0.10 foot for new construction and
pavement glare. Secondary benefits include better rehabilitation. For pavement preservation, RHMA
wet-night visibility of traffic lane stripes and may be placed as thin as 0.08 foot provided
pavement markers, and better wet weather (day compaction requirements can be met. The
and night) delineation between the traveled way maximum thickness for RHMA-G is 0.20 foot.
and shoulders. The maximum thickness for RHMA-O is 0.15
For information and applicability of OGFC in new foot. If a thicker surface layer or overlay is called
construction and rehabilitation projects refer to for, then a HMA layer should be placed prior to
OGFC Guideline available on the Department placing the RHMA. RHMA should only be placed
Pavement website. Also, see Maintenance over a flexible or rigid surface course and not on a
Technical Advisory Guide (MTAG) for additional granular layer. RHMA-O may be placed on top of
information and use of OGFC in pavement new RHMA-G. Do not place conventional HMA
preservation. or OGFC over new RHMA pavement.
It is undesirable to place RHMA-G or RHMA-O
in areas that will not allow surface water to drain.
As an example, a surface that is milled only on the
May 7, 2012
traveled way and not on the shoulder forms a A SAMI may be placed between layers of new
“bathtub” section that can trap water beneath the flexible pavement, such as on a leveling course, or
surface of the traveled way. To prevent this effect, on the surface of an existing flexible pavement. A
RHMA-G should be placed over the whole cross GPI should not be placed directly on coarse
section of the road (traveled way and shoulders). surfaces such as a chip seal, OGFC, areas of
numerous rough patches, or on a pavement that
For additional information and applicability of
has been cold planed. Coarse surfaces may
RHMA in new construction and rehabilitation
penetrate the fabric and the paving asphalt binder
projects refer to Asphalt Rubber Usage Guide
used to saturate the fabric may collect in the voids
available on the Department Pavement website.
or valleys leaving areas of the fabric dry. For the
GPI to be effective in these areas, use a layer of
631.4 Other Types of Flexible Pavement
HMA prior to the placement of the GPI.
There are other types of flexible pavements such
GPI is ineffective in the following applications:
as cold mix, Resin Pavement, and Sulphur
Extended Hot Mix Asphalt. The other types of • When placed under rubberized hot mix
pavements are either used for maintenance asphalt (RHMA). This is due to the high
treatments or not currently used on State placement temperature of the RHMA-G mix,
highways. For pavement preservation and other which is close to the melting temperature of
maintenance treatments refer to the Department’s the GPI.
Maintenance Manual. • For providing added structural strength when
placed in combination with new flexible
631.5 Stress Absorbing Membrane pavement.
Interlayers (SAMI)
• In the reduction of thermal cracking of the
SAMI are used with flexible layer rehabilitation as new flexible pavement overlay.
a means to retard reflective cracks, prevent water
intrusion, and (in the case of SAMI-R
(rubberized)) enhance pavement structural Topic 632 - Engineering Criteria
strength. Two types of SAMI are:
• Rubberized (SAMI-R). SAMI-R is a
632.1 Engineering Properties
rubberized chip seal. (1) Smoothness. The smoothness of a pavement
impacts its ride quality, overall durability, and
• Geosynthetic Pavement Interlayer (GPI),
performance. Ride quality (which is measured
consists of asphalt-imbued geotextile.
by the smoothness of ride) is also the highest
Sound engineering judgment is required when concern listed in public surveys on pavement
considering the use of a SAMI. condition. Smoothness specifications have
• Consideration should be given to areas that been improved and incentive/disincentive
may prohibit surface water from draining out specifications have been developed to assure
the sides of the overlay, thus forming a designed smoothness values are achieved in
“bathtub” section. construction. Incentive / disincentive
specifications can be used where the project
• Since SAMI-R can act as a moisture barrier, meets the warrants for the specification. For
it should be used with caution in hot up to date and additional information on
environments where it could prevent smoothness and the application of the
underlying moisture from evaporating. smoothness specifications see the smoothness
• When placed on an existing pavement, page on the Department Pavement website.
preparation is required to prevent excess (2) Asphalt Binder Type. Asphalt binders are
stress on the membrane. This includes most commonly characterized by their
sealing cracks wider than ¼ inch and physical properties. An asphalt binder’s
repairing potholes and localized failures. physical properties directly relate to field
May 7, 2012
performance. Although asphalt binder asphalt in many paving and maintenance

viscosity grading is still common, new binder applications.
tests and specifications have been developed
Table 632.1 provides the binder grade that is
to more accurately characterize temperature
to be used for each climatic region for general
extremes which pavements in the field are
application. For HMA, values are given for
expected to withstand. These tests and
typical and special conditions. For a few
specifications are specifically designed to
select applications such as dikes and tack
address three specific pavement distress
coats, PG binder requirements are found in the
modes: permanent deformation (rutting),
applicable Standard Specifications or Standard
fatigue cracking, and low temperature
Special Provisions.
cracking.
For locations of each pavement climate region
In the past, the Department has classified
see Topic 615.
unmodified asphalt binder using viscosity
grading based on the Aged Residue (AR) Special conditions are defined as those
System and Performance Based Asphalt roadways or portion of roadways that need
(PBA) binder system. Beginning January 1, additional attention due to conditions such as:
2006, the Department switched to the • Heavy truck/bus traffic (over 10 million
nationally recognized Performance Grade ESALs for 20 years).
(PG) System for conventional binders.
Effective from January 1, 2007, the • Truck/bus stopping areas (parking area,
Department has graded polymer-modified rest area, loading area, etc.).
binders as Performance Graded-Polymer • Truck/bus stop and go areas
Modified (PG-PM) binder in lieu of PBA. (intersections, metered ramps, ramps to
Performance grading is based on the concept and from Truck Scales etc.).
that asphalt binder properties should be related • Truck/bus climbing and descending
to the conditions under which the binder is lanes.
used. PG asphalt binders are selected to meet
expected climatic conditions as well as traffic The final decision as to whether a roadway
speed and volume adjustments. Therefore, the meets the criteria for special conditions rests
PG system uses a common set of tests to with the District. It should be noted that even
measure physical properties of the binder that though special binder grades help meet the
can be directly related to field performance of flexible pavement requirements for high
the pavement at its service temperatures. For truck/bus use areas, they should not be
example, a binder identified as PG 64–10 must considered as the only measure needed to meet
meet performance criteria at an average seven- these special conditions. The District Materials
day maximum pavement temperature of 64°C Engineer should be consulted for additional
and also at a minimum pavement temperature recommendations for these locations.
of –10°C. For more detailed information on PG binder
Although modified asphalt binder is more selection, refer to the Department Pavement
expensive than unmodified binder, in hot mix website.
asphalt (HMA), it can provide improved
performance and durability for sensitive 632.2 Performance Factors
climate conditions. While unmodified binder The procedures and practices found in this chapter
is adequate for most applications, improved are based on research and field experimentation
resistance to rutting, thermal cracking, fatigue undertaken by the Department and AASHTO.
damage, stripping, and temperature These procedures were calibrated for pavement
susceptibility have led polymer modified design lives of 10 to 20 years and Traffic Index
binders to be substituted for conventional (TI) ranging from 5.0 to 12. Extrapolations and
supplemental requirements were subsequently
May 7, 2012
Table 632.1
Asphalt Binder Grade

Binder Grades for Hot Mixed Asphalt (HMA)(1), (2)
Binder
Dense Graded HMA Open Graded HMA Gap and Open
Placement Temperature Graded
Climatic Rubberized
Region Typical Special(3) Hot Mix
> 70°F ≤ 70°F Asphalt
(RHMA)
South Coast PG 70-10
Central Coast PG 64-10 or PG 64-10 PG 58-34 PM PG 64-16
Inland Valley PG 64-28 PM

North Coast PG 64-16 PG 64-28 PM PG 64-16 PG 58-34 PM PG 64-16
Low Mountain
PG 64-16 PG 64-28 PM PG 64-16 PG 58-34 PM PG 64-16
South Mountain
High Mountain
PG 64-28 PG 58-34 PM(4) PG 64-28 PG 58-34 PM PG 58-22
High Desert
PG 58-34 PM
Desert PG 70-10 PG 64-28 PM PG 70-10 or PG 64-16
(3)
PG 64-28 PM
NOTES:
(1) PG = Performance Graded
(2) PM = Polmer Modified
(3) PG 76-22 PM may be specified for conventional dense graded hot mix asphalt for special conditions in all
climatic regions when specifically requested by the District Materials Engineer.
(4) PG 64-28 may be specified when specifically requested by the District Materials Engineer.
(5) Consult the District Materials Engineer for which binder grade to use.
May 7, 2012
developed to address longer pavement design lives (a) As discussed in Index 613.3(3), the TI is a
and higher Traffic Indices. Details on mix design measure of the cumulative number of
and other requirements for these procedures are ESALs expected during the design life of
provided in the Standard Specifications and the pavement structure. The TI is
Standard Special Provisions. Alterations to the determined to the nearest 0.5 using the
requirements in these documents can impact the equation given in Index 613.3(3) or from
performance of the pavement structure and the Table 613.3C.
performance values found in this chapter.
(b) The California R-value is a measure of
resistance of soils to deformation under
Topic 633 - Engineering wheel loading and saturated soils
Procedures for New and conditions. The California R-value is
determined as discussed in Index 614.3.
Reconstruction Projects
(c) The gravel equivalent (GE) of each layer
633.1 Empirical Method or the entire flexible pavement structure is
the thickness of gravel (aggregate
The data needed to engineer a flexible pavement subbase) that would be required to prevent
are California R-value of the subgrade and the TI permanent deformation in the underlying
for the pavement design life. Engineering of the layer or layers due to cumulative traffic
flexible pavement is based on a relationship loads anticipated during the design life of
between the gravel equivalent (GE) of the the pavement structure. The GE
pavement structural materials, the TI, and the requirement of the entire flexible
California R-value of the underlying material. The pavement or each layer is calculated using
relationship was developed by the Department the following equation:
through research and field experimentation.
GE = 0.0032(TI )(100 − R )
The procedures and rules governing flexible
pavement engineering are as follows, (Sample Where:
calculations are provided on the Department GE = Gravel Equivalent in feet
Pavement website.):
TI = Traffic Index
(1) Procedures for Engineering Multiple Layered
Flexible Pavement. R = California R-value of the material
below the layer or layers for which
The California Department of Transportation the GE is being calculated.
empirical method, commonly referred to as the
Hveem method, for determining design The GE requirement of each type of
thicknesses of the structural layers of flexible material used in the flexible pavement
pavement structure involves the determination structure is determined for each structural
of the following design parameters: layer, starting with the surface course and
proceeding downward to base and subbase
• Traffic Index (TI) as needed. For pavements that include
• California R-value (R) base and/or subbase, a safety factor of
0.20 foot is added to the GE requirement
• Gravel Equivalent (GE), and for the surface course to compensate for
• Gravel Factor (Gf) construction tolerances allowed by the
contract specifications. Since the safety
Once TI, R, GE, and Gf are determined, then factor is not intended to increase the GE of
the design thickness of each structural layer is the overall pavement, a compensating
determined using the Hveem method. These thickness is subtracted from the subbase
design parameters and the Hveem design layer (or base layer if there is no subbase).
method are discussed in the following For pavements that are full depth asphalt,
sections:
May 7, 2012
a safety factor of 0.10 foot is added to the GE

required GE of the pavement structure. Thickness (t) =
Gf
When determining the appropriate safety
factor to be added, Hot Mix Asphalt Base The minimum thickness of any asphalt
(HMAB) and Asphalt Treated Permeable layer should not be less than twice the
Base (ATPB) should be considered as part maximum aggregate size, and the
of the surface course. minimum thickness of the surface course
should not be less than 0.15 foot. The
(d) The gravel factor (Gf) of pavement
limit thicknesses for placing HMA for
structural material is the relative strength
each TI, and the limit thickness for each
of that material compared to gravel.
type of base and subbase materials, are
Gravel factors for HMA decrease as TI
shown in Table 633.1
increases, and also increase with HMA
thickness greater than 0.5 foot; while Gf Base and subbase materials, other than
for base and subbase materials are only ATPB, should each have a minimum
dependent on the material type. thickness of 0.35 foot. When the
calculated thickness of base or subbase
The Gf of HMA varies with layer
material is less than the desired 0.35 foot
thickness (t) for any given TI as follows:
minimum thickness, either: (a) increase
5.67 the thickness to the minimum without
t ≤ 0.50 ft: Gf = changing the thickness of the overlying
(TI)1 / 2 layers or (b) eliminate the layer and
increase the thickness of the overlying
( t )1 / 3 layers to compensate for the reduction in
t > 0.50 ft: G f = (7.00)
(TI)1 / 2 GE.
Generally, the layer thickness of Lime
Treated Subbase (LTS) should be limited,
These equations are valid for TIs ranging with 0.65 foot as the minimum and 2 feet
from 5 to 15. For TIs greater than 15, use as the maximum. A surface layer placed
a rigid or composite pavement or contact directly on the LTS should have a
the Headquarters Division of Maintenance thickness of at least 0.25 foot.
– Pavement Program for experimental The thicknesses determined by the
options. For TIs less than 5, use a TI=5. procedures outlined in this section are not
Typical gravel factors for HMA of intended to preclude other combinations
thickness equal to or less than 0.5 foot, and thicknesses of materials. Adjustments
and various types of base and subbase to the thickness of the various materials
materials, are provided in table 633.1. may be made to accommodate
Additional information on Gf for base and construction restrictions or practices, and
subbase materials are provided in Table minimize costs, provided the minimum
633.1B. thicknesses, maximum thicknesses, and
(e) The design thickness of each structural minimum GE requirements (including
layer of flexible pavement is obtained safety factors) of the entire pavement
either by dividing the GE by the structure and each layer are as specified.
appropriate gravel factor for that layer (2) Procedures for Full Depth Hot Mix Asphalt.
material, or from Table 633.1. The layer Full depth hot mix asphalt applies when the
thickness determined by dividing GE by pavement structure is comprised entirely of a
Gf is rounded up to the next higher value flexible surface layer in lieu of base and
in 0.05-foot increments. subbase. The flexible surface layer may be
comprised of a single or multiple types of
May 7, 2012
flexible pavements including HMA, RHMA, is based on an empirical method for a twenty-
interlayers, special asphalt binders, or different year pavement design life. For pavement
mix designs. Considerations regarding worker design lives greater than twenty years, in
safety, short construction windows, the addition to using a TI for that longer design
amount of area to be paved, or temporary life, provisions should be made to increase
repairs may make it desirable in some material durability and other appropriate
instances to reduce the total thickness of the measures to protect pavement layers from
pavement by placing full depth hot mix degradation.
asphalt. Full depth hot mix asphalt also is less
The following enhancements shall be
affected by moisture or frost, does not let
incorporated into all flexible pavements
moisture build up in the subgrade, provides no
with a design life greater than twenty years:
permeable layers that entrap water, and is a
more uniform pavement structure. Use the • Use the procedures for full depth hot mix
standard equation in Index 633.1(1) with the asphalt to determine the minimum
California R-value of the subgrade to calculate thickness for flexible pavement. Cement
the initial GE for the entire pavement treated base or lean concrete base can be
structure. Increase this by adding the safety used in lieu of hot mix asphalt but not in
factor of 0.10 foot to obtain the required GE lieu of aggregate base, aggregate subbase,
for the flexible pavement. Then refer to Table or a treated permeable base.
633.1, select the closest layer thickness for
conventional hot mixed asphalt, and determine • Place a minimum 0.50 foot of Class 2
the adjusted GE that it provides. The GE of Aggregate base underneath the flexible
the safety factor is not removed in this design. pavement. This aggregate base layer is
Adjust the final thickness as needed when not considered part of the pavement
using other types of materials than hot mixed structural design and cannot be used to
asphalt. reduce the thickness of the full depth hot
mix asphalt layer.
A Treated Permeable Base (TPB) layer may
be placed below full depth hot mix asphalt on • Use a non-structural wearing course (such
widening projects to perpetuate, or match, an as OGFC) above the surface layer
existing treated permeable base layer for (minimum 0.10 foot). See Index 602.1(5)
continuity of drainage. Reduce the GE of the for further details.
surface layer by the amount of GE provided • Use rubberized hot mix asphalt (maximum
by the TPB. In no case should the initial GE 0.20 foot) or a PG-PM binder (minimum
of the surface layer over the TPB be less than 0.20 foot) for the top of the surface layer.
40 percent of the GE required over the
subbase as calculated by the standard The following enhancements should be
engineering equation. When there is no incorporated into all flexible pavements with a
subbase, use 50 for the California R-value for pavement design life greater than twenty years
this calculation. In cases where a working when recommended by the District Materials
table will be used, the GE of the working table Engineer:
is subtracted from the GE of the surface layer (a) Use higher asphalt binder content for
as well. A working table is a minimum bottom of the surface layer (rich-bottom
thickness of material, asphalt, cement, or concept) and using higher stiffness asphalt
granular based, used to place construction binder.
equipment and achieve compaction
requirements when compaction is difficult or (b) Utilize subgrade enhancement fabrics at
impossible to meet. the subgrade for California R-values less
than 40.
(3) Modifications for Pavement Design Life
Greater than 20 Years. The above procedure (c) Use SAMIs within the surface layer.
July 1, 2008
Table 633.1
Gravel Equivalents (GE) and Thickness of Structural Layers (ft)
1), (2)
HMA( Base and Subbase (3)
Traffic Index (TI) TI is not a factor
5.0 5.5 6.5 7.5 8.5 9.5 10.5 11.5 12.5 13.5 14.5 CTPB;
Actual &
6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0 HMAB; CTB CTB
Layer below
Thickness LCB (Cl. A) ATPB (Cl. B) AB AS
(ft) (5) Gf (Constant for any base or subbase material
Gf (For HMA thickness equal to or less than 0.5 ft, Gf decreases with TI) (4)
irrespective of TI or thickness)
2.54 2.32 2.14 2.01 1.89 1.79 1.71 1.64 1.57 1.52 1.46 1.9 1.7 1.4 1.2 1.1 1.0
GE for HMA layer (ft) GE for Base or Subbase layer (ft)
0.10 0.25 0.23 0.21 0.20 0.19 0.18 0.17 0.16 0.16 0.15 0.15 -- -- -- -- -- --
0.15 0.38 0.35 0.32 0.30 0.28 0.27 0.26 0.25 0.24 0.23 0.22 -- -- -- -- -- --
0.20 0.51 0.46 0.43 0.40 0.38 0.36 0.34 0.33 0.31 0.30 0.29 -- -- -- -- -- --
0.25 0.63 0.58 0.54 0.50 0.47 0.45 0.43 0.41 0.39 0.38 0.37 -- -- 0.35 -- -- --
0.30 0.76 0.69 0.64 0.60 0.57 0.54 0.51 0.49 0.47 0.45 0.44 -- -- 0.42 -- -- --
0.35 0.89 0.81 0.75 0.70 0.66 0.63 0.60 0.57 0.55 0.53 0.51 0.67 0.60 0.49 0.42 0.39 0.35
0.40 1.01 0.93 0.86 0.80 0.76 0.72 0.68 0.65 0.63 0.61 0.59 0.76 0.68 0.56 0.48 0.44 0.40
0.45 1.14 1.04 0.96 0.90 0.85 0.81 0.77 0.74 0.71 0.68 0.66 0.86 0.77 0.63 0.54 0.50 0.45
0.50 1.27 1.16 1.07 1.00 0.94 0.90 0.85 0.82 0.79 0.76 0.73 0.95 0.85 0.70 0.60 0.55 0.50
0.55 1.41 1.29 1.19 1.12 1.05 1.00 0.95 0.91 0.87 0.84 0.81 1.05 0.94 0.77 0.66 0.61 0.55
0.60 1.58 1.45 1.34 1.25 1.18 1.12 1.07 1.02 0.98 0.95 0.91 1.14 1.02 0.84 0.72 0.66 0.60
0.65 1.76 1.61 1.49 1.39 1.31 1.25 1.19 1.14 1.09 1.05 1.02 1.24 1.11 0.91 0.78 0.72 0.65
0.70 -- 1.78 1.64 1.54 1.45 1.38 1.31 1.26 1.21 1.16 1.12 1.33 1.19 -- 0.84 0.77 0.70
0.75 -- 1.95 1.80 1.69 1.59 1.51 1.44 1.38 1.32 1.27 1.23 1.43 1.28 -- 0.90 0.83 0.75
0.80 -- 2.12 1.96 1.84 1.73 1.64 1.57 1.50 1.44 1.39 1.34 1.52 1.36 -- 0.96 0.88 0.80
0.85 -- -- 2.13 1.99 1.88 1.78 1.70 1.63 1.56 1.51 1.46 1.62 1.45 -- 1.02 0.94 0.85
0.90 -- -- 2.30 2.15 2.03 1.92 1.83 1.76 1.69 1.63 1.57 1.71 1.53 -- 1.08 0.99 0.90
0.95 -- -- -- 2.31 2.18 2.07 1.97 1.89 1.81 1.75 1.69 1.81 1.62 -- 1.14 1.05 0.95
1.00 -- -- -- 2.47 2.33 2.21 2.11 2.02 1.94 1.87 1.81 1.90 1.70 -- 1.20 1.10 1.00
1.05 -- -- -- 2.64 2.49 2.36 2.25 2.16 2.07 2.00 1.93 2.00 1.79 -- 1.26 1.16 1.05
1.10 -- -- -- -- 2.65 2.51 2.40 2.29 2.20 2.12 2.05 -- -- -- -- -- 1.10

1.15 -- -- -- -- 2.81 2.67 2.54 2.43 2.34 2.25 2.18 -- -- -- -- -- 1.15
1.20 -- -- -- -- 2.98 2.82 2.69 2.58 2.48 2.39 2.30 -- -- -- -- -- 1.20
1.25 -- -- -- -- -- 2.98 2.84 2.72 2.61 2.52 2.43 -- -- -- -- -- 1.25
1.30 -- -- -- -- -- 3.14 2.99 2.87 2.75 2.65 2.56 -- -- -- -- -- 1.30
1.35 -- -- -- -- -- 3.30 3.15 3.01 2.90 2.79 2.70 -- -- -- -- -- --

1.40 -- -- -- -- -- -- 3.31 3.16 3.04 2.93 2.83 -- -- -- -- -- --
1.45 -- -- -- -- -- -- 3.46 3.32 3.19 3.07 2.97 -- -- -- -- -- --
1.50 -- -- -- -- -- -- 3.62 3.47 3.33 3.21 3.10 -- -- -- -- -- --
1.55 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 3.62 3.48 3.36 3.24 -- -- -- -- -- --
1.60 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 3.78 3.63 3.50 3.38 -- -- -- -- -- --
1.65 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 3.94 3.79 3.65 3.52 -- -- -- -- -- --

1.70 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 3.94 3.80 3.67 -- -- -- -- -- --
1.75 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 4.09 3.95 3.81 -- -- -- -- -- --
1.80 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 4.25 4.10 3.96 -- -- -- -- -- --
1.85 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 4.25 4.10 -- -- -- -- -- --

1.90 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 4.40 4.25 -- -- -- -- -- --
1.95 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 4.56 4.40 -- -- -- -- -- --
2.00 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 4.55 -- -- -- -- -- --
Notes:
(1) Open Graded Friction Course (conventional and rubberized) is a non-structural wearing course and provides no structural value.
(2) Top portion of HMA surface layer (maximum 0.20 ft.) may be replaced with equivalent RHMA-G thickness. See Topic 631.3 for additional details.
(3) See Table 663.1B for additional information on Gravel Factors (Gf) and California R-values for base and subbase materials.
(4) These Gf values are for TIs shown and HMA thickness equal to or less than 0.5 foot only. For HMA thickness greater than 0.5 foot, appropriate Gf
should be determined using the equation in Index 633.1(1)(c).
(5) For HMA layer, select TI range, then go down to the appropriate GE and across to the thickness column. For base and subbase layer, select material
type, then go down to the appropriate GE and across to the thickness column.
May 7, 2012
(d) Use a separation fabric above granular overlay prior to placing the overlay. Situations
layers. Note that the fabric used needs to where milling or cold planing may be beneficial or
be able to resist construction loads or even necessary are to improve ride quality,
construction equipment must be able to maintain profile grade, maintain vertical clearance,
keep off of the fabric. or to taper (transition) to match an existing
pavement or bridge surface.
(4) Alternate Procedures and Materials. At
times, experimental procedures and/or If the necessary ride improvement cannot be
alternative materials are proposed as part of adequately addressed with these CAPM
the design or construction. See Topic 606 for treatments, the project should be developed as a
further discussion. roadway rehabilitation project.
A 0.06 foot – 0.10 foot non-structural wearing
633.2 Mechanistic-Empirical Method course (such as an open graded friction course)
For information on Mechanistic-Empirical Design may be added, but is not to be considered part of
application and requirements, see Index 606.3. the overlay requirements.
Deflection studies are not required for CAPM
Topic 634 - Engineering projects. The roadway rehabilitation requirements
Procedures for Flexible for overlays (see Index 635.1(1)) and preparation
of existing pavement surface (Index 635.1(8))
Pavement Preservation apply to CAPM projects. Additional details and
information regarding CAPM policies and
634.1 Preventive Maintenance strategies can be found in Design Information
For details regarding preventive maintenance Bulletin 81 “Capital Preventive Maintenance
strategies for flexible pavement, see the Guidelines.”
“Maintenance Technical Advisory Guide” on the
Department Pavement website. Deflection studies Topic 635 - Engineering
are not required for preventive maintenance Procedures for Flexible
projects.
634.2 Capital Preventive Maintenance Rehabilitation
(CAPM)
The standard design for a flexible pavement 635.1 Empirical Method
CAPM project with an International Roughness (1) General. The methods presented in this topic
Index (IRI) less than 170 inches per mile at PS&E are based on studies for a ten-year pavement
is an overlay of either 0.15 foot of rubberized hot design life with extrapolations for twenty-year
mix asphalt or 0.20 foot of conventional asphalt pavement design life. (For pavement design
binder or other approved modified asphalt binder lives greater than twenty years, contact the
mix. A 0.20-foot overlay of rubberized hot mix Headquarters Office of Asphalt Pavement).
asphalt may be appropriate in certain
Because there are potential variations in
circumstances and may be utilized with the
materials and environment that could affect
concurrence of the Headquarters Program Advisor
the performance of both the existing pavement
in the Headquarters Division of Maintenance –
and the rehabilitation strategy, it is difficult to
Pavement Program.
develop precise and firm practices and
For flexible pavement CAPM projects with an IRI procedures that cover all possibilities for the
greater than 170 inches per mile, the standard rehabilitation of pavements. Therefore, the
design is to place a 0.25-foot hot mix asphalt pavement engineer should consult with the
overlay in two lifts Existing pavement may be District Materials Engineer and other pertinent
milled or cold planed down to the depth of the experts who are familiar with engineering,
May 7, 2012
construction, materials, and maintenance of To provide reliable rehabilitation strategies,

pavements in the geographical area of the deflection studies should be done no more
project for additional requirements or than 18 months prior to the start of
limitations than those listed in this manual. construction.
Rehabilitation strategies are divided into three (a) Test Sections:
categories:
Test sections are portions of a roadway
• Overlay considered to be representative of
roadway conditions being studied for
• Mill and Overlay rehabilitation. California Test Method
• Remove and Replace 356 provides information on selecting test
sections and different testing devices.
Rehabilitation designs are governed by one of Test sections should be determined in the
the following three criteria: field based on safe operation and true
• Structural adequacy representation of pavement sections. Test
sections can be determined either by the
• Reflective crack retardation test operator or by the pavement engineer
• Ride quality in the field.
On overlay projects, the entire traveled way Occasionally, a return to a project site may
and paved shoulder shall be overlaid. Not be required for additional testing after
only does this help provide a smoother reviewing the initial deflection data in the
finished surface, it also benefits bicyclists and office.
pedestrians when they need to use the Individual deflection readings for each test
shoulder. section should be reviewed prior to
(2) Data Collection. Developing a rehabilitation determining statistical values. This review
strategy requires collecting background data as may locate possible areas that are not
well as field data. The Pavement Condition representative of the entire test section. An
Report (PCR), as-built plans, and traffic example would be a localized failure with
information are some of the sources used to a very high deflection. It may be more
prepare rehabilitation strategy cost effective to repair the various failed
recommendations. A thorough field sections prior to rehabilitation. Thus, the
investigation of the pavement surface high deflection values in the repaired areas
condition, combined with a current deflection would not be included when calculating
study and coring, knowledge of the subsurface statistical values for the representative test
conditions, thicknesses of existing flexible sections.
pavement layers, and a review of drainage (b) Mean and 80th Percentile Deflections:
conditions are all necessary for developing a
set of appropriate rehabilitation strategies. The mean deflection level for a test
section is determined by dividing the sum
(3) Deflection Studies. Deflection studies along of individual deflection measurements by
with coring data are used to measure the the number of the deflections:
structural adequacy of the existing pavement.
A deflection study is the process of selecting ΣDi
x=
deflection test sections, measuring pavement n
surface deflection, and calculating statistical
deflection values as described in California Where:
Test Method 356 for flexible pavement
x = mean deflection for a test section, in
deflection measurements. A copy of the test
inches
method can be obtained and/or downloaded
from the Department Pavement website.
May 7, 2012
Di = an individual measured surface • Similar base material.

deflection in the test section, in inches
• Similar TI
n = number of measurements in the test
section Once groups have been identified, D80 and
existing surface layer thickness of each
The 80th percentile deflection value group can be found by averaging the
represents a deflection level at which respective values of test sections within
approximately 80 percent of all that group.
deflections are less than the calculated
value and 20 percent are greater than the An alternative to the grouping method
value. Therefore, a strategy based on 80th outlined above is to analyze each test
percentile deflection will provide thicker section individually and then group them
rehabilitation than using the mean value. based on the results of analysis. This way,
all the test sections that have similar
For simplicity, a normal distribution has rehabilitation strategies would fall into the
been used to find the 80th percentile same group.
deflection using the following equation:
(4) Procedures for Rigid Pavement Overlay on
D80 = x + 0.84 s Existing Flexible Pavement (Concrete
Overlay). For concrete overlay (sometimes
Where: referred to as whitetopping) strategies, only
D80 = 80th percentile of the measured structural adequacy needs to be addressed. To
surface deflections for a test section, in address structural adequacy, use the tables in
inches Index 623.1 to determine the thickness of the
rigid layer. The overlay should be thick
s = standard deviation of all test points for enough to be considered a structural layer.
a test section, in inches Therefore, thin or ultra thin concrete layers
( )
2
(< 0.65 foot) are not qualified as concrete
∑ Di − x overlay. To provide a smooth and level grade
s= for the rigid surface layer, place a 0.10 foot to
n −1
0.15 foot HMA on top of the existing flexible
D80 is typically calculated as part of the layer.
deflection study done by the test operator.
(5) Procedures for Flexible Overlay on Existing
The pavement engineer should verify that
Flexible Pavement.
the D80 results provided by the operator
are accurate. (a) Structural Adequacy. Pavement
condition, thickness of surface layer,
(c) Grouping:
measured deflections, and the projected TI
Adjacent test sections may be grouped and provide the majority of the information
analyzed together. There may be one or used for determining structural adequacy.
several groups within the project. Structural adequacy is determined using
the following procedures and rules:
A group is a collection of test sections that
have similar engineering parameters. Test (b) Determine the Tolerable Deflection at the
sections can be grouped if they have all of Surface (TDS). The term “Tolerable
the following conditions: Deflection” refers to the level beyond
which repeated deflections of that
• Average D80 that vary less than
magnitude produce fatigue failure prior to
0.01 inch.
the planned TI. TDS is obtained from
• Average existing hot mix asphalt Table 635.1A by knowing the existing
thickness that vary less than 0.10 foot. thickness of the flexible layer and TI. For
existing flexible pavement over a treated
July 1, 2008
Table 635.1A
Tolerable Deflections at the Surface (TDS) in 0.001 inches
Exist.
Traffic Index (TI)
HMA
thick
(ft) 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
0.00 66 51 41 34 29 25 22 19 17 15 14 13
0.05 61 47 38 31 27 23 20 18 16 14 13 12
0.10 57 44 35 29 25 21 19 16 15 13 12 11
0.15 53 41 33 27 23 20 17 15 14 12 11 10
0.20 49 38 31 25 21 18 16 14 13 12 10 10
0.25 46 35 28 24 20 17 15 13 12 11 10 9
0.30 43 33 27 22 19 16 14 12 11 10 9 8
0.35 40 31 25 20 17 15 13 12 10 9 8 8
0.40 37 29 23 19 16 14 12 11 10 9 8 7
0.45 35 27 21 18 15 13 11 10 9 8 7 7
0.50 (1) 32 25 20 17 14 12 11 9 8 8 7 6
TB (2) 27 21 17 14 12 10 9 8 7 6 6 5
5.5 6.5 7.5 8.5 9.5 10.5 11.5 12.5 13.5 14.5 15.5 16.5
0.00 58 45 37 31 27 23 20 18 16 15 13 12
0.05 53 42 34 29 25 21 19 17 15 14 12 11
0.10 50 39 32 27 23 20 18 16 14 13 11 11
0.15 46 36 30 25 21 19 16 14 13 12 11 10
0.20 43 34 28 23 20 17 15 14 12 11 10 9
0.25 40 32 26 22 19 16 14 13 11 10 9 8
0.30 37 29 24 20 17 15 13 12 11 9 9 8
0.35 35 27 22 19 16 14 12 11 10 9 8 7
0.40 32 26 21 18 15 13 11 10 9 8 8 7
0.45 30 24 20 16 14 12 11 9 9 8 7 6
0.50 (1) 28 22 18 15 13 11 10 9 8 7 7 6
TB (2) 24 19 15 13 11 10 8 7 7 6 5 5
Notes:
(1) For an HMA thickness greater than 0.50 ft use the 0.50 ft depth.
(2) Use the TB (treated base) line to represent treated base materials, regardless of the thickness of
HMA cover.
May 7, 2012
Table 635.1B
Gravel Equivalence Needed to Reduce Deflection
Percent Reduction In Percent Reduction
GE (in feet) For HMA GE (in feet) For HMA
Deflection In Deflection
Overlay Design Overlay Design
(PRD or PRM) (1) (PRD or PRM) (1)
5 0.02 46 0.55
6 0.02 47 0.57
7 0.02 48 0.59
8 0.02 49 0.61
9 0.03 50 0.63
10 0.03 51 0.66
11 0.04 52 0.68
12 0.05 53 0.70
13 0.05 54 0.72
14 0.06 55 0.74
15 0.07 56 0.76
16 0.08 57 0.79
17 0.09 58 0.81
18 0.09 59 0.83
19 0.10 60 0.85
20 0.11 61 0.87
21 0.12 62 0.89
22 0.14 63 0.91
23 0.15 64 0.94
24 0.16 65 0.96
25 0.18 66 0.98
26 0.19 67 1.00
27 0.20 68 1.02
28 0.21 69 1.04
29 0.23 70 1.06
30 0.24 71 1.09
31 0.26 72 1.11
32 0.28 73 1.13
33 0.29 74 1.15
34 0.31 75 1.17
35 0.33 76 1.19
36 0.35 77 1.22
37 0.37 78 1.24
38 0.38 79 1.26
39 0.40 80 1.28
40 0.42 81 1.30
41 0.44 82 1.32
42 0.46 83 1.34
43 0.48 84 1.37
44 0.51 85 1.39
45 0.53 86 1.41
Note: (1) PRD is Percent Reduction in Deflection at the surface.
PRM is Percent Reduction in deflection at the Milled depth.
May 7, 2012
base, use TI and the TDS values in the required to reduce the deflections
row for Treated Base (TB) found in to less than the tolerable level.
Table 635.1A
(3) Divide the GE obtained from
The existing base is considered treated Table 635.1B by the appropriate
if it meets all of the following Gf for the overlay material to
conditions: determine the required thickness
of the overlay.
• Its depth is equal to or greater
than 0.35 foot. GE
Thickness (t) =
• The D80 is less than 0.015 inch. Gf
(1) It is rigid pavement, Lean Commonly used Gf for flexible
Concrete Base (LCB), or Class A pavement rehabilitation are
Cement Treated Base (CTB-A). presented in Table 635.1C.
For each group compare the TDS
to the average D80. The D80 is the
80th percentile deflection value.
Table 635.1C
It represents a deflection level at
which approximately 80 percent
Commonly Used Gf for Flexible
of all deflections of a sample Pavement Rehabilitation
group are less than the calculated
value and 20 percent are greater Material Gf (1)
than the value. Therefore, a Hot Mix Asphalt Overlay 1.9
strategy based on the 80th
percentile deflection will provide Hot Recycled Asphalt 1.9
thicker rehabilitation than using Cold in-Place Recycled
the mean deflection. 1.5
Asphalt
If the average D80 is greater than HMA Below the
the TDS, determine the required 1.4
Analytical Depth (2)
percent reduction in deflection at
the surface (PRD) to restore NOTES:
structural adequacy as follows: (1) For Gf of bases and subbases see Table
663.1B.
AverageD80 − TDS
PRD = (100) (2) Analytical depth is defined in 635.1(6)(a).
AverageD80
Where: (c) Reflective Cracking. The goal of these
PRD = Percent Reduction in procedures is to keep cracks at the bottom
Deflection required at the surface, of the surface course layer from
as percent propagating to the surface during the
pavement design life. Retarding the
TDS = Tolerable Deflection at the propagation of cracks is an important
Surface, in inches factor to consider when engineering
Average D80 = mean of the 80th flexible pavement overlays. The
percentile of the deflections for procedures and rules for engineering for
each group, in inches reflective cracking retardation are as
follows:
(2) Using the calculated PRD and
Table 635.1B, determine the GE (1) Determine the minimum thickness
required for a 10-year pavement
May 7, 2012
design life. For flexible pavements

over untreated bases, the minimum Table 635.1D
thickness of a HMA overlay with a Reflective Crack Retardation
ten-year design life should be half the
thickness of the existing surface
Equivalencies
course layer but not to exceed (Thickness in feet)
0.35 foot.
HMA RHMA-G RHMA-G over
For flexible pavements over treated (1)
SAMI-R
bases (as defined in the previous
section on structural adequacy), a 0.15 0.10
minimum HMA overlay of 0.35 foot 0.20 0.10
should be used for a 20-year design
life. 0.25 0.15
Exception: when the underlying 0.30 0.15
material is a thick rigid layer
0.35 • 0.15 if crack • N/A for crack
(0.65 foot or more) such as an
width < 1/8 inch width < 1/8
overlaid jointed plain concrete inch
pavement that was not cracked and • 0.20 if crack
seated, a minimum thickness of width ≥ 1/8 inch • 0.10 if crack
0.45 foot should be used. or underlying width
material CTB, ≥ 1/8 inch
(2) Adjust thickness if the pavement LCB, or rigid and
design life is different than 10 years. pavement underlying
For a twenty-year design life, material
experience has shown that the untreated
thickness should be 125 percent of the • 0.15 if crack
ten-year thickness for reflective width
cracking retardation. ≥ 1/8 inch
and
(3) Adjust overlay thickness for
underlying
alternative materials. material CTB,
A thickness equivalency of not more LCB, or rigid
than 1:2 is given to the RHMA-G pavement
when compared to the HMA for 0.45 0.15 over 0.20
reflective crack retardation. The
0.15 HMA
equivalencies are tabulated in Table
635.1D. NOTE:
If a SAMI-R is placed under a non- (1) See Index 635.1(5)(b) for minimum and
rubberized hot mix asphalt that is maximum HMA thicknesses recommended by
engineered for reflective crack the Department for reflective crack retardation
retardation, the equivalence of a on flexible pavements.
SAMI-R depends upon the type of A Geosynthetic Pavement Interlay
base material under the existing (GPI) placed under HMA that is
pavement. When the base is a treated engineered for reflective crack
material, a SAMI-R placed under retardation provides the equivalent of
HMA or OGFC is considered to be 0.10 foot of HMA. This allows the
equivalent to 0.10 foot of HMA. engineer to decrease the new profile
When the base is an untreated material grade and also save on HMA
SAMI-R is equivalent to 0.15 foot of materials.
HMA.
May 7, 2012
Wearing courses are not included in for structural adequacy and reflective
the thickness used to address crack retardation are less than 0.25 foot.
reflective cracking.
Note that the Standard Specifications
Thicker sections may be warranted. require the Contractor to place a 0.25 foot
Factors to be considered that might HMA in one layer. Projects with
necessitate a thicker overlay are: rehabilitation recommendations based on
improving ride quality must specify in the
• Type, sizes, and amounts of
Special Provisions that the overlay needs
surface cracks.
to be placed in two lifts. Examples of
• Extent of localized failures. design calculations for flexible overlay
thickness on existing flexible pavement
• Existing performance material and are available on the Department Pavement
age. website.
• Thickness and performance of (6) Mill and Overlay Procedures. Mill and
previous rehabilitation strategy. Overlay is the removal of part of the surface
• Environmental factors. course and placement of an overlay. Since
existing pavement thicknesses will have slight
• Anticipated future traffic loads variations throughout the project length, leave
(Traffic Index). at least the bottom 0.15 foot of the existing
As always, sound engineering surface course intact to ensure the milling
judgment will be necessary for final machine does not loosen the base material or
decisions. Final decision for when to contaminate the recycled mix during the hot or
use more than the minimum cold in-place recycling. If removal of the
requirements found in this manual entire surface course layer and any portion of
rests with the District. the base are required, use the procedures for
Remove and Replace in Index 635.1(7).
(d) Ride Quality. Ride quality is evaluated
based on the pavement’s smoothness. The a) Structural Adequacy. The engineering
Department records smoothness as part of procedures for determining the structural
Pavement Condition Survey using the adequacy for Mill and Overlay are the
International Roughness Index (IRI). same as those for overlays found in
According to FHWA, the IRI value that Index 635.1(1), with the exception of the
most motorists consider uncomfortable for following:
flexible pavement is 170 inches per mile.  TDS is determined using the thickness
When IRI measurements are 170 inches of the existing pavement prior to
per mile or greater, the engineer must milling.
address ride quality.
 Deflections are measured at the
(e) To improve ride quality, place a hot mix surface and adjusted to the milled
asphalt overlay thick enough (0.25 foot depth.
minimum) to be placed in two lifts.
RHMA-G may be placed in two 0.10 foot The Engineer must consider milling down
lifts to meet the ride quality requirement. to the “analytical depth”. As defined by
However, if a 0.10 foot layer cools prior to the Department, the analytical depth is the
compaction, this strategy is inappropriate. least of:
A wearing course may be included in the • The milled depth where the Percent
ride quality thickness. SAMI’s do not Reduction in deflection required at the
have any effect on ride quality. Milled depth (PRM) reaches
Ride quality will ultimately govern the 70 percent.
rehabilitation strategy if the requirements • The milled depth equals 0.50 foot.
May 7, 2012
• The bottom of the existing HMA layer. • The GE determined from the overlay
calculations.
The percent reduction in deflection
required at the milled depth is based • The GE required to replace the
research that determined deflections material removed by the milling
increase by 12 percent for each additional process.
0.10 foot of milled depth up to the
If the milling goes below the analytical
analytical depth. Once the analytical
depth, the Additional GE that is required
depth is reached, the existing HMA
to replace the existing HMA below the
material below is considered to be of
analytical depth is calculated by
questionable structural integrity and hence
multiplying the Gf of 1.4 by the milled
is assigned a Gf of 1.4. Since it is not
depth below the analytical depth:
known at what milled depth the 70 percent
PRM level or analytical depth will be Additional GE = [(1.4)(milled depth
reached, an iterative type of calculation is below the analytical depth)]
required. To determine the total GE for the overlay,
Using the thickness of the existing HMA the Additional GE below the analytical
layer, the TI, and base material, determine depth is added to the required GE above
the TDS from Table 635.1A. The the analytical depth (found from Table
deflection at the milled depth is found 635.1B). As stated in Index 633.1(1)(d),
from the equation: the required minimum thickness of the
overlay is determined by dividing the total
  MillDepth  
DM = D80 + (12% ) (D80 ) GE by the Gf of the new overlay material.
  0.10
0.10ftft   GE
Thickness (t) =
Where Gf
D80 = 80th Percentile deflections, in inches. If milled material is to be replaced by Hot
Mill Depth = the depth of the milling in Recycled Asphalt (HRA), the overlay
feet. thickness is the same as that of HMA
since both materials have a Gf of 1.9 (see
DM = the calculated deflection at the Table 635.1C).
Milled depth in inches.
Since Cold In-Place Recycled Asphalt
Then: (CIR) has low resistance to abrasion, if the
milled material is to be replaced with CIR,
 DM − TDS 
PRM =  (100 ) the CIR layer must be covered with a
 DM  wearing surface shortly after the recycling
Where process. To determine the required
thickness of the cap layer, first determine
PRM = Percent Reduction in deflection the GE of the CIR layer:
required at the Milled depth.
GE CIR = (CIR thickness)(G f CIR )
TDS = Tolerable Deflection at the Surface
in inches. Where:
Utilizing the calculated PRM value, go to GECIR = Gravel Equivalence of the CIR
Table 635.1B to get the total GE required Gf CIR = Gravel Factor of CIR = 1.5
to be placed on top of the milled pavement (see Table 635.1C)
surface. The total GE required to reduce
the measured deflection to the tolerable The thickness of the cap layer is
level is a combination of: determined as follows:
May 7, 2012
Because the existing surface layer is removed

Cap Layer GE TOTAL − GE CIR
= only structural adequacy needs to be addressed
Thickness Gf for Remove and Replace.
Where: (a) Partial Depth Removal. When only a
portion of the existing depth is being
GETOTAL = Total GE requirement of CIR removed, consideration needs to be given
and cap layers. to the strength of the remaining pavement
Gf = Gravel Factor of the cap material. structure. Because the pavement has been
stressed and has been subject to
If the cap layer is OGFC, its thickness
contamination from fines and other
should not be considered in pavement
materials over time, it does not have the
structure design. It is recommended to
same strength (GE) as new material.
round up to get the CIR and cap layer
Currently, for partial depth removals, the
thicknesses.
most effective engineering method is to
(b) Reflective Cracking. The minimum determine the theoretical deflection of the
thickness for reflective cracking is remaining material otherwise known as
determined using the same procedures DM. It should be noted that the greater
used for reflective cracking for overlays the depth of removal, the less accurate the
found in Index 635.1(5)(b) except that the determination might be of the calculated
thickness is determined based on the deflections.
remaining surface layer rather than the
Also, using deflections for Remove and
initial surface layer.
Replace strategies is also less accurate if a
(c) Ride Quality. Milling the existing surface bulldozer or a scraper is used to remove
and overlaying with new surface course is the material under the pavement instead of
considered sufficient to smooth a rough a milling machine. This method of
pavement. removing material disturbs the integrity of
the in-place material from which the
(7) Remove and Replace. The Remove and
deflections were measured.
Replace operation consists of removing the
entire surface layer and part or all of the base Because of these issues, the DME may
and subbase material. The entire removed require reduced GE from what is found in
depth is then replaced with a new flexible or this manual or additional pavement
rigid pavement structure. The Remove and thickness. Final determination of what
Replace strategy is most often used when: GE is used rests with the District.
• It is not possible to maintain the existing It is recommended that if the removal
profile grade using Mill and Overlay. depth is more than 1 foot, determine the
pavement thickness and layers use the
• Existing base and or subbase material is
method for new or reconstructed
failing and needs to be replaced.
pavements discussed in Index 633.1. If
• It is the most cost effective strategy the pavement structure is being replaced
based on life cycle cost analysis. with rigid pavement, the resulting total
Remove and Replace covers a variety of pavement structure (including existing
strategies. The discussion found here provides pavement left in place) cannot be less than
some general rules and minimum requirements the minimum values found in the rigid
for Remove and Replace strategies in general. pavement catalog in Topic 623.
For more specific information see the The analysis used for partial depth
technical guidance on the Department Remove and Replace with flexible
Pavement website. pavement is similar to the Mill and
May 7, 2012
Overlay analysis. The procedures are as used for new construction found in
follows: Index 633.1.
(1) Consider milling down to what is (8) Preparation of Existing Pavement. Existing
called the analytical depth. This is an pavement distresses should be repaired before
iterative type of calculation since it is overlaying the pavement. Cracks wider than
not known at what milling depth the ¼ inch should be sealed; loose pavement
analytical depth will be reached. removed/replaced; and potholes and localized
failures repaired. Undesirable material such as
(2) Use the thickness of the existing
bleeding seal coats or excessive crack sealant
HMA layer, the design TI and base
should be removed before paving. Existing
material in Table 635.1A to determine
thermoplastic traffic striping and raised
the TDS. Then find the DM knowing
pavement markers should also be removed.
D80 and the mill depth. Use DM and
Routing cracks before applying crack sealant
TDS to find the percent reduction in
has been found to be beneficial. The width of
deflection at the milled depth (PRM).
the routing should be ¼ inch wider than the
(3) Utilizing this calculated PRM value crack width. The depth should be equal to the
go to Table 635.1B to obtain the GE width of the routing plus ¼ inch. In order to
required to be placed on top of the alleviate the potential bump in the overlay
milled surface. When the milled from the crack sealant, leave the crack sealant
depth reaches the analytical depth, the ¼ inch below grade to allow for expansion
analysis changes. The GE for the (i.e., recess fill). The Materials Report should
material milled below the analytical include a reminder of these preparations.
depth is added to the GE required at Additional discussion of repairing existing
the analytical depth. The GE for each pavement can be found on the Department
layer is calculated by multiplying Gf Pavement website.
by the thickness of the layer milled.
(9) Choosing the Rehabilitation Strategy. The
(4) Determine the required minimum final strategy should be chosen based on
thickness of HMA needed by dividing pavement life-cycle cost analysis (LCCA).
the sum of the GE’s by the Gf of the The strategy should also meet other
new HMA (see equation below.) considerations such as constructibility,
maintenance, and the other requirements found
GE
Thickness (t) = in Chapter 610.
Gf
For the Remove and Replace method,
use the Gf for the new HMA For information on Mechanistic-Empirical Design
commensurate with the TI and HMA application and requirements, see Index 606.3.
thickness found in Table 633.1. The
total HMA thickness can be solved for Topic 636 - Other Considerations
each 0.05 foot of material milled until
the desired profile is reached. Round
the replacement thickness to the 636.1 Traveled Way
nearest 0.05 foot. (1) Mainline. No additional considerations.
(5) Adjust thicknesses as needed for (2) Ramps and Connectors. Rigid pavement
alternate materials. should be considered for freeway-to-freeway
(b) Full depth removal. When material is connectors and ramps near major commercial
removed all the way to the subgrade, the or industrial areas (TI > 14.0), truck terminals,
Remove and Replace strategy should be and all truck weighing and inspection
engineered using the same procedures facilities.
May 7, 2012
(3) Ramp Termini. Distress is compounded on mix designs should be considered. Rigid
flexible pavement ramp termini by the pavement should also be considered.
dissolving action of oil drippings combined
(2) Park & Ride Facilities. To engineer a park
with the braking of trucks. Separate pavement
and ride facility based on the standard traffic
strategies should be developed for these ramps
projections is not practicable because of the
that may include thicker pavement structures,
unpredictability of traffic. Therefore, standard
special asphalt binders, aggregate sizes, or mix
structures, based on anticipated typical load,
designs. Rigid pavement should be considered
have been adopted. However, if project site-
for exit ramp termini where there is a potential
specific traffic information is available, it
for shoving or rutting. At a minimum, rigid
should be used with the standard engineering
pavement should be used for exit ramp termini
procedures.
of flexible pavement ramps where a significant
volume of trucks is anticipated (TI > 12.0). The layer thicknesses shown in Table 636.4
For the engineering of rigid pavement ramp are based on previous practices. These
termini, see Index 626.1(3). pavement structures are minimal, but are
considered adequate since additional flexible
636.2 Shoulders surfacing can be added later, if needed,
without the exposure to traffic or traffic-
The TI for shoulders is given in Index 613.5(2). handling problems typically encountered on a
See Index 1003.5(1) for surface quality guidance roadway.
for bicyclists.
(3) Bus pads. Use rigid or composite pavement
636.3 Intersections strategies for bus pads.
Where intersections have “STOP” control or
traffic signals, special attention is needed to the Table 636.4
engineering of flexible pavements to minimize Pavement Structures for
shoving and rutting of the surface caused by trucks Park and Ride Facilities
braking, and early failure of detector loops.
Separate pavement strategies should be developed California Thickness of Layers
for these intersections that may include thicker R-value for (1)
pavement structures, special asphalt binders, the Subgrade HMA AB
aggregate sizes, or mix designs. Rigid pavement is Soil (ft) (ft)
another alternative for these locations. For
additional information see Index 626.3. For further < 40 0.25 0
assistance on this subject, the Design Engineer
should contact the District Materials Engineer, or But < 60 0.15 0.35
Headquarters Division of Maintenance – Pavement
≥ 40 0.15 0
Program.
≥ 60 Penetration
636.4 Roadside Facilities Treatment(2)
(1) Safety Roadside Rest Areas. Safety factors for NOTES:
the empirical method should be applied to the
ramp pavement but not for the other areas. (1) Place in one lift.
For truck parking areas, where pavement will (2) Penetration Treatment is the application of
be subjected to truck starting/stopping and oil a liquid asphalt or dust palliative on
drippings which can soften asphalt binders, compacted roadbed material. See Standard
Specifications.
separate flexible pavement structures which
may include thicker structural sections,
alternative asphalt binders, aggregate sizes, or
July 1, 2008
Topic 637 - Engineering Analysis

Software
Software programs for engineering flexible
pavements using the procedures in this chapter can
be found on the Department Pavement website.
These programs employ the procedures and
requirements for flexible pavement engineering
enabling the engineer to compare numerous
combinations of materials in seeking the most cost
effective pavement structure.
December 30, 2015
Some cases in which the asphalt over concrete

CHAPTER 640 composite pavement option is used include:
COMPOSITE PAVEMENTS • To match the existing pavement structure when
widening;
Topic 641 - Types of Composite
• When adding truck lanes to an adjacent flexible
Pavement pavement;
Index 641.1 - Asphalt Over Concrete • To provide a nonstructural surface course to an
Composite Pavement existing rigid pavement that is still structurally
sound but is worn out on the surface.
This configuration consists of an asphalt layer over
concrete surface layer (typically jointed plain 641.2 Concrete Over Asphalt Composite
concrete pavement or continuous reinforced Pavement
concrete pavement) where the asphalt layer is used
to protect or enhance the performance of the Because of the minimum 0.70 foot thickness
concrete pavement. (Asphalt layers over lean requirements for concrete surface course, all
concrete base or cement treated base are considered pavements with concrete surface course are
to be flexible pavements for the purposes of this engineered according to the standards and
manual.) The function of the asphalt layer is to act procedures for rigid pavements in Chapter 620.
as a thermal and moisture blanket to reduce the
vertical temperature and moisture gradient within Topic 642 - Engineering Criteria
the concrete surface layer and decrease the
642.1 Engineering Properties
deformation (curling and warping) of concrete
slabs. In addition, the asphalt layer acts as a wearing The engineering properties found in Index 622.1 for
course to reduce wearing effect of wheel loads on rigid pavement and Index 632.1 for flexible
the concrete surface layer. pavement apply to composite pavements. Care
should be taken in selecting materials in the asphalt
Asphalt over concrete composite pavements are
layer to resist reflective crack propagation from the
found most often on older pavements that have had
underlying concrete layer and facilitate
asphalt overlay such as hot mix asphalt, open
construction of generally thin asphalt layers.
graded friction course, or rubberized hot mix
asphalt, placed over previously built jointed plain 642.2 Performance Factors
concrete pavement (JPCP) or continuously
Flexible layers placed over rigid surface layers need
reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP.) New or
to be engineered and use materials that will meet
reconstructed composite pavements with asphalt
the following requirements:
layer over JPCP or CRCP typically have not been
built in the past on State highways because they (1) Reflective Cracking. Joints or cracks from the
have been viewed as combining the disadvantages underlying concrete surface layer should not
of rigid pavements (higher initial cost) and flexible reflect through the asphalt layer for the service
pavements (more frequent maintenance). life of the composite pavement.
Thin flexible layers (i.e. sacrificial wearing course) (2) Smoothness. The asphalt layer should be
have sometimes been placed over JPCP or CRCP to engineered to provide an initial IRI of
improve ride quality or friction of the rigid layer. 60 inches per mile and maintain an IRI that is
Because ride quality and friction can also be less than 170 inches per mile throughout its
improved by grooving or diamond grinding the service life.
existing concrete layer, the Engineer should
(3) Bonding. A major factor in the effectiveness
perform a life-cycle cost analysis (LCCA) to
and service life of the composite pavement is
determine if diamond grinding/grooving or an
the condition of the bond between the asphalt
asphalt nonstructural overlay is more cost effective
and concrete layers. For a good bond, the
before deciding which option to select.
December 30, 2015
thickness of the asphalt layer does not play an conservative thickness for a new pavement. See
important role in its service life. Index 625.1 for further details.
Therefore, for practical purposes, if there is no 643.2 Mechanistic-Empirical Method
thickness requirement from the
structural/constructibility point of view, the For engineering an asphalt on concrete composite
pavement using Mechanistic-Empirical Design
minimum thickness of the asphalt layer should
follow the procedures and requirements in Index
be based on material factors such as, gradation
and aggregate structure, type of binder, etc. To 606.3 and 633.2.
achieve the maximum bond between asphalt
and concrete layers, consult the District
Materials Engineer or Headquarters Office of Procedures for Pavement
Asphalt Pavement for options on effective Preservation
bonding methods.
644.1 Preventive Maintenance
642.3 Overlay Limits
Preventive Maintenance is used to maintain the
On overlay projects, the entire traveled way and asphalt surface course layer or to replace thin
paved shoulder shall be overlaid. Not only does asphalt layers (i.e., non-structural wearing courses)
this help provide a smoother finished surface, it also placed over concrete surface course layer. If work
benefits bicyclists and pedestrians when they need is needed to repair the underlying concrete layer, it
to use the shoulder. should be developed as a CAPM (Index 644.2) or
roadway rehabilitation (Topic 645) project.
Topic 643 - Engineering Additional information on preventive maintenance
Procedures for New Construction of the asphalt layer of a composite pavement is the
and Reconstruction same as for the flexible pavements, which can be
found in the “Maintenance Technical Advisory
643.1 Empirical Method Guide (MTAG)” available on the Department
Pavement website.
Before deciding to construct a new composite
pavement, a LCCA should be completed to 644.2 Capital Preventive Maintenance
determine whether the composite pavement is more (CAPM)
cost effective over the long term than asphalt or
concrete pavement alternatives. The CAPM warrants for concrete and asphalt
pavements in Index 624.2 and 634.2 apply to
At present, there is no comprehensive procedure to composite pavements. The procedures and designs
engineer a structural layer of asphalt surface course for asphalt over concrete composite pavement
over a concrete surface course layer of JPCP or CAPM projects are the same as those for flexible
CRCP. Research is under way to provide pavements (see Index 634.2) except digouts may
guidelines for engineering and construction of require concrete slab replacement and/or base
composite pavements. When engineering repair. In the case of previously constructed crack,
composite pavements using JPCP or CRCP, the seat, and asphalt overlay projects, it may be
rigid pavement structure is engineered using the beneficial to mill a portion of the existing asphalt
procedures in Index 623.1. No reduction is made to layer prior to overlaying. Milling will reduce the
the thickness of the concrete layer on account of the thickness of the existing cracked pavement and
asphalt overlay layer. The asphalt pavement is therefore provide added life to the overlay.
treated as a nonstructural wearing course, and thus
has no structural value. The roadway rehabilitation requirements for
overlays (see Index 645.1) and preparation of
When enough information is not available, the existing pavement surface (Index 645.1(3)) also
thickness requirement for placing an asphalt layer apply to CAPM projects. Additional details and
over an existing rigid pavement can be used as a information regarding CAPM policies and
strategies can be found in Index 603.3, PDPM
December 30, 2015
Appendix H, and Design Information Bulletin 81 traffic striping and raised pavement markers
“Capital Preventive Maintenance Guidelines.” also should be removed. Spalls in rigid
pavement should be repaired and broken slabs
Topic 645 - Engineering or punchouts replaced. Grind existing concrete
Procedures for Pavement pavement as needed to eliminate rough ride and
faulting. Consider dowel bar retrofit when it
Rehabilitation will help keep faulting from re-emerging.
645.1 Empirical Method Loose asphalt wearing course should be
removed and replaced, and potholes and
Procedures for engineering rehabilitation projects localized failures repaired. Ideally, existing
for asphalt over concrete composite pavement using non-structural wearing courses should be
empirical methods are as follows: removed and, if needed, underlying pavement
Because the asphalt surface layer is considered to repaired prior to placing a new asphalt wearing
have no structural value, only reflective cracking course. In some cases it may be more practical
and ride quality need to be considered. to overlay over the existing layer. (A LCCA of
the two options will help determine which of
(1) Reflective cracking. If the asphalt layer is these options is more cost effective. Note that
placed over an existing concrete pavement, the when doing a LCCA, the need to ultimately
thickness is calculated based on the procedure remove asphalt layers in the future should be
outlined for rigid pavement rehabilitation. The identified and included in the costs for the
thickness depends on the design life of asphalt analysis.)
surface course, as well as mix gradation, type
and percentage of the binder. 645.2 Mechanistic-Empirical Method
For additional information on rehabilitation of For information on Mechanistic-Empirical Design
composite pavement with rigid surface courses and requirements, see Index 606.3.
refer to the Concrete Pavement Guide available
on the Department Pavement website.
(2) Ride Quality. When the smoothness of the
existing roadway is 170 inches per mile or
greater as measured by the International Ride
Index (IRI), a minimum 0.25 foot consisting of
0.10 foot HMA (leveling course) followed by a
minimum of 0.15 foot HMA or RHMA surface
course layer. A nonstructural wearing course
may be placed on top lift. Pavement interlayers
between the leveling course and surface course
may also be considered. Note that in some
cases, existing pavement will need to be
repaired to assure the roadway smoothness will
remain below 170 inches per mile throughout
the life of the overlay.
(3) Preparation for Placing Asphalt Layer Over
Existing Concrete Pavement. Existing
pavement distresses should be repaired before
overlaying the pavement. Cracks wider than
3/8 inch should be sealed or repaired.
Undesirable material such as bleeding seal
coats or excessive crack sealant should be
removed before paving. Existing thermoplastic
December 30, 2015
necessary to drain water beneath the pavement.

CHAPTER 650 A TPB requires the use of edge drains or some
PAVEMENT DRAINAGE other method of draining water out and away
from the pavement; otherwise the collected
Topic 651 - General water will become trapped. If a TPB drainage
layer is used, it should be placed immediately
Considerations below the surface layer for interception of
surface water that enters the pavement. The
Index 651.1 - Impacts of Drainage on
drainage layer limits are shown in Figure
Pavement 651.2A. Further information for TPB can be
Saturation of the pavement or underlying subgrade, found in Index 662.3.
or both, generally results in a decrease in strength When there is concern that the infiltrating
or ability to support heavy axle loads. Potential surface water may saturate and soften the
problems associated with saturation of the underlying subbase or subgrade (due either to
structural section and subgrade include: exposure during construction operations or
• Pumping action. under service conditions), a filter fabric or other
suitable membrane should be utilized and
• Differential expansion (swelling) of expansive applied to the base, subbase, or subgrade on
subgrade. which the TPB layer is placed to prevent
• Frost damage in freeze-thaw areas. migration of fines and contamination of the
TPB layer by the underlying material.
• Erosion and piping of fine materials creating
voids which result in the loss of subgrade When using TPB, special attention should be
support. given to drainage details wherever water
flowing in the TPB encounters impermeable
• Icing of pavement surface from upward abutting pavement layers, a structure approach
seepage. slab, a sleeper slab, a pavement end
• Stripping of asphalt concrete aggregates. anchor/transition, or a pressure relief joint. In
any of these cases, a cross drain interceptor
• Accelerated oxidation of asphalt binder. should be provided. Details of cross drain
Water can enter the pavement as surface water interceptors at various locations are shown in
through cracks, joints, and pavement infiltration, Figure 651.2B. The cross drain outlets should
and as groundwater from an intercepted aquifer, a be tied into the longitudinal edge drain collector
high water table, or a localized spring. These and outlet system with provision for
sources of water should be considered and maintenance access to allow cleaning.
provisions should be made to handle both. The In some situations, underground water from
pavement structure drainage system, which is landscape irrigation or other sources may tend
engineered to handle surface water inflow, is to saturate the existing slow-draining layers,
generally separated from the subsurface drainage thereby creating the potential for pumping and
system that is engineered to accommodate pavement damage. In this case, the pavement
encroaching subsurface water. This chapter covers should be engineered to provide for removal of
surface water drainage while the subsurface such water when reconstruction is required.
drainage system is covered in Chapter 840.
(2) Collector System. If constraints exist or where
651.2 Drainage System Components and it is not practical to drain water out of the
Requirements pavement by other means, a collector system
should be provided to drain water from the
The basic components of a pavement structural
drainage layer. Collector systems include a
section drainage system are:
3-inch slotted plastic pipe edge drain installed
(1) Drainage Layer. A treated permeable base in a longitudinal collector trench as shown in
(TPB) drainage layer may be useful where it is Figure 651.2A. In areas where the profile grade
September 1, 2006
Figure 651.2A
Typical Section with Treated Permeable Base Drainage Layer
NOTES:
(1) Section shown is a half-section of a divided highway. An edge drain collector and outlet system should
be provided if insufficient Right of Way precludes a retention basin.
(2) This figure is only intended to show typical pavement details, for geometric cross section details, see
Chapter 300.
September 1, 2006
Figure 651.2B
Cross Drain Interceptor Details For Use with Treated Permeable Base
December 30, 2015
is equal to or greater than 4 percent, provided with a cut-off wall or diaphragm, to

intermediate cross drain interceptors, as shown prevent piping.
in Figure 651.2C should be provided at an
The outlets must be daylighted, connected to
approximate spacing of 500 feet. This will limit
culverts or drainage structures, or discharged
the longitudinal seepage distance in the
into gutters or drainage ditches. The area under
drainage layer, minimizing the drainage time
the exposed end of a daylighted outlet should
and preventing the buildup of a hydrostatic
have a splash block or be paved to prevent
head under the surface layer. Cross drain
erosion and the growth of vegetation, which
interceptor trenches must be sloped to drain.
will impede flows from the outlet. Ready
In addition, cross drains need to be provided at access to outlets, and the provision of
the low-end terminal of TPB projects, as shown intervening cleanouts when outlet spacing
in Figure 651.2C. Care should be taken to exceeds a maximum distance of 250 feet,
coordinate the cross drains with the should be provided to facilitate cleaning of the
longitudinal structural section drainage system. pavement drainage system. Typical details are
Drainage layers in roadway intersections and shown on the Standard Plans for Edge Drain
interchanges may require additional collector Outlet and Vent Details.
trenches, pipes, and outlets to assure rapid
The end of each outlet pipe should be indicated
drainage of the pavement.
by an appropriate marker to facilitate location
A standard longitudinal collector trench width and identification for maintenance purposes
of 1 foot has been adopted for new construction and to reduce the likelihood of damage by
to accommodate compaction and consolidation vehicles and equipment. Consult the District
of the TPB alongside and above the 3-inch Division of Maintenance for the preferred
slotted plastic pipe. method of identification.
When a superelevation cross slope begins to (4) Filter Fabric. Filter fabric should be placed as
drain the water through the TPB to the low side shown in Figures 651.2A and B, respectively,
of pavement in cut sections, an edge drain to provide protection against clogging of the
system may be considered to direct water to an treated permeable material (TPM) by intrusion
area where ponding will not occur. of fines. Filter fabric should be selected based
upon project specific materials conditions to
(3) Outlets, Vents, and Cleanouts. Pavements
ensure continuous flow of water and preclude
should be engineered to promote free drainage
clogging of the filter fabric openings. Consult
whenever applicable. Alternative strategies are
with the District Materials Engineer to assist in
provided, as shown in Figure 651.2A.
selecting the most appropriate filter fabric for
Incorporation of a TPB daylighting to the edge
the project.
of embankment may be considered; otherwise,
an edge drain collector and outlet system may
provide positive drainage of the structural
Topic 652 - Subsurface Drainage
section. and Storm Water Management
When edge drains are used, plastic pipe Subsurface drainage (edge drains and underdrains)
(unslotted) outlets should be provided at proper is to be handled in accordance with the procedures
intervals for the pavement drainage system to provided in Chapter 890 of the HDM for
be free draining. The spacing of outlets conveyance and with the procedures in the Storm
(including vents and cleanouts) should be Water Quality Handbook - Project Planning and
approximately 200 feet (250 feet maximum). Design Guide (PPDG) for storm water compliance.
Outlets should be placed on the low side of Storm Water Best Management Practices (BMPs)
superelevations or blockages such as bridge are to be incorporated in the design of projects as
structures. prescribed in the PPDG. The PPDG and other
information on storm water management can be
The trench for the outlet pipe must be
backfilled with material of low permeability, or
September 1, 2006
Figure 651.2C
Cross Drain Interceptor Trenches
December 30, 2015
found at Storm Water page of the Division of the subgrade of descending ramps approaching
Design website. local street intersections in flat terrain. Such
situations, where there may be no cost effective
Topic 653 – Other Considerations way to provide positive drainage outlets, call for
careful evaluation of local conditions and judgment
653.1 New Construction Projects in determining whether a drainage system should be
The surface layer should employ materials that will included or not in each ramp pavement structure.
minimize surface water intrusion and any joints 653.5 Roadside Facilities
should be sealed. If sufficient right of way is
available, it is preferable to grade the roadbed to The surface of parking areas should be crowned or
allow for a free draining outlet for the pavement sloped to minimize the amount of surface water
rather than installing edge drain. When a free penetrating into the pavement. Drainage facilities
drainage outlet is used, the TPB and AB layers of for the surface runoff should be provided if flexible
the pavement must be daylighted on the low end of pavement is used. A mix using ⅜ inch or ½ inch
the section. maximum aggregate is recommended to provide a
relatively low permeability. The flexible pavement
On curvilinear alignments, superelevation of the should be placed in one lift to provide maximum
roadway may create depressions at the low side of density.
pavement where the collected water cannot be
drained away. An adjustment to the profile grade
may be necessary to eliminate these depressions.
Refer to Chapter 200 for superelevation guidelines.
653.2 Widening Projects
The widened pavement layers should be
engineered to discharge any existing water
collected by the pavement. This may be done by
extending any drainage layer of the existing
adjacent pavement while still providing sufficient
pavement structure to meet the pavement design
life requirements in Topic 612. The widened layers
should extend the full width of the roadbed to a free
outlet, if feasible, as in new construction (See
Figure 651.2A).
653.3 Rehabilitation and Reconstruction
Projects
The surface of the traveled way and shoulders
should employ methods and materials that will help
minimize surface water intrusion and any joints
should be sealed. Saturation or soft spots should be
identified and drainage system should be
incorporated to restore or repair the existing
pavement, if applicable.
653.4 Ramps
Provisions for positive, rapid drainage of the
structural section is very important on ramps as
much as main lanes. However, including drainage
systems in ramp pavements can sometimes create
drainage problems such as accumulation of water in
December 30, 2015
can affect structural capacity, drainage, and frost

CHAPTER 660 susceptibility. The quality of aggregate base
PAVEMENT FOUNDATIONS material affects the rate of load distribution and
drainage.
Topic 661 - Engineering 662.2 Treated Base
Considerations (1) Hot Mix Asphalt Base (HMAB). Depending on
the quality of aggregate, HMAB is classified as
Index 661.1 – Description
dense graded Type A or Type B Hot Mix
Pavement foundations typically consist of the Asphalt, (HMA). Type A is primarily a
following pavement structure layers: crushed aggregate, which provides greater
stability than Type B. When used with HMA
• Base;
pavement, the HMAB is to be considered as
• Subbase including stabilized soils; part of the pavement layer. The HMAB will be
assigned the same gravel factor, Gf, as the
• Subgrade or basement soil.
remainder of the HMA in the pavement
Depending on the type of pavement project and structure.
other design considerations, a pavement structure
(2) Concrete Bases. Concrete base (CB) and Lean
may or may not include base, subbase, or both base
concrete base (LCB) are plant-mixed concrete
and subbase layers. The subbase generally consists
products used as base. CB is essentially
of lower quality materials than the base, but better
unreinforced concrete pavement, constructed
than the subgrade or basement soils. When needed,
with or without reduced joints, used primarily
pavement foundation materials are treated to
for widening rigid pavement structures that
improve strength. The most common treatment
have been or will be surfaced with HMA. CB
materials are cement, asphalt, and geosynthetics.
is finished in anticipation of being paved with
661.2 Purpose HMA. LCB is produced with less cementitious
material and allows lower quality aggregates
Pavement foundations serve as a support for the than CB. LCB is primarily intended for
surface layer and distribute the wheel load to concrete pavement structures. Concrete bases
subgrade material. can utilize materials that develop strength
In addition to functioning as part of the pavement and/or set quickly. Rapid strength concrete
structure, bases and subbases serve the following base (RSCB) and lean concrete base rapid
functions: setting (LCBRS) have the same applications as
CB and LCB, but are usually specified for
• Slow down the intrusion of fines from the projects with short construction windows such
subgrade soil into pavement structural layers. as individual slab replacement.
• Minimize the damage of frost action. (3) Treated Bases. Treated bases are granular
• Prevent the accumulation of free water within materials mixed with asphalt or portland
or below the pavement structure. cement to improve the strength or stiffness.
Treated bases include cement treated base
• Provide a working platform for construction (CTB) and asphalt treated base (ATB). CTB
equipment. has shown poor performance under rigid
pavement in the past. CTB exhibits excessive
Topic 662 - Types of Bases pumping, faulting, and cracking. This is most
likely due to impervious nature of the base,
662.1 Aggregate Base
which traps moisture and yet can break down
Aggregate bases consist of a combination of sand, and contribute to the movement of fines
gravel, crushed stone and recycled material. They beneath the slab.
are classified in accordance with their gradation and
the amount of fines. The gradation of the aggregates
December 30, 2015
662.3 Treated Permeable Base (2) Added features when using ATPB. The
following features are recommended when
Treated permeable bases (TPB) provide a strong, using ATPB:
highly permeable drainage layer within the
pavement structure. The binder material may be (a) Use edge drains or daylight the edges (see
either asphalt (ATPB) or portland cement (CTPB). Figure 651.2A in Chapter 650).
Either of these TPB layers will generally provide (b) If using edge drains, be sure that
greater drainage capacity than is needed. The Maintenance is informed and can budget
standard thickness is based primarily on funds for maintaining edge drains.
constructability with an added allowance to Developing an estimate of maintenance
compensate for construction tolerances. If material costs to maintain edge drains and Budget
other than ATPB and CTPB with a different Change Proposals may be required to
permeability is used, it is necessary to check the assure edge drains can be maintained.
permeability and adequacy of the layer thickness.
TPB must be used in accordance with a positive (c) Try to use permeable backfill in shoulders
sub-drainage system per Index 651.2. on sides of edge drain to avoid bathtub
effect if edge drain becomes clogged.
Erosion and stripping (water washing away cement
paste, binders, and fines) can be an issue for TPB. (d) Increase binder content to 3 percent (maybe
Research conducted in the 1990s at the University higher)
of California Pavement Research Center (UCPRC) (e) Tack coat each layer.
indicates that the use of ATPB is highly susceptible
to stripping. Because of this, the Department (f) Perform moisture sensitivity testing on
recommends use of standard aggregate base (AB), ATPB.
with a compaction of the HMA layer of at least 93 (g) Compaction of the HMA layer should be at
percent of theoretical Rice maximum, instead of least 93 percent of theoretical Rice
ATPB for new pavement structures. When ATPB maximum.
is needed, such as to ensure continuity of existing
ATPB/CTPB layer and/or provide drainage through 662.4 Subbase
the pavement structure, special provisions should Aggregate subbase is similar to aggregate base but
be made to ensure that it is not subjected to with less restrictive quality requirements. Because
conditions that will lead to premature structural of continual depletion of quarry aggregates, most
failure. The following guidelines should be subbases typically consist of recycled pavement
followed when using ATPB on State highway materials or quarry products than cannot meet the
pavement projects. criteria for aggregate base.
(1) Considerations for using ATPB. The following Excavated soil and low quality imported borrow
two conditions warrant consideration to use material can be chemically treated with a
ATPB layer in the pavement structure: cementitious binder to improve strength and reduce
(a) When widening or adding lanes adjacent to expansiveness. The most common types of
an existing ATPB layer to ensure stabilized soils are lime stabilized soil (LSS) and
continuity of existing ATPB layer. cement stabilized soil (CSS). Other soil
stabilization agents include asphalt and fly ash or
(b) Where there is need to drain excess water kiln dust, but these are considered experimental
through the pavement, such as when the alternatives and are not currently supported in the
uphill side of pavement does not allow for Department’s Standard Specifications or
drainage. However, when practical, it is guidelines.
better in such cases to use sub-surface
drainage to carry water to the other side of Stabilizing the soil does not eliminate or reduce the
the roadway rather than drain excess water required aggregate subbase for rigid or composite
through an ATPB layer just below the pavements in the rigid pavements catalog (see
HMA. Topic 623). However, for flexible pavements,
December 30, 2015
stabilized soil can be used as a substitute for all or Index 663.4, the actual thickness of the stabilized
part of the required subbase. soil layer is obtained by dividing the GE by the
appropriate Gf. The Gf is determined based on
The District Materials Engineer should be
unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of the
contacted to assist with the selection of the most
stabilized material as follows:
appropriate method to stabilize soils for individual
projects. Final decision as to which stabilization to 𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝)
𝐺𝐺𝑓𝑓 = 0.9 +
use rests with the District. 1000
This equation is only valid for UCS of 300 psi or
Topic 663 – Engineering higher at 28 days cure. For cement and lime
Properties for Base and Subbase stabilization, UCS is determined by different test
Materials methods, but in both cases the 28-day UCS is
simulated by curing prepared samples in an oven
663.1 Selection Criteria for 7 days. The gravel factor Gf allowed using this
Because different types of treated and untreated equation should range from a minimum of 1.2 to a
base or subbase materials have different capacities maximum of 1.7.
for resisting forces imposed by traffic loads, this Because the stabilization of soil may be less
factor must be considered when determining the expensive than the base material, the calculated
thickness of pavement elements. Besides load base thickness can be reduced and the stabilized soil
carrying consideration, the final selection of the thickness increased. The base thickness is reduced
bases or subbases for a given project depends on by the corresponding gravel equivalency provided
several other factors such as available materials, by the cement or lime stabilized soil. The maximum
terrain, climate, economics, and past performance thickness of lime treated subgrade is limited to
of the pavement under similar project or climate 2 feet.
conditions and travel patterns. The District
Materials Engineer should be contacted for the Topic 664 - Subgrade
latest guidance in base and subbase materials Enhancement
among other related engineering considerations.
663.2 Base and Subbase for Rigid 664.1 Overview
Pavements Properties of low quality subgrade can be improved
to provide a platform for the construction of
For rigid pavements, the capacity of base and
subsequent layers and to provide adequate support
subbase materials to resist traffic loads is
for the pavement over its design life. The most
considered in the design catalogs found in Topic
common methods used in the Department for
623. Table 663.2 provides the properties for base
subgrade improvement include:
and subbase materials used for the Rigid Pavements
design catalogs. • Mechanical stabilization;
663.3 Base and Subbase for Flexible • Chemical stabilization; or
Pavements
• Subgrade enhancement geosynthetics, see
For flexible pavements, the capacity of treated or Topic 665.
untreated base and subbase materials to resist traffic
loads is considered by use of the California R-value 664.2 Mechanical Subgrade Enhancement
and the gravel factor, Gf, which expresses the Improving strength is usually the primary reason
relative stiffness of various materials when for implementing mechanical stabilization.
compared to gravel. Table 663.3 provides the Mechanical subgrade enhancement includes the
California R-value and Gf for base and subbase following:
materials used in flexible pavements.
(1) Compaction. Sufficient strength can often be
When the stabilized soil is substituted for aggregate achieved on certain subgrade materials that do
subbase for flexible pavements, as discussed in not quite meet the design requirements by
December 30, 2015
Table 663.2
Base and Subbase Material Properties for Rigid Pavement Catalog
HMA Type A Properties
0% retained on ¾ inch sieve
32% retained on ⅜ inch sieve
Aggregate gradation
52% retained on No. 4 sieve
5.5% passing No. 200 sieve
Asphalt binder type See Index 632.1(2) and Table 632.1
Reference temperature 70 °F
Effective binder content 11.662%
Air voids 8%
Total unit weight 149 lb/ft3
Thermal conductivity 0.657 Btu/hr ft °F
Heat capacity 0.23 Btu/lbm-°F
Base erodibility index (1) 2
(1)
LCB / LCBRS Properties
Unit weight 150 lb/ft3
Elastic modulus 2.00 x 106 psi
Thermal conductivity 15 Btu-in/h-ft2-°F
Heat capacity 0.28 Btu/lbm-°F
Base erodibility index (1) 1
AB / AS Properties
Coefficient of lateral pressure, K0 0.5
Resilient modulus for AB 43,500 psi
Resilient modulus for AS 29,000 psi
Plasticity Index 1
Passing No. 200 3%
Passing No. 4 20%
D60(2) 0.315 inch
Base erodibility index(3) 4
NOTES:
(1) LCB / LCBRS = Lean Concrete Base / Lean Concrete Base Rapid Setting
(2) D60 = Particle diameter at which 60 percent of the material sample is finer than or would pass a sieve size
of that diameter.
(3) Base erodibility index is classified as a number from 1 to 5 as follows:
1 = Extremely erosion resistant material
2 = Very erosion resistant material
3 = Erosion resistant material
4 = Fairly erodible material
5 = Very erodible material
December 30, 2015
Table 663.3
Gravel Factor and California R-values for Bases and Subbases
Type of Material Abbreviation California R-value Gravel Factor (Gf)
AS-Class 1 60 1.0
AS-Class 2 50 1.0
Aggregate Subbase AS-Class 3 40 1.0
AS-Class 4 specify 1.0
AS-Class 5 specify 1.0
AB-Class 2 78 1.1
Aggregate Base
AB-Class 3 specify 1.1(1)
Asphalt Treated
ATPB NA 1.4
Permeable Base
CTB-Class A NA 1.7
Cement Treated Base
CTB-Class B 80 1.2
Cement Treated
CTPB NA 1.7
Permeable Base
Lean Concrete Base LCB NA 1.9
Lean Concrete Base
LCBRS NA 1.9
Rapid Setting
(2)
Hot Mix Asphalt Base HMAB NA
Lime Stabilized Soil LSS NA 0.9+(UCS/1,000)
Cement Stabilized Soil CSS NA 0.9+(UCS/1,000)
NOTES:
(1) Must conform to the quality requirements of AB-Class 2.
(2) When used with HMA, the HMAB is to be considered as part of the pavement layer. The HMAB will be
assigned the same Gf as the remainder of the HMA in the pavement structure.
Legend:
NA = Not Applicable
UCS = Unconfined Compressive Strength in psi (minimum 300 psi per California Test 373) for lime and ASTM
D 1633 (modified) for cement)
December 30, 2015
additional compaction usually with a heavier or Topic 665 - Subgrade

different type of roller than is normally used.
Compaction improves aggregate interlock, and
Enhancement Geosynthetic
reduces air-void content, pore connectivity, and Fabrics
consequent susceptibility to moisture ingress.
665.1 Purpose
(2) Blending. Blending involves the mixing of
materials that have different properties Subgrade Enhancement Geosynthetic (SEG) can be
(typically particle size distribution) to form a either a Subgrade Enhancement Geotextile (SEGT)
material with characteristics that improve upon or Subgrade Enhancement Geogrid (SEGG) placed
the limitations of the source materials. In most between the pavement structure and the subgrade
instances, blending will involve adding coarse (the subgrade is usually untreated). The placement
aggregates to the finer in situ material. Less of SEG below the pavement will provide subgrade
common in California is the addition of fine enhancement by bridging soft areas and providing
material to in situ sandy or coarse aggregates to a separation between soft subgrade fines
fill voids and obtain a denser gradation. susceptible to pumping and high quality subbase or
base materials. On weak subgrade, the use of SEG
664.3 Chemical Stabilization can provide stabilization (the coincident function of
Low quality in situ subgrade soil can be improved separation and reinforcement). As the soft soil
from Type III to Type II or Type I (see Table undergoes deformation, properly placed SEG when
623.1A) by chemical stabilization to a minimum stretched will develop tensile stress. Other benefits
depth of 0.65 foot using an approved stabilizing of using SEG include:
agent such as lime, cement, asphalt, or fly ash • Prevent premature failure and reduce long-term
(asphalt and fly ash are not currently supported in maintenance costs;
the Department’s Standard Specifications or
guidelines). Chemically treated soil samples should • Potential cost savings:
be tested to determine the unconfined strength for o Reduce subbase or aggregate base
the stabilized soil. To ensure long-term stability of thickness in some situations,
the subgrade during the pavement design life the
stabilized soil should achieve an initial minimum o Reduce or eliminate the amount of soft or
unconfined strength of 300 psi. unsuitable subgrade materials to be
removed,
664.4 Subgrade Enhancement
Geosynthetics • Increased performance life and reliability of the
pavement;
Subgrade enhancement geosynthetics are fabrics or
grid interlayers placed between the pavement • Prevent contamination of the base materials;
structure and the subgrade (the subgrade is usually
• Better performance of a pavement over soils
untreated). Geosynthetics can be used for
subject to freeze/thaw cycles;
temporary improvement of subgrade to provide a
platform for equipment during construction, and/or • Reduced disturbance of soft or sensitive
long-term enhancement to improve the ability to subgrade during construction; and
sustain traffic loads distributed to the subgrade.
Detailed information on subgrade enhancement • Ability to install in a wide range of weather
geosynthetics is provided in Topic 665. conditions.
665.2 Properties of Geosynthetics
(1) Subgrade Enhancement Geotextile (SEGT).
Mechanical, physical, and other properties of
geotextile (SEGT) used for subgrade
enhancement shall meet the requirements in
Section 88 of the Standard Specifications.
December 30, 2015
(2) Subgrade Enhancement Geogrid (SEGG). (2) Subgrade Enhancement Geogrid (SEGG). The
Property requirements for SEGG are related to primary stabilization mechanism of a geogrid is
performance. The most important geogrid lateral restraint of the subbase or base materials
properties for subgrade enhancement related to through a process of interlocking the aggregate
performance and durability are tensile strength, and the apertures of the geogrid. The level of
junction strength, flexural rigidity, and aperture lateral restraint that is achieved is a function of
size. the type of geogrid and the quality and
gradation of the base or subbase material placed
Different types of geogrid can be used for
on the geogrid. To maximize performance of
SEGG provided their stabilizing performance is
the geogrid, a well-graded granular base or
equivalent to or greater than the values
subbase material should be selected that is sized
specified in Section 88 of the Standard
appropriately for the aperture size of the
Specifications.
geogrid. When aggregate is placed over
665.3 Required Tests geogrid, it quickly becomes confined within the
apertures and is restrained from punching into
The following geotechnical soil laboratory tests are
the soft subgrade and shoving laterally. This
required to evaluate subgrade for the geosynthetic
results in a "stiffened" aggregate platform over
applications:
the geogrid. Very little deformation of the
• Atterberg Limit Tests: CT 204 or alternatively geogrid is needed to achieve the lateral restraint
ASTM D 4318 or AASHTO T90 and reinforcement. Separation and
filtration/vertical drainage are secondary
• R-value test: CT 301 or alternatively mechanisms of a geogrid. Because the
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test aggregate is confined within the apertures of
(ASTM D1883) or AASHTO T 193 the geogrid and cannot move under load,
• Sieve Analysis: CT 202 or alternatively ASTM separation and filtration can be achieved.
C136 or AASHTO T27 665.5 Selecting Geosynthetic Type and
665.4 Mechanical Stabilization Using SEGT Design Parameters
and SEGG (1) Determining SEG Functions - Subgrade
SEGT and SEGG achieve mechanical stabilization stabilization is the primary function for
through slightly different mechanisms: geogrids installed between an aggregate base
and subgrade layer. The primary functions of
(1) Subgrade Enhancement Geotextile (SEGT). A geotextiles are separation, stabilization,
geotextile's primary stabilization mechanism is filtration, reinforcement, and drainage. Figure
filtration and separation of a soft subgrade and 665.5 shows a flowchart to aid in selecting the
the subbase or base materials. The sheet-like possible functions and types of geotextile and
structure provides a physical barrier between geogrid.
these materials to prevent the aggregate and
subgrade from mixing. It can also reduce (2) Selecting SEG - SEG can be selected based on
excess pore water pressure through a the following criteria:
mechanism of filtration and drainage. • For subgrade R-values greater than 25 but
Secondary mechanisms of a geotextile are less than 40, SEGT is recommended to use
lateral restraint and reinforcement. Lateral for its separator function. The requirements
restraint is achieved through friction between for separator function can be found in
the surface of the geotextile and the subbase or Section 88 of the Standard Specifications.
base materials. Reinforcement mechanism
requires deformation of the subgrade and • For subgrade R-value between 20 and 25,
stretching of the geotextile to engage the tensile SEGG should be used for its stabilization
strength and create a "tensioned membrane." function. The stabilization requirements for
SEGG can be found in Section 88 of the
Standard Specifications.
December 30, 2015
Figure 665.5
Flowchart for Selecting an Appropriate SEG
December 30, 2015
• For subgrade R-value less than 20, a • Use of geogrid is not recommended unless
designer should choose either SEGG or the aggregate material meets the following
SEGT. natural filter criteria:
Before selecting SEG, the engineer should o D15Aggregate Base / D85Subgrade ≤ 5
investigate the potential engineering and and D50Aggregate Base / D50Subgrade
economic benefits of using SEGT or SEGG. ≤ 25.
665.6 Application of SEG o D15, D85, and D50 are grain sizes of the
soil particles for which 15 percent,
(1) Appropriate Applications - Locations that may 85 percent, and 50 percent of the
require placement of SEG include areas with
material is smaller than these sieve
the following soil characteristics:
sizes.
• Poor (low strength) soils, which are • If the aggregate base material does not
classified in the Unified Soil Classification meet the above natural filter criteria,
System (USCS) as clayey sand (SC), lean
geotextiles that meet both separation and
clay (CL), silty clay (ML-CL), high plastic
stabilization requirements are
clay (CH), silt (ML), high plasticity or
recommended.
micaceous silt (MH), organic soil
(OL/OH), and peat (PT); • Do not use geosynthetics for subgrade with
R-value > 40 or CBR > 6500 or
• Low undrained shear strength: MR > 9,500 psi, because stabilization of
Cu < 2,000 psf, and/or other properties
subgrade is not required and application of
stated below in Index 665.6(2);
geosynthetics will not impart significant
• High water table and high soil sensitivity benefit to the pavement.
• Shallow utilities or contaminated soils. 665.7 Other Design Considerations

(2) Conditions for Using SEG: The following should also be considered by the
design engineer when designing pavements
• SEGG is most applicable for R-values < 25 involving SEG:
or CBR < 3.5 or MR < 5,000 psi. For R-
value between 25 and 40 or CBR between • On soft subgrade soils, the SEG may replace
3.5 and 6.5 or MR between 5,000 and some or all stabilizing material such as lime or
9,500 psi the engineer may consider cement used solely as a working platform to
utilizing a geogrid for base reinforcement. provide access to construction equipment.
• SEGT is most applicable for R-value < 20 • For information on how to mitigate for
or CBR < 3 or MR < 4,500 psi. For R-values expansive subgrade consisting of clay soils
between 20 and 40 or CBR between 3 and with plasticity index greater than 12, see Index
6.5 or MR between 4,500 and 9,500 psi, the 614.4.
engineer may consider utilizing a SEGT as • Consider using SEG for longer life pavement,
a separator. if not otherwise specified.
• On very soft subgrade conditions (R-value • Perform a filter analysis if the soil material
< 10 or CBR <2 or MR < 3,000 psi), types described in Index 665.6(1) are either
consider placing a thicker initial lift above or below SEGG to determine whether
(minimum of 6 inches) of subbase or natural filter criteria are met to control
aggregate base material on top of SEG to migration of fines into the subbase or aggregate
effectively bridge the soft soils and avoid base materials.
bearing capacity failure under construction
traffic loading. • For applications involving drainage and
filtration, the design engineer should verify that
December 30, 2015
the permeability of the SEGT is greater than the based on project specifics are explained in the
permeability of the soil. “Subgrade Enhancement Geosynthetic Design and
Construction Guide” on the Department Pavement
• If a SEGT is to be placed in direct contact with website.
recycled concrete material, SEGT made of
polyester should not be used. Otherwise, a 665.9 SEG Abbreviations and Definitions
separating layer of thickness greater than The following is a list of definitions related to
0.3 feet must separate the geotextile from the subgrade enhancement geosynthetics and their
recycled concrete material. applications:
• SEG is not necessary if the subgrade is planned Apparent Opening Size: A geotextile property that
for chemical stabilization such as lime or indicates the approximate diameter of the largest
cement treatment. soil particle that would effectively pass through
665.8 R-value Enhancement Using SEG the geotextile. Commonly, 95 percent of the
geotextile openings are required to have that
Subgrade soils with R-value <20 are considered diameter or smaller as measured using ASTM D
poor or weak soils and require SEG to provide 4751.
reinforcement as the primary function and
separation as the secondary function. However, Aperture Shape: Describes the shape of the geogrid
depending on type and treatment of the base layer, opening.
pavements constructed over subgrade soils with R- Aperture Size: Dimension of the geogrid opening.
value up to 40 can benefit from separation if the
subgrade soil contains an appreciable amount of D15: The particle (or grain) size represented by the
fines. The SEG when placed with aggregate "15 percent passing" point when conducting a
subbase provides a working platform for access of sieve analysis of a soil sample.
construction equipment, mainly on subgrade with D50: The particle (or grain) size represented by the
R-values of 5 to 10. "50 percent passing" point when conducting a
The use of SEG on weak subgrade (with R-value sieve analysis of a soil sample.
<20) can increase the effective R-value of such D85: The particle (or grain) size represented by the
soils. Therefore, the benefit of using SEG on such "85 percent passing" point when conducting a
weak soils can be realized though using thinner sieve analysis of a soil sample.
aggregate bases or subbases in flexible pavement
design. Likewise, SEG can also affect the design of Filtration: The process of allowing water out
rigid pavements by providing a stronger subgrade (perpendicular to plane of geotextile) of a soil
system. mass while retaining the soil.
The following R-values are recommended when Geogrid: A geosynthetic formed by a regular
SEG is used on subgrade with low R-value less than network of integrally connected tensile elements
25: with apertures of sufficient size to allow "strike-
through" and interlocking with surrounding soil,
• For subgrade with an R-value of less than 20, a rock, or earth to improve the performance of the
design R-value of 20 can be used if SEGT is soil structure.
utilized.
Geosynthetic: A group of synthetic materials made
• When subgrade has an R-value of less than 25, from polymers that are used in many
a design R-value of 25 can be used if SEGG is transportation and geotechnical engineering
utilized. Additional geotextile separator may be applications. .
used unless the aggregate base material meets Geotextile: A permeable sheet-like geosynthetic
the natural filter criteria presented in Index which, when used in association with soil, has
665.6(2). the ability to provide the functions of separation,
Additional information on the use of SEG and the filtration, reinforcement, and drainage to
selection of the appropriate properties of the SEG improve the performance of the soil structure.
December 30, 2015
Grab Tensile Strength: The maximum force applied Woven Geotextile: Produced by interlacing two or
parallel to the major axis of a geotextile test more sets of yarns, fibers, or filaments where
specimen of specified dimensions that is needed they pass each other at right angles.
to tear that specimen using ASTM D 4632.
Nonwoven Geotextile: A planar geotextile typically
manufactured by putting small fibers together in
the form of a sheet or web, and then binding
them by mechanical, chemical and/or solvent
means.
Permeability: The permeability of soil or geotextile
is the flow rate of water through a soil or
geotextile. The permeability of geotextile can be
determined by permittivity, which can be
measured using ASTM D 4491, multiplied by its
effective thickness and the permeability of soil
can be measured using ASTM D 2434 or 5084.
Permittivity: It is the volumetric flow rate of water
per unit cross-section area of a geotextile, per
unit head, in the normal direction through a
material as measured using ASTM D 4491.
Puncture Strength: The measure of a geotextile's
resistance to puncture determined by forcing a
probe through the geotextile at a fixed rate using
ASTM D 6241. 10
Reinforcement: The improvement of the soil system
by introducing a geosynthetic to enhance lateral
restraint, bearing capacity, and/or membrane
support.
Resilient Modulus: The ratio of applied deviator
stress to recoverable or resilient strain.
Separation: A geotextile function that prevents the
intermixing between two adjacent dissimilar
materials, so that the integrity of the materials on
both sides of the geotextile remains intact.
Stabilization: The long-term modification of the
soil by the coincident functions of separation,
filtration, and reinforcement furnished by a
geosynthetic.
Tear Strength: The maximum force required to start
or to propagate a tear in a geotextile specimen of
specified dimensions using ASTM D 4533.
Ultraviolet Stability: The ability of a geosynthetic
to resist deterioration from exposure to the
ultraviolet rays of the sun as tested using ASTM
D 4355.
December 30, 2015
(c) When tapering into an existing pavement

CHAPTER 670 that was previously overlaid (pavement
TAPERS AND SHOULDER preservation or rehabilitation), the new
taper should overlap the taper of the
BACKING previous overlay to avoid creating a “dip”
or “weak spot” in the pavement (see Figure
Topic 671 - Pavement Tapers 671.2A).
Index 671.1 Background and Purpose (2) Transition Taper Slopes. The taper slope
Pavement tapers are a common design detail for should be 200:1 or flatter, with taper slope of
asphalt layer overlays and other projects where new 400:1 being preferred in highways with design
pavement surface has a higher profile than existing speeds of 65 mph or higher. At locations where
pavement surface or curbs. The goal of tapers is to taper slopes flatter than 400:1 are desired,
provide a smooth unnoticeable transition from engineered profiles should be used because
pavement to pavement. Tapers are intended to they are often shorter, less expensive, and
provide a reasonable cost alternative to engineering easier to construct than the pavement taper.
a profile for every transition. However, in some (3) Design Life Requirements for Tapers. For new
cases, an engineered profile may be more cost- construction, widening, and
effective than a taper. rehabilitation/reconstruction projects, the
This section provides information on the best minimum thickness of the pavement structure
design practices for transition tapers that meet (existing plus surface course overlay) for
geometric, operational, constructability, as well as pavement tapers must meet the minimum
other pavement surface and drainage standard pavement design life requirements for the
practices. The tapers presented in this index meet project as discussed in Topic 612. This is
the Caltrans standards and requirements for grade intended to prevent creating isolated “weak
breaks in Index 204.4. The pavement tapers spots” in the pavement that may require
discussed herein do not address every possible additional maintenance and repair in the future.
situation that can be encountered on projects On rehabilitation and reconstruction projects,
throughout the State. Good engineering judgment where the pavement structure of the taper does
should still be exercised when developing transition not meet the pavement design life
taper details for a specific project. This index only requirements, the pavement structure or part of
addresses permanent pavement transition tapers it will need to be removed and replaced.
used on overlay and other pavement projects. Deviations from this requirement or decision
not to reconstruct the pavement sections
671.2 Engineering Requirements and underneath bridges will require a mandatory
Considerations design exception from Headquarters Pavement
Program for pavement design life (see Index
(1) Minimum Thickness Requirement. In order for
612.2 and 612.5). Since pavement preservation
tapers to be constructable, maintainable and
projects (preventive maintenance and CAPM
meet performance requirements:
projects) are not designed for structural
(a) The minimum thickness for an asphalt capacity, the minimum thickness of the
pavement taper should be no less than 3 pavement structure for the pavement taper
times the maximum aggregate size needs only to match or exceed the existing
(example 0.15’ for ½” aggregate and 0.20’ pavement structure. See Figure 671.2B for
for ¾” aggregate.) further details.
(b) The minimum thickness of the overall 671.3 Tapers into Existing Pavement or
surface course layer (existing and new) in Structure
the taper should be no less than that of the
adjoining existing pavement. Figures 671.3A to 671.3C provide details on how
to construct pavement tapers.
December 30, 2015
Figure 671.2A
Tapering Into a Previously Overlaid Pavement
NOTES:
(1) Minimum thickness should match thickness of previous overlay.
(2) No Scale.
December 30, 2015
Figure 671.2B
New Structure Approach Pavement Transition Details
NOTES:
(1) Use Maximum Overlay Thickness or 3x maximum aggregate size, whichever is less.
(2) Cold plane as needed to conform overlay with existing pavement.
(3) No Scale.
December 30, 2015
(1) Tapers into an Existing Asphalt Pavement. (c) For rehabilitation projects, do not grind the
Where a new pavement structure or an overlay concrete pavement to accommodate a
is tapering into an existing asphalt pavement taper. Instead, remove concrete pavement
that is not part of the project, the following within the taper section and replace with a
apply: new pavement structure that will meet the
design life requirements for the project as
(a) For preventive maintenance projects (thin
defined in Topic 612.
asphalt overlays of 0.10’ or less), the
Design Engineer should follow the taper (d) When grinding concrete pavement, meet
details in Figure 671.3A. the following two conditions:
(b) For CAPM projects, taper the overlay using • Use a diamond grinder, not a planing
the same details used for OGFC taper to machine.
existing OGFC or HMA pavement surface
course (See Figure 671.3A) • Never grind more than 1 inch or reduce
the thickness of the concrete pavement
(c) For rehabilitation projects, taper the slab to less than 0.65 foot.
overlay using the taper details shown in
Figure 671.3A for HMA taper to existing If neither of these conditions can be
HMA surface course. attained with the taper detail, then remove
and replace the concrete pavement slabs
(2) Tapers into an Existing Concrete Pavement. and the underlying base as needed for the
Where a new pavement structure or an overlay transition taper section to match the
is tapering into an existing pavement that is not existing pavement surface.
part of the project or into/under a structure,
grinding existing concrete pavement to create a (3) Longitudinal Tapers at Shoulders, Curbs,
taper is not recommended because it shortens Dikes, Inlets, and Metal Beam Guard Railing.
the life of the concrete pavement. Because it is Detailed drawings and information on the best
not always practical to remove and replace design practices for longitudinal tapers at
concrete pavement for every overlay, the shoulders, curbs, dikes, inlets, and metal beam
following guidance should be followed guard railing (MBGR) are shown in Figure
regarding tapers for concrete pavement. 671.3B.
(a) For preventive maintenance projects (thin (4) Tapers Into or Under Structures. Figure
asphalt overlays of 0.10’ or less), the taper 671.3C provides a layout and information for
should follow the taper details for OGFC transition tapers under an existing structure.
overlay over asphalt pavement found in The following guidance should be followed
Figure 671.3A or reduce the thickness of when designing tapers underneath over-
overlay to 0.08’ at end of taper and roll crossings or into bridges:
down edge to minimize raveling. For under (a) Compare the cost and constructability of
structures, existing concrete surface may very flat tapers (400:1 or flatter) vs.
remain. engineered profiles to ensure that the less
(b) For CAPM projects, either taper the expensive and easier to construct
overlay down using the same details used alternative is used when replacing
for OGFC (See Figure 671.3A) or replace pavement underneath a structure.
the concrete pavement slab. For under (b) The minimum thickness of the pavement
structures, the existing concrete surface structure for transition tapers into or under
may remain but should be repaired and bridges must meet the minimum design life
ground or rebuilt as needed in accordance requirements discussed in Index 671.2(4)
with CAPM strategies for concrete for new construction, widening,
pavement in Index 624.2. rehabilitation, and reconstruction projects.
December 30, 2015
Figure 671.3A
Transverse Transition Tapers for Pavement Preservation Projects
NOTES:
(1) Minimum thickness should match thickness of the top lift.
(2) See HDM for minimum thickness.
(3) Same thickness as OGFC overlay or 0.10’, whichever is less.
(4) Do not use HMA to bring the shoulders up to grade when traveled way is OGFC.
LEGEND:
HMA = Hot Mix Asphalt
OGFC = Open Graded Friction Course
December 30, 2015
Figure 671.3B
Longitudinal Tapers at Shoulders, Curbs, Dikes, Inlets, and Metal Beam
Guard Railing
NOTES:
(1) Additional design and safety criteria may apply for metal beam guard railing (MBGR), for further info, see
Traffic Manual or District Traffic.
(2) When grinding or paving next to MBGR or obstacle, reconstructing MBGR will be necessary to
accommodate grinding machines and compaction equipment.
(3) Contact District Landscape and Maintenance regarding the appropriate treatment for weed abatement.
(4) OGFC applies only when used as a surface course, omit details for this course when OGFC is not used.
(5) See HDM Topic 302 for maximum allowable cross-slopes.
(6) For additional information on dikes, see HDM Topic 303, and Standard Plan A78B.
(7) Verify with Hydraulics to see if dike needs to be raised to maintain capacity of gutter.
(8) Verify with District Hydraulics if additional drainage is required at the conform on the shoulder or at bridge
approach slabs in order to avoid ponding.
December 30, 2015
Figure 671.3C
Transition Taper Underneath Overcrossing/Bridge
NOTES:
(1) Pavement structure thickness needs to provide the proposed pavement design life. This may require that
the pavement structure be removed and replaced.
(2) Verify that the existing drainage facilities will continue to function properly after transition is completed.
(3) For minimum vertical clearance requirements, see HDM Index 309.2
(4) Creation of a sag may require additional drainage features.
December 30, 2015
Topic 672 - Shoulder Backing 672.2 Alternate Materials and Admixtures

(1) Alternate Materials. Alternate materials for
672.1 Background and Purpose shoulder backing include imported borrow and
(1) Purpose. Shoulder backing is a thin course of asphalt grindings.
granular material that is used to provide support (a) Imported Borrow: If native material does
to the pavement edge by preventing edge not meet the specifications for shoulder
cracking and pavement edge loss. Shoulder backing material, utilize imported borrow
backing also minimizes pavement edge drop- which meets the specifications for shoulder
off heights for overlays. backing material.
(2) Standards and Requirements. The placement (b) Asphalt Grindings: The Deputy Directive
of shoulder backing requires proper on Recycling Asphalt Concrete allows the
compaction of the shoulder backing material. use of asphalt grindings for shoulder
(3) Application: Shoulder backing is designed to backing; however, there are some
provide edge support for thin overlays placed limitations to where asphalt grindings can
on existing pavements. Do not use shoulder be used. For information on where asphalt
backing as embankment material in the grindings cannot be used consult the
following cases: District Environmental unit. As stated in
the Project Development Procedures
• To repair erosion or subsidence in existing Manual (PDPM), a Memorandum of
slopes (See Figure 672.3C). Understanding (MOU) dated January 12,
• For side slope reconstruction (See Figure 1993 between the Department of Fish and
672.3C). Game (DFG) and Caltrans, allows Caltrans
to use asphalt grindings for shoulder
• In locations where the overlay thickness is backing where these materials will not
greater than 0.50 ft (See Figure 672.3C). enter the water system.
• For backfill behind dikes (See Figure (2) Admixtures. Admixtures may be used if
672.3D). recommended by the District Materials
• To construct the required minimum hinge Engineer and their use is permitted in the
width (HW) for guardrails, dikes, and environmental document and regulatory
barriers. permits. District Environmental can assist in
determining if and where admixtures can be
• In roadside ditches or gutters (See Figure used. Three types of admixtures (lime, cement,
672.3E). Since the material used for and seal coat with an asphaltic emulsion) are
shoulder backing can be erodible, use non- approved for use with shoulder backing.
erodible materials or stabilized base
(a) Lime and Cement Admixtures: Lime and
material in roadside ditches or gutters.
cement are uniformly mixed into the
Shoulder backing is not be used in the above shoulder backing material prior to
cases because the material and/or compaction application.
specifications requirements in the Standard
(b) Seal Coats: Seal coats with an asphaltic
Specifications will not provide the desired
emulsion are applied in situ on top of
results. Alternative engineering solutions
shoulder backing material. When seal
should be utilized in these situations.
coats are specified, the appropriate seal
Alternative engineering solutions include slope
coat special provisions should be included
reconstruction, compacted fill, or use of
into the project special provisions. Seal
stabilized material. Some alternatives to
coats are paid for separately from shoulder
shoulder backing may require developing a
backing material.
nonstandard special provision.
December 30, 2015
672.3 Design (8) Place shoulder backing to match the pavement

surface, even when the surface course layer is
The limits, slopes, and other design details for open graded friction course (OGFC). This
shoulder backing need to be documented on the reduces future maintenance needs to replace the
plans. The following design standards apply when shoulder backing as it subsides.
designing shoulder backing details:
Figures 672.3A through 672.3E show some
(1) Place shoulder backing from the edge of
examples of what should and should not be done
pavement (EP) to hinge point (HP). However, when using shoulder backing.
where the horizontal distance from EP to HP is
greater than 3 feet, shoulder backing should be
placed on a width of at least 2 feet from EP (See
Figures 672.3A and 672.3B). The Design
Engineer should consult with the District
Materials Engineer for conditions where the
distance from EP to HP is less than 2 feet and
there are minimum hinge width requirements
for dike, guardrail and barriers.
(2) Shoulder backing cross slope should be 10:1 or
flatter where possible. Where there is
insufficient width for a 10:1 slope, a steeper
cross slope can be used but should not be
steeper than 6:1 (See Figure 672.3A).
(3) The minimum hinge width (HW) from EP to
new HP should be 2 feet (See Figure 672.3B).
Where the existing HW is less than 2 feet, slope
reconstruction (See Figure 672.3C) or some
other strategy should be used instead of
shoulder backing.
(4) Do not place shoulder backing on existing side
slopes where shoulder backing cross slope will
be steeper than 6:1 and/or the HW will be less
than 2 feet (See Figures 672.3A & 672.3B).
(5) The maximum thickness for shoulder backing
is 0.50 foot (See Figure 672.3B). Where the
thickness will exceed 0.50 foot, use alternative
strategies that have a combination of more
stringent material and compaction
requirements.
(6) Where the combined distance for HW and side
slope will exceed 5 feet in order to comply with
the slope requirement specified in this
document, side slope reconstruction is
recommended in lieu of shoulder backing (See
Figure 672.3C).
(7) At the option of the District, shoulder backing
can be placed up to a thickness of 0.50 foot to
cap new construction or reconstructions (See
Figures 672.3B & 672.3C).
December 30, 2015
Figure 672.3A
Typical Application of Shoulder Backing
Figure 672.3B
Alternative Placement for Existing Slopes Steeper than 6:1
NOTES:
(1) Minimum Hinge Width (HW) is 2 feet. When HW is less than 3 feet, District Materials Engineer should
be consulted regarding structural stability due to width reduction.
(2) Edge treatment shown are for asphalt overlay thickness of 0.45 foot or less. For asphalt thickness of more
than 0.45 foot, see Standard Plans for edge treatment details.
December 30, 2015
Figure 672.3C
Placement of Shoulder Backing Thickness Greater Than 0.50 foot for
Slope Repair
NOTES:
(1) See HDM Topic 304 for additional information on side slopes. See Standard Specifications for additional
information on side slope construction.
See District Materials Engineer for material recommendations. (Roadway Geotechnical also needs to be
consulted for slopes steeper than 2:1.).
Figure 672.3D
Placement of Shoulder Backing Behind Dikes
December 30, 2015
Figure 672.3E
Longitudinal Drainage (Roadside Ditches/Gutters)
NOTES:
(1) Consult with area Maintenance personnel and District Materials Engineer regarding erodability of ditch,
alternative materials to shoulder backing, slope sloughing, and rockfall catchment in ditch.
Consult with District Hydraulics Engineer regarding acceptable change in ditch capacity.
Consult with District Stormwater Coordinator regarding water quality issues.
June 21, 2013
freeway and expressway access control

CHAPTER 700 fences. See Index 701.2 for more detailed
MISCELLANEOUS STANDARDS guidance.
(c) Private fences may be constructed adjacent
Topic 701 - Fences to conventional highways if provided via
right of way agreement. Placement is
Index 701.1 - Type, Intent and Purpose of typically parallel to the State right of way
Fences and outside Caltrans property. See Index
(1) Purpose of Fences. Fences constructed by the 701.3 for more detailed guidance.
Department serve the purposes of either Private fences may also be allowed within
establishing control of access, providing visual Caltrans right of way to restrict access to a
demarcation or re-establishing private property private facility crossing or as an aesthetic
lines. enhancement of Departmental fence.
Where the purpose of the fence is access Neither of these situations is common and
control, installation is intended to establish that should be avoided if possible. See Indexes
access is restricted; such fencing is not 701.2(3)(e) and 701.3.
intended to serve as a complete physical (d) Temporary fences are commonly used
barrier. The adjacent private property owner during project construction to temporarily
will assume responsibility for the construction control access and/or create a visual screen.
of any fencing or other facilities necessary to Temporary fences are also commonly used
contain their personal property. during reconstruction of either
(2) Type and Intent of Fences. The type and intent Departmental or private fences. See Index
of fences should be as described herein and in 701.4 for more detailed guidance.
the Standard Plans and Standard Specifications. (e) Environmentally Sensitive Area (ESA)
Fence materials, including gates, installed fence is a specialty type of temporary
anywhere within the State right of way are Departmental fence, placed within the
considered Departmental fences and are limits of a construction project and used to
owned, controlled and maintained by Caltrans identify the location of sensitive biologic
forces. resources while establishing a visible
boundary. Orange fabric is used to ensure
As a right of way consideration, Caltrans may contractor personnel awareness of the ESA
construct fences and gates outside the State location. See Index 701.5 for more detailed
right of way. Fences and gates constructed guidance.
outside the State right of way are considered
private fences and are owned, controlled and (f) Species protection fences are Departmental
maintained by the external property owner fences placed within Caltrans right of way
where Caltrans retains neither rights nor and used to prohibit movement of specific
obligations for such fences once constructed. threatened or endangered species onto the
highway. These fences are unique in
(a) Fences for freeway and expressway access composition to the species being addressed.
control are Departmental fences commonly Species protection fences may be placed
placed immediately inside the State right of for either permanent or temporary
way to help enforce observance of the applications. See Indexes 701.2(3)(b) and
acquired access rights. See Index 701.2 for 701.5 for more detailed guidance.
more detailed guidance.
(g) Enclosure fences are Departmental fences
(b) Median fences are Departmental fences of various types used to secure the
constructed to help prevent indiscriminate perimeter around equipment storage areas
crossings of the median by vehicles or from theft or vandalism, provide a
pedestrians. These fences are a subset of perimeter around maintenance stations or
June 21, 2013
other facilities, or otherwise enclose areas (c) In special cases, where improvements are
intended for Caltrans use. See Index 701.5 scattered, the area is aesthetically sensitive,
for more detailed guidance. and a lower fence would be in keeping with
the height of adjacent property fence, a
(3) Approval. The District Director has the
Type CL-4 fence may be substituted for
authority and responsibility for approval of
Type CL-6 along the right of way in
fence type and location within the standards
locations where Type CL-6 would
stated herein.
otherwise be used.
701.2 Freeway and Expressway Access (d) Fencing may be omitted in remote areas
Control Fence where access control appears unnecessary.
(1) Placement. Departmental fences shall be (e) In special cases, nonstandard fencing may
provided on freeways and expressways to be considered at freeway ramp terminals on
control access, except as otherwise provided local streets when the adjacent property
under paragraph (3)(e) below. Freeway either is, or is proposed to be, developed in
fencing or equivalent access control should such a way that the owner feels that
extend to the limit of the legal access control standard fencing is aesthetically
on local streets at ramp termini. objectionable. If it is concluded that the
(2) Standard Fence Types. The standard types of objection is valid, a more compatible
freeway fence are: facility may be substituted, subject to the
following controls:
(a) Chain Link Fencing--Type CL-6 fence or
equivalent access control should be used • Preference should be given to retaining
along the right of way and in the outer the standard fence along the ramp to
separation in urban or developed areas. the end of the curb return or beginning
of the taper on the local road. Where
(b) Other Fencing--In rural areas, fences on
this is not reasonable, there may be
freeways normally should be either Barbed
substituted a fence or wall of equal or
Wire, (Type BW), or Wire Mesh, (Type
better durability and utility that is at
WM), on either wood or metal posts.
least 4 feet high relative to the grade of
Wood posts may be more aesthetic than
freeway right of way line. Walls,
metal posts, depending on the surrounding
ornamental iron fences with closely
terrain.
spaced members, or chain link fences
(c) Median Fencing--Type CL-4 fence, with are examples of acceptable
the distance from the ground to the bottom possibilities.
tension wire increased to 6 inches, should
• Along the local road, beyond the end
be used where median fencing is required.
of the curb return or the beginning of
(3) Exceptions to Standard Fence Types. the taper, a facility of somewhat lower
(a) If walls or fences equal to or better than the standards may be employed, if
standard fence in durability, maintenance considered appropriate. The minimum
allowable height is 2.5 feet above the
requirements, and dimensions exist along
the right of way line, the standard fence grade at the edge of the right of way.
may be omitted or removed. To avoid a In addition to the fence types suitable
gap in the access control, standard fences for use along the ramp, split rail fences,
should be securely joined to the existing wooden picket fences, and permanent
fence or wall at its terminals, if the access planter boxes are examples of
control line extends beyond these points. possibilities. The intent is to delineate
the access control line and discourage
(b) Fences of special design may be installed access violations in an effective
where needed for wild animal control. manner.
June 21, 2013
• Generally, all costs for the removal of • The gate access would minimize the
the existing freeway fence and the exposure of maintenance workers to
installation and future maintenance of a highway traffic.
nonstandard fence are to be the
• Parking is available outside the gate.
property owner's responsibility under
the terms of the encroachment permit • The gate would allow slow moving
authorizing the substitution. On new equipment to be kept off the highway.
construction, the property owner is to
assume similar costs and responsibili- • The site is not accessible to
ties subject to a credit for the value of a maintenance personal or equipment
standard fence. from the freeway.
(4) Location of Fences. Normally, fences on (b) Proposals for locked gates to be used by
freeways should be placed adjacent to, but on utility companies must be submitted to the
the freeway side of the right of way line. District Director for approval. The gate
submittal must present all pertinent facts
Fences in the outer separation normally should and alternate solutions.
be placed as shown in Figure 307.4 so that the
area outside of the fence may be relinquished Locked gates to be used by other public
to the local agency. agencies or by non-utility entities require
FHWA approval if the gate is on an
When viewed at a flat angle, chain link fencing Interstate route.
restricts sight distance. This fact should be
considered in the location of such fencing at When proposals for locked gates requiring
intersections. To eliminate hand maintenance, FHWA approval are included in the plans
right-angle jogs should be avoided. for new construction, including
landscaping projects, FHWA approval of
(5) Locked Gates. Locked gates may be provided such gates will be included in FHWA
in access control fences in special situations. A approval of the project PS&E. Subsequent
proposal for a locked gate must address a installations requiring FHWA approval
necessity. Although openings controlled by must be submitted separately to FHWA by
locked gates do not constitute access openings the Division of Design after approval by
in the usual sense of access control, they must the Chief, Division of Design.
be shown on the plans. When locked gates are
proposed there must be a specific reason for 701.3 Private Fences
each gate. All gates must be kept locked and (1) Placement. Caltrans will construct or pay the
secured. Locked gates fall into two categories: cost of fences on private property only as a
(a) Locked gates to be used exclusively for right of way consideration to mitigate damages.
access by highway maintenance forces do Caltrans’ construction of such fences should be
not require FHWA approval and may be limited to:
approved by the District Director. The (a) The reconstruction or replacement of
integrity and security of this access must existing fences.
always be assured. Maintenance forces
must also keep gates locked when not (b) The construction of fences across property
being used for the access of persons or that had been previously enclosed by
equipment. When locked gates are to be fences.
used exclusively by highway maintenance These criteria apply to all private as well as
forces, one or more of the following public lands.
criteria apply:
(2) Private Fences Inside the State Right of Way.
• A circuitous route would be Private fences may be constructed within the
eliminated. State right of way via Encroachment Permit to
restrict access to facilities (e.g., canals)
December 30, 2015
crossing under or through Department-owned arms) or alternative designs may be considered.

property. A Maintenance Agreement must be When slats are included as an element of the
executed to provide for future maintenance of design, wind forces must be considered and
the fence and allow access to the private utility. there will be a resulting increase in the size and
depth of embedment of fence posts as well as
701.4 Temporary Fences an increase in the size of the concrete footing.
(1) Placement. Temporary fences are located Table 701.5 provides recommended post size
where necessary in accordance with and embedment along with footing size for CL-
construction contractor activities and where the 6 slatted fence under an assumption of
right of way rights have been acquired. relatively weak soil resistance (indicated as
“unconstrained”) as well as for situations
(2) Types of Fences. Temporary fence design
where the fence is installed through paved
should conform to the needs of the situation
areas (common at maintenance stations,
and the length of time to be used. In most
indicated as “constrained”), and a design wind
access control or demarcation applications the
velocity of 105 mph. For differing fence
fence fabric will conform to permanent fence
heights, wind velocities, or soil conditions,
standards, while lesser requirements may apply
special analysis may be warranted. Contact the
to posts and post footings to more readily
Office of Highway Drainage Design in
accommodate removal when no longer needed.
Headquarters for assistance.
Temporary fence used during reconstruction of
private fences must be of a type adequate to Table 701.5
meet the permanent private fence purposes.
Slatted CL-6 Post & Footing
701.5 Other Fences
Dimensions
(1) ESA and Species Protection Fences. District
Environmental Unit staff must specify the Post NPS Footing
required placement limits and locations for Condition (Standard
ESA and species protection fences. Cut) Dia. Depth
ESA fence material requirements are described Unconstrained 4” 18” 3’-6”
in Section 14 of the Standard Specifications. Constrained 4” 18” 5’-6”
Species protection fences will be uniquely
designed to meet the needs of the target
species. District Environmental staff will Typically District Maintenance or Traffic
provide information on the necessary design Operations will specify any unique design
parameters. In many instances, species requirements for enclosure fences as they will
protection fence will be able to be directly assume responsibility after construction.
attached to existing freeway or expressway
access control fence and thus preclude the need Topic 702 - Miscellaneous Traffic
for separate posts. Where species protection Items
fence is to be constructed along conventional
highways, it must be constructed inside the 702.1 References
State right of way and should not be attached to (1) Guardrail and Crash Cushions. See Chapter 7
any private fence that may exist. of the Traffic Manual.
(2) Enclosure Fences. Because these fences are (2) Markers. See Part 3 of the California Manual
commonly intended to provide security for on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (California
Caltrans facilities, the facility type and location MUTCD).
will often dictate the fence design to be used.
Standard chain link (CL-6) fence is most (3) Truck Escape Ramps. See Traffic Bulletin No.
common, but additions (barbed wire extension 24, (1986) and the NCHRP Report 178.
December 30, 2015
(4) Mailboxes. See the AASHTO Roadside (b) To provide added emphasis on an existing
Design Guide, 3rd Edition, Chapter 11, facility where driver behavior has demonstrated
“Erecting Mailboxes on Streets and that standard signs and markings have proven
Highways”. inadequate.
When contrast treatment is applied, a slurry seal
Topic 703 - Special Structures should be used.
and Installation
See Part 3 of the California MUTCD for additional
703.1 Truck Weighing Facilities information on contrast treatment.
The Division of Traffic Operations coordinates the Topic 705 - Materials and Color
design and construction of truck weighing facilities
with the California Highway Patrol in Sacramento. Selection
Typical plans showing geometric details of these
705.1 Special Treatments and Materials
facilities are available from the Headquarters
Division of Traffic Operations. Districts should Special materials or treatments, such as painted
refer truck weighing facility maintenance issues to concrete, or vinyl-clad fences, are sometimes
their District maintenance units. proposed for aesthetic reasons, or to comply with
special requirements.
See Index 107.1 for additional details on roadway
connections for truck weighing facilities. The following guidelines are to be used for the
selection of these items:
703.2 Rockfall Restraining Nets
(a) Concrete should not be painted unless
Rockfall Restraining Nets are protective devices exceptional circumstances exist, due to the
designed to control large rockfall events and continuing and expensive maintenance
prevent rock from reaching the traveled way. The required. Concrete subject to unintentional
systems consist of rectangular panels of woven staining should be textured during construction
wire rope vertically supported by steel posts and to minimize the visibility of stains, if other
designed with frictional brake elements capable of methods of controlling stain-producing runoff
absorbing and dissipating high energies. For or dripping cannot be accomplished.
additional information on the characteristics and
applications for rockfall restraining nets, designers (b) Vinyl-clad fences are sometimes specified for
should contact the Division of Engineering aesthetic reasons. The cost of this material is
Services - Geotechnical Services (DES-GS). higher than that of galvanized steel. Special
consideration should be given to the life-cycle
Topic 704 - Contrast Treatment cost and maintainability of vinyl-clad fencing
prior to selection for use. The use of black or
704.1 Policy green vinyl-clad mesh for access control
In general, delineation should be composed of the fencing, safety fencing at the top of retaining
standard patterns discussed in Part 3 of the walls, and pedestrian overcrossing fencing is
California MUTCD. acceptable.
Markings include lines and markings applied to the 705.2 Colors for Steel Structures
pavement, raised pavement markers, delineators, Colors for steel bridges and steel sign structures
object markers, and special pavement treatments. may be green, gray, or neutral tones of brown, tan,
Contrast treatment is designed primarily to provide or light blue.
a black color contrast with an adjacent white Criteria for selection of colors are:
surface. Normally, contrast treatment should be
used only in special cases such as the following: (a) General continuity along any given route.
(a) To provide continuity of surface texture for the (b) Coordination of color schemes with adjacent
guidance of drivers through construction areas. Districts for interdistrict routes.
December 30, 2015
(c) Requests from local agencies for improvement considered in roadway and roadside design
of aesthetics in their community. projects:
Color selection for steel bridges should be mutually • Metal beam guardrail, including standard
satisfactory to the Division of Engineering Services railing, terminal system end treatments, guard
and the District. The Division of Engineering railing at structure approach and departures,
Services (DES) will initiate the color selection and at fixed objects should include vegetation
process by submitting the proposed color to the control. For more detailed information
District Landscape Architect for review. The color regarding placement of vegetation control
for steel sign structures will be selected by the consult with both the District Landscape
District Landscape Architect. Architect and District Maintenance. See the
Standard Plans for minor concrete vegetation
Topic 706 - Roadside Treatment control.
706.1 Roadside Management • Thrie beam barrier, including single thrie beam
barrier, double thrie beam barrier, at structure
A key concept in roadside management is that approach and at fixed objects should include
roadway and roadside design should consider the vegetation control. For more detailed
full life-cycle cost of transportation improvements information regarding placement of vegetation
including the long-term cost of maintenance. The control consult with both the District
design alternative with the lowest initial Landscape Architect and District Maintenance.
construction cost may not be the best solution if See the Standard Plans for minor concrete
this approach will include high recurring vegetation control.
maintenance costs. Designers should strive to
select design approaches that do not require • Unpaved narrow strips often result from the
extensive recurring long-term activities. construction of noise barriers or concrete
barriers beyond the paved shoulder edge.
A second key roadside management concept is that Unpaved strips 15 feet or less in width, parallel
roadway and roadside design should contribute to and immediately adjacent to the roadway,
the safety of Department maintenance workers by should be paved to the barrier or wall. Paving
incorporating techniques that eliminate or reduce these areas eliminates the need for manual
worker exposure to traffic. More specifically, these vegetation control, and allows automated
management concepts include the following equipment to remove litter and debris.
techniques: Pavement requirements are consistent with the
• Eliminate the need for recurrent maintenance guidance contained in this manual. Contrasting
activities such as vegetation control, herbicide surface treatment such as markings,
application, pruning, mowing and graffiti delineation, or color may also be provided so
removal; drivers can distinguish these areas from those
intended for vehicular use.
• Facilitate the automation of recurrent
maintenance activities such as herbicide • Unpaved areas greater than 15 feet in width
application, mowing and litter collection; may include vegetation control techniques such
as weed control mats, patterned asphalt or
• Locate facilities that require recurrent stamped concrete paving, or the planting of low
maintenance activity outside the clear recovery maintenance vegetation such as native grasses.
zone, or within protected areas; Consult the District Landscape Architect and
• Provide safe maintenance worker access to District Maintenance to select and appropriate
facilities that require recurrent maintenance vegetation control technique.
activity. • Plants, which at maturity may encroach upon
To implement this second roadside management required site distances, should be removed.
concept, the following conditions must be Consult the District Landscape Architect to
identify potential encroaching plant material.
December 30, 2015
• Noise barriers should be designed with a through medians, traffic islands, and other paved
textured aesthetic treatment or planted with areas.
vines to reduce maintenance required to control The Division of Maintenance is responsible for the
graffiti. Index 902.3 of this manual and the selection of herbicides. Approval is required for
Project Development Procedures Manual any changes from the currently approved Standard
contain information of the planting on noise Specifications and Standard Special Provisions for
barriers. pesticides and herbicides.
• Unpaved area beyond the gore pavement Since soil sterilants may be transported by water,
should be paved as per Index 504.2(2). they should not be used where they may affect
• Roadside facilities that require recurring environmentally sensitive areas, habitat, native
maintenance, such as irrigation controllers, vegetation, landscape plantings, agricultural crops,
electrical controllers, backflow preventers, and adjacent residential, commercial or recreation
valve boxes, should not be placed on the areas, streams, or water bodies.
outside of horizontal curves, near gore areas, Before specifying soil sterilants, the District
near auxiliary lanes, or near ramp termini. The Landscape Architect should be consulted to
designer should strive to place these facilities determine the possibility of future planting.
outside the clear recovery zone, or within a
protected area if placement outside the clear 706.3 Topsoil
recovery zone is not feasible. In areas of new construction, quality existing
• When placing roadside facilities that require topsoil should be stockpiled and spread during the
recurring maintenance, the designer should final stages of construction. The native brush
strive to include improvements that facilitate should be crushed or chipped and mixed with the
safe maintenance access such as maintenance stockpiled soil to maximize natural or organic
vehicle pullouts, maintenance access paths, matter in the soil. Since topsoil contains beneficial
walk gates and vehicle gates. It is preferred microorganisms and seed, it is best to stockpile it in
that access be provided from outside the right- shallow windrows and planted with temporary
of-way for all facilities that require erosion control so that oxygen can penetrate the
maintenance access. soil.
• When placing noise barriers in areas with a 706.4 Irrigation Crossovers for Highway
narrow right of way, the designer should Construction Projects
consider locating a concrete safety shape Irrigation crossovers normally consist of a conduit
barrier 3 feet from the face of the noise barrier with a waterline crossover and sprinkler control
to provide protected maintenance access to conduit with pull wire. Irrigation crossovers should
planting and irrigation facilities. be provided under new roadways and ramps when
Formal safety reviews for roadside management future highway planting is anticipated. The District
issues should be accomplished as discussed in Landscape Architect should be consulted to
Index 110.8. Consult the District Landscape determine the need for such crossovers as well as
Architect and District Maintenance unit early size and location. Attention should also be given to
during design development to identify and address extending existing conduits when widening or
potential roadside management issues, such as modifying roadways and ramps.
avoiding the redundant placement of roadside The following factors should be considered in
facilities, or allow for the consolidation of roadside sizing and locating crossovers:
facilities.
(a) A standard irrigation crossover consists of a
706.2 Vegetation Control minimum size of 8-inch diameter nominal
Weed control fabric or soil sterilant chemicals may (DN) conduit, with a 3-inch DN water supply
be placed under pavement to prevent weed growth line and a 2-inch DN sprinkler control conduit
with pull wire. Sizes of irrigation crossovers
December 30, 2015
and water supply lines are usually larger when 706.6 Water Supply for Future Roadside
nonpotable water is to be used. Rest Areas, Vista Points, or Planting
(b) Irrigation crossovers are typically spaced 1,000 Provision for a permanent water supply should be
feet apart on freeways where future highway included in the major construction project. In the
planting is anticipated. Undercrossings may be preparation of a major highway construction
considered alternative crossing opportunities. project, consideration should be given to using the
(c) Drainage facilities should not be used for water source needed for construction as part of a
waterline crossings. future permanent water supply system. If this
appears to be a feasible solution, consider such
Standard details and special provisions for the factors as:
irrigation crossover should be furnished by the
District Landscape Architect to the Project (a) Probability of a future planting, vista point, or
Engineer for highway construction projects. roadside rest project.
706.5 Water Supply Line (Bridge) and (b) Economy.

Sprinkler Control Conduit for Bridge (c) Possible reduction in the flexibility of the
highway contractor's operation.
Water supply line and sprinkler control conduit
with pull wire should be provided in new bridge The District Landscape Architect should be
structures. consulted.
The District Landscape Architect should be
consulted to determine the need for such water
Topic 707 - Slope Treatment
supply lines and sprinkler control conduits such as Under Structures
size and location.
707.1 Policy
Attention should also be given to modifying,
changing existing, or installing new water supply Structure end slope should be treated to:
lines and sprinkler control conduits when widening (a) Protect slopes from erosion.
or modifying bridge structures.
(b) Improve aesthetics.
The following factors should be considered in
(c) Reduce long term maintenance costs.
sizing and locating water supply lines and sprinkler
control conduits: Caltrans maintenance, landscape architecture,
materials, design, and other affected units will
(a) Generally, locate on the side of the bridge,
furnish input to determine slope treatment needed
nearest the water source.
at each site. Local agency input should be obtained
(b) Consider the maximum water demand and for urban undercrossings.
number of irrigation controller stations
All types of slope treatments require adequate
anticipated to be used. The water supply line
drainage facilities for water from the upper
should be a minimum 3-inch DN and the
roadway. Inadequate drainage is a major source of
conduit for the sprinkler control conduit should
slope erosion.
be a minimum 2-inch DN and contain a pull
wire. 707.2 Guidelines for Slope Treatment
(c) Ductile iron pipe is required for the water (a) Full slope paving shall be installed where it is
supply line for pipes 4-inch DN or larger anticipated that erosion by pedestrians, wind,
because of its superior strength and flexible storm water, or other causes will occur. High
joints. landscape maintenance costs caused by
inadequate moisture, sunlight, instability to
establish vegetation etc., may also justify the
use of full slope paving in lieu of planting. The
District Landscape Architect will provide
December 30, 2015
aesthetic input and waterline crossover conduit

as well as locations for slope paving.
(b) Landscaped structure end slopes may be
justified when adjacent slopes are landscaped
and when landscaping is compatible with
adjacent development. Conditions must exist
where plants would have a strong likelihood of
survival.
(c) Bare slopes have minimum initial costs and
higher maintenance costs which vary with the
site. Bare structure end slopes may be justified
at rural sites and other areas where anticipated
maintenance activity will be low and there is
little likelihood for erosion. Appropriate
drainage design is critical when slopes are left
bare.
(d) Adequate drainage facilities must be provided
to prevent saturation of abutment foundation
materials and damage to slope treatment.
(e) Additional protection may be required at
stream crossings to provide for flow velocity.
707.3 Procedure
Based on consultation with the District Landscape
Architect and Structures Bridge Architect and in
consideration of economic and aesthetic factors, the
District will determine, and set forth with the
bridge site plan submittal, the type of slope
treatment indicating whether:
(a) The Division of Engineering Services is to
design the slope treatment with the bridge and
include the cost in the Structure items; or
(b) The District will design the slope treatment and
include the details with the road plans.
October 4, 2010
CHAPTERS 800 - 890 801.3 Drainage Standards

HIGHWAY DRAINAGE DESIGN Drainage design criteria should be selected that
are commensurate with the relative importance
CHAPTER 800 - GENERAL of the highway, associated risks, and possible
ASPECTS damage to adjacent property. The objective of
drainage design should be to provide optimum
Topic 801 - General facilities considering function versus cost rather
than to just meet minimum standards.
Index 801.1 - Introduction Engineers and other professional disciplines
This section is not a textbook, and is not a substitute using this guide must recognize that hydrologic
for fundamental engineering knowledge or analysis, as practiced by the highway engineer,
experience. has not advanced to a level of precise
mathematical expression. All hydrologic
The fields of hydrology and the hydraulics of analysis methods, whether deterministic or
highway drainage are rapidly evolving and it is the statistical, are based on the information
responsibility of the engineer to keep abreast of available. A common challenge faced by the
current design practices. As new practices or highway design engineer is that there may be
procedures are adopted by the Department, this insufficient flow data or no data at all at the site
section will be updated. for which a stream crossing is to be designed.
Instructions for the design of highway drainage By applying analytical principles and methods it
features provided are for information and guidance is possible to obtain peak discharge estimates
of Department employees. Drainage policies, which are functionally acceptable for the design
procedures and standards given are subject to of highway drainage structures and other
amendment as conditions warrant and are neither features.
intended as, nor do they establish, legal standards. The design of highway drainage structures and
Special situations may call for variations from these other features must consider the probability of
requirements, subject to approval of the Division of flooding and provide protection which is
Design or approval by others as may be specifically commensurate with the importance of the
referenced. highway, the potential for property damage, and
801.2 Drainage Design Philosophy traffic safety. Traditionally, the level of
assurance for such protection has been specified
Highway drainage design is much more than the in terms of the peak rate of flow during passage
mere application of the technical principles of of a flood or storm of the severity associated
hydrology and hydraulics. Good drainage design is with the frequency of occurrence, i.e. a 10-year
a matter of properly balancing technical principles storm, the 50-year flood, etc. State-of-the-art
and data with the environment giving due methods and procedures associated with the
consideration to other factors such as safety and necessary hydrologic analysis required to
economics. Such design can only be accomplished determine the severity and probability of
through the liberal use of sound engineering occurrence of possible rare storms and flood
judgment. Drainage features to remove runoff from events are inherently ambiguous. Therefore, the
the roadway and to convey surface and stream suggested drainage design criteria relating to
waters originating upstream of the highway to the frequency of occurrence references in this
downstream side should be designed to accomplish manual are provided for guidance only and are
these functions without causing objectionable not intended to establish either legal or design
backwater, excessive velocities, erosion or unduly standards which must be strictly adhered to.
affecting traffic safety. A goal in highway drainage Rather, they are intended as a starting point of
design should be to perpetuate natural drainage, reference for designing the most cost effective
insofar as practical. drainage structures and facilities considering the
May 7, 2012
importance of the highway, safety, legal obligations, transportation facility, ease and economy of
ease of maintenance, and aesthetics. maintenance, engineering judgment, and
aesthetics.
801.4 Objectives of Drainage Design
(n) Checking the structural adequacy of designs
Drainage design seeks to prevent the retention of by referral to Structures Design or by use of
water by a highway and provide for removal of data furnished by Structures Design.
water from the roadway through a detailed analysis
considering all pertinent factors. (o) Preventing water from crossing slopes in
concentrated flows.
Specific steps to be taken generally include:
801.5 Economics of Design
(a) Estimating the amount and frequency of storm
runoff. An economic analysis of alternate drainage
designs, where a choice is available, should
(b) Determining the natural points of concentration
always be made. Non-engineering constraints
and discharge, the limiting elevations of
may severely limit the design alternatives
entrance head, and other hydraulic controls.
available to the drainage design engineer for a
(c) Estimating the amount and composition of specific project or location. Generally, however,
bedload and its abrasive and bulking effects. the design engineer has a wide range of materials
(d) Determining the necessity for protection from and products to choose from in selecting the
floating trash and from debris moving under most economical design from available
water. alternatives for highway drainage structures and
other features.
(e) Determining the requirements for energy
dissipation and bank protections. The following factors should be considered in
the selection of alternative designs and economic
(f) Determining the necessity of providing for the comparisons:
passage of fish and recognizing other ecological
conditions and constraints. Water quality and (a) Initial cost of construction and right of way.
pollution control are discussed under Index (b) Evaluation of flood related risks to the
110.2. Aspects of wetlands protection are highway and to adjacent properties including
covered under Index 110.4. potential liabilities for damage.
(g) Analyzing the deleterious effects of corrosive (c) Cost of detours and traffic handling.
soils and waters on structures.
(d) Service life of the highway and of the
(h) Comparing and coordinating proposed design drainage structure.
with existing drainage structures and systems
(e) Cost of providing traffic safety features.
handling the same flows.
(f) Aesthetics.
(i) Coordinating, with local agencies, proposed
designs for facilities on roads to be relinquished. (g) Costs to traveling public for delays or extra
travel distance due to road closures.
(j) Providing access for maintenance operations.
(h) Initial cost versus long term maintenance
(k) Providing for removal of detrimental amounts
costs for cleanout, repair, traffic control and
of water on traveled ways (see Topics 831 and
other pertinent maintenance charges that
833).
may be incurred during the life of the
(l) Providing for removal of detrimental amounts facility.
of subsurface water.
(i) Safety of required maintenance activities,
(m) Designing the most efficient drainage facilities ability to provide maintenance mechanically
consistent with the factors listed above, and to reduce worker exposure.
economic considerations, the importance of the
March 7, 2014
(j) Inlet and outlet treatment. (e) Review special drainage problems and
unusual drainage designs on the basis of
(k) Potential for causing erosion and effective water
statewide experience.
pollution control.
(f) Act in an advisory capacity to the
801.6 Use of Drainage References Districts when requested.
No attempt has been made herein to detail basic (2) Division of Engineering Services (DES).
hydrologic and hydraulic engineering techniques. The DES is responsible for:
Various sources of information, including FHWA (a) The hydraulic design of bridges, bridge
Hydraulic Engineering Circulars (HEC's); Title 23, deck drains, and special culverts.
Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), Part 650,
Subpart A; AASHTO Guidelines; Federal-Aid (b) The structural adequacy of all drainage
Policy Guide and numerous hydrology and facilities.
hydraulics reports and texts have been used to (c) The adequacy of pumping plant
compile this highway drainage guide. Frequent characteristics and temporary storage.
references are made to these publications. Where Refer to Topic 839 for further discussion
there is a conflict in information or procedure, on pumping stations.
engineers must look at all pertinent parameters and
use their best judgment, to determine which (d) Compliance with Federal-Aid Policy
approach is the most consistent with the objectives Guide, Transmittal 1, G 6012.1 and
of Caltrans drainage design principles and which submittal of preliminary hydraulic data
most closely relates to the specific design problem as outlined under Topic 805.
or project. (e) Geotechnical (soil mechanics and
foundation engineering) considerations.
Topic 802 - Drainage Design
Responsibilities (3) Legal Division. The Legal Division provides
legal advice and guidance to other Caltrans
802.1 Functional Organization Offices concerning the responsibilities of the
Department and owners of property along
(1) Division of Design. The Office of State State highways with regard to surface water
Highway Drainage Design in Division of drainage.
Design performs the following functions under
the direction of the Headquarters Hydraulics (4) Districts. The District Director is
Engineer: responsible for:
(a) Provide design information, guidance and (a) The hydrology for all drainage features
standards to the Districts for the design of except bridges.
surface and subsurface drainage. (b) The hydraulic adequacy of all drainage
(b) Keep informed on the latest data from features, except bridges and any special
research, experimental installations, other culverts and appurtenances designed by
public agencies, and industry that might the Division of Engineering Services.
lead to improvement in drainage design (c) Consulting with the Division of
practices. Engineering Services when it is
(c) Promote statewide uniformity of design proposed that an existing bridge be
procedures, and the exchange of replaced with a culvert.
information between Districts. (d) Bank and shore protection designs,
(d) Coordinate drainage design practices with including erosion protection measures at
other Caltrans Offices. ends of bridges and other structures
designed by the Division of Engineering
Services.
May 7, 2012
(e) Assigning one or more engineers in structures during storms, and storm
responsible charge of hydrologic study damage locations.
activities and the hydraulic design of
• Document condition and file data
drainage features.
that might forestall or defend future
(f) Compliance with Federal-Aid Policy Guide, lawsuits.
Transmittal 1, G 6012.1 for storm drain
systems. • Review permits for drainage
facilities to be constructed by other
(g) Providing additional staff as necessary with agencies or private parties within the
the training and background required to highway right of way.
perform the following:
• Investigate and prepare responses to
• Accomplish the objectives of drainage complaints relative to drainage
design as outlined under Index 801.4 conditions on or adjacent to the right
• Prepare drainage plans or review plans of way.
prepared by others. Assignment of the duties described
above will vary between districts. Due
• Study drainage problems involving
to the increasing complexity of hydraulic
cooperative agreements and make
and hydrologic issues it is imperative
recommendations to the decision
that the more complex analyses be
makers.
performed by experienced hydraulic
• Accumulate and analyze hydrologic and designers. To provide guidance on those
hydraulic data reflecting the local issues where district hydraulic units
conditions throughout the District for should become involved, the following
use in design. list is provided.
• Review drainage changes proposed • Storm drain design and calculations.
during construction. • Drainage basins exceeding
• Make investigations and 320 acres.
recommendations on drainage problems • Hydrograph development or routing.
arising from the maintenance of existing
State highways. • Open channel modification or
realignment.
• Coordinate drainage design activities • Retention or detention basins.
with other District Offices and
Branches. • Backwater analysis.
• Coordinate drainage designs with flood • High potential for flood damage
control districts and other agencies litigation.
concerned with drainage by • Scour analysis or sediment transport
representing the District at meetings and (typically forwarded to DOS).
maintaining an active liaison with these • Culvert designs greater than
agencies at all times. 36 inches in diameter.
• Furnish data as required on special • Encroachments on FEMA
problems, bridges, large culverts, designated floodplains.
culverts under high fills and pumping
plants that are to be designed by the • Modifications to inlet or outlet
Division of Engineering Services. capacities on existing culverts or
drainage inlets (e.g., placement of
• Make field inspections of proposed safety end grates, conversion of side
culvert sites, existing drainage opening inlets to grated inlets, etc.).
May 7, 2012
• Unique hydraulic design features (e.g., 802.3 Bank and Shore Protection
energy dissipator design, pumping Committee
stations, siphons, etc.).
The Caltrans Bank and Shore Protection
This list is not all inclusive, and many Committee is composed of representatives from
additional functions are likely to be DES Structures Maintenance and Investigation,
performed by hydraulic units. Although Office of State Highway Drainage Design,
various constraints may preclude the METS, Division of Construction, and Division
hydraulic unit from actively performing the of Maintenance. It is chaired by the Office of
design or analysis of these items, a thorough Highway Drainage Design representative.
review by that unit should be performed, at
a minimum. The Committee performs the following
functions:
(5) Materials Engineering and Testing Services.
METS provides advice and guidance to other (a) Acts as a service and an advisory group
Caltrans Offices and Branches concerning available to Districts and Caltrans Offices
service life, physical properties, and structural and Branches upon written request for
adequacy of materials used in drainage design. special investigations or study. Requests for
special investigation of rock slope
802.2 Culvert Committee protection, channel or bridge protection,
major channel changes, etc. should be
The Caltrans Culvert Committee is composed of
directed to the Committee Chair.
nine members representing the Offices of State
Highway Drainage Design, Structure Design, Office (b) Provides conceptual input and acts as
Engineer, and Materials Engineering and Testing approval authority for supplements or
Services, along with the Division of Construction modifications to bank and shore protection
and the Division of Maintenance. The Committee is practice publications as warranted.
chaired by the Headquarters Hydraulics Engineer in
(c) Investigates and provides input toward the
the Office of Highway Drainage Design. The
development of detailed design criteria for
Committee performs the following functions:
the various types of bank and shore
(a) Investigates new materials and new installation protection.
methods that may improve the economic service
(d) Observes performances of existing and/or
life of culverts and other drainage facilities.
experimental installations during or
(b) Coordinates drainage design practice with other following severe exposures. The Districts or
headquarters departments. Caltrans Offices or Branches are requested to
inform the Chair, Bank and Shore Protection
(c) Follows current research and takes steps to
Committee, or any available members of the
implement successful findings.
Committee, of damage to installations by
(d) Acts as an advisory group to Districts and other flood or high seas.
Caltrans Offices when requested.
(e) Upon submission by the Department's New
(e) Serves as Caltrans liaison with manufacturers, Products Coordinator, the Committee
suppliers, contractors and industry associations. evaluates new products and processes related
The authority of the Committee is advisory only, to bank and shore protection for possible
and recommendations of the Committee are approval.
submitted to the Chief, Division of Design for
approval and implementation through design
guidelines and standards.
Requests for consideration of new materials,
methods, or procedures should be directed to the
Committee Chairman.
May 7, 2012
Topic 803 - Drainage Design development process on pavement

rehabilitation and highway reconstruction
Policies projects.
803.1 Basic Policy Repair or replacement of structurally
In drainage design, the basic consideration is to deficient drainage structures and up-grading
protect the department’s facilities against damage of hydraulically inadequate drainage
from storm and subsurface waters, taking into facilities should, whenever practicable, be
account the effect of the proposed improvement on included in the work of the proposed project.
travelers and property. Unless the State would A thorough investigation of upstream and
benefit thereby, or the cost is borne by others, no downstream conditions is often required to
improvement in the drainage of areas outside the reveal what adverse effects there may be
right of way is to be considered on Caltrans projects. with increasing the capacity or velocity of
existing cross drainage.
803.2 Cooperative Agreements
A cooperative agreement should be
The extent of the department's financial negotiated when the proposed work includes
participation in cooperative drainage improvement the upgrading of an existing storm drain
projects must be commensurate with the benefits to system under the jurisdiction of a local or
the Department and the traveling public. other public agency.
(1) Local Agencies. Caltrans may participate with (2) Proposed Upstream Development. Unless
Local Agencies, Flood Control Districts or developers of land in the drainage basin
Drainage Assessment Districts on drainage upstream of existing State highways
improvement projects. Such projects must be incorporate positive stormwater manage-
covered by a formal agreement prepared and ment practices, such as detention or retention
processed in accordance with instructions in the storage basins within their improvement
Caltrans Cooperative Agreement Manual. areas, the peak flow from stormwater runoff
(2) Federal and State Flood Control Projects. The is nearly always increased. As a practical
cost of upgrading or modifying existing State matter, minor increases in peak flow are
highway facilities to accommodate Federal usually not objectionable. However,
and/or State funded flood control projects is uncontrolled upstream development or
normally the responsibility of the agency diversions can significantly increase the peak
funding the project. As necessary, Caltrans may flow run-off causing the capacity of
enter into agreements containing provisions that downstream drainage systems, including
the cost of betterments to existing highways, those within the State right of way, to be
including drainage features, will be paid for by exceeded.
the Department. The Cooperative Agreement When reasonable solutions to potential
Manual contains procedures for preparing drainage problems associated with such
interagency agreements. increased flows include the up-grading of
drainage facilities within the State highway
803.3 Up-Grading Existing Drainage
right-of-way, cooperative agreements with
Facilities the responsible local agency should be
(1) Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Projects. negotiated. The local agency having permit
The hydraulic adequacy, as well as the authority has the responsibility for assessing
structural adequacy of existing drainage liabilities and seeking commensurate funding
facilities should be evaluated early in the project for mitigation of run-off impacts from the
developers. The local agency should not
allow potentially harmful developments to
proceed until all issues have been resolved.
If it becomes apparent that the District, the
May 7, 2012
local agency and the developer may not amiably 804.3 Applicability
reach agreement, the matter should be referred
to Caltrans Legal Division before there is an The guidance provided herein establishes
impasse in the negotiations. Caltrans procedures whenever a floodplain
encroachment is anticipated. Adherence to these
Caltrans financial participation in such drainage procedures will also ensure compliance with
improvements must be based on the general rule applicable Federal regulations which apply to
stated in Index 803.2 Cooperative Agreements. any Federally approved highway construction,
(3) Hydraulically Inadequate Facilities. Land use reconstruction, rehabilitation, repair, or
changes nearly always cause areas to become improvement project which affects the
less pervious and drainage basins to yield (100-year) base floodplain. Work outside the
greater volumes and increase peak stormwater limits of the base floodplain should be reviewed
run-off flows. Even development of a small to see if it affects the (100-year) base floodplain.
parcel of land within a drainage basin causes The only exception is repairs made during or
some increase in stormwater run-off. immediately following a disaster. The premise is
Individually the increase may be negligible. that all Federal-aid projects be evaluated and that
Collectively these incrementally small increases diligent efforts be made to:
over time may cause the design capacity of an • Avoid significant floodplain encroachments
existing culvert to be exceeded. where practicable.
The up-grading of this category of hydraulically • Minimize the impact of highway actions that
inadequate drainage facilities may be partially adversely affect the base floodplain.
or fully financed by Caltrans. Only if the
benefit cost (b/c) ratio is equal to or greater than • Be compatible with the National Flood
one is up-grading viable for normal Caltrans Insurance Program (NFIP) of the Federal
project funding. When the benefits to the Emergency Management Agency (FEMA).
Department and the traveling public do not 804.4 Definitions
justify increasing the capacity, up-grading may
still be accomplished cooperatively with the The following definitions of terms are made for
local agency in accordance with the general rule the purpose of uniform application in the
for participation under Index 803.2 Cooperative documentation and preparation of floodplain
Agreements. evaluation reports. Refer to Title 23, CFR, Part
650, Section 650.105 for a complete list of
Topic 804 - Floodplain definitions.
Encroachments (1) Base Flood. The flood or tide having a
1 percent chance of being exceeded in any
804.1 Purpose given year (100-year flood).
The purpose of these instructions is to provide (2) Base Floodplain. The area subject to
uniform procedures and guidelines for Caltrans flooding by the base flood. Every
multi-disciplinary evaluation of proposed highway watercourse (river, creek, swale, etc.) is
encroachments on floodplains. subject to flooding and theoretically has a
base floodplain.
804.2 Authority
(3) Design Flood. The peak discharge, volume
Title 23, CFR, Part 650, Subpart A, prescribes
if appropriate, stage or wave crest elevation
FHWA's "...policies and procedures for the location
of the flood associated with the probability
and hydraulic design of highway encroachments on
of exceedance selected for the design of a
floodplains, ...". The CFR’s may be found on-line
highway encroachment. By definition, the
at: http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/cfr-table-
highway will not be inundated from the stage
search.html
of the design flood.
May 7, 2012
(4) Encroachment. An action within the limits of Manual are to be followed. Early in the planning
the base floodplain. Any construction activity of a project it is necessary to first determine:
(access road, building, fill slopes, bank or slope
(a) If a proposed route alternative will encroach
protection, etc.) within a base floodplain
on a base floodplain (refer to Index 804.4
constitutes an encroachment.
(2)) or,
(5) Location Hydraulic Study. A term from 23
(b) Where proposed construction on existing
CFR, Section 650.111 referring to the
highway alignment encroaches on a base
preliminary investigative study to be made of
floodplain.
base floodplain encroachments by a proposed
highway action. The extent of investigation and A Location Hydraulic Study is used to determine
the discussion content in the required (a) and (b) above. Refer to Index 804.4 (4) and
documentation of the "Location Hydraulic 804.7 (2)(b) for further discussion.
Study" is very site specific and need be no more Where National Flood Insurance Program
than that which is commensurate with the risk(s) (NFIP) Maps and study reports are available,
and impact(s) particular to the location under their use is mandatory in determining whether a
consideration. The information developed, highway location alternative will include an
documented (refer to Figure 804.7A) and encroachment on the base floodplain. Three
retained in the project file is the suggested types of NFIP maps are published which, if
minimum necessary for compliance. available, may be obtained from the District
(6) Natural and Beneficial Floodplain Values. This Hydraulics Branch: Flood Hazard Boundary
shall include but is not limited to fish, wildlife, Map (FHBM), Flood Boundary and Floodway
plants, open space, natural beauty, scientific Map (FBFM), and Flood Insurance Rate Map
study, outdoor recreation, agriculture, forestry, (FIRM).
natural moderation of floods, water quality If NFIP Maps are not available, the District
maintenance, and groundwater recharge. Hydraulics Engineer should develop hydrologic
(7) Overtopping Flood. The flood described by the data and hydraulic information to estimate the
probability of exceedance and water surface limits of the 100-year base floodplain to
elevation at which flow occurs over the determine whether a highway location alternative
highway, over the watershed divide, or through will include an encroachment.
structure(s) provided for emergency relief. Projects which involve proposed construction
(8) Regulatory Floodway. The floodplain area that within a regulatory floodplain or floodway need
is reserved in an open manner by Federal, State to be analyzed to determine whether it may be
or local requirements, i.e., unconfined or necessary to obtain a map revision. A map
unobstructed either horizontally or vertically, to revision is required when construction in the
provide for the discharge of the base flood so floodplain increases the base flood elevation
that the cumulative increase in water surface (BFE) more than 1 foot. Not all new construction
elevation is no more than a designated amount projects require a map revision.
(not to exceed 1 foot as established by the
804.6 Responsibilities
Federal Emergency Management Agency
(FEMA) for administering the National Flood The District Project Engineer is generally the
Insurance Program). responsible party for initiating and coordinating
the overall multi-disciplinary team activities of
804.5 Procedures evaluation and documentation of floodplain
Floodplain evaluations are essentially an extension impacts. Discussion of specific hydraulic and
of the environmental assessment process and environmental aspects are required by 23 CFR
instructions contained in the Environmental 650, Subpart A. Preparing the project floodplain
Handbook and the Project Development Procedures evaluation report and the summary for the
environmental document or project report is
March 7, 2014
normally the responsibility of the Environmental expected to be processed with a categorical

Planning Branch. The District Hydraulics Engineer exclusion. Items listed in 23 CFR 650.111
will, as necessary, develop the hydrological and as follows must be addressed:
hydraulic information and provide technical
(a) National Flood Insurance Program
assistance for assessing impacts of floodplain
(NFIP) maps or information developed
encroachments.
by the highway agency, if NFIP maps
804.7 Preliminary Evaluation of Risks and are not available, shall be used to
Impacts for Environmental Document Phase determine whether a highway location
alternative will include an encroachment.
Virtually all proposed highway improvements that
are considered as floodplain encroachments will be (b) Location studies shall include evaluation
designed to have: and discussion of the practicability of
alternatives to any longitudinal
(a) No significant risks associated with encroachments.
implementation and,
(c) Location studies shall include discussion
(b) Negligible environmental impacts on the of the following items, commensurate
base floodplain. with the significance of the risk or
(1) Risks. There will always be some potential for environmental impact, for all alternatives
property damage and flooding that may affect containing encroachments and for those
public safety, associated with highway drainage actions which would support base
design. In a majority of cases, a field review floodplain development:
with a NFIP or USGS map and the application (1) The risks associated with
of good engineering judgment are all that is implementation of the action,
needed to determine if such risks are significant
or acceptable. The detail of study and (2) The impacts on natural and
documentation shall be commensurate with the beneficial floodplain values,
risk(s) or floodplain impact(s) and, in all cases, (3) The support of probable
should be held to the minimum necessary to incompatible floodplain develop-
address 23 CFR 650.111. ment,
(2) Impacts. The assessment of potential impacts (4) The measures to minimize
on the floodplain environment will include: floodplain impacts associated with
(a) Impacts on natural and beneficial floodplain the action, and
values. (5) The measures to restore and preserve
(b) Support of probable incompatible floodplain the natural and beneficial floodplain
development. values impacted by the action.
Except for the more environmentally sensitive (d) Location studies shall include evaluation
projects, a single visit to the project site by the and discussion of the practicability of
District Project Engineer, Hydraulics Engineer, alternatives to any significant
and Environmental Planner, to assess and encroachments or any support of
document the risks and environmental impacts incompatible floodplain development.
associated with the proposed project is generally (e) The studies required by Sec. 650.111 (c)
all that is necessary to obtain enough and (d) shall be summarized in
information for the "Location Hydraulic Study". environmental review documents
Any reasonable adaptation of the technical prepared pursuant to 23 CFR part 771.
information for “Location Hydraulic Study”
form, Figure 804.7A, may be utilized to (f) Local, State, and Federal water resources
document and summarize the findings of the and floodplain management agencies
"Location Hydraulic Study" when the project is should be consulted to determine if the
proposed highway action is consistent
March 7, 2014
with existing watershed and floodplain that community, or to demonstrate that an

management programs and to obtain current alternative floodway configuration meets NFIP
information on development and proposed requirements. However, this responsibility may
actions in the affected watersheds. be borne by the agency proposing to construct
the highway crossing. Therefore, the highway
Figure 804.7A is considered the suggested
agency should deal directly with the community
minimum hydraulic and engineering
and, through them, deal with FEMA.
documentation for floodplain encroachments
Determination of the status of a community’s
(bridge, culvert, channel change, slope
participation in the NFIP and review of
protection, embankment, etc.). It is intended as a
applicable NFIP maps and study reports are,
guide tool to help address the items listed in 23
therefore, essential first steps in conducting
CFR 650.111 and should be prepared jointly by
location hydraulic studies and preparing
the Project Engineer and Hydraulics Engineer.
environmental documents.
Since every location is unique, some of the
questions may not apply, or additional 804.10 National Flood Insurance Program
considerations may need to be added.
The Flood Disaster Protection Act of 1973 (Pl
For projects requiring an Environmental Impact 93-234, 87 Stat. 975) denies Federal financial
Statement or Environmental Assessment assistance to flood prone communities that fail to
(EIS/EA) or a finding of no significant impact qualify for flood insurance. The Act requires
(FONSI) with alternatives that have permanent communities to adopt certain land use controls in
features that encroach on the floodplain, a back- order to qualify for flood insurance. These land
up report entitled Floodplain Evaluation is use requirements could impose restrictions on
normally prepared by the District the construction of highways in floodplains and
Environmental Branch. The technical regulatory floodplains in communities which
requirements are typically developed jointly by have qualified for flood insurance.
the District Project Engineer and District
Hydraulics Engineer. See Figure 804.7B for the The National Flood Insurance Act of 1968, as
Floodplain Evaluation Report Summary form amended (42 U.S.C. 4001-4127) requires that
that is used when an environmental document is communities adopt adequate land use and control
to be prepared. measures to qualify for insurance. To implement
this provision, the following Federal criteria
804.8 Design Standards contains requirements which may affect certain
highways:
The design standards for highways encroaching on a
floodplain are itemized in 23 CFR, Section 650.115. In riverine situations, when the Administrator of
One requirement often overlooked is the need to the Federal Insurance Administration has
assess the costs and risks associated with the identified the flood prone area, the
overtopping flood for design alternatives in those community must require that, until a
instances where the overtopping flood exceeds the floodway has been designated, no use,
base flood. The content of design study information including land fill, be permitted within the
to be retained in the project file are described in 23 floodplain area having special flood hazards
CFR, Section 650.117. for which base flood elevations have been
provided, unless it has been demonstrated
804.9 Coordination with the Local that the cumulative effect of the proposed
Community use, when combined with all other existing
The responsibility for enforcing National Flood and reasonably anticipated uses of similar
Insurance Program (NFIP) regulations rests with the nature, will not increase the water surface
local community that is participating in the NFIP. It elevation of the 100-year flood more than
is the community who must submit proposals to 1 foot at any point within the community.
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)
for amendments to NFIP ordinances and maps in
October 4, 2010
Figure 804.7A
Technical Information for Location Hydraulic Study

Dist. ________ Co. ________ Rte.________ P.M. _______________
EA __________________ Bridge No._________________
Floodplain Description
1. Description of Proposal (include any physical barriers i.e. concrete barriers,

soundwalls, etc. and design elements to minimize floodplain impacts)
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
2. ADT: Current Projected
3. Hydraulic Data: Base Flood Q100 =_______ CFS

WSE100 = _______ The flood of record, if greater than Q100:
Q =_______ CFS WSE =_______
Overtopping flood Q =______ CFS WSE = _______
Are NFIP maps available? Yes_____ No_____
Are NFIP studies available? Yes_____ No_____
Yes No
4. Is the highway location alternative within a regulatory floodway? ______ ______
5. Attach map with flood limits outlined showing all buildings or other
improvements within the base floodplain.
Potential Q100 backwater damages:
A. Residences? ______ ______
B. Other Bldgs? ______ ______
C. Crops? ______ ______
D. Natural and beneficial Floodplain values? ______ ______
6. Type of Traffic:
A. Emergency supply or evacuation route? ______ ______
B. Emergency vehicle access? ______ ______
C. Practicable detour available? ______ ______
D. School bus or mail route? ______ ______
7. Estimated duration of traffic interruption for 100-year event ______ hours.

September 1, 2006
8. Estimated value of Q100 flood damages (if any) - moderate risk level.
A. Roadway $________
B. Property $________
Total $________
9. Assessment of Level of Risk

Low ___ Moderate ___ High ___
For High Risk projects, during design phase, additional Design Study Risk
Analysis may be necessary to determine design alternative.
PREPARED BY:
_____________________________________________ ____________________
Signature - Dist. Hydraulic Engineer Date
(Item numbers 3, 4, 5, 7, 9)
Is there any longitudinal encroachment, significant encroachment, or any support of incompatible

Floodplain development? No ____ Yes ____
If yes, provide evaluation and discussion of practicability of alternatives in accordance with

23 CFR 650.113
Information developed to comply with the Federal requirement for the Location Hydraulic Study
Shall be retained in the project files.
_____________________________________________ ____________________
Signature - Dist. Project Engineer Date
(Item numbers 1, 2, 6, 8)
September 1, 2006
Figure 804.7B
Floodplain Evaluation Report Summary

Dist. ________ Co. ________ Rte.________ P.M________________
Project No. __________________ Bridge No._________________
Limit
Floodplain Description
Yes No
1. Is the proposed action a longitudinal encroachment of the base floodplain? _____ _____
2. Are the risks associated with the implementation of the proposed action
significant? _____ _____
3. Will the proposed action support probable incompatible floodplain
development? _____ _____
4. Are there any significant impacts on natural and beneficial floodplain
values? _____ _____
5. Routine construction procedures are required to minimize impacts on the
floodplain. Are there any special mitigation measures necessary to minimize
impacts or restore and preserve natural and beneficial floodplain values? If
_____ _____
yes, explain.
6. Does the proposed action constitute a significant floodplain encroachment as
defined in 23 CFR, Section 650.105(q). _____ _____
7. Are Location Hydraulic Studies that document the above answers on file? If
not explain. _____ _____
PREPARED BY:
_____________________________________________ ____________________
Signature - Dist. Hydraulic Engineer Date
_____________________________________________ ____________________
Signature - Dist. Environmental Branch Chief Date
_____________________________________________ ____________________
Signature - Dist. Project Engineer Date
May 7, 2012
• After the floodplain area having special flood insurable buildings are not affected, it is
hazards has been identified and the water sufficient to notify FEMA of changes to the
surface elevation for the 100-year flood and base flood elevations as a result of highway
floodway data have been provided, the construction.
community must designate a floodway which The draft (EIS/EA) should indicate the NFIP
will convey the 100-year flood without status of affected communities, the encroachments
increasing the water surface elevation of the anticipated and the need for floodway or
flood more than 1 foot at any point and floodplain ordinance amendments. If a
prohibit, within the designated floodway, fill, determination by FEMA would influence the
encroachments and new construction and selection of an alternative, a commitment from
substantial improvements of existing FEMA should be obtained prior to the final
structures which would result in any increase environmental impact Statement (FEIS) or FONSI.
in flood heights within the community during
the occurrence of the 100-year flood More information regarding FEMA can be found
discharge. on-line at: http://www.fema.gov/nfip/.
• The participating cities and/or counties agree FEMA has developed a comprehensive listing of
to regulate new development in the designated all numerical models that are accepted for NFIP
floodplain and floodway through regulations usage. These models can be accessed online at:
adopted in a floodplain ordinance. The http://www.fema.gov/mit/tsd/EN_modl.htm.
ordinance requires that development in the
designated floodplain be consistent with the Topic 805 - Preliminary Plans
intent, standards and criteria set by the
National Flood Insurance Program. 805.1 Required FHWA Approval
Current Federal policy requires the review and
804.11 Coordination with FEMA
approval of plans for unusual structures. (See
There should be Caltrans coordination with FEMA Indices 805.2 - 805.6) by FHWA. FHWA will no
in situations where administrative determinations longer review and approve major structures (those
are needed involving a regulatory floodway or with greater than 125,000 square feet of deck area)
where flood risks in NFIP communities are or pumping plants with greater than
significantly impacted. The circumstances which 20 CFS design discharge. Submittal of plans for
would ordinarily require coordination with FEMA unusual structures for review applies only to new
include the following. construction on the Interstate system. The
responsibility for the oversight of unusual
• When a proposed crossing encroaches on a
structures on other Federal-aid and non-Federal-
regulatory floodway and, as such, would
aid highways will be assumed by the state.
require an amendment to the floodway map.
• When a proposed crossing encroaches on a Federal review and approval may take place at
floodplain where a detailed study has been either their Division Office or FHWA
performed but no floodway designated and the Headquarters in Washington, D.C. Early
maximum 1 foot increase in the base flood submission of necessary data is critical in order to
elevation would be exceeded. receive a timely approval.
• When a local community is expected to enter 805.2 Bridge Preliminary Report

into the regular program within a reasonable A Bridge Preliminary Report will be prepared by
period and detailed floodplain studies are Structures Design, in the Division of Engineering
under way. Services and submitted to the California FHWA
• When a local community is participating in the Division Office in Sacramento for approval of
emergency program and the base FEMA flood unusual bridges and structures.
elevation in the vicinity of insurable buildings
is increased by more than 1 foot. Where
May 7, 2012
An unusual bridge involves difficult or unique (a) Highway fills which will function as a levee
foundation problems, new or complex designs and serve the purpose of reducing the flooding
involving unique design or operational features, of adjacent areas.
longer than normal spans or bridges for which the
(b) Dams formed by highway fills which will
design procedures depart from current acceptable
permanently impound water more than 25 feet
practice. Examples include cable stayed,
in depth or 50 acre-feet in volume. See Index
suspension, arch, segmental concrete bridges,
829.9 Dams, for legal definition of a dam and
trusses and other bridges which deviate from
regulations relative to approval by the
AASHTO Standard Specifications or Guide
California Department of Water Resources.
Specifications for Highway Bridges, bridges
requiring abnormal dynamic analysis for seismic 805.6 Geotechnical
design, bridges designed using a three-dimensional
The District shall submit preliminary plans and
computer analysis, bridges with spans exceeding
technical data for major or unusual geotechnical
500 feet, and bridges which include ultra high
features to the California FHWA Division Office
strength concrete or steel.
for approval. Major geotechnical features include
805.3 Storm Drain Systems unusually deep cuts or high fills where the site
geology is potentially unstable, landslide
The District will submit preliminary plans and
corrections, and large retaining walls (cantilever,
hydraulic data for unusual storm drain systems to
permanent ground anchor, and soil reinforcement).
the California FHWA Division Office in
FHWA Headquarters Bridge Division approval is
Sacramento for storm drain systems that carry
required for unusual geotechnical features, such as
more than 200 CFS or have an accumulated
new or complex retaining wall systems or ground
surface detention storage system of more than
improvement systems.
five acre-feet.
805.7 Data Provided by the District
805.4 Unusual Hydraulic Structures
The following items of supportive information
must be provided with requests for FHWA
hydraulic data for unusual hydraulic structures to
approval:
the California FHWA Office in Sacramento. For
projects on the interstate system, FHWA (a) Preliminary plans and profiles:
Headquarters Office of Bridge Technology
• Approach layouts.
approval is required for hydraulic structures
involving unusual stream stability • Drainage plans.
countermeasures or unique design techniques. (b) Hydraulic design studies:
The Division of Engineering Services will submit
preliminary plans and hydraulic data to the • Design Q and frequency.
California FHWA Division Office in Sacramento • Hydraulic grade lines.
for unusual structures such as tunnels, complex or • Inflow - Outflow hydrographs.
unique geotechnical structures and complex or
unique hydraulic structures. • Capacity of reservoirs or pump storage
systems.
805.5 Levees and Dams Formed by • Pump capacity.
Highway Fills
• Stream velocities.
• Water surface profiles.
other supportive data to the California FHWA
Division Office in Sacramento for approval of: • Slope protection, toe and top elevations.
(c) Proposed specifications.
(d) Estimated cost.
May 7, 2012
(e) Foundation report: Apron. (1) A paved area (usually depressed)

around a drainage inlet. (2) A floor or lining of
• Embankment design for fills functioning
concrete between wingwalls at the end of a
as dams.
culvert to prevent scour. (3) A lining of the bed
(f) Subsurface investigations. of the channel upstream or downstream from a
lined or restricted waterway. (4) A floor or
(g) Coordination with Federal, state and local
lining of concrete, rock, etc., to protect a surface
agencies.
from erosion such as the pavement along the toe
(h) Other pertinent data. of bank protection.
The FHWA requires that three copies of Aqueduct. (1) A major conduit. (2) The entire
supportive information be submitted to the transmission main for a municipal water supply
California FHWA Division Office when approval which may consist of a succession of canals,
by FHWA Headquarters Bridge Division is pipes, tunnels, etc. (3) Any conduit for water;
required. Four copies of supportive information especially one for a large quantity of flowing
are to be furnished to the Division of Engineering water. (4) A structure for conveying a canal
Services to prepare the FHWA approval requests over a river or hollow.
for bridges.
Aquifer. Water-bearing geologic formations that
permit the movement of ground water.
Topic 806 - Definitions of
Drainage Terms Armor. Artificial surfacing of bed, banks, shore or
embankment to resist erosion or scour.
806.1 Introduction Arroyo. Waterway of an ephemeral stream deeply
These definitions are for use with Sections 800 carved in rock or ancient alluvium.
through 890 of this manual and the references Artesian Waters. Percolating waters confined
cited. They are not necessarily definitions as below impermeable formations with sufficient
established by case or statutory law. pressure to spring or well up to the surface.
806.2 Drainage Terms Articulated. Made flexible by hinging particularly
Accretion. Outward growth of bank or shore by of small rigid slabs adapted to revetment.
sedimentation. Increase or extension of Avulsion. (1) A forcible separation; also, a part
boundaries of land by action of natural forces. torn off. (2) The sudden removal of land from
Action. Any highway construction, reconstruction, the estate of one man to that of another, as by a
rehabilitation, repair, or improvement. sudden change in a river, the property thus
separated continuing in the original owner. (3)
Aggradation. General and progressive raising of a A sudden shift in location of channel.
stream bed by deposition of sediment.
Modification of the earth's surface in the Backing Layer. A layer of graded rock between
direction of uniformity of grade, or slope, by rock riprap and underlying engineering fabric or
deposition as in a river bed. filter layer to prevent extrusion of the soil or
filter layer material through the riprap.
Aggressive. Refers to the corrosive properties of
soil and water. Backshore. The zone of the shore or beach lying
between the foreshore and the coastline and
Alluvial. Referring to deposits of silts, sands, acted upon by waves only during severe storms,
gravels and similar detrital material which have especially when combined with exceptionally
been transported by running water. high water.
Alluvium. Stream-borne materials deposited in Backwater. An unnaturally high stage in stream
and along a channel. caused by obstruction or confinement of flow, as
by a dam, a bridge, or a culvert. Its measure is
the excess of unnatural over natural stage, not
May 7, 2012
the difference in stage upstream and downstream used as the "standard flood" in Federal flood
from its cause. insurance studies. (see Regulatory Flood).
Baffle. Concrete or metal panels mounted in a Base Floodplain. The area subject to flooding by
series on the floor and/or wall of a culvert to the base flood.
increase boundary roughness and thereby reduce
Basin. (1) The surface of the area tributary to a
the average water velocity while increasing flow
stream or lake. (2) Space above or below
depth in the culvert.
ground capable of retaining or detaining water or
Bank. The lateral boundary of a stream confining debris.
water flow. The bank on the left side of a
Bay. An indentation of bank or shore, including
channel looking downstream is called the left
erosional cuts and slipouts, not necessarily large.
bank, etc.
Beach. The zone of sedimentary material that
Bankfull Stage. Stage at which a stream first
extends landward from the low water line to the
overflows its natural banks into the floodplain.
place where there is marked change in material
If the floodplain is absent or poorly defined,
or form, or to the line of permanent vegetation
other indicators may identify bankfull. These
(usually the effective limit of storm waves). The
include the height of depositional features, a
seaward limit of a beach, unless otherwise
change in vegetation, slope or topographic
specified, is the mean low water line. A beach
breaks along the bank, a change in the particle
includes foreshore and backshore.
size of bank material, undercuts in the bank, and
stain lines or the lower extent of lichens and Bed. The earth below any body of water, limited
moss on boulders. Corresponds to the stage at laterally by bank or shore.
which channel maintenance is most effective, Bedding. The foundation under a drainage
that is, the discharge at which the stream is structure.
moving sediment, forming or removing bars,
forming or changing bends and meanders, and Bed Load. Sediment that moves by rolling,
generally doing work that results in the average sliding, or skipping along the bed and is
morphologic characteristics of channels. essentially in contact with the stream bed.
Generally applies to mature streams in more Berm. (1) A bench or terrace between two slopes.
alluvial conditions rather than in mountainous (2) A nearly horizontal part of the beach or
conditions where the "bank" might be hundreds backshore formed at the high water line by
of feet above the incised channel. In incised waves depositing material. Some beaches have
channels, where the previous floodplain surface no berms, others have one or several.
has become a terrace, the bankfull stage can be
identified as the lowermost limit of establishing Block. Precast prismatic unit for riprap structure.
woody-riparian vegetation. Bluff. A high, steep bank composed of erodible
Bank Protection. Revetment, or other armor materials.
protecting a bank of a stream from erosion, Boil. Turbulent break in a water surface by
includes devices used to deflect the forces of upwelling.
erosion away from the bank.
Boom. Floating log or similar element designed to
Bar. An elongated deposit of alluvium within a dampen surface waves or control the movement
channel or across its mouth. of drift.
Barrier. A low dam or rack built to control flow Bore. A transient solitary wave in a narrow or
of debris. converging channel advancing with a steep
Base Flood. The flood or tide having a 1 percent turbulent front; product of flash floods or
chance of being exceeded in any given year incoming tides.
(100-year flood). The "base flood" is commonly
May 7, 2012
Boulder. Largest rock transported by a stream or Catch Basin. A drainage structure which collects
rolled in the surf; typically heavier than water. May be either a structure where water
25 pounds and larger than 8 inches in diameter. enters from the side or through a grating.
Braided Stream. A stream in which flow is Causeway. A raised embankment or trestle over
divided at normal stage by small islands. This swamp or overflow areas.
type of stream has the aspect of a single large Cavitation. Erosion by suction, especially in the
channel with which there are subordinate partial vacuum of a diverging jet.
channels.
Celerity. Velocity of a moving wave, as
Breaker. A collapsing wave meeting a shore, reef, distinguished from velocity of particles
sandbar, or rock. oscillating in the wave.
Breakwater. A fixed or floating structure that Channel. An open conduit either naturally or
protects a shore area, harbor, anchorage, or basin artificially created which periodically or
from intercepting waves. continuously contains moving water, or which
Bulkhead. A steep or vertical structure placed on a forms a connecting link between two bodies of
bank, bluff, or embankment to retain or prevent water. River, creek, run, branch, anabranch, and
sliding of the land and protect the inland area tributary are some of the terms used to describe
from damage. natural channels. Natural channels may be
single or braided (see Braided Stream). Canal
Bulking. The increase in volume of flow due to air and “floodway” are some of the terms used to
entrainment, debris, bedload, or sediment in describe artificial channels.
suspension.
Check. A sill or weir in a channel to control stage
Buoyancy. Uplift force on a submerged body or velocity.
equal to the mass of water displaced times the
acceleration of gravity. Check Dam. A small dam generally placed in
steep ditches for the purpose of reducing the
Camber. An upward adjustment of the profile of a velocity in the ditch.
drainage facility under a heavy loading (usually
a high embankment) and poor soil conditions, so Cienega. A swamp formed by water rising to the
that as the drainage facility settles it approaches surface at a fault.
the design profile. Cleanout. An access opening to a roadway
drainage system. Usually consists of a manhole
Canal. An artificial open channel.
shaft, a special chamber or opening into a
Canyon. A large deep valley; also the submarine shallow culvert or drain.
counterpart. Cliff. A high, steep face of rock; a precipice.
Cap. Top layer of stone protective works. Cloudburst. Rain storm of great intensity usually
Capacity. The effective carrying ability of a over a small area for a short duration.
drainage structure. Generally measured in cubic Coast. (1) The strip of land, of indefinite width
feet per second. (up to several miles), that extends from the
Capillarity. The attraction between water and soil shoreline inland to the first major change in
particles which cause water to move in any terrain features. (2) As a combining form,
direction through the soil mass regardless of “upcoast” is northerly and “downcoast” is
gravitational forces. southerly.
Capillary Water. Water which clings to soil Cobble. Rock smaller than a boulder and larger
particles by capillary action. It is normally than gravel; typically 1 pound to 25 pounds, or
associated with fine sand, silt, or clay, but not 3 inches to 8 inches in diameter.
normally with coarse sand and gravel. Coefficient of Runoff. Percentage of gross rainfall
which appears as runoff.
May 7, 2012
Composite Hydrograph. A plot of mean daily Crest. (1) Peak of a wave or a flood. (2) Top of a
discharges for a number of years of record on a levee, dam, weir, spillway or other water barrier
single year time base for the purpose of showing or control.
the occurrence of high and low flows.
Crib. An open-frame structure loaded with earth
Concentrated Flow. Flowing water that has been or stone ballast to act as a baffle in bank
accumulated into a single fairly narrow stream. protection.
Concentration. In addition to its general sense, Critical Depth. (Depth at which specific energy is
means the unnatural collection or convergence a minimum) - The depth of water in a conduit at
of waters so as to discharge in a narrower width, which under certain other conditions the
and at greater depth or velocity. maximum flow will occur. These other
Conduit. Any pipe, arch, box or drain tile through conditions are the conduit is on the critical slope
which water is conveyed. with the water flowing at its critical velocity and
Cone. Physiographic form of sediment deposit there is an adequate supply of water. The depth
washed from a gorge channel onto an open of water flowing in an open channel or a conduit
plain; a debris cone, also called an alluvial fan. partially filled, for which the velocity head
equals one-half the hydraulic mean depth.
Confluence. A junction of streams.
Critical Flow. That flow in open channels at
Constriction. An obstruction narrowing a which the energy content of the fluid is at a
waterway. minimum. Also, that flow which has a Froude
Contraction. The reduction in cross sectional area number of one.
of flow. Critical Slope. That slope at which the maximum
Control. (1) A section or reach of an open conduit flow will occur at the minimum velocity. The
or stream channel which maintains a stable slope or grade that is exactly equal to the loss of
relationship between stage and discharge. (2) head per foot resulting from flow at a depth that
For flood, erosion, debris, etc., remedial means will give uniform flow at critical depth; the
or procedure restricting damage to a tolerable slope of a conduit which will produce critical
level. flow.
Conveyance. A measure of the water carrying Critical Velocity. Mean velocity of flow when
capacity of a stream or channel. flow is at critical depth.
Core. Central zone of dike, levee, rock groin, Culvert. A closed conduit which allows water to
jetty, etc. pass under a highway. The following three
conditions constitute a culvert;
Corrasion. Erosion or scour by abrasion in 1. Single Barrel - span measured along
flowing water. centerline of road 20 feet or less.
Corrosion. Erosion by chemical action. 2. Multi-Barrels - total of the individual
Cradle. (1) A concrete base generally constructed spans measured along centerline of road is
to fit the shape of a structure which is to be 20 feet or less.
forced through earthen material by a jacking 3. Multi-Barrels - total of the individual
operation. The cradle is constructed to line and spans measured along centerline of road is
grade. (2) Wood support for rigid culverts on 20 feet or greater, but the distance
yielding embankment subgrade. Then the pipe between individual culverts is more than
rides on the cradle as it is worked through the one-half the culvert diameter.
given material by jacking and tunneling
methods. Also serves as bedding for pipes in Current. Flow of water, both as a phenomenon
trenches in special conditions. and as a vector. Usually qualified by adjectives
Creek. A small stream, usually active. like downward, littoral, tidal, etc. to show
relation to a pattern of movement.
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Current Meter. An instrument for measuring the Design Channel Capacity. Expressed as a rate of
velocity of a current. It is usually operated by a flow, usually in cubic feet per second, it is the
wheel equipped with vanes or cups which is level to which a facility is designed. Based upon
rotated by the action of the impinging current. slope, geometry, flow regime, frictional
An indicating or recording device is provided to coefficients, etc., it is the sizing of a drainage
indicate the speed of rotation which is correlated facility which allows it to pass the design
with the velocity of the current. discharge. Freeboard or other safety factors
which are added to the final facility dimensions
Cutoff Wall. A wall at the end of a drainage
are not a part of the design capacity.
structure, the top of which is an integral part of
the drainage structure. This wall is usually Design Discharge. The quantity of flow that is
buried and its function is to prevent undermining expected at a certain point as a result of a design
of the drainage structure if the natural material at storm. Usually expressed as a rate of flow in
the outlet of the structure is dug out by the water cubic feet per second.
discharging from the end of the structure.
Design Flood. The peak discharge (when
Cutoff walls are sometimes used at the upstream
appropriate, the volume, stage, or wave crest
end of a structure when there is a possibility of
elevation) of the flood associated with the
erosion at this point.
probability of exceedance selected for the design
Debris. Any material including floating woody of a highway encroachment. By definition, the
materials and other trash, suspended sediment, highway will not be inundated by the design
or bed load moved by a flowing stream. flood. In a FEMA floodplain, see 23 CFR, Part
650, Subpart A, for definitions of "overtopping
Debris Barrier. A deflector placed at the entrance
flood" and "base flood."
of a culvert upstream, which tends to deflect
heavy floating debris or boulders away from the Design Frequency. The recurrence interval for
culvert entrance during high-velocity flow. hydrologic events used for design purposes. As
an example, a design frequency of 50 years
Debris Basin. Any area upstream from a drainage
means a storm of a magnitude that would be
structure utilized for the purpose of retaining
expected to recur on the average of every 50
debris in order to prevent clogging of drainage
years. (See Probability of Exceedance.)
structures downstream.
Design High Water. The flood stage or tide crest
Debris Rack. A straight barrier placed across the
elevation adopted for design of drainage and
stream channel which tends to separate light and
bank protection structures. (See Design Flood
medium floating debris from stream flow and
and High Water).
prevent the debris from reaching the culvert
entrance. Design Storm. That particular storm which
contributes runoff which the drainage facilities
Degradation. General and progressive lowering
were designed to handle. This storm is selected
of the longitudinal profile of a channel by
for design on the basis of its probability of
erosion.
exceedance or average recurrence interval (See
Delta. System of channels thru an alluvial plain at Probability of Exceedance.)
the mouth of a stream.
Detention Storage. Surface water moving over the
Deposit. An earth mass of particles settled or land is in detention storage. Surface water
stranded from moving water or wind. allowed to temporarily accumulate in ponds,
Depth. Vertical distance, (1) from surface to bed basins, reservoirs or other types of holding
of a body of water. (2) From crest or crown to facility and which is ultimately returned to a
invert of a conduit. watercourse or other drainage system as runoff
is in detention storage. (See Retention Storage)
Design Capacity. The size required of a drainage
facility which allows it to pass the design Detritus. Loose material such as; rock, sand, silt,
discharge without detrimental impacts. and organic particles.
May 7, 2012
Dike. (1) Usually an earthen bank alongside and removed. (3) The area from which waters are
parallel with a river or open channel or an AC drained; a drainage basin.
dike along the edge of a shoulder. (See Levee)
Drainage Area (Drainage Basin) (Basin). That
(2) An AC dike along the edge of a shoulder.
portion of the earth's surface upon which falling
Dike, Finger. Relatively short embankments precipitation flows to a given location. With
constructed normal to a larger embankment, respect to a highway, this location may be either
such as an approach fill to a bridge. Their a culvert, the farthest point of a channel, or an
purpose is to impede flow and direct it away inlet to a roadway drainage system.
from the major embankment.
Drainage Course. Any path along which water
Dike, Toe. Embankment constructed to prevent flows when acted upon by gravitational forces.
lateral flow from scouring the corner of the
Drainage Divide. The rim of a drainage basin. A
downstream side of an abutment embankment.
series of high points from which water flows in
Sometimes referred to as training dikes.
two directions, to the basin and away from the
Dike, Training. Embankments constructed to basin.
provide a transition from the natural stream
Drainage Easement (See Easement).
channel or floodplain, both to and from a
constricting bridge crossing. Drainage System. Usually a system of
underground conduits and collector structures
Discharge. A volume of water flowing out of a
which flow to a single point of discharge.
drainage structure or facility. Measured in cubic
feet per second. Drawdown. The difference in elevation between
the water surface elevation at a constriction in a
Dissipate. Expend or scatter harmlessly, as of
stream or conduit and the elevation that would
energy of moving water.
exist if the constriction were absent. Drawdown
Ditch. Small artificial channel, usually unlined. also occurs at changes from mild to steep
channel slopes and weirs or vertical spillways.
Diversion. (1) The change in character, location,
direction, or quantity of flow of a natural Drift. (1) Floating or non-mineral burden of a
drainage course (a deflection of flood water is stream. (2) Deviation from a normal course in a
not a diversion). (2) Draft of water from one cross current, as in littoral drift.
channel to another. (3) Interception of runoff by
Drop. Controlled fall in a stream to dissipate
works which discharge it thru unnatural
energy.
channels.
Dry Weather Flows. A small amount of water
D-Load (Cracking D-Load). A term used in
which flows almost continually due to lawn
expressing the strength of concrete pipe. The
watering, irrigation or springs.
cracking D-load represents the test load required
to produce a 0.01 inch crack for a length of 12 Dune. A sand wave of approximately triangular
inches. cross section (in a vertical plane in the direction
of flow) formed by moving water or wind, with
Downdrain. A prefabricated drainage facility
gentle upstream slope and steep downstream
assembled and installed in the field for the
slope and deposition on the downstream slope.
purpose of transporting water down steep slopes.
Easement. Right to use the land of others.
Downdrift. The direction of predominant
movement of littoral materials. Ebb. Falling stage or outward flow, especially of
tides.
Drain. Conduit intercepting and discharging
surplus ground or surface water. Eddy. Rotational flow around a vertical axis.
Drainage. (1) The process of removing surplus Eddy Loss. The energy lost (converted into heat)
ground or surface water by artificial means. (2) by swirls, eddies, and impact, as distinguished
The system by which the waters of an area are from friction loss.
March 7, 2014
Embankment. Earth structure above natural maintain the same water surface elevation on
ground. both sides of the highway embankment.
Embayment. Indentation of bank or shore, Erosion. The wearing away of natural (earth) and
particularly by progressive erosion. unnatural (embankment, slope protection,
structure, etc.) surfaces by the action of natural
Encroachment. Extending beyond the original, or
forces, particularly moving water and materials
customary limits, such as by occupancy of the
carried by it. In the case of drainage
river and/or floodplain by earth fill embankment.
terminology, this term generally refers to the
Endwall. A wall placed at the end of a culvert. It wearing away of the earth's surface by flowing
may serve three purposes; (1), to hold the water.
embankment away from the pipe and prevent
Erosion and Scour. The cutting or wearing away
sloughing into the pipe outlet channel; (2), to
by the forces of water of the banks and bed of a
provide a wall which will prevent erosion of the
channel in horizontal and vertical directions,
roadway fill; and (3), to prevent flotation of the
respectively.
pipe.
Erosion and Accretion. Loss and gain of land,
Energy. Potential or kinetic, the latter being
respectively, by the gradual action of a stream in
expressed in the same unit (feet) as the former.
shifting its channel by cutting one bank while it
Energy Dissipator. A structure for the purpose of builds on the opposite bank. Property is lost by
slowing the flow of water and reducing the erosion and gained by accretion but not by
erosive forces present in any rapidly flowing avulsion when the shift from one channel to
body of water. another is sudden. Property is gained by
Energy Grade Line. The line which represents the reliction when a lake recedes.
total energy gradient along the channel. It is Estuary. That portion of a river channel occupied
established by adding together the potential at times or in part by both sea and river flow in
energy expressed as the water surface elevation appreciable quantities. The water usually has
referenced to a datum and the kinetic energy brackish characteristics.
(usually expressed as velocity head) at points
Evaporation. A process whereby water as a liquid
along the stream bed or channel floor.
is changed into water vapor, typically through
Energy Head. The elevation of the hydraulic heat supplied from the sun.
grade line at any section plus the velocity head
Face. The outer layer of slope revetment.
of the mean velocity of the water in that section.
Fan. A portion of a cone, but sometimes used to
Entrance. The upstream approach transition to a
emphasize definition of radial channels. Also
constricted waterway.
reference to spreading out of water or soils
Entrance Head. The head required to cause flow associated with waters leaving a confined
into a conduit or other structure; it includes both channel (e.g., alluvial fan).
entrance loss and velocity head.
Fetch. The unobstructed distance across open
Entrance Loss. The head lost in eddies and water through which wind acts to generate
friction at the inlet to a conduit or structure. waves.
Ephemeral. Of brief duration, as the flow of a Filter. A porous article or mass (as of fabric or
stream in an arid region. even-graded mineral aggregate) through which
Equalizer. A drainage structure similar to a water will freely pass, but which will block the
culvert but different in that it is not intended to passage of soil particles.
pass a design flow in a given direction. Instead Filter Fabric (RSP fabric). An engineering fabric
it is often placed level so as to permit passage of (geotextile) placed between the backfill and
water in either direction. It is used where there supporting or underlying soil through which
is no place for the water to go. Its purpose is to water will pass and soil particles are retained.
March 7, 2014
Filter Layer. A layer of even-graded rock the surface by infiltration, evaporation, or return
between rock riprap and underlying soil to to a natural watercourse. They do not become
prevent extrusion of the soil thru riprap. surface waters by mingling with such waters,
nor stream waters by eroding a temporary
Flap Gate. This is a form of valve that is designed
channel.
so that a minimum force is required to push it
open but when a greater water pressure is Flow. A term used to define the movement of
present on the outside of the valve, it remains water, silt, sand, etc.; discharge; total quantity
shut so as to prevent water from flowing in the carried by a stream.
wrong direction. Construction is simple with a
Flow Line. A term used to describe the line
metal cover hanging from an overhead rod or
connecting the low points in a watercourse.
pinion at the end of a culvert or drain.
Flow Regime. The system or order characteristic
Flood Frequency. Also referred to as exceedance
of streamflow with respect to velocity, depth,
interval, recurrence interval or return period; the
and specific energy.
average time interval between actual
occurrences of a hydrological event of a given or Flow, steady. Flow at constant discharge.
greater magnitude; the percent chance of Flow, unsteady. Flow on rising or falling stages.
occurrence is the reciprocal of flood frequency,
e.g., a 2 percent chance of occurrence is the Flow, varied. Flow in a channel with variable
reciprocal statement of a 50-year flood. (See section.
Probability of Exceedance.) Foreshore. The part of the shore lying between
Floodplain. Normally dry land areas subject to the ordinary high water mark or upper limit of
periodic temporary inundation by stream flow or wave wash traversed by the runup and return of
tidal overflow. Land formed by deposition of waves and the water's edge at the low water.
sediment by water; alluvial land. Freeboard. (1) The vertical distance between the
Floodplain Encroachment. An action within the water surface elevation usually corresponding to
limits of the base floodplain. the design flow and a point of interest such as a
bridge beam, levee top or specific location on
Flood Plane. The position occupied by the water the roadway grade. (2) The distance between
surface of a stream during a particular flood. the normal operating level and the top of the
Also, loosely, the elevation of the water surface sides of an open conduit; the crest of a dam, etc.,
at various points along the stream during a designed to allow for wave action,
particular flood. superelevation, floating debris, or any other
Floodproof. To design and construct individual condition or emergency, without overtopping the
buildings, facilities, and their sites to protect structure. Freeboard is provided to ensure that
against structural failure, to keep water out or the desired degree of protection will not be
reduce the effects of water entry. reduced by unaccounted factors such as the
accumulation of silt, trash, or aquatic growth in
Flood Stage. The elevation at which overflow of
the channel; unforeseen embankment settlement,
the natural banks of a stream begins to cause
erratic hydrologic phenomena and variation of
damage in the reach in which the elevation is
resistance or other coefficients from those
measured. The elevation of the lowest bank of
assumed in design.
the reach. The term "lowest bank" is, however,
not to be taken to mean an unusually low place Free Outlet. A condition under which water
or break in the natural bank through which the discharges with no interference such as a pipe
water inundates an unimportant and small area. discharging into open air.
Flood Waters. Former stream waters which have Free Water. Water which can move through the
escaped from a watercourse (and its overflow soil by force of gravity.
channel) and flow or stand over adjoining lands.
They remain as such until they disappear from
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French Drain. A trench loosely backfilled with Grate. A framework of bars, usually cast iron or
stones, the largest stones being placed in the welded steel, used as a screen to cover the intake
bottom with the size of stones decreasing of a drainage inlet. See Standards Plans and
towards the top. The interstices between the Standard Specifications for requirements.
stones serve as a passageway for water.
Ground Water. That water which is present under
Friction. Energy-dissipating conflict among the earth's surface. Ground water is that situated
turbulent water particles disturbed by below the surface of the land, irrespective of its
irregularities of channel surface. source and transient status. Subterranean
streams are flows of ground waters parallel to
Froude Number. A dimensionless expression of
and adjoining stream waters, and usually
the ratio of inertia forces to gravity forces, used
determined to be integral parts of the visible
as an index to characterize the type of flow in a
streams.
hydraulic structure in which gravity is the force
producing motion and inertia is the resisting Grouted. Bonded together with an inlay or
force. It is equal to a characteristic flow velocity overlay of cement mortar.
(mean, surface, or maximum) of the system
Guide Bank. An appendage to the highway
divided by the square root of the product of a
embankment at or near a bridge abutment to
characteristic dimension (as diameter of depth)
guide the stream through the bridge opening.
and the gravity constant (acceleration due to
gravity) all expressed in consistent units. Gulch. A relatively young, well-defined and
Fr = V/(gy)1/2 sharply cut erosional channel.
Gully. Diminutive of gulch.
Gabion. A wire basket or cage filled with stone
and placed as, or as part of, a bank-protection Head. Represents an available force equivalent to
structure. a certain depth of water. This is the motivating
force in effecting the movement of water. The
Gaging Station. A location on a stream where
height of water above any point or plane of
measurements of stage or discharge are
reference. Used also in various compound
customarily made. The location includes a reach
expressions, such as energy head, entrance head,
of channel through which the flow is uniform, a
friction head, static head, pressure head, lost
control downstream from this reach and usually
head, etc.
a small building to house the recording
instruments. Headcutting. Progressive scouring and degrading
of a streambed at a relatively rapid rate in the
Gorge. A narrow deep valley with steep or
upstream direction, usually characterized by one
vertical banks.
or a series of vertical falls.
Grade. Elevation of bed or invert of a channel.
High Water. Maximum flood stage of stream or
Grade to Drain. A construction note often lake; periodic crest stage of tide. Historic HW is
inserted on a plan for the purpose of directing stage recorded or otherwise known.
the Contractor to slope a certain area in a
Hydraulic. Pertaining to water in motion and the
specific direction, so that the surface waters will
mechanics of the motion.
flow to a designated location.
Hydraulic Gradient. A line which represents the
Gradient (Slope). The rate of ascent or descent
relative force available due to the potential
expressed as a percent or as a decimal as
energy available. This is a combination of
determined by the ratio of the change in
energy due to the height of the water and the
elevation to the length.
internal pressure. In any open channel, this line
Gradually Varied Flow. In this type of flow, corresponds to the water surface. In a closed
changes in depth and velocity take place slowly conduit, if several openings were placed along
over large distances, resistance to flow the top of the pipe and open tubes inserted, a line
dominates and acceleration forces are neglected.
March 7, 2014
connecting the water surface in each of these Incised Channel. Those channels which have been
tubes would represent the hydraulic grade line. cut relatively deep into underlying formations by
natural processes. Characteristics include
Hydraulic Jump (or Jump). Transition of flow
relatively straight alignment and high, steep
from the rapid to the tranquil state. A varied
banks such that overflow rarely occurs, if ever.
flow phenomenon producing a rise in elevation
of water surface. A sudden transition from Infiltration. The passage of water through the soil
supercritical flow to the complementary surface into the ground.
subcritical flow, conserving momentum and
Inlet Time. The time required for storm runoff to
dissipating energy.
flow from the most remote point, in flow time,
Hydraulic Mean Depth. The area of the flow cross of a drainage area to the point where it enters a
section divided by the water surface width. drain or culvert.
Hydraulic Radius. The cross sectional area of a Inlet Transition. A specially shaped entrance to a
stream of water divided by the length of that part box or pipe culvert. It is shaped in such a
of its periphery in contact with its containing manner that in passing from one flow condition
conduit; the ratio of area to wetted perimeter. to another, the minimum turbulence or
interference with flow is permitted.
Hydrograph. A graph showing stage, flow,
velocity, or other property of water with respect Inundate. To cover with a flood.
to time.
Invert. The bottom of a drainage facility along
Hydrographic. Pertaining to the measurement or which the lowest flows would pass.
study of bodies of water and associated terrain.
Invert Paving. Generally applies to metal pipes
Hydrography. Water Surveys. The art of where it is desirable to improve flow
measuring, recording, and analyzing the flow of characteristics or prevent corrosion at low flows.
water; and of measuring and mapping The bottom portion of the pipe is paved with an
watercourses, shore lines, and navigable waters. asphaltic material, concrete, or air-blown mortar.
Hydrologic. Pertaining to the cyclic phenomena Inverted Siphon. A pipe for conducting water
of waters of the earth; successively as beneath a depressed place. A true inverted
precipitation, runoff, storage and evaporation, siphon is a culvert which has the middle portion
and quantitatively as to distribution and at a lower elevation than either the inlet or the
concentration. outlet and in which a vacuum is created at some
point in the pipe. A sag culvert is similar, but
Hydrology. The science dealing with the
the vacuum is not essential to its operation.
occurrence and movement of water upon and
beneath the land areas of the earth. Overlaps Isohyetal Line. A line drawn on a map or chart
and includes portions of other sciences such as joining points that receive the same amount of
meteorology and geology. The particular branch precipitation.
of Hydrology that a design engineer is generally
Isohyetal Map. A map containing isohyetal lines
interested in is surface runoff which is the result
and showing rainfall intensities.
of excess precipitation.
Isovel. Line on a diagram of a channel connecting
Hydrostatic. Pertaining to pressure by and within
points of equal velocity.
water due to gravitation acting thru depth.
Jack (or Jack Straw). Bank protection element
Hyetograph. Graphical representation of rainfall
consisting of wire or cable strung on three
intensity against time.
mutually perpendicular struts connected at their
Impinge. To strike and attack directly, as in centers.
curvilinear flow where the current does not
Jacking Operations. A means of constructing a
follow the curve but continues on tangent into
pipeline under a highway without open
the bank on the outside of bend in the channel.
excavation. A cutting edge is placed on the first
March 7, 2014
section of pipe and the pipe is forced ahead by Littoral Transport. The movement of littoral drift
hydraulic jacks. As the leading edge pushes along the shoreline by waves and currents.
ahead, the material inside the pipe is dug out and Includes movement parallel (longshore
transported outside the pipe for disposal. transport) and perpendicular (on-offshore
transport) to the shore.
Jam. Wedged collection of drift in a constriction
of a channel, such as a gorge or a bridge Local Depression. A low area in the pavement or
opening. in the gutter established for the special purpose
of collecting surface waters on a street and
Jet. An effluent stream from a restricted channel,
directing these waters into a drainage inlet.
including a fast current through a slower stream.
Longshore. Parallel to and near the shoreline.
Jetty. An elongated, artificial obstruction
projecting into a stream or the sea from bank or Marginal. Within a borderland area; more general
shore to control shoaling and scour by deflection and extensive than riparian.
of strength of currents and waves.
Marsh. An area of soft, wet, or periodically
Jump. Sudden transition from supercritical flow to submerged land, generally treeless and usually
the complementary subcritical flow, conserving characterized by grasses and other low
momentum and dissipating energy; the hydraulic vegetation.
jump.
Mature. Classification for streams which have
Kolk. Rotational flow about a horizontal axis, established flat gradients not subject to further
induced by a reef and breaking the surface in a scour.
boil.
Maximum Historical Flood. The maximum flood
Lake. A water filled basin with restricted or no that has been recorded or experienced at any
outlet. Includes reservoirs, tidal ponds and particular highway location.
playas.
Mean Annual Flood. The flood discharge with a
Lag. Variously defined as time from beginning recurrence interval of 2.33 years.
(or center of mass) of rainfall to peak (or center
Mean Depth. For a stream at any stage, the wetted
of mass) of runoff.
normal section divided by the surface width.
Laminar Flow. That type of flow in which each Hydraulic mean depth.
particle moves in a direction parallel to every
Meander. In connection with streams, a winding
other particle and in which the head loss is
channel usually in an erodible, alluvial valley.
approximately proportional to the velocity (as
A reverse or S-shaped curve or series of curves
opposed to turbulent flow).
formed by erosion of the concave bank,
Lateral. In a roadway drainage system, a drainage especially at the downstream end, characterized
conduit transporting water from inlet points to by curved flow and alternating shoals and bank
the main drain trunk line. erosions. Meandering is a stage in the migratory
movement of the channel, as a whole, down the
Levee. An embankment on or along the bank of a
valley.
stream or lake to protect outer lowlands from
inundation. (See Dike) Meander Plug (Clay Plug). Deposits of cohesive
materials in old channel bendways. These plugs
Lining. Protective cover of the perimeter of a
are sufficiently resistant to erosion to serve as
channel.
essentially semi-permanent geological controls
Littoral. Pertaining to or along the shore, to advancing channel migrations.
particularly to describe currents, deposits, and
Meander Scroll. Evidence of historical meander
drift.
patterns in the form of lines visible on the inside
Littoral Drift. The sedimentary material (sand) of meander bends (particularly on aerial
moved along the shoreline under the influence of photographs) which resemble a spiral or
waves and currents. convoluted form in ornamental design. These
March 7, 2014
lines are concentric and regular forms in high "n" Value. The roughness coefficient in the
sinuosity channels and are largely absent in Manning formula for determination of the
poorly developed braided channels. discharge coefficient in the Chezy formula,
Mesh. Woven wire or other filaments used alone  1.49  1 / 6
as revetment, or as retainer or container of V = C(RS) 1/2 , where C =  R
 n 
masses of gravel or cobble.
Nourishment. The process of replenishing a
Mud Flow. A well-mixed mass of water and
beach. It may be brought about naturally, by
alluvium which, because of its high viscosity,
accretion due to the longshore transport, or
and low fluidity as compared with water, moves
artificially, by the deposition of dredged
at a much slower rate, usually piling up and
materials.
spreading out like a sheet of wet mortar or
concrete. Off-Site Drainage. The handling of that water
which originates outside the highway right of
Natural and Beneficial Floodplain Values.
way.
Includes but are not limited to fish, wildlife,
plants, open space, natural beauty, scientific On-Site Drainage. The handling of that water
study, outdoor recreation, agriculture, which originates inside the highway right of
aquaculture, forestry, natural moderation of way.
floods, water quality maintenance, and
Open Channel. Any conveyance in which water
groundwater recharge.
flows with a free surface.
Natural Channel Capacity. The maximum rate of
Ordinary High Water Mark. The line on the shore
flow in cubic feet per second that can pass
established by the fluctuation of water and
through a channel without overflowing the
physically indicated on the bank (1.5 + years
banks
return period)
Navigable Waters. Those stream waters lawfully
Outfall. Discharge or point of discharge of a
declared or actually used as such. Navigable
culvert or other closed conduit.
Waters of the State of California are those
declared by Statute. Navigable Waters of the Outwash. Debris transported from a restricted
United States are those determined by the Corps channel to an unrestricted area where it is
of Engineers or the U.S. Coast Guard to be so deposited to form an alluvial or debris cone or
used in interstate or international commerce. fan.
Other streams have been held navigable by
Overflow. Discharge of a stream outside its banks;
courts under the common law that navigability
the parallel channels carrying such discharge.
in fact is navigability in law.
Overtopping Flood. The flood described by the
Negative Projecting Conduits. A structure
probability of exceedance and water surface
installed in a trench with the top below the top
elevation at which flow occurs over the
of trench, then covered with backfill and
highway, over the watershed divide, or through
embankment. See Positive Projecting Conduit
structure(s) provided for emergency relief.
Nonuniform Flow. A flow in which the velocities
Peak Flow. Maximum momentary stage or
vary from point to point along the stream or
discharge of a stream in flood. Design
conduit, due to variations in cross section, slope,
Discharge.
etc.
Pebble. Stone 0.5 inch to 3-inch in diameter,
Normal Depth. The depth at which flow is steady
including coarse gravel and small cobble.
and hydraulic characteristics are uniform.
Perched Water. Ground water located above the
Normal Water Surface (Natural Water Surface).
level of the water table and separated from it by
The free surface associated with flow in natural
a zone of impermeable material.
streams.
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Percolating Waters. Waters which have infiltrated Potamology. The hydrology of streams.
the surface of the land and move slowly
Practicable. Capable of being done within
downward and outward through devious
reasonable natural, social, and economic
channels (aquifers) unrelated to stream waters,
constraints.
until they reach an underground lake or regain
and spring from the land surface at a lower Precipitation. Discharge of atmospheric moisture
point. as rain, snow or hail, measured in depth of fall
or in terms of intensity of fall in unit time.
Permeability. The property of soils which permits
the passage of any fluid. Permeability depends Prescriptive Rights. The operation of the law
on grain size, void ratio, shape and arrangement whereby rights may be established by long
of pores. exercise of their corresponding powers or
extinguished by prolonged failure to exercise
Permeable. Open to the passage of fluids, as for
such powers.
(1) pervious soils and (2) bank-protection
structures. Preserve. To avoid modification to the functions
of the natural floodplain environment or to
Physiographic Region. A geographic area whose
maintain it, as closely as practicable, in its
pattern of landforms differ significantly from
natural state.
that of adjacent regions.
Probability. The chance of occurrence or
Pier. Vertical support of a structure standing in a
recurrence of a specified event within a unit of
stream or other body of water. Used in a general
time, commonly expressed in 3 ways. Thus a
sense to include bents and abutments.
10-year flood has a chance of 0.1 per year and is
Pile. A long, heavy timber or section of concrete also called a 10 percent-chance flood.
or metal that is driven or jetted into the earth or
Probability of Exceedance. The statistical
bottom of a water body to serve as a structural
probability, expressed as a percentage, of a
support or protection.
hydrologic event occurring or being exceeded in
Piping. The action of water passing through or any given year. The probability (p) of a storm or
under an embankment and carrying some of the flood is the reciprocal of the average recurrence
finer material with it to the surface at the interval (N).
downstream face.
Probable Maximum Flood. The flood discharge
Plunge. Flow with a strong downward that may be expected from the most severe
component, as in outfall drops, overbank falls, combination of critical meteorological and
and surf attack on a beach. hydrological conditions that are reasonably
possible in the region.
Point of Concentration. That point at which the
water flowing from a given drainage area Pumping Plant. A complete pumping installation
concentrates. With reference to a highway, this including a storage box, pump or pumps,
would generally be either a culvert entrance or standby pumps, connecting pipes, electrical
some point in a roadway drainage system. equipment, pumphouse and outlet chamber.
Poised Stream. A term used by river engineers Rack. An open upright structure, such as a debris
applying to a stream that over a period of time is rack.
neither degrading or aggrading its channel, and
Rainfall. Point Precipitation: That which registers
is nearly in equilibrium as to sediment transport
at a single gauge. Area Precipitation: Adjusted
and supply.
point rainfall for area size.
Positive Projecting Conduit. A structure installed
Rainwash. The creep of soil lubricated by rain.
in shallow trench with the top of the conduit
projecting above the top of the trench and then Range. Difference between extremes, as for
covered with embankment. See Negative stream or tide stage.
Projecting Conduit.
March 7, 2014
Rapidly Varied Flow. In this type of flow, Retard. Bank-protection structure designed to
changes in depth and velocity take place over check the riparian velocity and induce silting or
short distances, acceleration forces dominate, accretion.
and energy loss due to friction is minor.
Retarding Basin. Either a natural or man made
Rapids. Swift turbulent flow in a rough steep basin with the specific function of delaying the
reach. flow of water from one point to another. This
tends to increase the time that it takes all the
Reach. The length of a channel uniform with
water falling on the extremities of the drainage
respect to discharge, depth, area, and slope.
basin to reach a common point, resulting in a
More generally, any length of a river or drainage
reduced peak flow at that point.
course.
Retention Storage. Water which accumulates and
Recession. Retreat of shore or bank by
ponds in natural or excavated depressions in the
progressive erosion.
soil surface with no possibility for escape as
Reef. Generally, any solid projection from the bed runoff. (See Detention Storage)
of a stream or other body of water.
Retrogression. Reversal of stream grading; i.e.,
Regime. The system or order characteristic of a aggradation after degradation, or vice versa.
stream; its behavior with respect to velocity and
Revetment. Bank protection to prevent erosion.
volume, form of and changes in channel,
capacity to transport sediment, amount of Riparian. Pertaining to the banks of a stream.
material supplied for transportation, etc.
Riprap. A layer, facing, or protective mound of
Regimen. The characteristic behavior of a stream rubble or stones randomly placed to prevent
during ordinary cycles of flow. erosion, scour, or sloughing of a structure or
embankment; also, the stone used for this
Regulatory Floodway. The open floodplain area
purpose.
that is reserved in by Federal, State, or local
requirements, i.e., unconfined or unobstructed Ripple. (1) The light fretting or ruffling of a water
either horizontally or vertically, to provide for caused by a breeze. (2) Undulating ridges and
the discharge of the base flood so that the furrows, or crests and troughs formed by action
cumulative increase in water surface elevation is of the flow.
no more than a designated amount (not to
Risk. The consequences associated with the
exceed 1 foot as established by the Federal
probability of flooding attributable to an
Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) for
encroachment. It includes the potential for
administering the National Flood Insurance
property loss and hazard to life during the
Program (NFIP)).
service life of the highway.
Reliction. Pertaining to being left behind. For
Risk Analysis. An economic comparison of design
example: that area of land is left behind by
alternatives using expected total costs
reliction when the water surface of a lake is
(construction costs plus risk costs) to determine
lowered.
the alternative with the least expected cost to the
Repose. The stable slope of a bank or public. It must include probable flood-related
embankment, expressed as an angle or the ratio costs during the service life of the facility for
of horizontal to vertical projection. highway operation, maintenance, and repair, for
highway aggravated flood damage to other
Restore. To reestablish a setting or environment
property, and for additional or interrupted
in which the functions of the natural and
highway travel.
beneficial floodplain values adversely impacted
by the highway agency can continue to operate. Riser. In mountainous terrain where much debris
is encountered, the entrance to a culvert
Restriction. Artificial or natural control against
sometimes becomes easily clogged. Therefore,
widening of a channel, with or without
a corrugated metal pipe or a structure made of
construction.
March 7, 2014
timber or concrete with small perforations, Scour, Local. Removal of material from the
called a riser, is installed vertically to permit channel bed or banks which is restricted to a
entry of water and prohibit the entry of mud and minor part of the width of a channel. This scour
debris. The riser may be increased in height as occurs around piers and embankments and is
the need occurs. caused by the actions of vortex systems induced
by the obstruction to the flow.
River. A large stream, usually active when any
streams are flowing in the region. Scour, Natural. Removal of material from the
channel bed or banks which occurs in streams
Rock. (1) Cobble, boulder or quarry stone as a
with the migration of bed forms, shifting of the
construction material. (2) Hard natural mineral,
thalweg and at bends and natural contractions.
in formation as in piles of talus.
Sea. Ocean or other body of water larger than a
Rounded Inlet. The edges of a culvert entrance
lake; state of agitation of any large body of
that are rounded for smooth transition which
water.
reduces turbulence and increases capacity.
Seawall. A structure separating land and water
RSP Fabric. (See Filter Fabric).
areas, primarily designed to prevent erosion and
Rubble. Rough, irregular fragments of rock or other damage due to wave action. (See
concrete. bulkhead).
Runoff. (1) The surface waters that exceed the Sediment. Fragmentary material that originates
soil's infiltration rate and depression storage. (2) from weathering of rocks and is transported by,
The portion of precipitation that appears as flow suspended in, or deposited by water.
in streams. Drainage or flood discharge which
Sedimentation. Gravitational deposit of
leaves an area as surface flow or a pipeline flow,
transported material in flowing or standing
having reached a channel or pipeline by either
water.
surface or subsurface routes.
Seepage. Percolation of underground water thru
Runup. The rush of water up a beach or structure,
the banks and into a stream or other body of
associated with the breaking of a wave. The
water.
amount of runup is measured according to the
vertical height above still water level that the Seiche. A standing wave oscillation of an
rush of water reaches. enclosed waterbody that continues, pendulum
fashion, after the cessation of the originating
Sag Culvert (or Sag Pipe). A pipeline with a dip
force, which may have been either seismic or
in its grade line crossing over a depression or
atmospheric.
under a highway, railroad, canal, etc. The term
inverted siphon is common but inappropriate as Seismic Wave. A gravity wave caused by an
no siphonic action is involved. The term "sag earthquake.
pipe" is suggested as a substitute.
Sheet Flow. Any flow spread out and not
Sand. Granular soil coarser than silt and finer than confined; i.e., flow across a flat open field.
gravel, ranging in diameter from 0.002 inch to
Sheet Pile. A pile with a generally slender, flat
0.2 inch.
cross-section that is driven into ground or
Scour. The result of erosive action of running bottom of a water body and meshed or
water, primarily in streams, excavating and interlocked with like members to form a wall or
carrying away material from the bed and banks. bulkhead.
Wearing away by abrasive action.
Shoal. A shallow region in flowing or standing
Scour, General. The removal of material from water, especially if made shallow by deposition.
the bed and banks across all or most of the width
Shoaling. Deposition of alluvial material resulting
of a channel, as a result of a flow contraction
in areas with relatively shallow depth.
which causes increased velocities and bed shear
stress.
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Shore. The narrow strip of land in immediate Slough. (1) Pronounced SLU. A side or overflow
contact with the water, including the zone channel in which water is continually present. It
between high and low water lines. See is stagnant or slack; also a waterway in a tidal
backshore, foreshore, onshore, offshore, marsh. (2) Pronounced SLUFF. Slide or slipout
longshore, and nearshore. of a thin mantle of earth, especially in a series of
small movements.
Significant Encroachment. A highway
encroachment and any direct support of likely Slugflow. Flow in culvert or drainage structure
base floodplain development that would involve which alternates between full and partly full.
one or more of the following construction or Pulsating flow -- mixed water and air.
flood related impacts:
Soffit. The bottom of the top -- (1) With reference
• A significant potential for interruption or to a bridge, the low point on the underside of the
termination of a transportation facility which suspended portion of the structure. (2) In a
is needed for emergency vehicles or culvert, the uppermost point on the inside of the
provides a community's only evacuation structure.
route. Specific Energy. The energy contained in a stream
• A significant risk, or of water, expressed in terms of head, referred to
the bed of a stream. It is equal to the mean
• A significant adverse impact on natural and depth of water plus the velocity head of the
beneficial floodplain values. mean velocity.
Silt. (1) Water-Borne Sediment. Detritus carried Spur Dike. A structure or embankment projecting
in suspension or deposited by flowing water, a short distance into a stream from the bank and
ranging in diameter from 0.0002 inch to at an angle to deflect flowing water away from
0.002 inch. The term is generally confined to critical areas.
fine earth, sand, or mud, but is sometimes both
suspended and bedload. (2) Deposits of Water- Stage. The elevation of a water surface above its
Borne Material. As in a reservoir, on a delta, or minimum; also above or below an established
on floodplains. "low water" plane; hence above or below any
datum of reference; gage height.
Sinuosity. The ratio of the length of the river
thalweg to the length of the valley proper. Standing Wave. The motion of swiftly flowing
stream water, that resembles a wave, but is
Skew. When a drainage structure is not normal formed by decelerating or diverging flow that
(perpendicular) to the longitudinal axis of the does not quite produce a hydraulic jump. A
highway, it is said to be on a skew. The skew term which when used to describe the upper
angle is the smallest angle between the flow regime in alluvial channels, means a
perpendicular and the axis of the structure. vertical oscillation of the water surface between
Slide. Gravitational movement of an unstable fixed nodes without appreciable progression in
mass of earth from its natural position. either an upstream or downstream direction. To
maintain the fixed position, the wave must have
Slipout. Gravitational movement of an unstable a celerity (velocity) equal to the approach
mass of earth from its constructed position. velocity in the channel, but in the opposite
Applied to embankments and other man-made direction.
earthworks.
Steady Flow. A flow in which the flow rate or
Slope. (1) Gradient of a stream. (2) Inclination of quantity of fluid passing a given point per unit of
the face of an embankment, expressed as the time remains constant.
ratio of horizontal to vertical projection; or (3)
The face of an inclined embankment or cut Stone. Rock or rock-like material; a particle of
slope. In hydraulics it is expressed as percent or such material, in any size from pebble to the
in decimal form. largest quarried blocks.
March 7, 2014
Storage. Detention, or retention of water for Strutting. Elongation of the vertical axis of pipe
future flow, naturally in channel and marginal prior to installing in a trench. After the backfill
soils or artificially in reservoirs. has been placed around the pipe and compacted,
the wires or rods holding the pipe in its distorted
Storage Basin. Space for detention or retention of
shape are removed. Greater side support from
water for future flow, naturally in channel and
the earth is developed when the pipe tends to
marginal soils, or artificially in reservoirs.
return to its original shape. Generally used on
Storm. A disturbance of the ordinary, average pipes which because of size or thinness of the
conditions of the atmosphere which, unless metal would tend to deform during construction
specifically qualified, may include any or all operations. Arches are strutted diagonally per
meteorological disturbances, such as wind, rain, standard or special plan.
snow, hail, or thunder.
Subcritical Flow. In this state, gravity forces are
Storm Drain. That portion of a drainage system dominant, so that the flow has a low velocity
expressly for collecting and conveying former and is often described as tranquil and streaming.
surface water in an enclosed conduit. Often Also, that flow which has a Froude number less
referred to as a "storm sewer", storm drains than one.
include inlet structures, conduit, junctions,
Subdrain. A conduit for collecting and disposing
manholes, outfalls and other appurtenances.
of underground water. It generally consists of a
Storm Water Management. The recognition of pipe, with perforations in the bottom through
adverse drainage resulting from altered runoff which water can enter.
and the solutions resulting from the cooperative
Subsidence. General lowering of land surface by
efforts of public agencies and the private sector
consolidation or removal of underlying soil.
to mitigate, abate, or reverse those adverse
results. Sump. In drainage, any low area which does not
permit the escape of water by gravity flow.
Strand. (1) To lodge on bars, banks, or overflow
plain, as for drift. (2) Bar of sediment Supercritical Flow. In this state, inertia forces are
connecting two regions of higher ground. dominant, so that flow has a high velocity and is
usually described as rapid, shooting and
Stream. Water flowing in a channel or conduit,
torrential. Also, that flow which has a Froude
ranging in size from small creeks to large rivers.
number greater than one.
Stream Power. An expression used in predicting
Support Base Floodplain Development. To
bed forms and hence bed load transport in
encourage, allow, serve, or otherwise facilitate
alluvial channels. It is the product of the mean
additional base floodplain development. Direct
velocity, the specific weight of the water-
support results from an encroachment, while
sediment mixture, the normal depth of flow and
indirect support results from an action out of the
the slope.
base floodplain.
Stream Response. Changes in the dynamic
Surf. The breaking of waves and swell on the
equilibrium of a stream by any one, or
foreshore and offshore shoals.
combination of various causes.
Surface Runoff. The movement of water on earth's
Stream Waters. Former surface waters which have
surface, whether flow is over surface of ground
entered and now flow in a well defined natural
or in channels.
watercourse, together with other waters reaching
the stream by direct precipitation or rising from Surface Waters. Surface waters are those which
springs in bed or banks of the watercourse. have been precipitated on the land from the sky
They continue as stream waters as long as they or forced to the surface in springs, and which
flow in the watercourse, including overflow and have then spread over the surface of the ground
multiple channels as well as the ordinary or low- without being collected into a definite body or
water channel. channel. They appear as puddles, sheet or
March 7, 2014
overland flow, and rills, and continue to be Thalweg. The line following the lowest part of a
surface waters until they disappear from the valley, whether under water or not. Usually the
surface by infiltration or evaporation, or until by line following the deepest part of the bed or
overland or vagrant flow they reach well-defined channel of a river.
watercourses or standing bodies of water like
Thread. The central element of a current,
lakes or seas.
continuous along a stream.
Surge. A sudden swelling of discharge in
Tide. The periodic rising and falling of the ocean
unsteady flow.
and connecting bodies of water that results from
Suspended Load. Sediment that is supported by gravitational attraction of the moon and sun
the upward components of turbulent currents in acting on the rotating earth.
a stream and that stay in suspension for
Time of Concentration. The time required for
appreciable amount of time.
storm runoff to flow from the most remote point,
Swale. A shallow, gentle depression in the earth's in flow time, of a drainage area to the point
surface. This tends to collect the waters to some under consideration. It is usually associated
extent and is considered in a sense as a drainage with the design storm.
course, although waters in a swale are not
Topping. The top layer on horizontal revetments
considered stream waters.
or rock structures; also capping or cap stones.
Swamp. An area of shallow pondage or saturated
Training. Control of direction of currents.
surface, the water being fresh or acidic and the
area usually covered with rank vegetation. Transition. A relatively short reach or conduit
leading from one waterway section to another of
Swell. Waves generated by a distant storm,
different width, shape, or slope.
usually regular and fully harmonic.
Transport. To carry solid material in a stream in
Talus. Loose rocks and debris disintegrated from
solution, suspension, saltation, or entrainment.
a steep hill or cliff standing at repose along the
toe. Trash Rack. A grid or screen across a stream
designed to catch floating debris.
Tapered Inlet. A transition to direct the flow of
water into a channel or culvert. A smooth Trough. Space between wave crests and the water
transition to increase hydraulic efficiency of an surface below it.
inlet structure. Trunk (or Trunk Line). In a roadway drainage
Terrace. Berm or bench-like earth embankment, system, the main conduit for transporting the
with a nearly level plain bounded by rising and storm waters. This main line is generally quite
falling slopes. deep in the ground so that laterals coming from
fairly long distances can drain by gravity into
Tetrahedron. Bank protection element, basically
the trunk line.
composed of 6 steel or concrete struts joined like
the edges of a triangular pyramid, together with Tsunami. A gravity wave caused by an
subdividing struts and tie wires or cables. underwater seismic disturbance (such as sudden
faulting, landsliding or volcanic activity).
Tetrapod. Bank protection element, precast of
concrete, consisting of 4 legs joined at a central Turbulence. A state of flow wherein the water is
block, each leg making an angle of 109.5 agitated by cross-currents and eddies, as
degrees with the other three, like rays from the opposed to a condition of flow that is quiet and
center of a tetrahedron to the center of each face. laminar.
Texture. Arrangement and interconnection of Turbulent Flow. That type of flow in which any
surface and near-surface particles of terrain or particle may move in any direction with respect
channel perimeter. to any other particle, and in which the head loss
is approximately proportional to the square of
the velocity.
March 7, 2014
Undercut. Erosion of the low part of a steep bank the works of man. Neither does it include
so as to compromise stability of the upper part. depressions or swales through which surface or
errant waters pass.
Underflow. The downstream flow of water
through the permeable deposits that underlie a Watershed. The area that contributes surface
stream. (1) Movement of water through a water runoff into a tributary system or water
pervious subsurface stratum, the flow of course.
percolating water; or water under ice, or under a
Water Table. The surface of the groundwater
structure. (2) The rate of flow or discharge of
below which the void spaces are completely
subsurface water.
saturated.
Undertow. Current outward from a wave-swept
Waterway. (1) That portion of a watercourse
shore carrying solid particles swept or scoured
which is actually occupied by water (2) A
from the beach or foreshore.
navigable inland body of water.
Unsteady Flow. A flow in which the velocity
Wave. (1) An oscillatory movement of water on or
changes with respect to space and time.
near the surface of standing water in which a
Updrift. The direction opposite that of the succession of crests and troughs advance while
predominant movement of littoral materials. particles of water follow cyclic paths without
advancing. (2) Motion of water in a flowing
Uplift. Upward hydrostatic pressure on base of an
stream so as to develop the surficial appearance
impervious structure.
of a wave.
Velocity. The rate of motion of objects or
Wave Height. The vertical distance between a
particles, or of a stream of particles.
wave crest and the preceding trough.
Velocity Head. A term used in hydraulics to
Wave Length. The horizontal distance between
represent the kinetic energy of flowing water.
similar points on two successive waves (e.g.,
This "head" is represented by a column of
crest to crest or trough to trough), measured in
standing water equivalent in potential energy to
the direction of wave travel.
the kinetic energy of the moving water
calculated as (V2/2g) where the "V" represents Wave Period. The time in which a wave crest
the velocity in feet per second and "g" represents travels a distance equal to one wave length. Can
the potential acceleration due to gravity, in feet be measured as the time for two successive wave
per second per second. crests to pass a fixed point.
Vernal Pools. Seasonally flooded landscape Weephole. A hole in a wall, invert, apron, lining,
depressions that support distinctive (and many or other solid structure to relieve the pressure of
times rare) plant and animal species adapted to groundwater.
periodic or continuous inundation during the wet Weir. A low overflow dam or sill for measuring,
season, and the absence of either ponded water diverting, or checking flow.
or wet soil during the dry season.
Well. (1) Artificial excavation for withdrawal of
Wash. Floodplain or active channel of an water from underground storage. (2) Upward
ephemeral stream, usually in recent alluvium. component of velocity in a stream.
Watercourse. A definite channel with bed and Wetland. Those areas that are inundated or
banks within which water flows, either saturated by surface or ground water at a
continuously or in season. A watercourse is frequency and duration sufficient to support, and
continuous in the direction of flow and may that under normal circumstances do support a
extend laterally beyond the definite banks to prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for
include overflow channels contiguous to the life in saturated soil conditions. Wetlands
ordinary channel. The term does not include generally include swamps, marshes, bogs, and
artificial channels such as canals and drains, similar areas.
except natural channels trained or restrained by
March 7, 2014
Windbreak. Barrier fence or trees to break or 20 Stream Stability at 2012 HIF-12-004

deflect the velocity of wind. Highway Structures
21 Bridge Deck Drainage 1993 SA-92-010
Windwave. A wave generated and propelled by Systems PB94-109584
wind blowing along the water surface.
22 Urban Drainage 2009 NHI-10-009
Young. Immature, said of a stream on a steep Design Manual
gradient actively scouring its bed toward a more 23 Bridge Scour and 2009 NHI-09-111
stable grade. Stream Instability NHI-09-012
Countermeasures
Topic 807 - Selected Drainage 24 Highway Stormwater 2001 NHI-01-007
References Pump Station Design
25 Highways in the 2008 NHI-07-096
807.1 Introduction Coastal Environment
26 Culvert Designer 2010 HIF-11-008
Hydraulic and drainage related reference
Aquatic Organism
publications listed are grouped as to source. Passage
807.2 Federal Highway Administration (2) Hydraulic Design Series (HDS).
Hydraulic Publications HDS FHWA #
Title Date
Copies of publications identified with an NTIS or No. NTIS #
GPO number may be ordered as follows: 2 Highway Hydrology 2002 NHI-02-001
3 Design Charts for 1961 EPD-86-102
NTIS - Send a check to: Open-Channel Flow PB86-179249/AS
National Technical Information Service 4 Introduction to 2008 NHI-08-090
5285 Port Royal Road Highway Hydraulics
Springfield, VA 22161 5 Hydraulic Design of 2012 HIF-12-026
(703) 487-4650 Highway Culverts
(GPO 050-001-
GPO - Send a check to: 00298-1)
Superintendent of Documents 6 River Engineering for 2001 NHI-01-004
Government Printing Office Highway
Washington, D.C. 20402 Encroachments
(202) 783-3238 7 Hydraulic Design for 2012 HIF-12-018
Safe Bridges
(1) Hydraulic Engineering Circulars (HEC). (3) Implementation Publications.
HEC FHWA # FHWA #
Title Date Title Date
No. NTIS # NTIS #
9 Debris-Control 2005 IF-04-016 Structural Design Manual for 1983 IP-83-6
Structures Improved Inlets and Culverts PB84-153485
14 Hydraulic Design of 2006 NHI-06-086 Culvert Inspection Manual 1986 IP-86-2
Energy Dissipators for PB87-151809
Culverts and Channels
15 Design of Roadside 2005 IF-05-114 807.3 American Association of State
Channels with Highway and Transportation Officials
Flexible Linings (AASHTO)
17 The Design of 1981 EPD-86-112
(1) Highway Drainage Guidelines
Encroachments on PB86-182110/AS
Flood Plains Using The Drainage Guidelines is a collection of the
Risk Analysis guides previously published as individual
18 Evaluating Scour at 2012 HIF-12-003 volumes. These are:
Bridges
March 7, 2014
I - Hydraulic Considerations in Highway • Bridge Design Practice Manual

Planning and Location
• Manual of Test - Volumes 1, 2, and 3
II - Hydrology
III - Erosion and Sediment Control in • Standard Plans
Highway Construction • Standard Specifications
IV - Hydraulic Design of Culverts
807.5 U.S. Department of Interior -
V - The Legal Aspects of Highway Geological Survey (USGS)
Drainage
VI - Hydraulic Analysis and Design of Open • Magnitude and Frequency of Floods in
Channels California - Water Resources Investigation 77-
21.
VII - Hydraulic Analysis for the Location and
Design of Bridges • Methods for Estimating Magnitude and
VIII- Hydraulic Aspects in Restoration and Frequency of Floods in the Southwestern
Upgrading of Highways United States - Water-Supply Paper 2433.
IX - Storm Drain Systems • Guide For Determining Flood Flow Frequency
X - Evaluating Highway Effects on Surface - Bulletin #17B.
Water Environments • Water Resources Data for California, Part 1,
XI - Highways along Coastal Zones and Volumes 1 and 2.
Lakeshores
• Rock Riprap Design for Protection of Stream
XII - Stormwater Management Channels Near Highway Structures (1987)
XIII - Hydraulics Engineer Training and Volumes 1 and 2 (1987).
Career Development
• Regional Skew for California, and Flood
XIV - Culvert Inspection and Rehabilitation
Frequency for Selected Sites in the
XV - Guidelines for Selecting and Utilizing Sacramento-San Joaquin River Basin, Based
Hydraulics Engineering Consultants on Data through Water Year 2006 - Scientific
The current edition may be purchased through Investigations Report 2010-5260.
AASHTO, 444 North Capitol St., N.W., Suite
225, Washington D.C. 20001.
807.6 U.S. Department of Agriculture -
Natural Resources Conservation Service
(2) AASHTO Model Drainage Manual (NRCS)
The Model Drainage Manual (MDM) is a • Engineering Design Standards.
comprehensive document covering a wide
variety of transportation related hydraulic • Urban Hydrology for Small Watersheds -
design issues. Developed for use by Federal, Technical Release 55
State, and local agencies, the MDM is a 807.7 California Department of Water
practice oriented document that allows the
Resources
user agency to adopt the recommended values
shown in the manual, or insert their own The California Department of Water Resources
specific design policies and procedures. provides intensity, duration, and frequency data
from the California Department of Water
807.4 California Department of Resources network of rain gauges at the following
Transportation website:
The following publications are available from the http://www.water.ca.gov/floodmgmt/hafoo/hb/csm
Caltrans Publications Unit, 1900 Royal Oaks Dr., /engineering/
Sacramento, CA 95815. Information on ordering
and price can be checked by calling
(916) 445-3520.
December 30, 2015
807.8 University of California - Institute of

Transportation and Traffic Engineering
(ITTE)
• Street and Highway Drainage - Course Notes,
Volumes 1 and 2.
807.9 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Publications and computer programs, too
numerous to list, are available from the Water
Resources Support Center. A publication catalog
may be obtained by contacting the Hydrologic
Engineering Center of the Corp, 609 Second St.,
Davis, CA 95616. The U. S. Army Corps of
Engineers publications website address is:
http://www.usace.army.mil/inet/usace-docs/.
Topic 808 – Selected Computer

Programs
Table 808.1 below presents a software vs.
capabilities matrix for hydrologic/hydraulic
software packages that have been reviewed and
deemed compatible with Departmental procedures.
Where Caltrans drainage facilities connect or
impact facilities that are owned by others, the
affected Local Agency may require the
Department to use a specific program that is not
listed below. When the use of other computer
programs is requested, a comparison with the
results using the appropriate program from Table
808.1 should be made. However, when work is
performed on projects under Caltrans’ jurisdiction,
either internally, or by others, if a program not
listed in Table 808.1 is used, it should be
demonstrated that the computations are based on
the same principles that are used in the programs
listed in Table 808.1. For information on Local
Agency hydraulic computer program
requirements, the District Hydraulics Branch
should be contacted. It is the responsibility of the
user to ensure that the version of the program
being used from Table 808.1 is current.
March 7, 2014
Table 808.1
Summary of Related Computer Programs and Web Applications
Water Roadside
Storm Pavement Pond
Hydrology Surface Culverts /Median
Drains Drainage Routing
Profiles Channels
FHWA Hydraulic
x x
Toolbox
TR-55 x
HEC-HMS (2) x x
HY-8 x
HEC-RAS (1) x
FESWMS x
WMS x x x
NOAA Atlas 14 x
USGS
x
StreamStats
AutoDesk Civil
x x x x
3D/Hydraflow
NOTES:
(1) The data that was used by FEMA to establish water surface elevations (usually HEC-2) must be used to develop a
duplicate effective model for FEMA floodplain analysis. For more information contact FEMA or the Local Agency.
(2) HEC-1 has been superseded by HEC-HMS by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
Special circumstances may dictate the use of alternative methods/programs. Any such use should be
performed under direction and with approval of the District Hydraulics Engineer.
July 1, 2015
related to the designer’s responsibility for

CHAPTER 810 the hydrologic design of storm water flow
HYDROLOGY facilities is contained in the Department’s
Project Planning and Design Guide. See:
Topic 811 - General http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/oppd/stormwtr/ppdg.htm
811.2 Objectives of Hydrologic Analysis
Index 811.1 - Introduction
Regardless of the size or cost of the drainage
Hydrology is often defined as: "A science dealing feature the most important step prior to hydraulic
with the properties, distribution, and circulation of design is estimating the discharge (rate of runoff)
water on the surface of the land, in the soil and or volume of runoff that the drainage facility will
underlying rocks, and in the atmosphere." This is a be required to convey or control.
very broad definition encompassing many
disciplines relating to water. The highway engineer While some hydrologic analysis is necessary in
is principally concerned with surface hydrology establishing the quantity of surface water that must
and controlling surface runoff. Controlling runoff be considered in the design of all highway drainage
includes the hydraulic design of drainage features facilities, the extent of such studies are to be
for both cross highway drainage (Chapter 820) and commensurate with the importance of the highway,
removal of runoff from the roadway (Chapter 830). the potential for damage to the highway, loss of
property, and hazard to life associated with the
The runoff of water over land has long been studied facilities.
and some rather sophisticated theories and methods
have been proposed and developed for estimating The choice of analytical method must be a
flood flows. Most attempts to describe the process conscious decision made as each problem arises.
have been only partially successful at best. This is To make an informed decision, the highway
due to the complexity of the process and interactive engineer must determine:
factors. The random nature of rainfall, snowmelt, • What level of hydrologic analysis is justified.
and other sources of water further complicate the
process. • What data are available or must be collected.
It should be understood that there are no exact • What methods of analysis are available
methods for hydrologic analysis. Different including the relative strengths and weaknesses
methods that are commonly used may produce in terms of cost and accuracy.
significantly different results for a specific site and Cross drainage design, Chapter 820, normally
particular situation. requires more extensive hydrologic analysis than is
Although hydrology is not an exact science, it is necessary for roadway drainage design, Chapter
possible to obtain solutions which are functionally 830. The well known and relatively simple
acceptable to form the basis for design of highway "Rational Method" (see Index 819.2) is generally
drainage facilities. adequate for estimating the rate or volume of runoff
for the design of on-site roadway drainage facilities
More complete information on the principles and
and removal of runoff from highway pavements.
engineering techniques pertaining to hydrology for
transportation and highway engineers may be found 811.3 Peak Discharge
in FHWA Hydraulic Design Series (HDS) No. 2,
Peak discharge is the maximum rate of flow of
Highway Hydrology.
water passing a given point during or after a
This chapter will focus primarily on the hydrologic rainfall event. Peak discharge, often called peak
analyses that are conducted for peak flow facilities flow, occurs at the momentary "peak" of the
for both transportation facility and cross drainage. stream's flood hydrograph. (See Index 816.5,
In many cases, these peak flow facilities serve dual Flood Hydrograph.)
purposes and receive and convey storm water flows
Design discharge, expressed as the quantity (Q) of
while meeting water quality criteria and other flow
flow in cubic feet per second (CFS), is the peak
criteria independent of Chapter 810. Information
July 1, 2015
discharge that a highway drainage structure is sized

to handle. Peak discharge is different for every
Topic 812 - Basin Characteristics
storm and it is the highway engineer's 812.1 Size
responsibility to size drainage facilities and
structures for the magnitude of the design storm The size (area) of a drainage basin is the most
and flood severity. The magnitude of peak important watershed characteristic affecting runoff.
discharge varies with the severity of flood events Determining the size of the drainage area that
which is based on probability of exceedance (see contributes to flow at the site of the drainage
Index 811.4). The selection of design storm structure is a basic step in a hydrologic analysis
frequency and flood probability are more fully regardless of the method used to evaluate flood
discussed under Topic 818, Flood Probability and flows. The drainage area typically expressed in
Frequency. acres or square miles, is frequently determined
from digital elevation maps (DEMs), field surveys,
811.4 Flood Severity topographic maps, or aerial photographs.
Flood severity is usually stated in terms of: Automated watershed delineation is included
within several of the software programs indicated
• Probability of Exceedance, or under the “Hydrology” column of Table 808.1, e.g.,
• Frequency of Recurrence. USGS StreamStats and WMS. See Figure 812.1.
Modern concepts tend to define a flood in terms of Figure 812.1

probability. Probability of exceedance, the
statistical odds or chance of a flood of given Automated Watershed Delineation
magnitude being exceeded in any year, is generally
expressed as a percentage. Frequency of
recurrence is expressed in years, on the average,
that a flood of given magnitude would be predicted.
Refer to Topic 818 for further discussion of flood
probability and frequency.
811.5 Factors Affecting Runoff
The highway engineer should become familiar with
the many factors or characteristics that affect runoff
before making a hydrologic analysis. The effects
of many of the factors known to influence surface
runoff only exist in empirical form. Extensive field
data, empirically determined coefficients, sound
judgment, and experience are required for a 812.2 Shape
quantitative analysis of these factors. Relating
flood flows to these causative factors has not yet The shape, or outline formed by the basin
advanced to a level of precise mathematical boundaries, affects the rate at which water is
expression. supplied to the main stream as it proceeds along its
course from the runoff source to the site of the
Some of the more significant factors which affect drainage structure. Long narrow watersheds
the hydraulic character of surface water runoff are generally give lower peak discharges than do fan or
categorized and briefly discussed in Topics 812 pear shaped basins.
through 814. It is important to recognize that the
factors discussed may exist concurrently within a 812.3 Slope
watershed and their combined effects are very The slope of a drainage basin is one of the major
difficult to quantify. factors affecting the time of overland flow and
concentration of rainfall (see Index 816.6, Time of
July 1, 2015
Concentration). Steep slopes tend to result in The major source of soil information is the
shorter response time and increase the discharge National Resources Conservation Service (NRCS)
while flat slopes tend to result in longer response of the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
time and reduce the discharge. Automated basin
Use the following link to access soil information at
slope calculation is included within several of the
the NRCS Web Soil Survey website:
software programs indicated under the
http://websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov/app/.
“Hydrology” column of Table 808.1, e.g., USGS
StreamStats and WMS. 812.6 Storage
812.4 Land Use Interception and depression storage are generally
not important considerations in highway drainage
Changes in land use nearly always cause increases
design and may be ignored in most hydrologic
in surface water runoff. Of all the land use
analysis. Interception storage is rainfall intercepted
changes, urbanization is the most dominant factor
by vegetation and never becomes run-off.
affecting the hydrology of an area.
Depression storage is rainfall lost in filling small
Land use studies may be necessary to define depressions in the ground surface, storage in transit
present and future conditions with regard to (overland or channel flow), and storage in ponds,
urbanization or other changes expected to take lakes or swamps.
place within the drainage basin.
Detention storage can have a significant effect in
Valuable information concerning land use trends is reducing the peak rate of discharge, but this is not
available from many sources such as: always the case. There have been rare instances
where artificial storage radically redistributes the
• State, regional or municipal planning
discharges and higher peak discharges have
organizations.
resulted than would occur had the storage not been
• U.S. Geological Survey. added.
• U.S. Department of Agriculture Economic The effect of flood-control reservoirs should be
Research Service. considered in evaluating downstream conditions,
flood peaks, and river stages for design of highway
Within each District there are various organizations structures. The controlling public agency or the
that collect, publish or record land use information. owner should be contacted for helpful information
The District Hydraulics Engineer should be on determining the effects, if any, on downstream
familiar with these organizations and the types of highway drainage structures.
information they have available.
It is not uncommon for flood control projects to be
A criterion of good drainage design is that future authorized but never constructed because funds are
development and land use changes which can not appropriated. Therefore a flood control project
reasonably be anticipated to occur during the should exist or be under construction if its effects
design life of the drainage facility be considered in on a drainage system are to be considered.
the hydraulic analysis and estimation of design
discharge. 812.7 Elevation
812.5 Soil and Geology The mean elevation of a drainage basin and
significant variations in elevation within a drainage
The type of surface soil which is characteristic of basin may be important characteristics affecting
an area is an important consideration for any run-off, particularly with respect to precipitation
hydrologic analysis and is a basic input to the falling as snow. Elevation is a basic input to some
National Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) of the USGS Regional Regression Equations (see
method. Rock formations underlying the surface Index 819.2(2).
soil and other geophysical characteristics such as
volcanic, glacial, and river deposits can have a 812.8 Orientation
significant effect on run-off. The amount of runoff can be affected by the
orientation of the basin. Where the general slope of
July 1, 2015
the drainage basin is to the south it will receive If channel storage is considered to be a significant
more exposure to the heat of the sun than will a factor, the assistance of an expert in combining the
slope to the north. Such orientation affects analysis of basin hydrology and stream hydraulics
transpiration, evaporation, and infiltration losses. should be sought. The U.S. Army Corps of
Snowpack and the rate at which snow melts will Engineers has developed HEC-HMS Flood
also be affected. A basin's orientation with respect Hydrograph Package and HEC-RAS, Water
to the direction of storm movement can affect a Surface Profiles, for this type of analysis. For
flood peak. Storms moving upstream produce modeling complex water surface profiles, where
lower peaks than storms tending to move in the one-dimensional models fail, the Finite Element
general direction of stream flow. Surface Water Modeling System Two Dimensional
Flow in a Horizontal Plane (SMS) was developed
Topic 813 - Channel and by others.
Floodplain Characteristics
813.4 Hydraulic Roughness
813.1 General Hydraulic roughness represents the resistance to
Streams are formed by the gathering together of flows in natural channels and floodplains. It affects
surface waters into channels that are usually well both the time response of a drainage channel and
defined. The natural or altered condition of the channel storage characteristics. The lower the
channels can materially affect the volume and rate roughness, the higher the peak discharge and the
of runoff and is a significant consideration in the shorter the time of the resulting hydrograph. The
hydrological analysis for cross drainage design. total volume of runoff however is virtually
independent of hydraulic roughness.
A useful reference relative to issues associated with
transverse and longitudinal highway encroachments Streamflow is frequently indirectly computed by
upon river channels and floodplains is the FHWA using Manning's equation, see Index 866.3(4).
Hydraulic Design Series (HDS) No. 6 "River Procedures for selecting an appropriate coefficient
Engineering for Highway Encroachments." of hydraulic roughness, Manning's "n", may be
found in the FHWA report, "Guide for Selecting
813.2 Length and Slope Manning's Roughness Coefficient for Natural
The longer the channel the more time it takes for Channels and Flood Plains". See
water to flow from the beginning of the channel to http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bridge/wsp2339.pdf
the site under consideration. Channel length and
813.5 Natural and Man-made Constrictions
effective channel slope are important parameters in
determining the response time of a watershed to Natural constrictions, such as gravel bars, rock
precipitation events of given frequency. outcrops and debris jams as well as artificial
constrictions such as diversion and storage dams,
In the case of a wide floodplain with a meandering
grade-control structures, and other water-use
main channel the effective channel length will be
facilities may control or regulate flow. Their effect
reduced during flood stages when the banks are
on the flood peak may be an important
overtopped and flow tends more toward a straight
consideration in the hydrologic analysis.
line.
813.6 Channel Modifications
813.3 Cross Section
Channel improvements such as channel-
Flood peaks may be estimated by using data from
straightening, flood control levees, dredging, bank
stream gaging stations and natural channel cross
clearing and removal of obstructions tend to reduce
section information.
natural attenuation and increase downstream flood
Although channel storage is usually ignored in the peaks.
hydrologic analysis for the design of highway
drainage structures, channel cross section may 813.7 Aggradation - Degradation
significantly affect discharge, particularly in wide Aggradation, deposited sediments, may lessen
floodplains with heavy vegetation. channel capacity and increase flood heights causing
July 1, 2015
overflow at a lower discharge. Degradation, the mountainous regions subject to fire with no local
lowering of the bed of a stream or channel, may studies available, the U.S. Forest Service should be
increase channel capacity and result in a higher contacted for fire history in order to determine if
peak discharge. there is a significant post-fire peak within the
stream records.
The validity of hydrologic analysis using observed
historical highwater marks may be affected by
aggradation or degradation of the streambed. The
Figure 813.1
effects of aggradation and degradation are
considerations in selecting an effective drainage
Post-Fire Debris
system design to protect highways and adjacent
properties from damage. For more information
refer to the FHWA report entitled, "Stream
Channel Degradation and Aggradation: Causes and
Consequences to Highways.” See
http://isddc.dot.gov/OLPFiles/FHWA/009471.pdf.
813.8 Debris
The quantity and size of solid matter carried by a
stream may affect the hydrologic analysis of a
drainage basin. Bulking due to mud, suspended
sediment and other debris transported by storm
runoff may significantly increase the volume of
flow, affect flow characteristics, and can be a major
consideration in the hydraulic design of drainage
structures. In particular, bulking factors are
typically a consideration in determining design
discharges for facilities with watersheds that are
located within mountainous regions subject to fire
and subsequent soil erosion (see Figure 813.1), or
in arid regions when the facility is in the vicinity of
alluvial fans (see Index 819.7(2) and Index
872.3(5) for special considerations given to
highways located across desert washes).
Debris control methods, structures, and design
considerations are discussed in Topic 822, Debris
Control.
Alamos Canyon, Ventura County, post-fire debris and
The District Hydraulics Engineer should be plugged culvert barrels (Highway 118)
consulted for any local studies that may be
available. If both stream gage data and local studies Topic 814 - Meteorological
are available, a determination of whether post-fire
peak flows are included within the data record
Characteristics
should be made. Consideration should be given to 814.1 General
treating a significant post-fire peak as the design
discharge in lieu of the peak discharge obtained Meteorology is the science dealing with the earth's
through gage analysis for a given probability flood atmosphere, especially the weather. As applied to
event. Records of stream discharge from burned hydrology for the highway designer the following
and long-unburned (unburned for 40 years or more elements of meteorological phenomena are
years) areas have showed peak discharge increases considered the more important factors affecting
from 2 to 30 times in the first year after burning. In runoff and flood predictions.
July 1, 2015
814.2 Rainfall 814.4 Evapo-transpiration

Rainfall is the most common factor used to predict Evaporation and transpiration are two natural
design discharge. Unfortunately, due to the many processes by which water reaching the earth's
interactive factors involved, the relationship surface is returned to the atmosphere as vapor. The
between rainfall and runoff is not all that well losses due to both phenomena are important to long
defined. Intuitively, engineers know and studies term hydrology and water balance in the watershed
confirm, that runoff increases in proportion to the and are usually ignored in the hydrologic analysis
rainfall on a drainage basin. Highway design for the design of highway drainage facilities.
engineers are cautioned about assuming that a
given frequency storm always produces a flood of 814.5 Tides and Waves
the same frequency. There are analytical The combined effect of upland runoff and tidal
techniques for ungaged watersheds that are based action is a primary consideration in the design of
on this assumption. A statistical analysis of highway drainage structures and shore protection
extensive past rainfall records should be made facilities along the coastlines, on estuaries, and in
before such a correlation is accepted. river delta systems.
Rainfall event characteristics which are important The time and height of high and low water caused
to highway drainage design are: by the gravitational attraction of the sun and
• Intensity (rate of rainfall) moon upon the earth's oceans are precisely
predictable. Information on gravitational tides
• Duration (time rainfall lasts) and tidal bench marks for the California Coastline
• Frequency (statistical probability of how often is available from the following report:
rainfall will occur) http://www.slc.ca.gov/reports/ca_marine_boundary
_program_final_report.pdf or from the following
• Time Distribution (intensity hyetograph) web-site: http://co-ops.nos.noaa.gov/sitemap.html.
• Storm Type (orographic, convective or One of the most devastating forces affecting the
cyclonic) coastline occurs when an astronomical high tide
and a storm of hurricane proportion arrive on the
• Storm Size (localized or broad areal extent)
land at the same time. This is also true of the effect
• Storm Movement (direction of storm) of a tsunami. A tsunami is a wave caused by an
earthquake at sea. If shore protection were
814.3 Snow
designed to withstand the forces of a tsunami, it
Much of the precipitation that falls in the would be extremely costly to construct. Since it
mountainous areas of the state falls as frozen water would be so costly and the probability of
in the form of snow, hail, and sleet. Since frozen occurrence is so slight, such a design may not be
precipitation cannot become part of the runoff until justified.
melting occurs it is stored as snowpack until
Wind-waves directly affect coastal structures and
thawed by warmer weather.
cause dynamic changes in coastal morphology.
Rain upon an accumulation of snow can cause a The U.S. Corps of Engineers collects and publishes
much higher peak discharge than would occur from data which may be used to predict size of Pacific
rainfall alone. The parameters of snow which may Coast wind-waves. Information pertaining to the
need to be considered in quantifying peak flood California coastline from the Mexican border north
runoff are: to Cape San Martin can be obtained from:
• Mean annual snowfall U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
• Water content of snowpack Los Angeles District
915 Wilshire Blvd., Suite 1101
• Snowmelt rate Los Angeles, CA 90017
(213) 452-3333
July 1, 2015
For information from Cape San Martin to the (1) Surface Water Runoff. This includes daily and
Oregon border from: annual averages, peak discharges,
instantaneous values, and highwater marks.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
San Francisco District (2) Precipitation. Includes rainfall, snowfall, hail,
1455 Market Street and sleet.
San Francisco, CA 94103-1398
(3) Drainage Basin Characteristics. Adequate
(415) 503-6804
information may not be readily available but
Also see the following website for USGS Coastal can generally be estimated or measured from
Storm Modeling System (CoSMoS) for detailed maps, field reviews or surveys. See Topic 812
predictions of storm-induced coastal flooding, for a discussion of basin characteristics.
erosion and cliff failures over large geographic
scales: Other special purpose categories of hydrologic data
http://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/coastal_processes/cosmo which may be important to specific problems
s/ associated with a highway project are:
Wind-waves are also generated on large inland • Sediment and debris transport
bodies of water and their effect should be • Snowpack variations
considered in the design of shoreline highway • Groundwater levels and quantity
facilities.
• Water quality
Topic 815 - Hydrologic Data 815.3 Sources
815.1 General Hydrologic data necessary for the design of cross
The purpose for which a hydrologic study is to be drainage (stream crossings) are usually obtained
made will determine the type and amount of from a combination of sources.
hydrologic data needed. The accuracy necessary (1) Field Investigations. A great deal of the
for preliminary studies is usually not as critical as essential information can only be obtained by
the desirable accuracy of a hydrologic analysis to visiting the site. Except for extremely simple
be used for the final design of highway drainage designs or the most preliminary analysis, a
structures. If data needs can be clearly identified, field survey or site investigation should always
data collection and compilation efforts can be be made.
tailored to the importance of the project.
To optimize the amount and quality of the
Data needs vary with the methods of hydrologic hydrologic data collected, the field survey
analysis. Highway engineers should remember that should be well planned and conducted by an
there is no single method applicable to all design engineer with general knowledge of drainage
problems. They should make use of whatever design. Data collected are to be documented.
hydrologic data that has been developed by others When there is reason to believe that sensitive
whenever it is available and applicable to their resources or unusual site conditions may exist,
needs. preparation of a written report with maps and
Frequently there is little or no data available in the photographs may be appropriate. See Topic
right form for the project location. For a few 804 for Floodplain Encroachments. Index
locations in the State, so much data has been 3.1.1 of HDS No. 2 discusses site
compiled that it is difficult to manage, store, and investigations and field surveys. Typical data
retrieve the information that is applicable to the collected in a field survey are:
project site. • Highwater marks
815.2 Categories • Performance and condition of existing
drainage structures
For most highway drainage design purposes there
are three primary categories of hydrologic data: • Stream alignment
July 1, 2015
• Stream stability and scour potential (4) Local Agencies. Entities such as cities,
counties, flood control districts, or local
• Land use and potential development
improvement districts study local drainage
• Location and nature of physical and conditions and are often a valuable source of
cultural features hydrologic data.
• Vegetative cover (5) Private Sector. Water using industries or
• Upstream constraints on headwater utilities, railroads and local consultants
elevation frequently have pertinent hydrologic records
and studies available.
• Downstream constraints
• Debris potential 815.4 Stream Flow
(2) Federal Agencies. The following agencies Once surface runoff water enters into a stream, it
collect and disseminate stream flow data: becomes "stream flow". Stream flow is the only
portion of the hydrologic cycle in which water is so
• Geological Survey (USGS) confined as to make possible reasonably accurate
• Corps of Engineers (COE) measurements of the discharges or volumes
involved.
• Bureau of Reclamation (USBR)
The two most common types of stream flow data
• National Resources Conservation Service
are:
(NRCS)
• Forest Service (USFS) • Gaging Stations - data generally based on
recording gage station observations with
• Bureau of Land Management (BLM) detailed information about the stream channel
• Federal Emergency Management Agency cross section. Current meter measurements of
(FEMA) transverse channel velocities are made to more
accurately reflect stream flow rates.
• Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
The USGS is the primary federal agency • Historic - data based on observed high water
charged with collecting and maintaining water mark and indirect stream flow measurements.
related data. Stream-gaging station data and Stream flow data are usually available as mean
other water related information collected by the daily flow or peak daily flow. Daily flow is a
USGS is published in Water Supply Papers and measurement of the rate of flow in cubic feet per
through the USGS Office of Surface Water second (CFS) for the 24-hour period from midnight
website. The USGS web-based tool to midnight.
StreamStats provides streamflow statistics,
"Paleoflood" (ancient flood) data has been found
drainage-basin characteristics, and other
useful in extending stream gaging station records.
information for user-selected sites on streams.
(See Topic 817 for further discussion on measuring
See http://water.usgs.gov/osw/streamstats.
stream flow)
(3) State Agencies. The primary state agency
collecting stream-gaging and precipitation 815.5 Precipitation
(rain-gage and snowfall) data is the California Precipitation data is collected by recording and
Department of Water Resources (DWR). The non-recording rain gages. Precipitation collected
California Data Exchange Center (CDEC) by vertical cylindrical rain gages is designated as
installs, maintains, and operates an extensive "point rainfall".
hydrologic data collection network including
automatic snow reporting gages and Regardless of the care and precision used,
precipitation and river stage sensors. See precipitation measurements from rain gages have
http://cdec.water.ca.gov/index.html. inherent and unavoidable shortcomings. Snow and
wind problems frequently interrupt rainfall records.
July 1, 2015
Extreme precipitation data from recording rain While groundwater and subsurface water may be
gage charts are generally underestimated. ignored for runoff estimates, their detrimental
effect upon highway structural section stability
Rain gage measurements are seldom used directly
cannot be overstated. See Chapter 840, Subsurface
by highway engineers. The statistical analysis
Drainage.
which must be done with precipitation
measurements is nearly always performed by 816.4 Detention and Retention
qualified hydrologists and meteorologists.
Water which accumulates and ponds in low points
NOAA’s Atlas 14 is an example of precipitation or depressions in the soil surface with no possibility
data that has been converted into formats usable by for escape as runoff is in retention storage. Where
designers. See http://hdsc.nws.noaa.gov/hdsc/pfds/. water is moving over the land it is in detention
storage. Detained water, as opposed to retained
815.6 Adequacy of Data
water, contributes to runoff.
All hydrologic data that has been collected must be
evaluated and compiled into a usable format. 816.5 Flood Hydrograph and Flood Volume
Experience, knowledge and judgment are an In response to a rainstorm the quantity of water
important part of data evaluation. It must be flowing in a stream increases. The water level rises
ascertained whether the data contains and may continue to do so after rainfall ceases.
inconsistencies or other unexplained anomalies The response of an affected stream, during and
which might lead to erroneous calculations and after a storm event, can be pictured by plotting
conclusions that could result in the over design or discharge against time to produce a flood
under design of drainage structures. hydrograph. The principal elements of a typical
flood hydrograph are shown in Figure 816.5.
Topic 816 - Runoff
Figure 816.5
816.1 General
The process of surface runoff begins when Typical Flood Hydrograph
precipitation exceeds the requirements of:
• Vegetal interception.
• Infiltration into the soil.
• Filling surface depressions (puddles, swamps
and ponds). As rain continues to fall, surface
waters flow down slope toward an established
channel or stream.
816.2 Overland Flow
Overland flow is surface waters which travel over
the ground as sheet flow, in rivulets and in small Flood volume is the area under the flood
channels to a watercourse. hydrograph. Although flood volume is not
816.3 Subsurface Flow considered in the design for all highway drainage
facilities, it is an essential design parameter when
Waters which move laterally through the upper soil storage must be evaluated.
surface to streams are called "interflow" or
"subsurface flow". For the purpose of highway Comprehensive guidance on flood hydrographs
drainage hydrology, where peak design discharge and methods to estimate the hydrograph may
(flood peaks) are the primary interest, subsurface be found in Chapters 6, 7 and 8 of HDS No. 2,
flows are considered to be insignificant. Hydrology, and in Chapters 4, 5, 6, 7 and
Subsurface flows travel slower than overland flow. 8 of the user guide for HEC-HMS. See:
July 1, 2015
http://www.hec.usace.army.mil/software/hec- obtained by applying higher rainfall intensities

hms/documentation/HEC- from storms of short duration over a portion of the
HMS_Technical%20Reference%20Manual_(CPD- watershed.
74B).pdf
(1) Sheet flow travel time. Sheet flow is flow of
See Index 819.4 for a general discussion of uniform depth over plane surfaces and usually
hydrograph methods. occurs for some distance after rain falls on the
ground. The maximum flow depth is usually
816.6 Time of Concentration (Tc) and less than 0.8 inches - 1.2 inches. For unpaved
Travel Time (Tt) areas, sheet flow normally exists for a distance
Time of concentration is defined as the time less than 80 feet - 100 feet. An upper limit of
required for storm runoff to travel from the 300 feet is recommended for paved areas.
hydraulically most remote point of the drainage A common method to estimate the travel time
basin to the point of interest. of sheet flow is based on kinematic wave
An assumption made in some of the hydrologic theory and uses the Kinematic Wave Equation:
methods for estimating peak discharge, such as the
0.93L3/5 n 3/5
Rational and NRCS Methods (Index 819.2), is that Tt = 2/5 3/10
maximum flow results when rainfall of uniform i S
intensity falls over the entire watershed area and
the duration of that rainfall is equal to the time of where
concentration. Time of concentration (TC) is Tt = Travel time in minutes.
typically the cumulative sum of three travel times,
including: L = Length of flow path in feet.
S = Slope of flow in feet per feet.
• Sheet flow
n = Manning's roughness coefficient
• Shallow concentrated flow
for sheet flow (see Table 816.6A).
• Channel flow i = Design storm rainfall intensity in
For all-paved watersheds (e.g., parking lots, inches per hour.
roadway travel lanes and shoulders, etc.) it is not If Tt is used (as part of TC) to determine the
necessary to calculate a separate shallow intensity of the design storm from the IDF
concentrated flow travel time segment. Such flows curves, application of the Kinematic Wave
will typically transition directly from sheet flow to Equation becomes an iterative process: an
channel flow or be intercepted at inlets with either assumed value of Tt is used to determine i from
no, or inconsequential lengths of, shallow the IDF curve; then the equation is used to
concentrated flow. calculate a new value of Tt which in turn yields
In many cases a minimum time of concentration an updated i. The process is repeated until the
will have to be assumed as extremely short travel calculated Tt is the same in two successive
times will lead to calculated rainfall intensities that iterations.
are overly conservative for design purposes. For To eliminate the iterations, use the following
all-paved areas, slopes steeper than 10H:1V, or simplified form of the Manning’s kinematic
where there is a limited opportunity for surface solution:
storage, a minimum TC of 5 minutes should be
assumed. For rural or undeveloped areas, it is 0.42L4/5 n 4/5
recommended that a minimum TC of 10 minutes be Tt = 1/2
used for most situations.
P2 s 2/5
Designers should be aware that maximum runoff where P2 is the 2-year, 24-hour rainfall depth in
estimates are not always obtained using rainfall inches (ref. NOAA Atlas 14,
intensities determined by the time of concentration http://hdsc.nws.noaa.gov/hdsc/pfds/).
for the total area. Peak runoff estimates may be
July 1, 2015
The use of flow length alone as a limiting range where use of the Kinematic wave
factor for the Kinematic wave equation can equation applies. At that point the flow
lead to circumstances where the underlying becomes defined as shallow concentrated flow.
assumptions are no longer valid. Over The Upland Method is commonly used when
prediction of travel time can occur for calculating flow velocity for shallow
conditions with significant amounts of concentrated flow. This method may also be
depression storage, where there is a high used to calculate the total travel time for both
Manning’s n-value or for flat slopes. One the sheet flow and the shallow concentrated
study suggests that the upper limit of flow segments under certain conditions (e.g.,
applicability of the Kinematic wave equation is where use of the Kinematic wave equation to
a function of flow length, slope and Manning’s predict sheet flow travel time is questionable,
roughness coefficient. This study used both or where the designer cannot reasonably
field and laboratory data to propose an upper identify the point where sheet flow transitions
limit of 100 for the composite parameter of to shallow concentrated flow).
nL/s1/2. It is recommended that this criteria be
Average velocities for the Upland Method can
used as a check where the designer has
be taken directly from Figure 816.6 (Source
uncertainty on the maximum flow length to
NRCS, National Engineering Handbook part
which the Kinematic wave equation can be
650) or may be calculated from the following
applied to project conditions.
equation:
Where sheet flow travel distance cannot be
V = (3.28) kS1/2
determined, a conservative alternative is to
assume shallow concentrated flow conditions Where S is the slope in percent and k is an
without an independent sheet flow travel time intercept coefficient depending on land cover
conditions. See Index 816.6(2). as shown in Table 816.6B. It is assumed that
the depth range is 0.1 to 0.2 feet, except for
Table 816.6A grassed waterways, where the depth range is
Roughness Coefficients For 0.1 to 0.4 feet,
Sheet Flow Table 816.6B
Surface Description n Intercept Coefficients for Shallow
Hot Mix Asphalt 0.011- Concentrated Flow
0.016
Concrete 0.012- Land cover/Flow regime k
0.014 Forest with heavy ground litter; hay 0.076
Brick with cement mortar 0.014 meadow
Cement rubble 0.024 Trash fallow or minimum tillage 0.152
Fallow (no residue) 0.05 cultivation; contour or strip cropped;
Grass woodland
Short grass prairie 0.15 0.213
Dense grass Short grass pasture
0.24
Bermuda Grass 0.41 Cultivated straight row 0.274
Woods(1) Nearly bare and untilled alluvial 0.305
Light underbrush 0.40 fans
Dense underbrush 0.80 0.457
(1) Woods cover is considered up to a height of 1 inch, which is Grassed waterway
the maximum depth obstructing sheet flow. 0.620
Pavement and small upland gullies
(2) Shallow concentrated flow travel time. After

short distances, sheet flow tends to concentrate
in rills and gullies, or the depth exceeds the
July 1, 2015
Figure 816.6
Velocities for Upland Method of
Estimating Travel Time for Shallow Concentrated Flow
July 1, 2015
The travel time can be calculated from: Figure 816.7

L
Tt = Digital Elevation Map (DEM)
60 V
where Tt is the travel time in minutes, L the
length in feet, and V the flow velocity in feet
per second.
(3) Channel flow travel time. When the channel
characteristics and geometry are known the
preferred method of estimating channel flow
time is to divide the channel length by the
channel velocity obtained by using the
Manning’s equation, assuming bankfull
conditions. See Index 866.3(4), for further Topic 817 - Flood Magnitude
discussion of Manning's equation.
Appropriate values for "n", the coefficient of 817.1 General
roughness in the Manning’s equation, may be The determination of flood magnitude from either
found in most hydrology or hydraulics texts and measurements made during a flood or after peak
reference books. Table 866.3A gives some "n" flow has subsided requires knowledge of open-
values for lined and unlined channels, gutters, channel hydraulics and flood water behavior. There
and medians. Procedures for selecting an are USGS Publications and other technical
appropriate hydraulic roughness coefficient may references available which outline the procedures
be found in the FHWA report, "Guide for for measuring flood flow. However, it is only
Selecting Manning's Roughness Coefficient for through experience that accurate measurements can
Natural Channels and Flood Plains." See be obtained and/or correctly interpreted.
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bridge/wsp2339.pdf.
Generally, the channel roughness factor will be 817.2 Measurements
much lower than the values for overland flow (1) Direct. Direct flood flow measurements are
with similar surface appearance. those made during flood stage. The area and
(4) Culvert or Storm Drain Flow. Flow velocities average velocity can be approximated and the
in a short culvert are generally higher than they estimated discharge can be calculated, from
would be in the same length of natural channel measurements of flow depth and velocity made
and comparable to those in a lined channel. In simultaneously at a number of points in a cross
most cases, including short runs of culvert in the section.
channel, flow time calculation will not Discharges calculated from continuous records
materially affect the overall time of of stage gaging stations are the primary basis for
concentration (Tc). When it is appropriate to estimating the recurrence interval or frequency
separate flow time calculations, such as for of floods. See Figure 817.2.
urban storm drains, Manning's equation may be
used to obtain flow velocities within pipes.
The TR-55 library of equations for sheet flow,
shallow concentrated flow and open channel
flow is incorporated into the Watershed
Modeling System (WMS) for Time of
Concentration Calculations using Triangulated
Irregular Networks (TINs) and Digital Elevation
Maps (DEMs). See Figure 816.7.
July 1, 2015
Figure 817.2
Topic 818 - Flood Probability And
Gaging Station Frequency
818.1 General
The estimation of peak discharges of various
recurrence intervals is the most common and
important problem encountered in highway
engineering hydrology. Since the hydrology for the
sizing of highway drainage facilities is concerned
with future events, the time and magnitude of which
cannot be precisely forecast, the highway engineer
must resort to probability statistics to define the
design discharge.
Modern hydrologists tend to define floods in terms
of probability, as expressed in percentage rather
than in terms of return period (recurrence interval).
Smith River Stage Gaging Station at Dr. Fine Bridge Return period, the "N-year flood", and probability
(2) Indirect. Indirect flood flow measurements are (p) are reciprocals, that is, p = 1/N. Therefore, a
those made after the flood subsides. From flood having a 50-year return frequency (Q50) is
channel geometry measurements and high water now commonly expressed as a flood with the
marks the magnitude of a flood can be probability of recurrence of 0.02 (2 percent chance
calculated using basic open channel hydraulic of being exceeded) in any given year.
equations given in Chapter 860. This method of There are certain other terminologies which are
determining flood discharges for given events is frequently used and understood by highway
a valuable tool to the highway engineer engineers but which might have a slight variation in
possessing a thorough knowledge and meaning to other engineering branches. For
understanding of the techniques involved. See convenience and example, the following definition
Figure 817.3. of terms have been excerpted from Topic 806,
Definition of Drainage Terms.
Figure 817.3
(1) Base Flood. "The flood, tide, or a combination
High Water Marks of the two having a 1 percent chance of being
exceeded in any given year". The "base flood"
is used as the standard flood by FEMA and has
been adopted by many agencies for flood hazard
analysis to comply with regulatory
requirements. See Topic 804, Floodplain
Encroachments.
(2) Overtopping Flood. "The flood described by
the probability of exceedance and water surface
elevation at which flow occurs over the
highway, over the watershed divide, or through
structure(s) provided for emergency relief".
The "overtopping flood" is of particular interest
to highway drainage engineers because it may
be the threshold where the relatively low profile
of the highway acts as a flood relief mechanism
for the purpose of minimizing upstream
July 1, 2015
backwater damages. See Figure 818.1. On Figure 818.2

Interstate highways, CFR 650 states “The
design flood for encroachments by through Maximum Historic Flood
lanes of Interstate highways shall not be less
than the flood with a 2-percent chance of being
exceeded in any given year. No minimum
design flood is specified for Interstate highway
ramps and frontage roads or for other
highways.”
Figure 818.1
Overtopping Flood
(5) Probable Maximum Flood. "The flood

discharge that may be expected from the most
severe combination of critical meteorological
and hydrological conditions that are reasonably
possible in the region". The "probable
maximum flood" is generally not applicable to
highway projects. The possibility of a flood of
such rare magnitude, as used by the Corps of
Engineers, is applicable to projects such as
major dams, when consideration is to be given
(3) Design Flood. "The peak discharge (when to virtually complete security from potential
appropriate, the volume, stage, or wave crest floods.
elevation) of the flood associated with the 818.2 Establishing Design Flood Frequency
probability of exceedance selected for the
design of a highway encroachment". Except for There are two recognized alternatives to establishing
the rare situation where the risks associated with an appropriate highway drainage design frequency.
a low water crossing are acceptable, the That is, by policy or by economic analysis. Both
highway will not be inundated by the "design alternatives have merit and may be applied
flood". exclusively or jointly depending upon general
conditions or specific constraints.
(4) Maximum Historical Flood. "The maximum
flood that has been recorded or experienced at Application of traditional predetermined design
any particular highway location". This flood frequencies implies that an acceptable level of
information is very desirable and where risk was considered in establishing the design
available is an indication that the flood of this standard. Modern design concepts, on the other
magnitude may be repeated at the project site. hand, recommend that a range of peak flows be
Hydrologic analysis may suggest that the considered and that the design flood be established
probability for recurrence of the "maximum which best satisfies the specific site conditions and
historical flood" is very small, less than 1 associated risks. A preliminary evaluation of the
percent. Nevertheless consideration should be inherent flood-related risks to upstream and
given to sizing drainage structures to convey the downstream properties, the highway facility, and to
"maximum historical flood". See Figure 818.2. the traveling public should be made. This
evaluation will indicate whether a predetermined
July 1, 2015
design flood frequency is applicable or additional Today, there is growing recognition that, despite its
study is warranted. successful application in the past, the assumption of
stationarity may not accurately represent the future.
Highway classification is one of the most important
However, until a multi-disciplinary consensus is
factors, but not the sole factor, in establishing an
reached on future trends that can be expected,
appropriate design flood frequency. Due
stationarity will continue to be utilized with current
consideration should be given to all the other factors
procedures.
listed under Index 801.5. If the analysis is correct,
the highway drainage system will occasionally be To minimize uncertainty, designers should continue
overtaxed. The alternative of accommodating the to utilize existing hydrologic tools with the most
worst possible event that could happen is usually so current datasets available for rainfall and runoff.
costly that it may not be justified. Observed trends can then be quantified and placed
in the context of the uncertainty associated with the
Highway engineers should understand that the
frequency estimates themselves.
option to select a predetermined design flood
frequency is generally only applicable to new (1) Nonstationarity and Climate Variability.
highway locations. Because of existing constraints, Changes in land use, changing groundwater
the freedom to select a prescribed design flood levels, and urbanization are examples of
frequency may not exist for projects involving nonstationarity within a watershed that can
replacement of existing facilities. Caltrans policy affect hydrologic response. The
relative to up-grading of existing drainage facilities Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
may be found in Index 803.3. (IPCC) has stated that “Climate change
challenges the traditional assumption that past
Although the procedures and methodology
hydrological experience provides a good guide
presented in HEC 17, Design of Encroachments on
to future conditions”. Although the assumption
Flood Plains Using Risk Analysis, are not fully
of stationarity is being challenged, there is no
endorsed by Caltrans, the circular is an available
consensus within the scientific or engineering
source of information on the theory of "least total
community on a viable replacement.
expected cost (LTEC) design". Highway engineers
are cautioned about applying LTEC methodology
and procedures to ordinary drainage design
Topic 819 - Estimating Design
problems. The Headquarters Hydraulics Engineer Discharge
in the Division of Design should be consulted before
committing to design by the LTEC method since its 819.1 Introduction
use can only be justified and recommended under Before highway drainage facilities can be
extra-ordinary circumstances. hydraulically designed, the quantity of run-off
(design Q) that they may reasonably be expected to
818.3 Stationarity and Climate Variability
convey must be established. The estimation of peak
In Index 818.1, the assumption behind flood discharge for various recurrence intervals is
probability and frequency analysis is that climate is therefore the most important, and often the most
stationary. Stationarity assumes that hydrology difficult, task facing the highway engineer. Refer to
varies within an unchanging envelope of natural Table 819.5A for a summary of methods for
variability, so that the past accurately represents the estimating design discharge.
future. It has been a basic assumption used for many
In Topic 819, various design recommendations are
years in the planning and design of bridges and
given for both general and region-specific areas of
culverts and continues to represent the current state
California.
of practice that serves the engineering community
well. 819.2 Empirical Methods
Climate change as well as better understanding of Because the movement of water is so complex,
climate variability have presented a challenge to the numerous empirical methods have been used in
validity of this assumption. hydrology. Empirical methods in hydrology have
great usefulness to the highway engineer. When
December 30, 2015
correctly applied by engineers knowledgeable in the inflows. Several relatively simple methods have
method being used and its idiosyncrasies, peak been established for developing hydrographs,
discharge estimates can be obtained which are such as transposing a hydrograph from another
functionally acceptable for the design of highway hydrologically homogeneous watershed. The
drainage structures and other features. Some of the stream hydraulic method, and upland method
more commonly used empirical methods for are described in HDS No. 2. These, and other
estimating runoff are as follows. methods, are adequate for use with Rational
Methods for estimating peak discharge and will
(1) Rational Methods. Undoubtedly, the most
provide results that are acceptable to form the
popular and most often misused empirical
basis for design of highway drainage facilities.
hydrology method is the Rational Formula:
It is clearly evident upon examination of the
Q = CiA
assumptions and parameters which form the
Q = Design discharge in cubic feet per basis of the equation that much care and
second. judgment must be applied with the use of
C = Coefficient of runoff. Rational Methods to obtain reasonable results.
i = Average rainfall intensity in inches per • The runoff coefficient "C" in the equation
hour for the selected frequency and for represents the percent of water which will
a duration equal to the time of run off the ground surface during the storm.
concentration. See The remaining amount of precipitation is
http://hdsc.nws.noaa.gov/hdsc/pfds/ lost to infiltration, transpiration, evaporation
and depression storage. "C" is a volumetric
A = Drainage area in acres. coefficient that relates the peak discharge to
Rational methods are simple to use, and it is this the “theoretical peak” or 100 percent runoff,
simplicity that has made them so popular among occurring when runoff matches the net rain
highway drainage design engineers. Design rate. Hence "C" is also a function of
discharge, as computed by these methods, has infiltration and other hydrologic
the same probability of occurrence (design abstractions.
frequency) as the frequency of the rainfall used. Values of "C" may be determined for un-developed
Refer to Topic 818 for further information on areas from Figure 819.2A by considering the four
flood probability and frequency of recurrence. characteristics of: relief, soil infiltration, vegetal
An assumption that limits applicability is that cover, and surface storage.
the rainfall is of equal intensity over the entire The designer must use judgment to select the
watershed. Because of this, Rational Methods appropriate "C" value within the range. Generally,
should be used only for estimating runoff from larger areas with permeable soils, flat slopes and
small simple watershed areas, preferably no dense vegetation should have the lowest "C" values.
larger than 320 acres. Even where the Smaller areas with dense soils, moderate to steep
watershed area is relatively small but slopes, and sparse vegetation should be assigned the
complicated by a mainstream fed by one or highest "C" values.
more significant tributaries, Rational Methods
should be applied separately to each tributary Some typical values of "C" for developed areas are
stream and the tributary flows then routed down given in Table 819.2B. Should the basin contain
the main channel. Flow routing can best be varying amounts of different cover, a weighted
accomplished through the use of hydrographs runoff coefficient for the entire basin can be
discussed in Index 819.4. Since Rational determined as:
Methods give results that are in terms of 𝐶𝐶1 𝐴𝐴1 + 𝐶𝐶2 𝐴𝐴2 +. . .
instantaneous peak discharge and provide little 𝐶𝐶 =
𝐴𝐴1 + 𝐴𝐴2 +. . .
information relative to runoff rate with respect
to time, synthetic hydrographs should be • To properly satisfy the assumption that the
developed for routing significant tributary entire drainage area contributes to the flow;
July 1, 2015
the rainfall intensity, (i) in the equation Table 819.7A. These equations are based on
expressed in inches per hour, requires that regional regression analysis of data from stream
the storm duration and the time of gauging stations. The equations in Figure
concentration (tc) be equal. Therefore, the 819.2C were derived from data gathered and
first step in estimating (i) is to estimate (tc). analyzed through 2006, while the regions
Methods for determining time of covered by Table 819.7A are reflective of a
concentration are discussed under Index 1994 study of the Southwestern U.S, which has
816.6. been supplemented by a more recent 2007 Study
of California Desert Region Hydrology.
• Once the time of concentration, (tc), is Information on use and development of this
estimated, the rainfall intensity, (i), method may be found in "Methods for
corresponding to a storm of equal duration, Determining Magnitude and Frequency of
may be obtained from available sources Floods in California Based on Data through
such as intensity-duration-frequency (IDF) Water Year 2006" by the U.S. Department of
curves. For IDF curve generating software, the Interior, Geological Survey.
see http://hdsc.nws.noaa.gov/hdsc/pfds/.
The Regional Flood-Frequency equations are
The runoff coefficients given in Figure 819.2A applicable only to sites within the flood-
and Table 819.2B are applicable for storms of frequency regions for which they were derived
up to 5 or 10 year frequencies. Less frequent, and on streams with virtually natural flows. The
higher intensity storms usually require equations are not directly applicable to streams
modification of the coefficient because in urban areas affected substantially by urban
infiltration, detention, and other losses have a development. In urban areas the equations may
proportionally smaller effect on the total runoff be used to estimate peak discharge values under
volume. The adjustment of the rational method natural conditions and then by use of the
for use with major storms can be made by techniques described in the publication or HDS
multiplying the coefficient by a frequency No. 2, adjust the discharge values to compensate
factor, C(f). Values of C(f) are given below. for urbanization. A method for directly
Under no circumstances should the product of estimating design discharges for some gaged
C(f) times C exceed 1.0. and ungaged streams is also provided in HDS
Frequency (yrs) C(f) No. 2. The method is applicable to streams on
25 1.1 or nearby those for which study data are
available.
50 1.2
100 1.25 (3) Flood Frequency Analysis
(2) Regional Analysis Methods. Regional analysis (a) If there are two gaged sites with similar
methods utilize records for streams or drainage watershed characteristics but one has a short
areas in the vicinity of the stream under record and the other has a longer record of
consideration which would have similar peak flows, a two-station comparison
characteristics to develop peak discharge analysis can be conducted to extend the
estimates. These methods provide techniques equivalent length of record at the shorter
for estimating annual peak stream discharge at gaged site.
any site, gaged or ungaged, for probability of (b) Flood-frequency relations at sites near
recurrence from 50 percent (2 years) to gaged sites on the same stream (or in a
1 percent (100 years). Application of these similar watershed) can be estimated using a
methods is convenient, but the procedure is ratio of drainage area for the ungaged and
subject to some limitations. gaged sites.
Regional Flood - Frequency equations (c) At a gaged site, weighted estimates of peak
developed by the U.S. Geological Survey for discharges based on the station flood-
use in California are given in Figure 819.2C and frequency relation and the regional
July 1, 2015
Figure 819.2A
Runoff Coefficients for Undeveloped Areas
Watershed Types
Extreme High Normal Low
Relief .28 -.35 .20 -.28 .14 -.20 .08 -.14

Steep, rugged Hilly, with average Rolling, with Relatively flat land,
terrain with average slopes of 10 to 30% average slopes of with average slopes
slopes above 30% 5 to 10% of 0 to 5%
Soil .12 -.16 .08 -.12 .06 -.08 .04 -.06

Infiltration
No effective soil Slow to take up water, Normal; well High; deep sand or
cover, either rock or clay or shallow loam drained light or other soil that takes
thin soil mantle of soils of low infiltration medium textured up water readily,
negligible capacity, imperfectly or soils, sandy very light well
infiltration capacity poorly drained loams, silt and drained soils
silt loams
Vegetal .12 -.16 .08 -.12 .06 -.08 .04 -.06

Cover
No effective plant Poor to fair; clean Fair to good; Good to excellent;
cover, bare or very cultivation crops, or about 50% of about 90% of
sparse cover poor natural cover, less area in good drainage area in
than 20% of drainage grassland or good grassland,
area over good cover woodland, not woodland or
more than 50% of equivalent cover
area in cultivated
crops
Surface .10 -.12 .08 -.10 .06 -.08 .04 -.06

Storage
Negligible surface Low; well defined Normal; High; surface
depression few and system of small considerable storage, high;
shallow; drainageways; no ponds surface drainage system not
drainageways steep or marshes depression sharply defined;
and small, no storage; lakes and large floodplain
marshes pond marshes storage or large
number of ponds or
marshes
Given An undeveloped watershed consisting of; Solution:

1) rolling terrain with average slopes of 5%, Relief 0.14
2) clay type soils, Soil Infiltration 0.08
3) good grassland area, and Vegetal Cover 0.04
4) normal surface depressions. Surface Storage 0.06
C = 0.32
Find The runoff coefficient, C, for the above
watershed.
December 30, 2015
regression equations are considered the

Table 819.2B best estimates of flood frequency and are
used to reduce the time-sampling error that
Runoff Coefficients for may occur in a station flood-frequency
Developed Areas (1) estimate.
Type of Drainage Area Runoff (d) The flood-frequency flows and the
Coefficient maximum peak discharges at several
stations in a region should be used
Business: whenever possible for comparison with the
Downtown areas 0.70 - 0.95 peak discharge estimated at an ungaged site
using a rainfall-runoff approach or regional
Neighborhood areas 0.50 - 0.70
regression equation. The watershed
Residential: characteristics at the ungaged and gaged
Single-family areas 0.30 - 0.50 sites should be similar.
Multi-units, detached 0.40 - 0.60 (4) National Resources Conservation Service
Multi-units, attached 0.60 - 0.75 (NRCS) Methods. The Soil Conservation
Suburban 0.25 - 0.40 Service's SCS (former title) National
Apartment dwelling areas 0.50 - 0.70 Engineering Handbook, 1972, and their 1975,
"Urban Hydrology for Small Watersheds",
Industrial: Technical Release 55 (TR-55), present a
Light areas 0.50 - 0.80 graphical method for estimating peak
Heavy areas 0.60 - 0.90 discharge. Most NRCS equations and curves
Parks, cemeteries: 0.10 - 0.25 provide results in terms of inches of runoff for
unit hydrograph development and are not
Playgrounds: 0.20 - 0.40 applicable to the estimation of a peak design
Railroad yard areas: 0.20 - 0.40 discharge unless the design hydrograph is first
Unimproved areas: 0.10 - 0.30 developed in accordance with prescribed
Lawns: NRCS procedures. NRCS methods and
procedures are applicable to drainage areas less
Sandy soil, flat, 2% 0.05 - 0.10
than 3 square miles (approx. 2,000 acres) and
Sandy soil, average, 2-7% 0.10 - 0.15 result in a design hydrograph and design
Sandy soil, steep, 7% 0.15 - 0.20 discharge that are functionally acceptable to
Heavy soil, flat, 2% 0.13 - 0.17 form the basis for the design of highway
drainage facilities.
Heavy soil, average, 2-7% 0.18 - 0.22
Heavy soil, steep, 7% 0.25 - 0.35 819.3 Statistical Methods
Streets: Statistical methods of predicting stream discharge
Asphaltic 0.70 - 0.95 utilize numerical data to describe the process.
Concrete 0.80 - 0.95 Statistical methods, in general, do not require as
much subjective judgment to apply as the
Brick 0.70 - 0.85 previously described deterministic methods. They
Drives and walks 0.75 - 0.85 are usually well documented mathematical
Roofs: 0.75 - 0.95 procedures which are applied to measured or
observed data. The accuracy of statistical methods
NOTES:
can also be measured quantitatively. However, to
(1) From HDS No. 2.
assure that statistical method results are valid, the
method and procedures used should be verified by
an experienced engineer with a thorough
knowledge of engineering statistics.
December 30, 2015
Table 819.2C
Regional Flood-Frequency Equations
NORTH COAST (REGION 1) LAHONTAN (REGION 2) SIERRA NEVADA (REGION 3)
𝑄𝑄2 = 1.82𝐴𝐴0.904 𝑃𝑃 0.983 𝑄𝑄2 = 0.0865𝐴𝐴0.736 𝑃𝑃1.59 𝑄𝑄2 = 2.43𝐴𝐴0.924 𝐸𝐸 −0.646 𝑃𝑃 2.06
𝑄𝑄5 = 8.11𝐴𝐴0.887 𝑃𝑃 0.772 𝑄𝑄5 = 0.182𝐴𝐴0.733 𝑃𝑃1.58 𝑄𝑄5 = 11.6𝐴𝐴0.907 𝐸𝐸 −0.566 𝑃𝑃1.70
CENTRAL COAST (REGION 4) SOUTH COAST (REGION 5) Q = Peak discharge in CFS, subscript
𝑄𝑄2 = 0.00459𝐴𝐴0.856 𝑃𝑃 2.58 𝑄𝑄2 = 3.60𝐴𝐴0.672 𝑃𝑃 0.753 indicates recurrence interval, in
years
𝑄𝑄5 = 0.0984𝐴𝐴0.852 𝑃𝑃1.97 𝑄𝑄5 = 7.43𝐴𝐴0.739 𝑃𝑃 0.872
A = Drainage area, in square miles
𝑄𝑄10 = 0.460𝐴𝐴0.846 𝑃𝑃1.66 𝑄𝑄10 = 6.56𝐴𝐴0.783 𝑃𝑃1.07 P = Mean annual precipitation, in
𝑄𝑄25 = 2.13𝐴𝐴0.842 𝑃𝑃1.34 𝑄𝑄25 = 4.71𝐴𝐴0.832 𝑃𝑃1.32 inches (Use link to Table 2)
http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2012/51
𝑄𝑄50 = 5.32𝐴𝐴0.840 𝑃𝑃1.15 𝑄𝑄50 = 3.84𝐴𝐴0.864 𝑃𝑃1.47 13/
𝑄𝑄100 = 11.0𝐴𝐴0.840 𝑃𝑃 0.994 𝑄𝑄100 = 3.28𝐴𝐴0.891 𝑃𝑃1.59 E = Mean basin elevation, in feet
Drainage Area Mean Annual Mean Basin Elevation

Region
(A), mi2 Precipitation (P), in. (E), ft.
North Coast 0.04 – 3200 20 – 125 -
Lahontan (1) 0.45 – 1500 13 – 85 -
Sierra Nevada 0.07 – 2000 15 – 100 90 – 11,000
Central Coast 0.11 – 4600 7 – 46 -
South Coast 0.04 – 850 10 – 45 -
Desert (2) N/A N/A -
NOTES:
(1) See Index 819.7 for hydrologic procedures for those portions of the Northeast Region classified as desert.
(2) USGS equations not recommended. See Index 819.7.
December 30, 2015
Figure 819.2C
Regional Flood-Frequency Regions
December 30, 2015
Analysis of gaged data permits an estimate of the frequency distribution may not be a straight
peak discharge in terms of its probability or line.
frequency of recurrence at a given site. This is
It should be noted Log-Pearson III analysis is
done by statistical methods provided sufficient data
not typically appropriate for desert regions
are available at the site to permit a meaningful
where flood-frequency analysis is complicated
statistical analysis to be made. Water Resources
due to short annual peak-flow records (usually
Council Bulletin 17B, 1981, suggests at least
less than 20 years) and numerous zero flows
10 years of record are necessary to warrant a
and (or) low outliers for many stream gages.
statistical analysis. The techniques of inferential
statistics, the branch of statistics dealing with the (2) Log-normal Distribution. The characteristics
inference of population characteristics, are of the log-normal distribution are the same as
described in HDS No. 2. those of the classical normal or Gaussian
mathematical distribution except that the flood
Before data on the specific characteristics to be
flow at a specified frequency is replaced with
examined can be properly analyzed, it must be
its logarithm and has a positive skew. Positive
arranged in a systematic manner. Several computer
skew means that the distribution is skewed
programs are available which may be used to
toward the high flows or extreme values.
systematically arrange data and perform the
statistical computations. (3) Gumbel Extreme Value Distribution. The
characteristics of the Gumbel extreme value
Some common types of data groupings are as
distribution (also known as the double
follows:
exponential distribution of extreme values) are
• Magnitude that the mean flood occurs at the return period
• Time of Occurrence of Tr = 2.33 years and that it has a positive
skew.
• Geographic Location
Several standard frequency distributions have been Special probability paper has been developed
studied extensively in the statistical analysis of for plotting log-normal and Gumbel
hydrologic data. Those which have been found to distributions so that sample data, if it is
be most useful are: distributed according to prescribed equations,
will plot as a straight line.
(1) Log-Pearson Type III Distribution. The
popularity of the Log-Pearson III distribution is (4) L-Moments. L-moments provide an alternative
simply based on the fact that it very often fits way of describing frequency distributions to
the available data quite well, and it is flexible traditional product moments (conventional
enough to be used with a wide variety of moments) or maximum likelihood approach.
distributions. Because of this flexibility, the They are less susceptible to the presence of
U.S. Water Resources Council recommends its outliers in the data than conventional moments
use by all U.S. Government agencies as the and are well suited for the analysis of data that
standard distribution for flood frequency exhibit significant skewness. See overview of
studies. methodology used for NOAA Atlas 14 (Index
4.6.1);
The three parameters necessary to describe the http://www.nws.noaa.gov/oh/hdsc/PF_docume
Log-Pearson III distribution are: nts/Atlas14_Volume6.pdf
• Mean flow 819.4 Hydrograph Methods
• Standard deviation
Hydrograph methods of estimating design
• Coefficient of skew discharge relate runoff rates to time in response to a
Log-Pearson III distributions are usually design storm. When storage must be considered,
plotted on log-normal probability graph paper such as in reservoirs, natural lakes, and detention
for convenience even though the plotted basins used for drainage or sediment control, the
volume of runoff must be known. Since the
December 30, 2015
hydrograph is a plot of flow rate against time, the • Specify appropriate losses within the model to
area under the hydrograph represents volume. If compute the amount of precipitation lost to
streamflow and precipitation records are available other processes, such as infiltration that does
for a particular design site, the development of the not run off the watershed.
design hydrograph is a straight forward procedure.
Rainfall records can be readily analyzed to estimate • Specify appropriate parameters to compute
unit durations and the intensity which produces runoff hydrograph resulting from excess (not
peak flows near the desired design discharge. lost) precipitation.
It often becomes necessary to develop a • If necessary for the application, specify

hydrograph when watersheds have complex runoff appropriate parameters to compute the lagged
characteristics, such as in urban and desert areas or and attenuated hydrograph at downstream
when storage must be evaluated. locations. Basic steps to developing and
applying a rainfall-runoff model for predicting
Hydrograph methods apply for watersheds in which the required design flow are illustrated in
the time of concentration is longer than the duration Figure 819.4A.
of peak rainfall intensity of the design storm.
Precipitation applied to the watershed model is Several methods of developing hydrographs are
uniform spatially, but varies with time. The described in HDS No. 2. For basins without data,
hydrograph method accounts for losses (e.g., soil two of the most widely used methods described in
infiltration) and transforms the remaining (excess) HDS No. 2 for developing synthetic hydrographs
rainfall into a runoff hydrograph at the outlet of the are:
watershed. There is no size limitation for watershed • Unit Hydrograph (UH)
area. See HDS No. 2; Figure 2-13, for the
relationship of discharge and area and effects of • SCS Triangular Hydrograph
basin characteristics on the flood hydrograph. Both methods however tend to be somewhat
Hydrographs are also useful for determining the inflexible since storm duration is determined by
combined rates of flow for two drainage areas empirical relations.
which peak at different times. Hydrographs can For basins with data, HEC-HMS includes the
also be compounded and lagged to account for following direct runoff models:
complex storms of different duration and varying
intensities. • User specified UH
See Index 819.7(1)(d) for a detailed discussion on • Parametric and Synthetic UH
rainfall-runoff simulation for California’s Desert • Snyder’s UH
regions. The same four general concepts are
applicable elsewhere. Other considerations may • Clark’s UH
include:
• ModClark Model
• Development of a rainfall hyetograph
• Kinematic-wave Model
• Base flow separation For more information see; Chapters 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8
• Direct runoff hydrograph derivation of the user guide for HEC-HMS. See:
http://www.hec.usace.army.mil/software/hec-
• Unit hydrograph derivation; and hms/documentation/HEC-
• Other synthetic unit hydrographs (e.g., HMS_Technical%20Reference%20Manual_(CPD-
Snyder’s or Clark’s methods) 74B).pdf
Successful application of most hydrograph methods 819.5 Transfer of Data
requires the designer to: Often the highway engineer is confronted with the
• Define the temporal and spatial distribution of problem where stream flow and rainfall data are not
the desired design storm.
July 1, 2015
Figure 819.4A
Basic Steps to Developing and Applying a Rainfall-runoff Model for
Predicting the Required Design Flow
December 30, 2015
available for a particular site but may exist at points options are provided to aid in modeling and
upstream or in an adjacent or nearby watersheds. understanding the drainage characteristics of terrain
surfaces.
(a) If the site is on the same stream and near a
gaging station, peak discharges at the gaging WMS uses three primary data sources for model
station can be adjusted to the site by drainage development:
area ratio and application of some appropriate
(1) Geographic Information Systems (GIS) Data
power to each drainage area. The USGS may
be helpful in suggesting appropriate powers to (2) Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) published by
be used for a specific hydrologic region. the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) at both
1:24,000 and 1:250,000 for the entire U.S. (the
(b) If a design hydrograph can be developed at an
1:24,000 data coverage is not complete)
upstream point in the same watershed, the
procedure described in HDS No. 2 can be used (3) Triangulated Irregular Networks (TINs)
to route the design hydrograph to the point of Automated basin delineation, slope calculation, and
interest. basin characteristics are some of the many features
(c) IDF curve generating software, such as available within USGS StreamStats. See;
NOAA’s Atlas 14, have internal routines that http://water.usgs.gov/osw/streamstats/.
provide interstation interpolation that accounts AutoDesk Civil 3D/Hydraflow uses NRCS,
not only for distance from gauge stations, but Rational and Modified Rational methods to
other factors, such as elevation. No additional generate runoff hydrographs, however, HEC-HMS
effort is required by the designer to address provides more comprehensive modeling options for
distance/location effects. runoff and channel flow.
819.6 Hydrologic Software Two other hydrologic software models that are
Most simulation models require a significant commonly used are the Army Corps of Engineers'
amount of input data that must be carefully HEC-HMS and the National Resources
examined by a competent and experienced user Conservation Service's TR-20 Method.
with an understanding of the mathematical nuances The NOAA Atlas 14 product is the preferred IDF
of the model and the hydrologic nuances of the tool for State highway projects. See
particular catchment to assure reliable results. http://hdsc.nws.noaa.gov/hdsc/pfds/.
See Table 808.1 for hydrologic software packages 819.7 Region-Specific Analysis
that have been reviewed and deemed compatible
with Departmental procedures. (1) Desert Hydrology
A summary of hydrologic software is listed in Figure 819.7A shows the different desert
Table 808.1. Several of those listed are described regions in California, each with distinct
below. hydrological characteristics that will be
explained in this section.
Watershed Modeling System (WMS) is a
comprehensive environment for hydrologic (a) Storm Type
analysis. It was developed by the Engineering Summer Convective Storms - In the
Computer Graphics Laboratory of Brigham Young southern desert regions (Owens
University in cooperation with the U.S. Army Valley/Mono Lake, Mojave Desert,
Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station Sonoran Desert and the Colorado Desert),
(WES). the dominant storm type is the local
WMS merges information obtained from terrain thunderstorm, specifically summer
models and GIS with industry standard hydrologic convective storms. These storms are
analysis models such as HEC-HMS and TR-55. characterized by their short duration, over a
relatively small area (generally less than 20
Terrain models can obtain geometric attributes such mi2), and intense rainfall, which may result
as area, slope and runoff distances. Many display
July 1, 2015
Table 819.5A
Summary of Methods for Estimating Design Discharge
METHOD ASSUMPTIONS DATA NEEDS
Rational • Small catchment (< 320 acres)
• Concentration time < 1 hour Time of Concentration
• Storm duration >or = concentration time Drainage area
• Rainfall uniformly distributed in time Runoff coefficient
and space Rainfall intensity
• Runoff is primarily overland flow (http://hdsc.nws.noaa.gov/hd
• Negligible channel storage sc/pfds/)
USGS Regional Regression • Catchment area limit varies by region
Equations: • Basin not located on floor of Sacramento or Drainage area
San Joaquin Valleys Mean annual precipitation
USGS Water-Resources • Peak discharge value for flow under natural Altitude index
Investigation 77-21* conditions unaffected by urban development
and little or no regulation by lakes or
Improved Highway Design reservoirs
Methods for Desert Storms • Ungaged channel
NRCS (TR55) • Small or midsize catchment (< 3 square miles)
• Concentration time range from 0.1-10 hour 24-hour rainfall
(tabular hydrograph method limit < 2 hour) Rainfall distribution
• Runoff is overland and channel flow Runoff curve number
• Simplified channel routing Concentration time
• Negligible channel storage Drainage area
Unit Hydrograph (Gaged data) • Midsize or large catchment (0.20 square miles
to 1,000 square miles) Rainfall hyetograph and
Synthetic Unit Hydrograph • Uniformity of rainfall intensity and duration direct runoff hydrograph for
• Rainfall-runoff relationship is linear one or more storm events
SCS Unit Hydrograph • Duration of direct runoff constant for all
uniform-intensity storms of same duration, Drainage area and
S-Graph Unit Hydrograph regardless of differences in the total volume of lengths along main channel
the direct runoff. to point on watershed divide
• Time distribution of direct runoff from a given and opposite watershed
storm duration is independent of concurrent centroid (Synthetic Unit
runoff from preceding storms Hydrograph)
• Channel-routing techniques used to connect
streamflows
Statistical (gage data) • Midsized and large catchments with stream 10 or more years of gaged
Log-Pearson Type III gage data flood records
• Appropriate station and/or generalized skew
Bulletin #17B – U.S. coefficient relationship applied
Department of the Interior • Channel storage
Basin Transfer of Gage Data • Similar hydrologic characteristics Discharge and area for gaged
• Channel storage watershed
Area for ungaged watershed
* Magnitude and Frequency of Floods in California

December 30, 2015
in flash floods. These summer convective (c) Rational Method

storms may occur at any time during the
The recommended upper limit for
year, but are most common and intense
California’s desert regions is 160 acres
during the summer. General summer
(0.25 mi2).
storms can also occur over these desert
regions, but are rare, and usually occur from Table 819.7B lists common runoff
mid-August to early October. The rainfall coefficients for Desert Areas. These
intensity can vary from heavy rainfall to coefficients are applicable for storms with
heavy thunderstorms. 2-year to 10-year return intervals, and
should be adjusted for larger, less frequent
General Winter Storm - In the Antelope
storms by multiplying the coefficient by an
Valley and Northern Basin and Range
appropriate frequency factor, C(f), as stated
regions, the dominant storm type is the
in Index 819.2(1) of this manual. The
general winter storm. These storms are
frequency factors, C(f), for 25-year, 50-year
characterized by their long duration, 6 hours
and 100-year storms are 1.1, 1.2 and 1.25,
to 12 hours or more, and possibly
respectively. Under no circumstances
intermittently for 3 days to 5 days over a
should the product of C(f) times the runoff
relatively large area. General winter storms
coefficient exceed 1.0. It is recommended
produce the majority of large peaks in the
not to use a value that exceeds 0.95.
northern desert areas; the majority of the
largest peaks discharge greater than or equal (d) Rainfall-Runoff Simulation
to 20 cfs/mi2 occurred during the winter and A rainfall-runoff simulation approach uses a
fall months in the Owens Valley/Mono numerical model to simulate the rainfall-
Lake and Northern Basin and Range runoff process and generate discharge
regions. At elevations above 6,000 ft, much hydrographs. It has four main components:
of the winter precipitation falls as snow; rainfall; rainfall losses; transformation of
however, snowfall doesn’t play a significant effective rainfall; and channel routing.
role in flood-producing runoff in the
southern desert regions (Colorado Desert, (1) Rainfall
Sonoran Desert, Antelope Valley and (a) Design Rainfall Criteria
Mojave Desert). In the northern desert
regions (Owens Valley/Mono Lake and The selection of an appropriate
Northern Basin and Range), more floods storm duration depends on a
from snowmelt occur at lower elevations; number of factors, including the
more than 50 percent of runoff events size of the watershed, the type of
occurred in spring, most likely snowmelt, rainfall-runoff approach and
but did not produce large floods. hydrologic characteristics of the
study watershed. Watershed sizes
(b) Regional Regression are analyzed below and are applied
Newly developed equations for California’s to California’s Desert regions in
Desert regions are shown on Table 819.7A. Table 819.7C.
While the regression equations for the Drainage Areas < 20 mi2 –
Northern Basin and Range region provide Drainage areas less than 20 mi2 are
more accurate results than previous USGS primarily representative of summer
developed equations, there is some convective storms, and usually
uncertainty associated with them. occur in the southern desert regions
Therefore, the development of a rainfall- (Colorado Desert, Sonoran Desert,
runoff model may be preferable for ungaged Antelope Valley and Mojave Desert
watersheds in this region. regions). Since these storms
usually result in intense rainfall,
over a small drainage area and are
December 30, 2015
generally less than 6 hours, it is 1,000-year) and durations

recommended that a 6-hour local (5-miunte to 60-day)
design storm be utilized.
• Associated Federal Geographic
Drainage Areas > 20 mi2 & Data Committee-compliant
≤ 100 mi2 – For drainage areas metadata
between 20 mi2 and 100 mi2, the
critical storm can be a summer • Data series used in the analysis:
convective storm or a general annual maximum series and
thunderstorm. For these drainage partial duration series
areas, it is recommended that both • Temporal distributions of heavy
6-hour and 24-hour design storm be precipitation (6-hour, 12-hour,
analyzed, and the storm that 24-hour and 96-hour)
produces the largest peak discharge
be chosen as the design basis. • Seasonal exceedance graphs:
counts of events that exceed the
Drainage Areas > 100 mi2 – Since 1 in 2, 5, 10, 25, 50 and 100
general storms usually cover a annual exceedance probabilities
larger area and have a longer for the 60-minute, 24-hour,
duration, for drainage areas greater 48-hour and 10-day durations
than 100 mi2, a 24-hour design
storm is recommended. (c) Depth-Area Reduction
(b) Depth-Duration-Frequency Depth-area reduction is the method

Characteristics of applying point rainfall data from
one or several gaged stations within
In 2011, NOAA published updated a watershed to that entire
precipitation-frequency estimates watershed. NOAA Atlas 14
for all of California including the provides high resolution depth-
desert regions, often cited as NOAA duration frequency point data which
Atlas 14. This information is can then be computed with other
available online, via the depth-duration frequency data in
Precipitation Frequency Data that cell to obtain an average depth-
Server at duration frequency over a
http://hdsc.nws.noaa.gov/hdsc/pfds/ watershed. However, as this data is
NOAA Atlas 14 supersedes available as point data, the average
NOAA’s previous effort, NOAA calculated depth-duration frequency
Atlas 2, the 2004 Atlas 14 which may not represent an entire
covered the Southwestern U.S., and watershed. To convert this point
California’s Department of Water data into watershed area, a
Resources (DWR) Bulletin No. 195, conversion factor may be applied,
where their coverages overlap. of which, two methods are
NOAA Atlas 14 provides a vast available: applying a reduction
amount of information, which factor; or applying depth-area
includes: reduction curves.
• Point Estimates NOAA is currently working on

updating the reduction factors, thus,
• ESRI shapefiles and ArcInfo until then, the depth-area reduction
ASCII grids curves are recommended. Two
• Color cartographic maps: all depth-area reduction curves are
possible combination of available: (1) the depth curves in
frequencies (2-year to National Weather Service’s
July 1, 2015
Figure 819.7A
Desert Regions in California
July 1, 2015
Table 819.7A
Regional Regression Equations for California’s Desert Regions
Region(s) Associated Regression Equations
Colorado Desert 𝑄𝑄2 = 8.57𝐴𝐴0.5668 𝑄𝑄25 = 291.04𝐴𝐴0.5939
Sonoran Desert
𝑄𝑄5 = 80.32𝐴𝐴0.541 𝑄𝑄50 = 397.82𝐴𝐴0.6189
Antelope Valley
Mojave Desert 𝑄𝑄10 = 146.33𝐴𝐴0.549 𝑄𝑄100 = 557.31𝐴𝐴0.6619
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 1.485 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 − 28 −0.680

𝑄𝑄2 = 0.007𝐴𝐴1.839 � � � �
1000 10
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 0.882 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 − 28 −0.030
𝑄𝑄5 = 0.212𝐴𝐴1.404 � � � �
1000 10
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 0.531 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 − 28 0.525
𝑄𝑄10 = 1.28𝐴𝐴1.190 � � � �
1000 10
Owens Valley / Mono Lake
0.962
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 0.107 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 − 28 1.199
𝑄𝑄25 = 9.70𝐴𝐴 � � � �
1000 10
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 −0.170 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 − 28 1.731
𝑄𝑄50 = 34.5𝐴𝐴0.829 � � � �
1000 10
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 −0.429 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 − 28 2.241
𝑄𝑄100 = 111𝐴𝐴0.707 � � � �
1000 10
0.415
𝐻𝐻 0.928
𝑄𝑄2 = 5.320𝐴𝐴 � �
1000
𝐻𝐻 0.296
𝑄𝑄5 = 29.71𝐴𝐴0.360 � �
1000
𝐻𝐻 −0.109
𝑄𝑄10 = 85.76𝐴𝐴0.314 � �
1000
Northern Basin & Range
0.253
𝐻𝐻 −0.555
𝑄𝑄25 = 275.5𝐴𝐴 � �
1000
𝐻𝐻 −0.867
𝑄𝑄50 = 616.9𝐴𝐴0.281 � �
1000
𝐻𝐻 −1.154
𝑄𝑄100 = 1293𝐴𝐴0.166 � �
1000
December 30, 2015
Table 819.7B HYDRO-40

(http://www.nws.noaa.gov/oh/hdsc/
Runoff Coefficients for Desert PF_related_studies/TechnicalMemo
randum_HYDRO40.pdf); and (2)
Areas the depth curves in NOAA Atlas 2.
Runoff The general consensus is that the
Type of Drainage Area depth curves from HDRO-40 better
Coefficient
represent the desert areas of
Undisturbed Natural Desert or California, and are recommended
Desert Landscaping (without 0.30 – 0.40 for the southern desert regions
impervious weed barrier) (Colorado Desert, Sonoran Desert,
Desert Landscaping (with Antelope Valley and the Mojave
0.55 – 0.85
impervious weed barrier) Desert). For the upper regions
Desert Hillslopes 0.40 – 0.55 (Owens Valley/Mono Lake and
Mountain Terrain (slopes Northern Basin and Range), the
0.60 – 0.80 curves from NOAA Atlas 2 are
greater than 10%)
recommended.
The variables needed to apply depth
Table 819.7C area reduction curves to a
watershed are a storm frequency
Watershed Size for California (i.e., a 100-year storm), storm
Desert Regions duration (i.e., a 30-minutes storm),
and the area of a watershed. For
Duration (based on example, if a 100-year storm with a
Desert Region duration of 60-minutes were to be
Watershed size)
analyzed over a desert watershed of
6-hour local storm
25 mi2, then using Figure 819.7B,
(≤ 20 mi2)
the Depth-Area Ratio would be
Southern Regions 6-hour local storm and 0.64. This ratio would then be
(Colorado Desert, 24-hour general storm multiplied by the averaged point-
Sonoran Desert, (between 20 mi2 & rainfall data, which would then
Antelope Valley and 100 mi2); use the result in the rainfall over the entire
Mojave Desert) larger peak discharge watershed.
24-hour general storm Point rainfall data is available from
(> 100 mi2) NOAA Atlas 14, which must then
be converted to area rainfall data.
Northern Regions
Conversions are available in two
(Owens Valley/Mono
24-hour general storm forms: (1) the National Weather
Lake and Northern
Service’s HYDRO-40, and (2)
Basin and Range)
NOAA Atlas 2. The National
Weather Service’s HYDRO-40 is
recommended for the southern
desert regions (Colorado Desert,
Sonoran Desert, Antelope Valley
and Mojave Desert.) NOAA Atlas
2 is recommended for the northern
desert regions (Owens Valley/Mono
Lake and Northern Basin and
Range).
December 30, 2015
Figure 819.7B
Example Depth-Area Reduction Curve
60-MINUTES
AREA (mi2)
December 30, 2015
(2) Rainfall Losses Table 819.7D

Antecedent Moisture Condition – The
Antecedent Moisture Condition (AMC) Hydrologic Soil Groups
is the amount of moisture present in the
soil before a rainfall event, or Hydrologic
Soil Group Characteristics
conversely, the amount of moisture the Soil Group
soil can absorb before becoming Soils having high infiltration
saturated (Note: the AMC is also rates, even when thoroughly
referred to as the Antecedent Runoff wetted and consisting chiefly of
Condition [ARC]). Once the soil is A deep, well to excessively-drained
saturated, runoff will occur. Generally, sands or gravels. These soils
the AMC is classified into three levels: have a high rate of water
• AMC I – Lowest runoff potential. transmission.
The watershed soils are dry enough Soils having moderate infiltration
to allow satisfactory grading or rates when thoroughly wetted
cultivation to take place. and consisting of moderately
• AMC II – Moderate runoff B deep to deep, moderately fine to
potential. AMC II represents an moderately coarse textures.
average study condition. These soils have a moderate rate
of water transmission.
• AMC III – Highest runoff potential.
The watershed is practically Soils having slow infiltration
saturated from antecedent rainfall. rates when thoroughly wetted
and consisting chiefly of soils
Because of the different storm types with a layer that impedes
present in California’s desert regions, C
downward movement of water,
AMC I is recommended as design or soils with moderately fine to
criteria for local thunderstorms, and fine texture. These soils have a
AMC II is recommended as design slow rate of water transmission.
criteria for general storms.
Soils having very slow
Curve Number – The curve number was infiltration rates when thoroughly
developed by the then Soil wetted and consisting chiefly of
Conservation Service (SCS), which is clay soils with a high swelling
now called the National Resource potential, soils with a permanent
Conservation Service (NRCS). The D high water table, soils with a
curve number is a function of land use, claypan or clay layer at or near
soil type and the soil’s AMC, and is the surface, and shallow soils
used to describe a drainage area’s storm over nearly impervious material.
water runoff potential. The soil type(s) These soils have a very slow rate
are typically listed by name and can be of water transmission.
obtained in the form of a soil survey
from the local NRCS office. The soil
Table 819.7E are representative of
surveys classify and present the soil
types into 4 different hydrological AMC II, and need to be converted to
represent AMC I, and AMC III,
groups, which are shown in Table
819.7D. From the hydrological groups, respectively. The following equations
curve numbers are assigned for each to convert an AMC II curve number to
an AMC I or AMC III curve number,
possible land use-soil group
combinations, as shown in Table using a five-day period as the minimum
for estimating the AMC’s:
819.7E. The curve numbers shown in
December 30, 2015
4.2CN AMCII number of small rural basins

CN AMCI = throughout the U.S. The definition
10 − 0.058CN AMCII of the SCS unit hydrograph
normally only requires one
23CN AMCII
CN AMCIII = parameter, which is lag, defined as
10 + 0.13CN AMCII the time from the centroid of
precipitation excess to the time of
Note: The AMC of a storm area may the peak of the unit hydrograph.
vary during a storm; heavy rain falling For ungaged watersheds, the SCS
on AMC I soil can change the AMC suggests that the unit hydrograph
from I to II or III during the storm. lag time, tlag, may be related to time
(3) Transformation of concentration tc, through the
following relation:
Total runoff can be characterized by
two types of runoff flow: direct runoff t lag = 0.6t c
and base flow. Direct runoff is
classified as storm runoff occurring The time of concentration is the
during or shortly after a storm event. sum of travel time through sheet
Base flow is classified as subsurface flow, shallow concentrated flow,
runoff from prior precipitation events and channel flow segments. A
and delayed subsurface runoff from the typical SCS Unit Hydrograph is
current storm. The transformation of similar to Figure 816.5.
precipitation runoff to excess can be
A unit hydrograph can be derived
accomplished using a unit hydrograph
from observed rainfall and runoff,
approach. The unit hydrograph method
however either may be unavailable.
is based on the assumption that a
In such cases, a synthetic unit
watershed, in converting precipitation
hydrograph can be developed using
excess to runoff, acts as a linear, time-
the S-graph method.
invariant system.
(b) S-graph
Unit Hydrograph Approach
An S-graph is a summation
A unit hydrograph for a drainage area is
hydrograph of runoff that would
a curve showing the time distribution of
result from the continuous
runoff that would result at the
generation of unit storm effective
concentration point from one inch of
rainfall over the area (1-inch per
effective rainfall over the drainage area
hour continuously). The S-graph
above that point.
method uses a basic time-runoff
The unit hydrograph method assumes relationship for a watershed type in
that watershed discharge is related to a form suitable for application to
the total volume of runoff, that the time ungaged basins, and is based upon
factors that affect the unit hydrograph percent of ultimate discharge and
shape are invariant, and that watershed percent of lag time. Several
rainfall-runoff relationships are entities, including local and Federal
characterized by watershed area, slope agencies, have developed location-
and shape factors. specific S-Graphs that are
(a) SCS Unit Hydrogoraph applicable to California’s desert
regions.
The SCS dimensionless unit
hydrograph is based on averages of The ordinate is expressed in percent
unit hydrographs derived from of ultimate discharge, and the
gaged rainfall and runoff for a large abscissa is expressed in percent of
July 1, 2015
Table 819.7E
Curve Numbers for Land Use-Soil Combinations
Curve Number by Hydrological Soil
Average % Group
Description Typical Land Uses
Impervious
A B C D
Residential Multi-Family, Apartments,
65 77 85 90 92
(High Density) Condos, Trailer Parks
Residential
Single-Family, Lot Size ¼ to
(Medium 30 57 72 81 86
1 acre
Density)
Residential Single-Family, Lot Size 1
15 48 66 78 83
(Low Density) acre or greater
Strip Commercial, Shopping
Commercial 85 89 92 94 95
Centers, Convenience Stores
Light Industrial, Schools,
Industrial 72 81 88 91 93
Prisons, Treatment Plants
Disturbed / Gravel Parking, Quarries,
5 76 85 89 91
Transitional Land Under Development
Cultivated Land, Row Crops,
Agricultural 5 67 77 83 87
Broadcast Legumes
Open Land – Parks, Golf Courses,
5 39 61 74 80
Good Greenways, Grazed Pasture
Hay Fields, Tall Grass,
Meadow 5 30 58 71 78
Ungrazed Pasture
Woods Forest Litter and Brush
5 30 55 70 77
(Thick Cover) adequately cover soil
Woods Light Woods, Woods-Grass
5 43 65 76 82
(Thin Cover) Combination, Tree Farms
Paved Parking, Shopping
Impervious 95 98 98 98 98
Malls, Major Roadways
Water Bodies, Lakes, Ponds,
Water 100 100 100 100 100
Wetlands
December 30, 2015
lag time. Ultimate discharge, which is recommended. The U.S. Bureau

is the maximum discharge of Reclamation (USBR) S-Graph
attainable for a given intensity, (http://www.usbr.gov/pmts/hydrauli
occurs when the rate of runoff on cs_lab/pubs/manuals/SmallDams.pd
the summation hydrograph reaches f) is recommended for watersheds
the rate of effective rainfall. in the Northern Basin and Range.
Lag for a watershed is an empirical As an alternative to the above
expression of the hydrologic mentioned S-Graphs, the SCS Unit
characteristics of a watershed in Hydrograph may also be used.
terms of time. It is defined as the
(4) Channel Routing
elapsed time (in hours) from the
beginning of unit effective rainfall Channel routing is a process used to
to the instant that the summation predict the temporal and spatial
hydrograph for the point of variation of a flood hydrograph as it
concentration reaches 50 percent of moves through a river reach. The
ultimate discharge. When the lags effects of storage and flow resistance
determined from summation within a river reach are reflected by
hydrographs for several gaged changes in hydrograph shape and timing
watersheds are correlated to the as the flood wave moves from upstream
hydrologic characteristics of the to downstream. The four commonly
watersheds, an empirical used methods are the kinematic wave
relationship is usually apparent. routing, Modified Puls routing,
This relationship can then be used Muskingum routing, and Muskingum-
to determine the lags for Cunge routing. The advantages and
comparable ungaged drainage areas disadvantages for each method are
for which the hydrologic described in Table 819.7F. Table
characteristics can be determined, 819.7G provides guidance for selecting
and a unit hydrograph applicable to an appropriate routing method. The
the ungaged watersheds can be Muskingum-Cunge routing method can
easily derived. handle a wide range of flow conditions
with the exception of significant
Figure 819.7C is a sample
backwater. The Modified Puls routing
illustration of a San Bernardino
can model backwater effects. The
County S-Graph, while Figure
kinematic wave routing method is often
819.7D shows an example S-Graph
applied in urban areas with well defined
from USBR.
channels.
Recommendations
(5) Storm Duration and Temporal
For watersheds with mountainous Distribution
terrain/high elevations in the upper
Temporal distribution is the time-
portions, the San Bernardino
related distribution of the precipitation
County Mountain S-Graph
depth within the duration of the design
(http://www.sbcounty.gov/dpw/floo
storm. Temporal distribution patterns of
dcontrol/pdf/HydrologyManual.pdf)
design storms are based on the storm
is recommended. For watersheds in
duration. The temporal distribution
the southern desert regions with
pattern for short-duration storms
limited or no mountainous
represents a single cloudburst and is
terrain/high elevations, the San
based on rainfall statistics. The
Bernardino County Desert S-Graph
temporal distribution for long-duration
(http://www.sbcounty.gov/dpw/floo
storms resembles multiple events and is
dcontrol/pdf/HydrologyManual.pdf)
July 1, 2015
Figure 819.7C
San Bernardino County Hydrograph for Desert Areas
Discharge in Percent of Ultimate Discharge (K)
Time in Percent of Lag
July 1, 2015
Figure 819.7D
USBR Example S-Graph
July 1, 2015
Table 819.7F
Channel Routing Methods
Routing Method Pros Cons
 A conceptual model  Cannot handle hydrograph
assuming a uniform flow attenuation, significant
condition. overbank storage, and
 In general, works best for backwater effects.
steep (10 ft/mile or greater),
Kinematic Wave
well defined channels.
 It is often applied in urban
areas because the routing
reaches are generally short
and well-defined.
 Known as storage routing or  Need to use hydraulic model
level-pool routing. to define the required
Modified Puls  Can handle backwater storage-outflow relationship.
effects through the storage-
discharge relationship.
 Directly accommodates the  The coefficients cannot be
looped relationship between used to model a range of
storage and outflow. floods that may remain in
Muskingum  A linear routing technique bank or go out of bank.
that uses coefficients to Therefore, not applicable to
account for hydrograph significant overbank flows.
timing and diffusion.
 A nonlinear coefficient  It cannot account for
method that accounts for backwater effects.
hydrograph diffusion based  Not very applicable for
on physical channel routing a very rapidly rising
properties and the inflowing hydrograph through a flat
hydrograph. channel.
Muskingum-Cunge  The parameters are
physically based.
 Has been shown to compare
well against the full
unsteady flow equations
over a wide range of flow
conditions.
December 30, 2015
Table 819.7G patterned after historic events. Since the

storm events in California’s desert
Channel Method Routing regions are made up of two distinct
Guidance separate storm types, the summer
convective storm and the general winter
… THEN THIS storm, the design storm durations
ROUTING should be adjusted accordingly. For
IF THIS IS TRUE…
MODEL MAY BE California’s desert regions, the 100-year
CONSIDERED. 6-hour storm is recommended for the
No observed hydrograph convective storms, and the 100-year
Kinematic wave; 24-hour storm is recommended for the
data available for
Muskingum-Cunge winter storms. Table 819.7H
calibration
summarizes the design storm durations
Significant backwater for the different desert regions
will influence discharge Modified Puls throughout California.
hydrograph
(2) Sediment/Debris Bulking
Modified Puls;
Flood wave will go out of Muskingum-Cunge The process of increasing the water volume
bank, into floodplain. with 8-point cross flow rate to account for high concentrations of
section sediment and debris is defined as bulking.
Debris carried in the flow can be significant and
Channel slope > 0.002 greatly increase flow volume conveyed from a
TSouo watershed. This condition occurs frequently in
and ≥ 171 Any
do mountainous areas subject to wildfires with soil
erosion, as well as arid regions around alluvial
Channel slopes from fans and other geologic activity. By bulking the
0.002 to 0.0004 and Muskingum-Cunge; flow through the use of an appropriate bulking
TSouo Modified Puls; factor, bridge openings and culverts can be
≥ 171 Muskingum properly sized for areas that experience high
do sediment and debris concentration.
Channel slope < 0.0004 (a) Bulking Factor
1/ 2
 g  Muskingum-Cunge Bulking factors are applied to a peak (clear-
and TS o   ≥ 30 water) flow to obtain a total or bulked peak
 do  flow, which provides a safety factor in the
Channel slope < 0.0004 sizing of hydraulic structures. For a given
1/ 2 watershed, a bulking factor is typically a
 g  None function of the historical concentration of
and TSo   < 30 sediment in the flow.
 do 
(b) Types of Sediment/Water Flow
Notes:
T = hydrograph duration The behavior of flood flows will vary
uo = reference mean velocity depending on the concentration of sediment
do = reference flow depth in the mixed flow, where the common flow
So = channel slope types are normal stream flow,
hyperconcentrated flow, and debris flow.
(1) Normal Stream Flow
During normal stream flow, the
sediment load minimally influences
flow behavior or characteristics.
December 30, 2015
Table 819.7H
Design Storm Durations
100-year, 6-hour 100-year, 24-hour Regional

Drainage Area Desert Region Convective Storm General Storm Regression
(AMC I) (AMC II) Equations
Colorado Desert X
Sonoran Desert X
< 20 mi2
Mojave Desert X
Antelope Valley Desert X
Colorado Desert X* X*
Sonoran Desert X* X*
> 20 mi2
Mojave Desert X* X*
Antelope Valley Desert X* X*
Owens Valley/Mono Lake X**
Northern Basin & Range X

* For watersheds greater than 20 mi2 in the southern desert regions, both the 6-hour Convective Storm
(AMC I) and the 24-hour General Storm (AMC II) should be analyzed and the larger of the two peak
discharges selected.
** The use of regional regression equations is recommended where streamgage data are not available;
otherwise, hydrologic modeling could be performed with snowmelt simulation.
December 30, 2015
Because sediment has little impact, this For a typical debris flow event, clear-
type of flow can be analyzed as a water flow occurs first, followed by a
Newtonian fluid and standard hydraulic frontal wave of mud and debris. Low
methods can be used. The upper limit frequency events, such as the 100-year
of sediment concentration by volume flood, most likely contain too much
for normal stream flow is 20 percent water to produce a debris flow event.
and bulking factors are applied Normally, smaller higher frequency
cautiously because of the low events such as 10-year or 25-year floods
concentration. (See Table 819.7I) The actually have a greater probability of
small amount of sediment is conveyed yielding a debris flow event requiring a
by conventional suspended load and higher bulking factor.
bed-load.
As outlined in Table 819.7I, bulking
(2) Hyperconcentrated Flow factors for debris flow vary between
1.67 and 2.00.
Hyperconcentrated flow is more
commonly known as mud flow. (c) Sediment/Debris Flow Potential
Because of potential for large volumes
(1) Debris Hazard Areas
of sand in the water column, fluid
properties and transport characteristics Mass movement of rock, debris, and
change and the mixture does not behave soil is the main source of bulked flows.
as a Newtonian fluid. However, basic This can occur in the form of falls,
hydraulic methods and models are still slides, or flows. The volume of
generally accepted and used for up to sediment and debris from mass
40 percent sediment concentration by movement can enter streams depending
volume. For hyperconcentrated flow, upon hydrologic and geologic
bulking factors vary between 1.43 and conditions.
1.67 as shown in Table 819.7I. The location of these debris-flow
(3) Debris Flow hazards include:
In debris flow state, behavior is (a) At or near the toe of slope 2:1 or
primarily controlled by the composition steeper
of the sediment and debris mixture, (b) At or near the intersection of
where the volume of clay can have a ravines and canyons
strong influence in the yield strength of
the mixture. (c) Near or within alluvial fans
During debris flow, which has an upper (d) Soil Slips
limit of 50 percent sediment Soil slips commonly occur at toes of
concentration by volume, the slope between 2:1 and 3:1. Flowing
sediment/debris/water mixture no mud and rocks will accelerate down a
longer acts as a Newtonian fluid and slope until the flow path flattens. Once
basic hydraulic equations do not apply. energy loss occurs, rock, mud, and
If detailed hydraulic analysis or vegetation will be deposited. Debris
modeling of a stream operating under flow triggered by soil slips can become
debris flow is needed, FLO2DH is the channelized and travel distances of a
recommended software choice given its mile or more. Figure 819.7E shows the
specific debris flow capabilities. HEC- potential of soil slip versus slope angle.
RAS is appropriate for normal stream As seen in this Figure, the flatter the
flow and hyperconcentrated flow, but slope angle, the less effect on flow
cannot be applied to debris flow. speed and acceleration.
December 30, 2015
Table 819.7I
Bulking Factors & Types of Sediment Flow
Sediment Concentration by Sediment Concentration by

Sediment Flow Weight Volume
Bulking Factor
Type
(100% by WT = 1 x 106 ppm) (specific gravity = 2.65)
0 0 0
Normal Streamflow 1.11 23 10
1.25 40 20
Hyperconcentrated
1.43 52 30
Flow
1.67 53 40
Debris Flow
2.00 72 50
Landslide 2.50 80 60
3.33 87 70
December 30, 2015
can be eroded from mountain canyons down

Figure 819.7E to the lower fan surface. Given this
situation, the alignments of the active
Soil Slips vs. Slope Angle channels and the overall footprint of an
alluvial fan are dynamic. Also, the
concentration of sediment/debris volume is
dynamic, ranging from negligible to
50 percent.
Alluvial fans can be found on soil maps,
geologic maps, topographic maps, and
aerial photographs, in addition to the best
source which is a site visit. An example of
an alluvial fan, shown in plan view, is in
Figure 819.7F and Figure 872.3.
Figure 819.7F
(2) Geologic Conditions
Alluvial Fan
In the Transverse Ranges that include
the San Gabriel and San Bernardino
Mountains along the southern and
southwestern borders of the Antelope
Valley (Region 3) and Mojave Desert
(Region 4), their substrate contains
sedimentary rocks, fractured basement
rocks, and granitic rocks. This type of
geology has a high potential of debris
flow from the hillsides of these regions.
While debris flow potential is less
prevalent, it is possible to have this
condition in the Peninsula Ranges that
include the San Jacinto, Santa Rosa, and
Laguna Mountains along the western
border of the Colorado Desert (Region
1).
(d) Alluvial Fans
An alluvial fan is a landform located at the
mouth of a canyon, formed in the shape of a
fan, and created over time by deposition of (e) Wildfire and Debris Flow
alluvium. With the apex of the fan at the
mouth of a canyon, the base of the fan is After fires have impacted a watershed,
spread across lower lying plains below the sediment/debris flows are caused by surface
apex. Over time, alluvial fans change and erosion from rainfall runoff and landsliding
evolve when sediment conveyed by flood due to rainfall infiltration into the soil. The
flows or debris flows is deposited in active most dominant cause is the runoff process
channels, which creates a new channel because fire generally reduces the
within the fan. Potentially, alluvial fan infiltration and storage capacity of soils,
flood and debris flows travel at high which increases runoff and erosion.
velocity, where large volumes of sediment
December 30, 2015
(1) Fire Impacts sediment concentration by volume,

which is about the upper limit of debris
Arid regions do not have the same
flow. A higher percentage of sediment
density of trees and vegetation as a
concentration would be considered a
forested area, but the arid environment
landslide instead of debris flow.
still falls victim to fires in a similar
Basically, the San Bernardino County
manner. Prior to a fire, the arid region
method assumes debris flow conditions
floor can contain a litter layer (leaves,
for all types of potential bulking.
needles, fine twigs, etc.), as well as a
duff layer (partially decomposed (2) Los Angeles County
components of the litter layer). These
The Los Angeles (LA) County method
layers absorb water, provide storage of
uses a watershed-specific bulking
rainfall, and protect hillsides. Once
factor. The LA County Sedimentation
these layers are burned, they become
Manual, which is located at
ash and charcoal particles that seal soil
http://ladpw.org/wrd/publication,
pores and decrease infiltration potential
divides the county into three basins: LA
of the soil, which ultimately increases
Basin, Santa Clara River Basin, and
runoff and erosion.
Antelope Valley, where only the latter
In order to measure the burn severity of is located in the Caltrans desert
watersheds with respect to hydrologic hydrology regions. The production of
function, classes of burn severity have sediment from these basins is dependent
been created. These classes are simply upon many factors, including rainfall
stated as high, moderate, low, and intensity, vegetative cover, and
unburned. From moderate and high watershed slope. For each of the LA
burn severity slopes, the generated County basins, Debris Potential Area
sediment can reach channels and (DPA) zones have been identified.
streams causing bulked water flows
The Design Debris Event (DDE) is
during storm events. Generally
associated with the 50-year, 24-hour
speaking, the denser the vegetation in a
duration storm, and produces the
watershed prior to a fire and the longer
quantity of sediment from a saturated
a fire burns within this watershed, the
watershed that is recovered from a burn.
greater the effects on soil hydrologic
For example, a DPA 1 zone sediment
function. This occurs due to the fire
rate of 120,000 cubic yards per square
creating a water repellent layer at or
mile has been established as the DDE
near the soil surface, the loss of soil
for a 1-square mile drainage area. This
structural stability, which all results in
sediment rate is recommended for areas
more runoff and erosion. After a one or
of high relief and granitic formation
two-year period, the water repellent
found in the San Gabriel Mountains. In
layer is usually washed away.
other mountainous areas in LA County,
(f) Local Agency Methods For Predicting lower sediment rates have been
Bulking Factors assigned based on differences in
topography, geology, and precipitation.
(1) San Bernardino County
For the Antelope Valley basin, eight
Instead of conducting a detailed debris production curves have been
analysis, San Bernardino Flood Control generated, and can be found in
District uses a set value for bulking of 2 Appendix B of the LA County
(i.e., 100 percent bulking) for any Sedimentation Manual along with
project where bulking flows may be curves for the other basins.
anticipated. This bulking factor of 2
In addition to sediment production
can also be expressed as a 50 percent
rates, a series of peak bulking factor
December 30, 2015
curves are presented for each LA original application was intended for
County basin in Appendix B of the LA coastal-draining watersheds, this
manual. The peak bulking factor can be method can also be used for desert-
estimated using these curves based on draining watersheds for the same local
the watershed area and the DPA. mountain ranges.
Within the Antelope Valley basin,
The LA District method can be applied
maximum peak bulking factors range
to watershed areas between 0.1 and
from 1.2 in DPA Zone 11 to 2.00 in
200 mi2 that have a high proportion of
DPA Zone 1.
their total area in steep, mountainous
(3) Riverside County topography. This method is best used
for watersheds that have received
For Riverside County, a bulking factor
significant antecedent rainfall of at least
is calculated by estimating a
2 inches in 48 hours. Given this
sediment/debris yield rate for a specific
criteria, the LA District method is more
storm event, and relating it to the largest
suited for general storms rather than
expected sediment yield of
thunderstorms.
120,000 cubic yards per square mile for
a 1-square mile watershed from the LA As shown below, this method specifies
County procedure. This sediment rate a few equations to estimate unit debris
from LA County is based on the DPA yield dependent upon the areal size of
Zone 1 corresponding to the highest the watershed. These equations were
expected bulking factor of 2.00. developed by multiple regression
analysis using known sediment/debris
The bulking factor equation from the
data.
Riverside County Hydrology Manual
(http://www.floodcontrol.co.riverside.ca For watersheds between 3 and 10 mi2,
.us/downloads/planning/) is as follows: the following equations can be used:
D log Dy = 0.85 log Q + 0.53 log RR
BF = 1 +
120,000 +0.04 log A + 0.22 FF
BF = Bulking Factor Dy = Unit Debris Yield (cubic
yards/square mile)
D = Design Storm Sediment/Debris
Production Rate For Study RR = Relief Ratio (foot/mile), which is
Watershed (cubic yards/square the difference in elevation
mile) between the highest and lowest
points on the longest watercourse
(4) U.S. Army Corps of Engineers- LA divided by the length of the
District longest watercourse
This method, located at A = Drainage Area (acres)
http://www.spl.usace.army.mil/resreg/ht FF = Fire Factor
docs/Publications.html, was originally
Q = Unit Peak Runoff (cfs/square
developed to calculate unit
mile)
sediment/debris yield values for an “n-
year” flood event, and applied to the In order to account for increase in
design and analysis of debris catching debris yield due to fire, a non-
structures in coastal Southern California dimensional fire factor (FF) is a
watersheds. The LA District method component in the equation above. The
considers frequency of wildfires and FF varies from 3.0 to 6.5, with a higher
flood magnitude in its calculation of factor indicating a more recent fire and
unit debris yield. Even though its more debris yield. This factor is 3.0 for
December 30, 2015
desert watersheds because the threat and Finally, the bulking factor equation is
effects from fire are minimal. expressed as follows:
Because the data used to develop the 𝑄𝑄𝑤𝑤 − 𝑄𝑄𝑠𝑠
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = = 1 + 𝑎𝑎𝑄𝑄𝑤𝑤 𝑛𝑛−1
regression equation was taken from the 𝑄𝑄𝑠𝑠
San Gabriel Mountains, an Adjustment
and Transposition (A-T) factor needs to (g) Recommended Approach For
be applied to debris yields from the Developing Bulking Factors
study watersheds. The A-T factor can A flow chart outlining the recommended
be determined using Table 819.7J by bulking factor process is provided in Figure
finding the appropriate subfactor for 819.7H, which considers all bulking
each of the four groups (Parent methods presented in Topic 819.
Material, Soils, Channel Morphology,
As shown in Steps 4 and 5 on Figure
and Hillside Morphology) and summing
the subfactors. This sum is the total A- 819.7H, a bulking factor can be found by:
T factor, and it must be multiplied by (1) Identifying the type of flow within a
the sediment/debris yield. watershed and selecting the
Once the sediment/debris yield value corresponding bulking factor, or
has been determined based on the unit (2) Using one of the agency methods to
yield, a bulking factor can be calculated calculated the bulking factor.
using a series of equations. The first
If the type of flow cannot be identified or
equation provides a translation of the
the project site does not fall within the
clear-water discharge to a sediment
recommended boundaries from Figure
discharge. This clear-water discharge
819.7H, use the LA District Method
should be developed using a hydrograph
because it is the most universal given its use
method and a hydrologic modeling
of the Adjustment-Transposition factor
program, such as HEC-HMS.
based on study watershed properties.
𝑄𝑄𝑠𝑠 = 𝑎𝑎𝑄𝑄𝑤𝑤 𝑛𝑛
QS = Sediment Discharge (cfs)
QW = 100-Year Clear-Water Discharge
(cfs)
a = Bulking Constant
For a majority of sand-bed streams, the
value of “n” is between 2 and 3. When
n=2, the bulking factor is linearly
proportional to the clear-water
discharge. As for the coefficient “a”, it
is determined with the following
equation:
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠
𝑎𝑎 =
∆𝑡𝑡 ∑ 𝑄𝑄𝑤𝑤 2
VS = Total Sediment Volume (cubic
feet)
∆t = Computation Time Interval Used
In Developing Hydrograph From
Hydrologic Model (e.g. HEC-
HMS)
December 30, 2015
Table 819.7J
Adjustment-Transportation Factor Table
A-T SUBFACTOR
0.25 0.20 0.15 0.10 0.05

PARENT
SUBFACTOR GROUP 1
MATERIAL
Folding Severe Moderate Minor
Faulting Severe Moderate Minor
Fracturing Severe Moderate Minor
Weathering Severe Moderate Minor
SOILS SUBFACTOR GROUP 2
Soils Non-cohesive Partly Cohesive Highly Cohesive
Minimal Soil Well-developed
Soil Profile Some Soil Profile
Profile Soil Profile
Much Bare Soil in Some Bare Soil in Little Bare Soil in
Soil Cover
Evidence Evidence Evidence
Many Clay
Clay Colloids Few Clay Colloids Some Clay Colloids
Colloids
CHANNEL
SUBFACTOR GROUP 3
MORPHOLOGY
Bedrock Few Segments in Some Segments in Many Segments in
Exposures Bedrock Bedrock Bedrock
> 30% of Banks 10 – 30% of Banks < 10% of Banks
Bank Erosion
Eroding Eroding Eroding
Bed and Bank Non-cohesive Bed Partly Cohesive Bed and Mildly Cohesive
Materials and Banks Banks Bed and Banks
Vegetation Poorly Vegetated Some Vegetation Much Vegetation
Headcutting Many Headcuts Few Headcuts No Headcutting
HILLSLOPE
SUBFACTOR GROUP 4
MORPHOLOGY
Rills and Gullies Many and Active Some Signs Few Signs
Many Scars
Mass Movement Few Signs Evident No Signs Evident
Evident
Many Eroding Few Eroding
Debris Deposits Some Eroding Deposits
Deposits Deposits
The A-T Factor is the sum of the A-T Subfactors from all 4 Subfactor Groups.
December 30, 2015
Figure 819.7H
Recommended Bulking Factor Selection Process
December 30, 2015
Figure 819.7H
Recommended Bulking Factor Selection Process (Cont’d)
September 1, 2006
on spread footings with the streambed serving as

CHAPTER 820 the bottom of the culvert.
CROSS DRAINAGE Bridges are not designed to take advantage of
submergence to increase hydraulic capacity even
Topic 821 - General though some are designed to be inundated under
flood conditions. For economic and hydraulic
Index 821.1 - Introduction efficiency, culverts should be designed to operate
with the inlets submerged during flood flows, if
Cross drainage involves the conveyance of surface conditions permit. At many locations, either a
water and stream flow across or from the highway bridge or a culvert will fulfill both the structural
right of way. This is accomplished by providing and hydraulic requirements of the stream crossing.
either a culvert or a bridge to convey the flow from Structure choice at these locations should be based
one side of the roadway to the other side or past on construction and maintenance costs, risk of
some other type of flow obstruction. failure, risk of property damage, traffic safety, and
In addition to the hydraulic function, a culvert must environmental and aesthetic considerations.
carry construction and highway traffic and earth Culverts are usually considered minor structures,
loads. Culvert design, therefore, involves both but they are of great importance to adequate
hydraulic and structural design. This section of the drainage and the integrity of the highway facility.
manual is basically concerned with the hydraulic Although the cost of individual culverts is
design of culverts. Both the hydraulic and relatively small, the cumulative cost of culvert
structural designs must be consistent with good construction constitutes a substantial share of the
engineering practice and economics. An itemized total cost of highway construction. Similarly, the
listing of good drainage design objectives and cost of maintaining highway drainage features is
economic factors to be considered are listed in substantial, and culvert maintenance is a large
Index 801.4. Information on strength require- share of these costs. Improved service to the
ments, height of fill tables, and other physical public and a reduction in the total cost of highway
characteristics of alternate culvert shapes and construction and maintenance can be achieved by
materials may be found in Chapter 850, Physical judicious choice of design criteria and careful
Standards. attention to the hydraulic design of each culvert.
More complete information on hydraulic principles
and engineering techniques of culvert design may 821.2 Hydrologic Considerations
be found in the FHWA Hydraulic Design Series Before the hydraulic design of a culvert or bridge
No. 5, "Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts". can begin, the design discharge, the quantity (Q) of
Key aspects of culvert design and a good overview water in cubic feet per second, that the facility may
of the subject are more fully discussed in the reasonably be expected to convey must be
AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines. estimated. The most important step is to establish
Structures measuring more than 20 feet along the the appropriate design storm or flood frequency for
roadway centerline are conventionally classified as the specific site and prevailing conditions. Refer to
bridges, assigned a bridge number, and maintained Chapter 810, Hydrology and specifically Topics
and inspected by the Division of Structures. 818 and 819 for useful information on hydrological
However, some structures classified as bridges are analysis methods and considerations.
designed hydraulically and structurally as culverts. When empirical methods are used to estimate the
Some examples are certain multi-barreled box peak rate of runoff, design Q, for important
culverts and arch culverts. Culverts, as distin- culverts, it is recommended that at least two
guished from bridges, are usually covered with methods be tried. By comparing results a more
embankment and have structural material around reliable discharge estimate for the drainage basin
the entire perimeter, although some are supported may be obtained. This is more important for large
October 4, 2010
basins having areas in excess of 320 acres than for The designer must use discretion in applying the
small basins. above criteria. Design floods selected on this basis
may not be the most appropriate for specific
821.3 Selection of Design Flood project site locations or conditions. The cost of
providing facilities to pass peak discharges
As discussed in Index 818.2, there are two
suggested by these criteria need to be balanced
recognized alternatives to selecting the design
against potential damage to the highway and
flood frequency (probability of exceedance) in the
adjacent properties upstream and downstream of
hydraulic design of bridges and culverts. They are:
the site. The selection of a design flood with a
• By policy - using a preselected recurrence lesser or greater peak discharge may be warranted
interval. and justified by economic analysis. A more
• By analysis - using the recurrence interval frequent design flood than a 4% probability of
that is most cost effective and best satisfies exceedance (25-year) should not be used for the
the specific site conditions and associated hydraulic design of culverts under freeways and
risks. other highways of major importance.
Alternatively, where predictive data is limited, or
Although either of these alternatives may be used
where the risks associated with drainage facility
exclusive of the other, in actual practice both
failure are high, the greatest flood of record or
alternatives are often considered and used jointly
other suitably large event should be evaluated by
to select the flood frequency for hydraulic design.
the designer.
For culverts and bridges, apply the following
general rules for first consideration in the process When channels or drainage facilities under the
for ultimate selection of the design flood. jurisdiction of local flood control agencies or
Corps of Engineers are involved, the design flood
(1) Bridges. The basic rule for the hydraulic must be determined through negotiations with the
design of bridges (but not including those agencies involved.
culvert structures that meet the definition of a
bridge) is that they should pass a 2 percent 821.4 Headwater and Tailwater
probability flood (50-year). Freeboard, vertical (1) Headwater. The term, headwater, refers to the
clearance between the lowest structural depth of the upstream water surface measured
member and the water surface elevation of the from the invert of the culvert entrance. Any
design flood, sufficient to accommodate the culvert which constricts the natural stream
effects of bedload and debris should be flow will cause a rise in the upstream water
provided. Alternatively, a waterway area surface.
sufficient to pass the 1 percent probability It is not always economical or practical to
flood without freeboard should be provided. utilize all the available head. This applies
Two feet of freeboard is often assumed for particularly to situations where debris must
preliminary bridge designs. The effects of pass through the culvert, where a headwater
bedload and debris should be considered in the pool cannot be tolerated, or where the natural
design of the bridge waterway. gradient is steep and high outlet velocities are
(2) Culverts. There are two primary design objectionable.
frequencies that should be considered: The available head may be limited by the fill
• A 10% probability flood (10-year) without height, damage to the highway facility, or the
causing the headwater elevation to rise effects of ponding on upstream property. The
above the inlet top of the culvert and, extent of ponding should be brought to the
attention of all interested functions, including
• A 1% probability flood (100-year) with-out
Project Development, Maintenance, and Right
headwaters rising above an elevation that
of Way.
would cause objectionable backwater
depths or outlet velocities. Full use of available head may develop some
vortex related problems and also develop
July 1, 2015
objectionable velocities resulting in abrasion of (b) If FEMA models/studies are not available,
the culvert itself or in downstream erosion. In base design on the more severe of the two
most cases, provided the culvert is not flowing following conditions:
under pressure, an increase in the culvert size
• Q100 flood event combined with a
does not appreciably change the outlet
condition of mean sea level, or
velocities.
• Q2 flood event combined with a
(2) Tailwater. The term, tailwater, refers to the
condition of Design High Tide (See
water located just downstream from a
Figure 873.2A)
structure. Its depth or height is dependent
upon the downstream topography and other See Index 814.5 for resources on tide data. Tidal
influences. High tailwater could submerge the data includes the influence of storm surge as part
culvert outlet. of the tidal record, but does not account for waves,
run-up or other wind driven elements that could
821.5 Effects of Tide, Storm Surge and impact structures. From a conveyance perspective,
Wind waves and run-up are not a consideration, but
should be considered for their respective impacts to
Culvert outfalls and bridge openings located where
the physical integrity of the drainage structure and
they may be influenced by ocean tides require
for potential operational impacts to the highway.
special attention to adequately describe the 1%
probability of exceedance event.
Topic 822 - Debris Control
Detailed statistical analysis and use of unsteady
flow models, including two-dimensional models,
provide the most accurate approach to describing 822.1 Introduction
the combined effects of tidal and meteorological Debris, if allowed to accumulate either within a
events. Such special studies are likely warranted culvert or at its inlet, can adversely affect the
for major hydraulic structures (See HEC-25, hydraulic performance of the facility. Damage to
“Highways in the Coastal Environment”), but the roadway and to upstream property may result
would typically be too costly and time consuming from debris obstructing the flow into the culvert.
for lesser facilities. Fortunately, for many Coordination with district maintenance forces can
situations, this detailed analysis already exists in help in identifying areas with high debris potential
the form of FEMA hydraulic models which include and in setting requirements for debris removal
tidal impacts at stream/ocean confluences. where necessary.
For all situations, the following guidelines are The use of any device that can trap debris must be
recommended: thoroughly examined prior to its use. In addition to
(1) Bridges the more common problem of debris accumulation
at the culvert entrance, the use of safety end grates
(a) If available, use information contained in or other appurtenances can also lead to debris
FEMA hydraulic studies. accumulation within the culvert at the outlet end.
(b) If FEMA models/studies are not available, Evaluation of this possibility, and appropriate
conduct site specific analysis of tidal data preventive action, must be made if such end
in conjunction with meteorological storm treatment is proposed.
data to arrive at the exceedance probability 822.2 Debris Control Methods
necessary for design (See Index 821.3).
There are two methods of handling debris:
(2) Culverts
(1) Passing Through Culvert. If economically
(a) If available, use information contained in feasible, culverts should be designed to pass
FEMA hydraulic studies. debris. Culverts which pass debris often have
a higher construction cost. On the other hand,
July 1, 2015
retaining solids upstream from the entrance by debris control structures after problems develop.
means of a debris control structure often An assessment of potential damage due to debris
involves substantial maintenance cost and clogging if protection is not provided should be the
could negatively affect fish passage. An basis of design.
economic comparison which includes
evaluation of long term maintenance costs 822.4 Classification of Debris
should be made to determine the most
In order to properly determine methods for debris
reasonable and cost effective method of
control, an evaluation of the characteristics of
handling.
debris within flood flows must be made. Debris
(2) Interception. If it is not economical to pass can be either floating, suspended in the flood flow,
debris, it should be retained upstream from the or dragged/rolled along the channel bottom.
entrance by means of a debris control structure Typically, a flood event will deposit debris from all
or the use of a debris basin when the facility is of these types.
located in the vicinity of alluvial fans.
The FHWA Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 9
If drift and debris are retained upstream, a riser contains a debris classification system to aid the
or chimney may be required. This is a vertical designer in selecting the appropriate type of debris
extension to the culvert which provides relief control structure.
when the main entrance is plugged. The
increased head should not be allowed to 822.5 Types of Debris Control Structures
develop excessive velocities or cause pressure
The FHWA Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 9,
which might induce leakage in the culvert.
"Debris-Control Structures", shows types of debris
If debris control structures are used, access control structures and provides a guide for
must be provided for maintenance equipment selecting the type of structure suitable for various
to reach the site. This can best be handled by debris classifications.
coordination and field review with district
maintenance staff. Details of a pipe riser with
Topic 823 - Culvert Location
debris rack cage are shown on Standard Plan
D93C. See FHWA Hydraulic Engineering
Circular No. 9, "Debris-Control Structures" for 823.1 Introduction
further information. The culvert usually should be located so that the
The use of an upstream debris basin and thalweg of the stream to be accommodated,
downstream concrete lined channels, has often approaches and exits at the approximate centerline
been used by Local Agencies for managing of the culvert. However, for economic reasons, as a
flood flows on alluvial fans in urbanized areas. general rule, small skews should be eliminated,
Experience has shown that this approach is moderate skews retained and large skews reduced.
effective, however, the costs of building and Since the culvert typically acts as a constriction,
maintaining such facilities is high with a local velocities will increase through the barrel and
potential for sediment inflows greater than in the vicinity of the outlet. The location and
anticipated. design must be also sensitive to the environment
The District Hydraulics Engineer should be (fish passage etc).
consulted if a debris basin is being considered As a general rule, flood waters should be
for interception in the vicinity of an alluvial conducted under the highway at first opportunity
fan. minimizing scour of embankment and entrapment
of debris. Therefore, culverts should be placed at
822.3 Economics each defined swale to limit carryover of drainage
Debris problems do not occur at all suspected from one watershed to another.
locations. It is often more economical to construct
July 1, 2015
823.2 Alignment and Slope (c) In steep sloping areas such as on hillsides,
the overfill heights can be reduced by
The ideal culvert placement is on straight
designing the culvert on a slope flatter than
alignment and constant slope. Variations from a
natural slope. However, a slope should be
straight alignment should be only to accommodate
used to maintain a velocity sufficient to
unusual conditions. Where conditions require
carry the bedload. A spillway or
deviations from the tangent alignment, abrupt
downdrain can be provided at the outlet.
changes in direction or slope should be avoided in
Outlet protection should be provided to
order to maintain the hydraulic efficiency, and
prevent undermining. For the downdrain
avoid excessive maintenance. Angle points may be
type of installation, consideration must be
permissible in the absence of abrasives in the flow;
given to anchorage. This design is
otherwise, curves should be used. When angle
appropriate only where substantial savings
points are unavoidable, maintenance access may be
will be realized.
necessary. See Index 838.5 for manhole location
criteria.
Topic 824 - Culvert Type Selection
Curvature in pipe culverts is obtained by a series of
angle points. Whenever conditions require these
angle points in culvert barrels, the number of angle 824.1 Introduction
points must be specified either in the plans or in A culvert is a hydraulically short conduit which
the special provisions. The angle can vary conveys stream flow through a roadway
depending upon conditions at the site, hydraulic embankment or past some other type of flow
requirements, and purpose of the culvert. The obstruction. Culverts are constructed from a
angle point requirement is particularly pertinent if variety of materials and are available in many
there is a likelihood that structural steel plate pipe different shapes and configurations. Culvert
will be used. The structural steel plate pipe selection factors include roadway profiles, channel
fabricator must know what the required miters are characteristics, flood damage evaluations,
in order for the plates to be fabricated construction and maintenance costs, and estimates
satisfactorily. Manufacturers' literature should be of service life.
consulted to be sure that what is being specified
can be fabricated without excessive cost. 824.2 Shape and Cross Section
Ordinarily the grade line should coincide with the (1) Numerous cross-sectional shapes are available.
existing streambed. Deviations from this practice The most commonly used shapes include
are permissible under the following conditions: circular, box (rectangular), elliptical, pipe-arch,
(a) On flat grades where sedimentation may and arch. The shape selection is based on the
occur, place the culvert inlet and outlet cost of construction, the limitation on upstream
above the streambed but on the same slope. water surface elevation, roadway embankment
The distance above the streambed depends height, and hydraulic performance.
on the size length and amount of sediment (2) Multiple Barrels. In general, the spacing of
anticipated. pipes in a multiple installation, measured
If possible, a slope should be used that is between outside surfaces, should be at least
sufficient to develop self-cleaning half the nominal diameter with a minimum of 2
velocities. feet.
(b) Under high fills, anticipate greater See Standard Plan D89 for multiple pipe
settlement under the center than the sides headwall details.
of the fill. Where settlement is anticipated, Additional clearance between pipes is required
provisions should be made for camber. to accommodate flared end sections. See
July 1, 2015
Standard Plans, D94A & B for width of flared and subcritical flow within the culvert
end sections. barrel. However, it is possible for the
culvert to function with an unsubmerged
Topic 825 - Hydraulic Design of outlet under outlet control where flow
passes through critical depth in the vicinity
Culverts of the outlet.
For each type of control, different factors and
825.1 Introduction
formulas are used to compute the hydraulic
After the design discharge, (Q), has been estimated, capacity of a culvert. Under inlet control, the cross
the conveyance of this water must be investigated. sectional area of the culvert, inlet geometry, and
This aspect is referred to as hydraulic design. elevation of headwater at entrance are of primary
The highway culvert is a special type of hydraulic importance. Outlet control involves the additional
structure. An exact theoretical analysis of culvert consideration of the tailwater elevation of the
flow is extremely complex because the flow is outlet channel and the slope, roughness and length
usually non-uniform with regions of both gradually of the culvert barrel. A discussion of these two
varying and rapidly varying flow. Hydraulic jumps types of control with charts for selecting a culvert
often form inside or downstream of the culvert size for a given set of conditions is included in the
barrel. As the flow rate and tailwater elevations FHWA Hydraulic Design Series No. 5, "Hydraulic
change, the flow type within the barrel changes. Design of Highway Culverts."
An exact hydraulic analysis therefore involves 825.3 Computer Programs
backwater and drawdown calculations, energy and
momentum balance, and application of the results Numerous calculator and computer programs are
of hydraulic studies. available to aid in the design and analysis of
highway culverts. The major advantages of these
An extensive hydraulic analysis is usually programs over the traditional hand calculation
impractical and not warranted for the design of method are:
most highway culverts. The culvert design
procedures presented herein and in the referenced • Increased accuracy over charts and
publications are accurate, in terms of head, to nomographs.
within plus or minus 10 percent. • Rapid comparison of alternative sizes and
inlet configurations.
825.2 Culvert Flow
Familiarity with culvert hydraulics and traditional
The types of flow and control used in the design of methods of solution is necessary to provide a solid
highway culverts are: basis for designers to take advantage of the speed,
• Inlet Control - Most culverts operate under accuracy, and increased capabilities of hydraulic
inlet control which occurs when the culvert design computer programs.
barrel is capable of carrying more flow The hydraulic design calculator and computer
than the inlet will accept. Supercritical programs available from the FHWA are more fully
flow is usually encountered within the described in HDS No. 5, "Hydraulic Design of
culvert barrel. When the outlet is Highway Culverts."
submerged under inlet control, a hydraulic
The HY8 culvert hydraulics program provides
jump will occur within the barrel.
interactive culvert analysis. Given all of the
• Outlet Control - Outlet control occurs appropriate data, the program will compute the
when the culvert barrel is not capable of culvert hydraulics for circular, rectangular,
conveying as much flow as the inlet will elliptical, arch, and user-defined culverts.
accept. Culverts under outlet control
The logic of HY8 involves calculating the inlet and
generally function with submerged outlets
outlet control headwater elevations for the given
July 1, 2015
flow. The elevations are then compared and the End treatment, either flared end section or
larger of the two is used as the controlling headwall, is required for circular culverts 60 inches
elevation. In cases where the headwater elevation or more in diameter and for pipe arches of
is greater than the top elevation of the roadway equivalent size.
embankment, an overtopping analysis is done in
which flow is balanced between the culvert 826.3 Conventional Entrance Designs
discharge and the surcharge over the roadway. In
The inlet edge configuration is one of the prime
the cases where the culvert is not full for any part
factors influencing the hydraulic performance of a
of its length, open channel computations are
culvert operating in inlet control. The following
performed.
entrance types are frequently used.
825.4 Coefficient of Roughness (1) Projecting Barrel. A thin edge projecting inlet
can cause a severe contraction of the flow.
Suggested Manning's n values for culvert design
The effective cross sectional area of the barrel
are given in Table 852.1.
may be reduced to about one half the actual
available barrel area.
Topic 826 - Entrance Design The projecting barrel has no end treatment and
is the least desirable hydraulically. It is
826.1 Introduction economical but its appearance is not pleasing
The size and shape of the entrance are among the and use should be limited to culverts with low
factors that control the level of ponding at the velocity flows where head conservation, traffic
entrance. Devices such as rounded or beveled lips safety, and appearance are not important
and expanded entrances help maintain the velocity considerations.
of approach, increase the culvert capacity, and may Typical installations include an equalizer
lower costs by permitting a smaller sized culvert to culvert where ponding beyond the control of
be used. the highway facility occurs on both sides of the
The inherent characteristics of common entrance highway or where the flow is too small to fill
treatments are discussed in Index 826.4. End the minimum culvert opening.
treatment on large culverts is an important The projecting entrance inhibits culvert
consideration. Selecting an appropriate end efficiency. In some situations, the outlet end
treatment for a specific type of culvert and location may project beyond the fill, thus providing
requires the application of sound engineering security against erosion at less expense than
judgment. bank protection work.
The FHWA Hydraulic Design Series No. 5, Projecting ends may prove a maintenance
"Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts" combines nuisance, particularly when clearance to right
culvert design information previously contained in of way fence is limited.
HEC No. 5, No. 10, and No. 13. The hydraulic
performance of various entrance types is described (2) Flared End Sections. This end treatment
in HDS No. 5. provides approximately the same hydraulic
performance as a square-edge headwall and is
826.2 End Treatment Policy used to retain the embankment, improve the
The recommended end treatment for small culverts aesthetics, and enhance safety. Because
is the prefabricated flared end section. For safety, prefabricated flared end sections provide better
aesthetic, and economic reasons, flared end traffic safety features and are considered more
sections should be used at both entrance and outlet attractive than headwalls they are to be used
whenever feasible instead of headwalls. instead of headwalls whenever feasible.
July 1, 2015
Details of prefabricated flared end sections for (1) Expanded Entrances. Headwalls with straight
circular pipe in sizes 12 inches through flared wingwalls or warped wingwalls offer a
84 inches in diameter and pipe arches of more highly developed entrance appropriate
equivalent size are shown on Standard Plans for large culverts, regardless of type or shape
D94A & B. of barrel. The effect of such entrances can be
approximated more economically by a shaped
(3) Headwalls and Wingwalls. This end treatment
entrance using air blown mortar, concreted
may be required at the culvert entrance for the
riprap, sacked concrete or slope paving.
following reasons:
Straight flared wingwalls and warped
• To improve hydraulic efficiency.
wingwalls aid in maintaining the approach
• To retain the embankment and reduce velocity, align and guide drift, and funnel the
erosion of slopes. flow into the culvert entrance. To insure
enough velocity to carry drift and debris
• To provide structural stability to the
through the culvert or increase the velocity and
culvert ends and serve as a counterweight
thereby increase the entrance capacity, a
to offset buoyant or uplift forces.
sloping drop down apron at the entrance may
(4) Rounded Lip. This treatment costs little, be used. To minimize snagging drift, the
smoothes flow contraction, increases culvert standard plans require wingwalls to be flush
capacity, and reduces the level of ponding at with the culvert barrel. The flare angle may
the entrance. The box culvert and pipe range from 30 to 75 degrees; the exact angle is
headwall standard plans include a rounded lip. based on the alignment of the approach
The rounded lip is omitted for culverts less channel banks and not the axis of the culvert.
than 48 inches in diameter; however, the Greater efficiency is obtained when the top of
beveled groove end of concrete pipe at the the wingwall is the same elevation as the
entrance produces an effect similar to that of a headwall.
rounded lip.
Whether warped or straight flared wingwalls
(5) Mitered End. A mitered culvert end is formed are used depends on the shape of the approach
when the culvert barrel is cut to conform with channel. Straight flared wingwalls are
the plane of the embankment slope. Mitered appropriate for well defined channels with
entrances are not to be used. They are steep banks. Warped wingwalls are more
hydraulically less efficient than either flared suited to shallow trapezoidal approach
end sections or headwalls, and they are channels.
structurally unstable.
Usually it is more economical to transition
(6) Entrance Risers. At a location where the between the stream section and the culvert by
culvert would be subject to plugging, a vertical means of straight flared wingwalls or warped
pipe riser should be considered. Refer to Index wingwalls than to expand the culvert barrel at
822.2 for discussion on debris-control entrance. For a very wide channel, this
structures. transition may be combined with riprap, dikes,
or channel lining extending upstream to
826.4 Improved Inlet Designs complete the transition.
Entrance geometry refinements can be used to (2) Transitions. Elaborate transitions and throated
reduce the flow contraction at the inlet and openings for culverts may be warranted in
increase the capacity of culverts operating under special cases. Generally a highly developed
inlet control without increasing the headwater entrance is unnecessary if the shape of the
depth. The following entrance types improve culvert fits the approach channel. In wide flat
culvert inlet performance and can be provided at channels where ponding at entrance must be
reasonable cost. restricted, a wide shallow structure or multiple
July 1, 2015
conduit should be used if drift and debris are "Design of Riprap Revetment", No. 14, "Hydraulic
not a problem. Design of Energy Dissipators for Culverts and
Channels", and No. 15, "Design of Roadway
Throated or tapered barrels at entrance are
Channels with Flexible Linings", and "Hydraulic
more vulnerable to clogging by debris. They
Design of Stilling Basins and Energy Dissipators",
are not economical unless they are used for
Engineering Monograph No. 25 by the U. S.
corrective measures; for example, where there
Department of Interior, Bureau of Reclamation,
is a severe restriction in right of way width and
1964 (revised 1978). HY-8, within the Hydrain
it is necessary to increase the capacity of an
Integrated Computer Program System, provides
existing culvert structure.
designs for energy dissipators and follows the
For further information refer to HEC-9, HEC-14 method for design.
"Debris-Control Structures" and HDS 5,
Culvert outlet design should provide a transition
"Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts"
for the 100-year flood or design event from the
culvert outlet to a section in the natural channel
Topic 827 - Outlet Design where natural stage, width, and velocity will be
restored, or nearly so, with consideration of
827.1 General stability and security of the natural channel bed
and banks against scour.
The outlet velocity of highway culverts is usually
higher than the maximum natural stream velocity. If an outfall structure is required for transition,
This higher velocity can cause streambed scour and typically it will not have the same design as the
bank erosion for a limited distance downstream entrance.
from the culvert outlet. Wingwalls, if intended for an outlet transition
The slope and roughness of the culvert barrel are (expansion), generally should not flare at an angle
the principle factors affecting outlet velocity. The (in degrees) greater than 150 divided by the outlet
shape and size of a culvert seldom have a velocity in feet per second. However, transition
significant effect on the outlet velocity. When the designs fall into two general categories: those
outlet velocity is believed to be excessive and it applicable to culverts in outlet control (subcritical
cannot be satisfactorily reduced by adjusting the flow) or those applicable to culverts in inlet control
slope or barrel roughness, it may be necessary to (supercritical). The procedure outlined in HEC-14
use some type of outlet protection or energy for subcritical flow expansion design should also
dissipator. A method of predicting and analyzing be used for supercritical flow expansion design if
scour conditions is given in the FHWA publication the culvert exit Froude number (Fr) is less than 3,
"Scour at Culvert Outlets in Mixed Bed Materials", if the location where the flow conditions desired is
FHWA/RD - 82/011. within 3 culvert diameters of the outlet, and if the
slope is less than 10 percent. For supercritical flow
When dealing with erosive velocities at the outlet, expansions outside these limits, the energy
the effect on downstream property should be equation can be used to determine flow conditions
evaluated. leaving the transition.
827.2 Embankment Protection Warped endwalls can be designed to fit trapezoidal
or U-shaped channels, as transitions for moderate-
Improved culvert outlets are designed to restore to-high velocity (10 feet per second – 18 feet per
natural flow conditions downstream. Where second).
erosion is to be expected, corrective measures such
as bank protection, vertical flared wingwalls, For extreme velocity (exceeding 18 feet per
warped wingwalls, transitions, and energy second) the transition can be shortened by using an
dissipators may be considered. See Chapter 870, energy-dissipating structure.
"Channel and Shore Protection-Erosion Control",
FHWA Hydraulic Engineering Circulars No. 11,
July 1, 2015
• For fills higher than 12 feet, add 1 foot of

Topic 828 - Diameter and Length length at each end for each 10 foot
increment of fill height or portion thereof.
828.1 Introduction The additional length should not exceed
6 feet on each end.
From a maintenance point of view the minimum
diameter of pipe and the distance between • In cases of high fills with benches, the
convenient cleanout access points are important additional length is based on the height of
considerations. the lowest bench.
The following instructions apply to minimum pipe (c) Use the nearest combination of commercial
diameter and the length of pipe culvert. lengths which equal or exceed the length
obtained in (b) above.
828.2 Minimum Diameter
The minimum diameter for cross culverts under the Topic 829 - Special
roadway is 18 inches. For other than cross pipes, Considerations
the minimum diameter is 12 inches. For
maintenance purposes, where the slope of
829.1 Introduction
longitudinal side drains is not sufficient to produce
self-cleaning velocities, pipe sizes of 18 inches or In addition to the hydraulic design, other factors
more in diameter should be considered. must be considered to assure the integrity of
The minimum diameter of pipe to be used is further culvert installations and the highway.
determined by the length of pipe between
convenient cleanout access points. If pipe runs 829.2 Bedding and Backfill
exceed 100 feet between inlet and outlet, or The height of overfill a culvert will safely sustain
intermediate cleanout access, the minimum depends upon foundation conditions, method of
diameter of pipe to be used is 24 inches. When installation, and its structural strength and rigidity.
practicable, intermediate cleanout points should be
provided for runs of pipe 24 inches in diameter that Uniform settlement under both the culvert and the
exceed 300 feet in length. adjoining fill will not overstress flexible and
segmental rigid culverts. Unequal settlement,
If a choice is to be made between using 18-inch however, can result in distortion and shearing
diameter pipe with an intermediate cleanout in the action in the culvert. For rigid pipes this could
highway median or using 24-inch diameter pipe result in distress and disjointing of the pipe. A
without the median access, the larger diameter pipe flexible culvert accommodates itself to moderate
without the median access is preferred. unequal settlements but is also subject to shearing
action. Monolithic culverts can tolerate only a
828.3 Length minimal amount of unequal settlement, and require
The length of pipe culvert to be installed is favorable foundation conditions. Any unequal
determined as follows: settlement would subject a monolithic culvert to
severe shear stresses.
(a) Establish a theoretical length based on slope
stake requirements making allowance for end (1) Foundation Conditions. A slightly yielding
treatment. foundation under both the culvert and
adjoining fill is the foundation condition
(b) Adjust the theoretical length for height of fill generally encountered. The maximum height
by applying these rules: of cover tables given in Chapter 850 are based
• For fills 12 feet or less, no adjustment is on this foundation condition.
required.
July 1, 2015
Unyielding foundation conditions can produce For culverts where overfill requirements
high stresses in the culverts. Such stresses may exceed the limits shown on the tables a special
be counteracted by subexcavation and backfill. design must be prepared. Special designs are
to be submitted to the Division of Structures
The Standard Plans show details for shaped,
for review, or the Division of Structures may
sand, and soil cement bedding treatments.
be directly requested to prepare the design.
Foundation materials capable of supporting
Under any of the following conditions, the
pressures between 1.0 tons per square foot and
Division of Structures is to prepare the special
8.0 tons per square foot are required for
design:
culverts with cast-in-place footing or inverts,
such as reinforced concrete boxes, arches, and • Where foundation material will not support
structural plate arches. When culvert footing footing pressure shown on the Standard
pressures exceed 1.5 tons per square foot or the Plans for concrete arch and structural plate
diameter or span exceeds 10 feet, a geology vehicular undercrossings.
report providing a log of test boring is
required. • Where foundation material will not support
footing pressures shown in the Highway
Adverse foundation and backfill conditions Design Manual for structural plate pipe
may require a specially designed structure. arches or corrugated metal pipe arches.
The allowable overfill heights for concrete
arches, structural plate arches, and structural • Where a culvert will be subjected to
plate vehicular undercrossings are based on unequal lateral pressures, such as at the toe
existing soil withstanding the soil pressures of a fill or adjacent to a retaining wall.
indicated on the Standard Plans. A foundation Special designs usually require that a detailed
investigation should be made to insure that the foundation investigation be made.
supporting soils withstand the design soil
(4) Minimum Cover. When feasible, culverts
pressures for those types of structures.
should be buried at least 1 foot. For
(2) Method of Installation. Under ordinary construction purposes, a minimum cover of
conditions, the methods of installation 6 inches greater than the thickness of the
described in the Standard Specifications and structural cross section is desirable for all types
shown on the Standard Plans should be used. of pipe. The minimum thickness of cover for
For any predictable settlement, provisions for various type culverts under rigid or flexible
camber should be made. pavements is given in Table 856.5.
Excavation and backfill details for circular
concrete pipe, reinforced box and arch 829.3 Piping
culverts, and corrugated metal pipe and arch Piping is a phenomenon caused by seepage along a
culverts are shown on Standard Plans A62-D, culvert barrel which removes fill material, forming
A62DA, A62-E, and A62-F respectively. a hollow similar to a pipe. Fine soil particles are
(3) Height of Cover. There are several alternative washed out freely along the hollow and the erosion
materials from which acceptable culverts may inside the fill may ultimately cause failure of the
be made. Tables of maximum height of cover culvert or the embankment.
recommended for the more frequently used The possibility of piping can be reduced by
culvert shapes, sizes, corrugation decreasing the velocity of the seepage flow. This
configurations, and types of materials are given can be reduced by providing for watertight joints.
in Chapter 850. Not included, but covered in Therefore, if piping through joints could become a
the Standard Plans, are maximum earth cover problem, consideration should be given to
for reinforced concrete box culverts, reinforced providing for watertight joints.
concrete arches, and structural plate vehicular
undercrossing.
July 1, 2015
Piping may be anticipated along the entire length Reinforced concrete pipe should be anchored and
of the culvert when ponding above the culvert is have positive joints specified if either of the
expected for an extended length of time, such as following conditions is present:
when the highway fill is used as a detention dam or
(a) Where the pipe diameter is 60 inches or less,
to form a reservoir. Headwalls, impervious
the pipe slope is 33 percent or greater, and the
materials at the upstream end of the culvert, and
fill over the top of the pipe less than 1.5 times
anti-seep or cutoff collars increase the length of the
the outside diameter of the pipe measured
flow path, decrease the hydraulic gradient and the
perpendicular to the slope.
velocity of flow and thus decreases the probability
of piping developing. Anti-seep collars usually (b) Where the pipe diameter is greater than
consist of bulkhead type plate or blocks around the 60 inches and the pipe slope is 33 percent or
entire perimeter of the culvert. They may be of greater, regardless of the fill over the top of the
metal or concrete, and, if practical, should be pipe.
keyed into impervious material. Where the slopes have been determined by the
Piping could occur where a culvert must be placed geotechnical engineer to be potentially unstable,
in a live stream, and the flow cannot be diverted. regardless of the slope of the pipe, as a minimum,
Under these conditions watertight joints should be the pipes shall have positive joints. Alternative
specified. pipes/anchorage systems shall be investigated
when there is a potential for substantial movement
829.4 Joints of the soil.
The possibility of piping being caused by open Where anchorage is required, there should be a
joints in the culvert barrel may be reduced through minimum of 18 inches cover measured
special attention to the type of pipe joint specified. perpendicular to the slope.
For a more complete discussion of pipe joint Typically buried flexible pipe with corrugations on
requirements see Index 854.1. the exterior surface will not require anchorage,
The two pipe joint types specified for culvert however, a special detail will be required for
installations are identified as "standard" and plastic pipe without corrugations on the exterior
"positive". The "standard" joint is adequate for surface.
ordinary installations and "positive" joints should
be specified where there is a need to withstand soil 829.6 Irregular Treatment
movements or resist disjointing forces. Corrugated (1) Junctions. (Text Later)
metal pipe coupling band details are shown on
Standard Plan sheets D97A through D97G and (2) Bends. (Text Later)
concrete pipe joint details on sheet D97H.
829.7 Siphons and Sag Culverts
If it is necessary for "standard" or "positive" joints
to be watertight they must be specifically specified (1) General Notes. There are two kinds of
as such. Rubber "O" rings or other resilient joint conduits called siphons: the true siphon and the
material provides the watertight seal. Corrugated inverted siphon or sag culvert. The true siphon
metal pipe joints identified as "downdrain" are is a closed conduit, a portion of which lies
watertight joint systems with a tensile strength above the hydraulic grade line. This results in
specification for the coupler. less than atmospheric pressure in that portion.
The sag culvert lies entirely below the
829.5 Anchorage hydraulic grade line; it operates under pressure
without siphonic action.
Refer to Index 834.4(5) for discussion on
anchorage for overside drains. Under the proper conditions, there are
hydraulic and economic advantages to be
July 1, 2015
obtained by using the siphon principle in 829.8 – Currently Not In Use

culvert design.
829.9 Dams
(2) Sag Culverts. This type is most often used to
carry an irrigation canal under a highway when Typically, proposed construction which is capable
the available headroom is insufficient for a of impounding water to the extent that it meets the
normal culvert. The top of a sag culvert should legal definition of a dam must be approved by the
be at least 4.5 feet below the finished grade Department of Water Resource (DWR), Division
where possible, to ensure against damage from of Safety of Dams. The legal definition is
heavy construction equipment. The culvert described in Sections 6002 and 6003 of the State
should be on a straight grade and sumps Water Code. Generally, any facility 25 feet or
provided at each end to facilitate maintenance. more in height or capable of impounding 50 acre-
Sag culverts should not be used: feet or more would be considered a dam.
However, any facility 6 feet or less in height,
(a) When the flow carries trash and debris in regardless of capacity, or with a storage capacity of
sufficient quantity to cause heavy deposits, not more than 15 acre-feet, regardless of height,
(b) For intermittent flows where the effects of shall not be considered a dam. Additionally,
standing water are objectionable, or Section 6004 of the State Water Code states "...
and no road or highway fill or structure ... shall be
(c) When any other alternative is possible at considered a dam." Therefore, except for large
reasonable cost. retention or detention facilities there will rarely be
(3) Types of Conduit. Following are two kinds of the need for involvement by the DWR in approval
pipes used for siphons and sag culverts to of Caltrans designs.
prevent leakage: Although most highway designs will be exempt
(a) Reinforced Concrete Pipe - Reinforced from DWR approval, caution should always be
concrete pipe with joint seals is generally exercised in the design of high fills that could
satisfactory. For heads over 20 feet, impound large volumes of water. Even partial
special consideration should be given to plugging of the cross drain could lead to high
hydrostatic pressure. pressures on the upstream side of the fill, creating
seepage through the fill and/or increased potential
(b) Corrugated Metal Pipe - corrugated metal for piping.
pipe must be of the thickness and have the
protective coatings required to provide the The requirements for submitting information to the
design service life. Field joints must be FHWA Division Office in Sacramento as described
watertight. The following additional in Index 805.6 are not affected by the regulations
treatment is recommended. mentioned above.
• When the head is more than 10 feet 829.10 Reinforced Concrete Box
and the flow is continuous or is Modifications
intermittent and of long duration, pipe
fabricated by riveting, spot welding or (1) Extensions. Where an existing box culvert is
continuous helical lockseam should be to be lengthened, it is essential to perform an
soldered. on-site investigation to verify the structural
integrity of the box. If signs of distress are
Pipe fabricated by a continuous helical present, the Division of Structures must be
welded seam need not be soldered. contacted prior to proceeding with the design.
• If the head is 10 feet or less and the (2) Additional Loading. When significant
flow is intermittent and lasts only a additional loading is proposed to be added to
few days, as in storm flows, an existing reinforced concrete box culvert the
unsoldered seams are permissible. Division of Structures must be contacted prior
July 1, 2015
to proceeding with the design. Overlays of less

than 6 inches in depth, or widenings that do not
increase the per unit loading on the box are not
considered to be significant. Designers should
also check the extent that previous projects
might have increased loading on box culverts,
even if the current project is not adding a
significant amount of loading.
March 7, 2014
This section involves the hydraulic design

CHAPTER 830 fundamentals necessary for properly sizing and
TRANSPORTATION FACILITY locating standard highway drainage features such
as:
DRAINAGE
• Asphalt dikes and gutters.
Topic 831 - General • Concrete curbs and gutters.
Index 831.1 - Basic Concepts • Median drains.
Roadway drainage involves the collection, • Roadside ditches
conveyance, removal, and disposal of surface
water runoff from the traveled way, shoulders, • Overside drains.
sidewalks, and adjoining areas defined in Index • Drop inlets.
62.1(7) as comprising the roadway. Roadway
drainage is also concerned with the handling of • Storm drains.
water from the following additional sources: Removal of storm water from highway pavement
• Surface water from outside the right of way surfaces and median areas is more fully discussed
and not confined to channels that would reach in FHWA Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 22,
the traveled way if not intercepted. "Urban Drainage Design Manual". HEC 22
includes discussion of the effects of roadway
• Crossroads or streets. geometry on pavement drainage; the philosophy of
design storm frequency and design spread
• Irrigation of landscaped areas.
selection; storm runoff estimating methods;
The design of roadway drainage systems often pavement and bridge deck inlets; and flow in
involves consideration of the problems associated gutters. Charts and procedures are provided for
with inadequate drainage of the adjacent or the hydraulic analysis and design of roadway
surrounding area. Cooperative drainage drainage features.
improvement projects with the responsible local
agency may offer the best overall solution. 831.2 Highway Grade Line
Cooperative agreements are more fully discussed In flat terrain, roadway drainage considerations
under Index 803.2 often control the longitudinal grade line of the
Some of the major considerations of good highway. A grade line that assures the desirable
roadway drainage design are: goal of keeping the traveled way free of flooding
can usually be established for new freeway
• Facility user safety. projects and rural conventional highways.
• Convenience to vehicular, bicycle and For multilane urban highways with nearly
pedestrian traffic. continuous dike or curb along the shoulder or
parking area, it is seldom practical to design the
• Aesthetics.
highway with a gutter section which will contain
• Flooding of the transportation facility and all of the runoff even from frequent rains. For this
adjacent property. reason the gutter and shoulder combination, and
often partial or full width of the traveled way, are
• Subgrade infiltration.
used to convey the runoff to inlets.
• Potential erosion, pollution and other
831.3 Design Storm and Water Spread
environmental concerns.
Before the hydraulic adequacy of roadway
• Economy of construction. drainage facilities can be analyzed, the quantity of
• Economy of maintenance. water (design Q) that the facility may reasonably
be expected to convey must be estimated. The
most important, and often the most difficult phase
March 7, 2014
of this task is the selection of an appropriate • Longitudinal slope

design storm frequency for the specific project,
location or site under consideration. In order for a • Number of lanes
design frequency to be meaningful criteria for • Width of shoulders
roadway drainage design, it must be tied to an
acceptable tolerance of flooding. Design water • Height of curb and dike
spread, encroachment upon the roadbed or • Parking lanes
adjacent property, is the tolerance of flooding
directly related to roadway drainage design. • Bus/Transit pullouts and loading areas
Allowing too little spread is uneconomical in Desirable limits for water spread with respect to
design and too much spread may result in unsafe design storm probability of exceedance are given
driving conditions. in Table 831.3. The parameters shown are
To optimize economy in roadway drainage, the considered minimum roadway drainage design
allowable water spread should vary, depending on standards for new freeway construction and for all
the type of project being designed. Because of the State highways with depressed sections which
effect of splash and spray on motorist visibility require pumping. Local conditions may justify
and vehicle control, high volume roads with high less stringent criteria than the table parameters for
speed traffic cannot tolerate as much water spread conventional highways. Exceptions should be
as urban streets. Likewise, the allowable water documented by memo to the project file.
spread should be minimized on urban streets It is often advantageous, to both the State and the
where a large number of pedestrians use adjacent local agency, for highway drainage and street
sidewalks and pedestrian crosswalks. drainage to be compatible. This is particularly
Consideration should be given to the element of true in urban areas and rapidly developing
motorist surprise when encountering intermittent suburban areas where a conventional highway is,
puddles rather than a continuous encroachment of or will become, part of the street network. Street
water on the driving lane. Eccentric forces are drainage criteria adopted by a local agency are
exerted on a vehicle when one side encounters generally based on the hydrologic events peculiar
water in the lane and the other side does not. to a geographical area. Local drainage standards
The probability of exceedance of the design storm that satisfy the needs of the community, usually
and the acceptable tolerance to flooding depends provide reasonable traffic safety and flood risk
on the importance of the highway and risks considerations commensurate with those normally
involved. Selection of the design storm and water expected for conventional highways in urban
spread parameters on rehabilitation and areas.
reconstruction are generally controlled by existing 831.4 Other Considerations
constraints.
(1) Sheet Flow. Concentrations of sheet flow
In addition to the major roadway drainage across roadways are to be avoided. As a
considerations previously listed, the following general rule, no more than 0.10 cubic feet per
more specific factors are to be considered in second should be allowed to concentrate and
establishing the project design storm: flow across a roadway. Particular attention
• Highway type should be given to reversal points of
superelevation where shoulder and gutter
• Traffic volume slopes may direct flows across the roadway
• Design speed and gore areas.
• Local standards (2) Stage Construction. All permanent features of

roadway drainage systems should be designed
The following geometric and design features of and constructed for the ultimate highway
the highway directly affect establishment of the facility.
project design water spread:
• Cross slope
May 7, 2012
Table 831.3
Desirable Roadway Drainage Guidelines
DESIGN STORM DESIGN WATER SPREAD
HIGHWAY 4% 10% Shldr or 1/2 Outer Local

Type/Category/Feature (25 yrs) (10 yrs) Parking Lane Lane Standard
FREEWAYS
Through traffic lanes, branch
X -- X -- --
connections, and other major ramp
connections.
Minor ramps.
-- X X -- --
Frontage roads.
-- X -- -- X
CONVENTIONAL HIGHWAYS
High volume, multilane
X -- X -- --
Speeds over 45 mph.
High volume, multilane
-- X -- X --
Speeds 45 mph and under.
Low volume, rural
X -- X -- --
Speeds over 45 mph.
Urban
-- X -- -- X
Speeds 45 mph and under.
ALL STATE HIGHWAYS
Depressed Sections That Require Pumping:
Use a 2% (50 yrs) design storm for freeways and conventionalState highways. Design water spread at
depressed sections should not exceed that of adjacent roadway sections. A 4% (25 yr) design storm may be
used on local streets or road undercrossings that require pumping.
March 7, 2014
(3) Landscaping. Runoff from existing or * Where the longitudinal grade and or cross
proposed landscaping, including excess slope are less than minimum (Refer to
irrigation water runoff, must be considered. Index 204.3 for minimum grade and
Indexes 301.2 and 302.2 for cross slope).
(4) Groundwater. Groundwater is subsurface
water within a permeable strata. Depending * Where there are poor pavement conditions
upon recharge and withdrawal rates the level of (rutting, depressions, inadequate
the groundwater table can fluctuate greatly, roughness).
over a period of a few months or over periods
* Where water is allowed to concentrate
of many years. Consideration should be given
prior to being directed across the travel
to recent history (several years of abnormally
lanes (see Index 831.4(1)).
wet or dry conditions) as well as the possibility
of revised practices by local water districts * Where re-striping projects will reduce
(either increased pumping or increased shoulder widths where dike, curb or
recharge). concrete barrier are present.
Pipes located in areas where contact with These situations may also be present on median
groundwater within their design life is likely widening projects or projects involving
should have watertight joints. If groundwater pavement rehabilitation and or lane addition on
contact is likely and the surrounding soils are multi-lane highways or freeways.
highly erodible (fine grained sand, silty sand Speed and tire pressure appear to be a
and sandy silt/silt of limited cohesion) significant factors in the occurrence of
consideration should be given to wrapping the hydroplaning, therefore, it is considered to be
pipe joint with filter fabric. The fabric should the driver’s responsibility to exercise prudence
cover a length of 4 feet along the pipe, centered and caution when driving during wet
on the joint. Groundwater at or above the conditions (California Basic Speed Law).
drainage system elevation will lead to
infiltration. Where this is undesirable, either Designers do not have control over all of the
joint systems capable of resisting the factors involved in hydroplaning. However,
hydrostatic pressure, or dewatering measures, remedial measures may be included in
should be incorporated into the design. The development of a project to reduce
design of groundwater control measures must hydroplaning potential. The following is
be coordinated with Geotechnical Services in provided as guidance for the designer as
the Division of Engineering Services. practical measures to consider:
(5) Hydroplaning. Hydroplaning is the separation (1) Pavement Sheet Flow
of the tire from the road surface by a thin layer • Maximize transverse slope (see Topic
of liquid (usually water) on the pavement. The 833)
liquid separates the tire from the pavement
because of viscosity (viscous hydroplaning), • Maximize pavement roughness
dynamic lift (dynamic hydroplaning), or a
• Use of graded course (porous
combination of the two. Since water offers
pavements)
little shear resistance, the tire loses its tractive
ability and the driver has a loss of control of (2) Gutter Flow
the vehicle. At locations where there is a
• Limit water spread to Table 831.3
potential for hydroplaning, a careful review of
the wet weather accident rates should be made • Maximize interception of gutter flow
using information obtained from the District above superelevation transitions (see
Traffic Branch. Typical situations that should Index 837.3)
be evaluated for hydroplaning potential are:
(3) Sag Areas
* Where three (3) lanes or more are sloped in
the same direction (see Topic 833).
July 1, 2015
• Limit pond duration and depth (see 832.3 Time of Concentration

Topic 833)
Refer to Index 816.6 for information on time of
(4) Overtopping concentration.
• Avoid overtopping at cross culverts Topic 833 - Roadway Cross
using appropriate freeboard and/or
headwater elevation (see Topic 821)
Sections
Where suitable measures cannot be 833.1 Introduction
implemented to address conditions such as The geometric cross section of the roadway affects
those identified above, or an identified existing drainage features and hydraulic considerations.
problem area, coordination should be made Cross slope and width of pavement and shoulders
with the Safety Review Committee per Index as well as other roadway geometry affect the rate of
110.8. runoff, width of tolerable spread, and hydraulic
design considerations. The cross section of
831.5 Computer Programs
drainage features such as, depressed medians, curbs
There are many computer programs available to aid and gutters, dikes, and side ditches is often
highway design engineers with estimating runoff controlled by an existing roadway geometric cross
and ensuing hydraulic design and analysis of section or the one selected for new highway
roadway drainage facilities. construction.
Refer to Table 808.1 for guidance on selecting 833.2 Grade, Cross Slope and
appropriate software programs for specific analysis Superelevation
needs.
The longitudinal slope or grade is governed by the
Familiarity with the fundamentals of hydraulics and highway grade line as discussed under Index 831.2.
traditional methods of solution are necessary to Refer to Index 204.3 for minimum grade and
assure that the results obtained are reasonable. Indexes 301.3 and 302.2 for cross slope. Where
There is a tendency for inexperienced engineers to three (3) lanes or more are sloped in the same
accept computer output as valid without verifying direction, it is desirable to counter the resulting
the reasonableness of input and output data. increase in flow depth by increasing the cross slope
of the outermost lanes. The two (2) lanes adjacent
Topic 832 - Hydrology to the crown line should be pitched at the normal
slope, and successive lane pairs, or portions thereof
832.1 Introduction outward, should be increased by about 0.5 to
The philosophy and principles of hydrology are 1 percent. The maximum pavement cross slope
discussed in Chapter 810. Additional information should be limited to 4 percent. However,
on methods of estimating storm runoff may be exceptions to the design criteria for cross slope in
found in FHWA's HEC 22. Index 302.2 must be formally approved in
accordance with the requirements Index 82.2,
832.2 Rational Method "Approvals for Nonstandard Design." For projects
With few exceptions, runoff estimates for roadway where lanes will be added on the inside of divided
drainage design are made by using Rational highways, or when widening an existing “crowned”
Methods described under Index 819.2(1). In order 2-lane highway to a 4-lane divided highway,
to make use of these methods, information on the consideration should be given to the use of a “tent
intensity, duration, and frequency of rainfall for the section” in order to minimize the number of lanes
locality of the project must be established. Refer to sloping in the same direction. Refer to Index
Index 815.3(3) for further information on 301.2. Consideration should be given to increasing
precipitation intensity-duration-frequency (IDF) cross slopes in sag vertical curves, crest vertical
curves that have been developed for many locations curves, and in sections of flat longitudinal grades.
in California. Superelevation is discussed in Topic 202. Refer to
Index 831.4 for Hydroplaning considerations.
March 7, 2014
Topic 834 - Roadside Drainage cement or lime treatment of the soil. The
width treated will depend on the capacity
834.1 General needed to handle the drainage. A depth of
6 inches is generally satisfactory. The amount
Median drainage, ditches and gutters, and overside
of cement or lime to be used should be based
drains are some of the major roadside drainage
on laboratory tests of the in-place material to
facilities.
be tested, and normally varies from 6 percent to
834.2 Median Drainage 10 percent. If a clear or translucent curing
compound is used, the completed area is
(1) Drainage Across the Median. When it is unobtrusive and aesthetically pleasing.
necessary for sheet flow to cross flush medians,
it should be intercepted by the use of slotted Asphalt concrete ditch paving and soil cement
drains or other suitable alternative facilities. treatments cured with an application of liquid
See Standard Plan D98-B for slotted drain asphalt are highly visible and tend to become
details. unsightly from streaks of eroded material.
Cobbles, though effective for erosion control,
Where floodwaters are allowed to cross are not satisfactory in a recovery area for out of
medians, designers must consider the impacts control vehicles. See Topic 872 for further
of railings, barrier or other obstructions to both discussion on erosion protection and additional
the depth and spread of flow. Designers should types of ditch linings. Erosion control
consult their district hydraulic unit for references are given under Index 871.3.
assistance.
(4) Economy in Design. Economy in median
(2) Grade and Cross Slope. The longitudinal slope
drainage can be achieved by locating inlets to
or grade for median drainage is governed by
utilize available nearby culverts or the collector
the highway grade line as discussed under
system of a roadway drainage installation. The
Index 831.2. Refer to Index 204.3 for
inlet capacity can be increased by placing it in
minimum grade and Indexes 305.2 and
a local depression. Use of slotted pipe at sag
405.5(4) for standards governing allowable
points where a local depression might be
cross slope of medians.
necessary may be an alternative solution to a
Existing conditions control median grades and grate catch basin.
attainable cross slope on rehabilitation projects.
The flattest desirable grade for earth medians is 834.3 Ditches and Gutters
0.25 percent and 0.12 percent for paved gutters (1) Grade. The flattest grade recommended for
in the median. design is 0.25 percent for earth ditches and
(3) Erosion. When velocities are excessive for soil 0.12 percent for paved ditches.
conditions, provisions for erosion control (2) Slope Ditches. Slope ditches, sometimes called
should be provided. See Table 865.2 for surface, brow, interception, or slope protection
recommended permissible velocities for ditches, should be provided at the tops of cuts
unlined channels. where it is necessary to intercept drainage from
Economics and aesthetics are to be taken into natural slopes inclined toward the highway.
consideration in the selection of median When the grade of a slope ditch is steep enough
erosion control measures. Under the less that erosion would occur, the ditch should be
severe conditions, ground covers of natural or paved. Refer to Table 865.2 for permissible
synthetic materials which render the soil velocities for unlined channels in various types
surface stable against accelerated erosion are of soil. When the ditch grade exceeds a 4:1
adequate. Under the more severe conditions, slope, a downdrain is advisable. Slope ditches
asphalt or concrete ditch paving may be may not be necessary where side slopes in
required. favorable soils are flatter than 2:1 or where
Whenever median ditch paving is necessary, positive erosion control measures are to be
consideration should be given to the use of instituted during construction.
March 7, 2014
(3) Side Gutters. These are triangular gutters (2) Type and Requirement. Following are details
adjoining the shoulder as shown in Figures of various types of overside drains and
307.2 and 307.5. The main purpose of the requirements for their use:
3 feet wide side gutter is to prevent runoff from
(a) Pipe Downdrains. Metal and plastic pipes
the cut slopes on the high side of
are adaptable to any slope. They should be
superelevation from flowing across the
used where side slopes are 4:1 or steeper.
roadbeds. The use of side gutters in tangent
Long pipe downdrains should be anchored.
alignment should be avoided where possible.
Local drainage conditions, such as in snow The minimum pipe diameter is 8 inches but
areas, may require their use on either tangent or large flows, debris, or long pipe
curved alignment in cut sections. In snow installations may dictate a larger diameter.
areas it may be necessary to increase the width Watertight joints are necessary to prevent
of side gutters from 3 feet to 6 feet. The slope leakage which causes slope erosion.
from the edge of the shoulder to the bottom of Economy in long, high capacity
the gutter should be no steeper than 6:1. The downdrains is achieved by using a pipe
structural section for paved side gutters should taper in the initial reach. Pipe tapers
be adequate to support maintenance equipment should insure improved flow characteristics
loads. and permit use of a smaller diameter pipe
(4) Dikes. Dikes placed adjoining the shoulder, as below the taper. See Standard Plan D87-A
shown in Figures 307.2, 307.4, and 307.5, for details.
provide a paved triangular gutter within the
(b) Flume Downdrains. These are rectangular
shoulder area. For conditions governing their
corrugated metal flumes with a tapered
use, see Index 303.3.
entrance. See the Standard Plan D87-D for
(5) Chart Solutions. Charts for solutions to details. They are best adapted to slopes
triangular channel flow problems are contained that are 2:1 or flatter but if used on 1.5:1
in FHWA Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. slopes, lengths over 60 feet are not
22, "Urban Drainage Design Manual". recommended. Abrupt changes in
alignment or grade should be avoided.
834.4 Overside Drains Flume downdrains should be depressed so
The purpose of overside drains, sometimes called that the top of the flume is flush with the
slope drains, is to protect slopes against erosion. fill slope.
They convey down the slope drainage which is
(c) Paved Spillways. Permanent paved
collected from the roadbed, the tops of cuts, or
spillways should only be used when the
from benches in cut or fill slopes. They may be
side slopes are flatter than 4:1. On steeper
pipes, flumes or paved spillways.
slopes a more positive type of overside
(1) Spacing and Location. The spacing and drain such as a pipe downdrain should be
location of overside drains depend on the used.
configuration of the ground, the highway
Temporary paved spillways are effective in
profile, the quantity of flow and the limitations
preserving raw fill slopes that are 6:1 or
on flooding stated in Table 831.3. When
flatter in friable soils during the period
possible, overside drains should be positioned
when protective growth is being
at the lower end of cut sections. Diversion
established. Paved spillways should be
from one watershed to another should be
spaced so that a dike 2 inches high placed
avoided. If diversion becomes necessary, care
at the outer edge of the paved shoulder will
should be used in the manner in which this
effectively confine drainage between
diverted water is disposed.
spillways. When it is necessary to place a
Overside drains which would be conspicuous spillway on curved alignment, attention
or placed in landscaped areas should be must be given to possible overtopping at
concealed by burial or other means. the bends. See Index 868.2(3) for
March 7, 2014
discussion of superelevation of the water pipe diameters greater than 24 inches, or

surface. downdrains to be placed on slopes steeper than
1.5:1, special designs are required. Where there
(3) Entrance Standards. Entrance tapers for pipes
is an abrupt change in direction of flow, such
and flume downdrains are detailed on the
as at the elbow or a tee section downstream of
Standard Plans. Pipe entrance tapers should be
the end of the cable anchorage system,
depressed at least 6 inches.
specially designed thrust blocks should be
The local depressions called "paved gutter considered.
flares" on the Standard Plans are to be used at
(6) Drainage on Benches. Drainage from benches
all entrance tapers. See Standard Plans D87-A
in cut and fill slopes should be removed at
and D87-D for details and Index 837.5 for
intervals ranging from 300 feet to 500 feet.
further discussion on local depressions.
(7) Selection of Types. Pipe and flume downdrains
In areas where local depressions would
may consist of either corrugated steel,
decrease safety the use of flush grate inlets or
corrugated aluminum, or any other approved
short sections of slotted drain for entrance
material that meets the minimum design
structures may be necessary.
service life required under Chapter 850. Refer
(4) Outlet Treatment. Where excessive erosion at to Index 855.2 for additional discussion on
an overside drain outlet is anticipated, a simple limitations of abrasive resistance of aluminum
energy dissipater should be employed. pipe culverts.
Preference should be given to inexpensive
expedients such as an apron of broken concrete Topic 835 - Dikes and Berms
or rock, a short section of pipe placed with its
axis vertical with the lowermost 6 inches filled 835.1 General
with coarse gravel or rock, or a horizontal tee Dikes and berms are to be used only as necessary to
section which is usually adequate for confine drainage and protect side slopes susceptible
downdrain discharges. to erosion.
(5) Anchorage. For slopes flatter than 3:1 overside 835.2 Earth Berms
drains do not need to be anchored. For slopes
3:1 or steeper overside drains should be (Text Later)
anchored with 6 foot pipe stakes as shown on
835.3 Dikes
the Standard Plans to prevent undue strain on
the entrance taper or pipe ends. For drains over Details of dikes are shown on Standard Plan A87.
150 feet long, and where the slope is steeper See Topic 303 for a detailed discussion on the
than 2:1, cable anchorage should be considered types and placement considerations for dikes.
as shown on the Standard Plans. Where the
cable would be buried and in contact with soil, Topic 836 - Curbs and Gutters
a solid galvanized rod should be used the
buried portion and a cable, attached to the rod, 836.1 General
used for the exposed portion. Beyond the The primary reason for constructing curbs and
buried portion, a slip joint must be provided gutters may be for delineation or pedestrian traffic
when the installation exceeds 60 feet in length. rather than for drainage considerations. Refer to
Regard-less of pipe length or steepness of Topic 303 for further discussion and Standard Plan
slope, where there is a potential for hillside A87 for details on concrete curbs and gutters.
movement cable anchorage should be
considered. Whatever the justification for constructing curbs
and gutters, they will usually have an effect on
When cable anchorage is used as shown on the surface water runoff and result in becoming a
Standard Plans, the maximum allowable roadway drainage design consideration.
downdrain lengths shall be 200 feet for a slope
of 1.5:1 and 250 feet for a slope of 2:1. For
March 7, 2014
836.2 Gutter Design (4) Valley Gutters. Valley gutters across the
traveled way of the highway should not be
(1) Capacity. Gutters and drainage facilities are to used. Valley gutters may be used across
be designed to keep flooding within the limits intersecting streets and driveways, however, at
given in Table 831.3. Easy solutions to gutter intersections with high traffic volumes on all
flow problems can be obtained by using the approaches, it is desirable to intercept all gutter
charts contained in FHWA Hydraulic flow upstream of the intersection and avoid the
Engineering Circular No. 22, "Urban Drainage use of valley gutters. Valley gutters are also
Design Manual" which applies to triangular undesirable along streets where speeds are
channels and other shapes illustrated in the relatively high. In locations of frequent
charts. Parked cars reduce gutter capacity and intermittent low flows, the use of valley gutters
also can cause water to shoot over the curb. with slotted drains should be considered. In
The downstream ends of driveway ramps can general, the total width of gutters should not
also cause water to flow over the curb. As a exceed 6 feet and cross slopes should not
rule of thumb, gutter capacity should be exceed 3 percent. Two percent is suggested
determined on a depth equal to 0.5 the curb where more than nominal speeds are involved.
height for grades up to 10 percent and 0.4 the
curb height for grades over 10 percent in Topic 837 - Inlet Design
locations where parking is allowed or where
driveways are constructed. 837.1 General
(2) Grade and Cross Slope. The longitudinal The basic features of standard storm drain inlets are
grade of curbs and gutters is controlled by the shown in Figure 837.1. Full details appear on
highway grade line as discussed under Index Standard Plan D72 through D75, D98-A and D98-
831.2. B. The variety of standard designs available is
The cross slope of standard gutters is typically considered sufficient to any drainage situation;
8.33 percent toward the curb. Pavement slopes hence, the use of nonstandard inlets should be rare.
on superelevated roadways extend the full 837.2 Inlet Types
width of the gutter, except that gutter slopes on
the low side should be not less than From an operating standpoint, there are five main
8.33 percent. Because they cut down gutter groups of inlets; these are:
capacity and severely reduce inlet efficiency, (1) Curb-Opening. Curb opening inlets have an
cross slopes flatter than 8.33 percent should be opening parallel to the direction of flow in the
avoided, except where gutters are adjacent to gutter. This inlet group is adapted to curb and
curb ramps where ADA requirements limit the gutter installations. The curb opening is most
slope to a maximum of 5 percent. effective with flows carrying floating debris.
(3) Curbed Intersections. If pedestrian traffic is a As the gutter grade steepens, their interception
ruling factor, intersection drainage presents the capacity decreases. Hence, they are commonly
following alternatives to be weighed as to used on grades flatter than 3 percent.
effectiveness and economy. When curb opening inlets are used on urban
(a) Intercept the whole flow upstream of the highways other than fenced freeways, a
crosswalk. 3/4 inch plain round protection bar is placed
horizontally across any curb or wall opening
(b) Intercept a part of the water and allow the whose height is 7 inches or more. The
overflow to cross the intersection. The unsupported length of bar should not exceed
width of flow should be controlled so that 7 feet. Use of the protection bar on streets or
pedestrian traffic is not unduly hampered. roads under other jurisdiction is to be governed
(c) If flow is small, pass the entire flow across by the desires of the responsible authorities.
the intersecting street in a valley gutter.
March 7, 2014
The Type OS and OL inlets are only used with maximum opening in the direction of
Type A or B curbs. A checkered steel plate pedestrian travel to no more than 0.5 inch.
cover is provided for maintenance access. Presently, the only standard grating which
The Type OS inlet has a curb opening 3.5 feet meets such restrictive spacing criterion is the
long. Since a fast flow tends to overshoot such slotted corrugated steel pipe with heel guard, as
a short opening, it should be used with caution shown in the Standard Plans. Because small
on grades above 3 percent. openings have an increased potential for
clogging, a minimum clogging factor of
The Type OL inlet is a high capacity unit in 50 percent should be assumed; however,that
which the length of curb opening ranges from factor should be increased in areas prone to
7 feet to 21 feet. significant debris. Other options which may be
(2) Grate. Grate inlets provide a grate opening in considered are grated line drains with specialty
the gutter or waterway. As a class, grate inlets grates (see the Standard Plans for grated line
perform satisfactorily over a wide range of drain details, and refer to manufacturers
gutter grades. Their main disadvantage is that catalogs for special application grates) or
they are easily clogged by floating trash and specially designed grates for standard inlets.
should not be used without a curb opening The use of specially designed grates is a
where total interception of flow is required. nonstandard design that must be approved by
They merit preference over the curb opening the Office of State Highway Drainage Design
type on grades of 3 percent or more. Gutter prior to submittal of PS&E.
depressions, discussed under Index 837.5,
(3) Combination. Combination inlets provide both
increase the capacity of grate inlets. Grate
a curb opening and a grate. These are high
inlets may also be used at locations where a
capacity inlets which make use of the
gutter depression is not desirable. See the
advantages offered by both kinds of openings.
Standard Plans for grate details.
(a) Type GO and GDO. These types of inlets
Locate grate inlets away from areas where
have a curb opening directly opposite the
bicycles or pedestrians are anticipated
grate. The GDO inlet has two grates
whenever possible. Grate designs that are
placed side by side and is designed for
allowed where bicycle and pedestrian traffic
intercepting a wide flow. A typical use of
occurs have smaller openings and are more
these inlets would be in a sag location
easily clogged by trash and debris and are less
either in a curb and gutter installation or
efficient at intercepting flow. Additional
within a shoulder fringed by a dike.When
measures may be necessary to mitigate the
usedas the surface inlet for a pumping
increased potential for clogging.
installation, the trash rack
The grate types depicted on Standard Plan shownontheStandardPlanD74Bisprovided.
D77B must be used if bicycle traffic can be
(b) Type GOL. This is called a sweeper inlet
expected. Many highways do not prohibit
because the curb opening precedes the
bicycle traffic, but have inlets where bicycle
grate. It is particularly useful as a trash
traffic would not be expected to occur (e.g.,
interceptor during the initial phases of a
freeway median). In such instances, the
storm. When used in a grade sag, the
designer may consider use of grates from
sweeper inlet can be modified by providing
Standard Plan D77A. The table of final pay
a curb opening on both sides of the grate.
weights on Standard Plan D77B indicates the
acceptable grate types to be used for each listed (4) Pipe. Pipe drop inlets are made of a
type of inlet. commercial pipe section of concrete or
corrugated metal. As a class, they develop a
If grate inlets must be placed within a
high capacity and are generally the most
pedestrian path of travel, the grate must be
economical type. This type of inlet is intended
compliant with the Americans with Disabilities
for uses outside the roadbed at locations that
Act (ADA) regulations which limit the
March 7, 2014
will not be subjected to normal highway wheel public intersections, superelevation transitions,
loads. along shoulders where widening causes a
decrease to allowable water spread, tollbooth
Two kinds of inlets are provided; a wall
approaches, ramp termini, parking lots and on
opening and a grate top. The wall opening
the high side of superelevation in snow and ice
inlet should only be used at protected locations
country to minimize black ice and sheet flow
where it is unlikely to be hit by an out of
from snow melt. Removable grates should not
control vehicle.
be placed where subject to traffic.
(a) Wall Opening Intake. This opening is
Short sections of grated line drain may be used
placed normal to the direction of surface
in conjunction with an existing drainage inlet
flow. It develops a high capacity
as a supplement in sag locations. However,
unaffected by the grade of the approach
based on the depth of the water, the flow
waterway. The inlet capacity is increased
condition will be either weir or orifice. The
by depressing the opening; also by
transition between weir and orifice occurs at
providing additional openings oriented to
approximately 7 inches depth of flow. The
intercept flows from different directions.
HEC-22 method of design for slotted pipe is
When used as the surface intake to a
recommended as the basis for grated line drain
pumping installation, a trash rack across
design. It should be noted that this is inlet
the opening is required. See Standard
interception/capacity design, not the carrying
Plans for pipe inlet details. Because this
capacity of the product as a conduit.
type of inlet projects above grade, its use
should be avoided in areas subject to traffic Furthermore, the grated line drain has a smaller
leaving the roadway. cross sectional area than slotted pipe, and
therefore typically less carrying capacity.
(b) Grate Intake. The grate intake intercepts
water from any direction. For maximum Grated line drains are recommended as an
efficiency, however, the grate bars must be alternative to slotted pipe at locations
in the direction of greatest surface flow. susceptible to pipe clogging from sediments
Being round, it is most effective for flows and debris. Self-cleaning velocities can usually
that are deepest at the center, as in a valley be generated from their smooth interior surface,
median. or if necessary by specifying the optional pre-
sloped sections.
(5) Slotted Drains. This type of inlet is made of
corrugated metal or polyethylene pipe with a Grated line drains may also be useful where
continuous slot on top. This type of inlet can be there is a potential for utility conflicts with
used in flush, all paved medians with slotted drains, which are generally installed at a
superelevated sections to prevent sheet flow greater depth.
from crossing the centerline of the highway.
At locations where clean out access is needed,
Short sections of slotted drain may be used as
removable grates can be specified. In areas
an alternate solution to a grate catch basin in
with pedestrian traffic, special grates which
the median or edge of shoulder.
meet the Americans with Disabilities Act
Drop inlets or other type of cleanout should be (ADA) requirements are mandatory. This type
provided at intervals of about 100 feet. of grate is susceptible to clogging, therefore
removable grates are recommended at these
(6) Grated Line Drains.This type of inlet is made
locations, and they should only be specified
of monolithic polymer concrete with a ductile
when placement directly within the pedestrian
iron frame and grate on top. This type of inlet
path of travel is unavoidable.
can be used as an alternative at the locations
described under slotted drains, preferably in (7) Scuppers. This type of inlet consists of a low,
shoulder areas away from traffic loading. rectangular slot cut through the base of a
However, additional locations may include barrier. Similar to, but smaller than curb
localized flat areas of pavement at private and opening inlets (See Index 837.2(1)), scuppers
May 7, 2012
Figure 837.1
Storm Drain Inlet Types
September 1, 2006
Figure 837.1
Storm Drain Inlet Types (Cont.)
March 7, 2014
are prone to clogging by sediment and debris In urban areas, the volume and movements of
and require enhanced maintenance attention. vehicles, bicyclists, and pedestrians constitute
Scupper interception efficiency decreases with an important control. For street or road
increased longitudinal gradient and scupper crossings, the usual inlet location is at the
design is not typically compatible with intersection at the upstream end of the curb or
construction of an inlet depression. Scuppers pavement return and clear of the pedestrian
are typically considered only when other inlet crosswalk. Where the gutter flow is small and
options are infeasible. vehicular, bicycle, and pedestrian traffic are not
important considerations, the flow may be
837.3 Location and Spacing carried across the intersection in a valley gutter
(1) Governing Factors. The location and spacing and intercepted by an inlet placed downstream.
of inlets depend mainly on these factors: See Index 836.2(4).
(a) The amount of runoff, At depressed grade lines under structures, care
must be taken to avoid bridge pier footings.
(b) The longitudinal grade and cross slope,
See Index 204.6.
(c) The location and geometrics of
Safety of location for maintenance purposes is
interchanges and at-grade intersections,
an important consideration. Wall opening
(d) Tolerable water spread, see Table 831.3, inlets should not be placed where they present
an obstacle to maintenance equipment and to
(e) The inlet capacity,
vehicles that leave the traveled way. Grate top
(f) Accessibility for maintenance and inlets should be installed in such locations.
inspection,
Placement of inlets within the traveled way is
(g) Volume and movements of motor vehicles, discouraged. Inlets should typically be
bicycles and pedestrians, relocated when roadways are widened or
(h) Amount of debris, and realigned. Any proposal to leave an existing or
construct a new inlet within the traveled way
(i) The locations of public transit stops. should be discussed with District Maintenance
(2) Location. There are no ready rules by which to verify that future access is feasible.
the spacing of inlets can be fixed; the most (3) Spacing. Arbitrary spacing of inlets should be
effective and economical installation should be avoided. The distance between inlets should be
the aim. determined by a rational analysis of the factors
The following are locations where an inlet is mentioned above. Detailed procedures for
nearly always required: determining inlet spacing are given in FHWA
Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 22, "Urban
• Sag points Drainage Design Manual". In a valley median,
• Points of superelevation reversal the designer should consider the effect of inlet
spacing on flow velocities where the soil is
• Upstream of ramp gores susceptible to erosion. To economize on
disposal facilities, inlets are often located at
• Upstream and downstream of bridges –
culverts or near roadway drainage conduits.
bridge drainage design procedure
assumes no flow onto bridge from (4) Inlets in Series. Where conditions dictate the
approach roadway, and flow off bridge need for a series of inlets, the recommended
to be handled by the district. minimum spacing should be approximately
20 feet to allow the bypass flow to return to the
• Intersections curb face.
• Upstream of pedestrian crosswalks
• Upstream of curbed median openings
March 7, 2014
837.4 Hydraulic Design efficiency. In a grade sag, one trash

interceptor should be used on each side of
(1) Factors Governing Inlet Capacity. Inlet the sump.
capacity is a variable which depends on:
(e) Design Water Surface Within the Inlet.
(a) The size and geometry of the intake The crown of the outlet pipe should be low
opening, enough to allow for pipe entrance losses
(b) The velocity and depth of flow and the plus a freeboard of 0.75 feet between the
gutter cross slope just upstream from the design water surface and the opening at the
intake, and gutter intake. This allows sufficient
margin for turbulence losses, and the
(c) The amount of depression of the intake
effects of floating trash.
opening below the flow line of the
waterway. (f) Inlet Floor. The inlet floor should
generally have a substantial slope toward
(2) General Notes.
the outlet. In a shallow drain system where
(a) Effect of Grade Profile. The grade profile conservation of head is essential, or any
affects both the inlet location and its system where the preservation of a
capacity. The gutter grade line exerts such nonsilting velocity is necessary, the half
an influence that it often dictates the choice round floor shown on the Standard Plan
of inlet types as well as the gutter treatment D74C should be used when a pipe
opposite the opening. See Index 831.2. continues through the inlet.
Sag vertical curves produce a flattening (g) Partial Interception. Economies may be
grade line which increases the width of achieved by designing inlets for partial
flow at the bottom. To reduce ponding and interception with the last one or two inlets
possible sedimentation problems, the in series intercepting the remaining flow.
following measures should be considered: See Hydraulic Engineering Circular No.
22.
• Reduce the length of vertical curve.
(3) Curb-Opening Inlets. Gutter depressions
• Use a multiple installation consisting should be used with curb-opening inlets. The
of one inlet at the low point and one or standard gutter depressions for curb-opening
more inlets upstream on each side. inlets, shown on Standard Plan D78 are
Refer to HEC 22 for further discussion 0.1 foot and 0.25 foot deep.
and design procedures for locating
multiple inlets. Curb-opening inlets are most economical and
effective if designed and spaced to intercept
Short sections of slotted or grated line only 85 to 90 percent of the flow. This
drains on either side of the low point provides for an increased flow depth at the curb
may be used to supplement drop inlets. face.
(b) Cross Slope for Curbed Gutters. Make the Figure 4-11, "Comparison of Inlet Interception
cross slope as steep as possible within Capacity, Slope Variable", and Figure 4-12,
limits stated under Index 836.2(2). This "Comparison of Inlet Interception Capacity,
concentrates the flow against the curb and Flow Rate Variable" of Hydraulic Engineering
greatly increases inlet capacity. Circular No. 22 can be used to obtain
(c) Local Depressions. Use the maximum interception capacities for various longitudinal
depression consistent with site conditions; grades, cross slopes, and gutter depressions.
for further details see Index 837.5. Charts for determining interception capacities
under sump conditions are also available in
(d) Trash. The curb-opening type inlet, when
HEC No. 22.
the first in a series of grate inlets, may
intercept trash and improve grate
March 7, 2014
(4) Grate Inlets. The grate inlet interception approximately 6.0 CFS when the water
capacity is equal to the sum of the frontal flow surface is 1 foot higher than the lip of the
(flow over the grate) interception and the side opening. Where the flow is from more
flow interception. The frontal flow than one direction, two or more standard
interception will constitute the major portion of openings may be provided. Higher
the grate interception. In general, grate inlets capacity openings larger than standard may
will intercept all of the frontal flow until a be provided but are of a special design.
velocity is reached at which water begins to
(b) Grate Intake. The choice between inlets
splash over the grate. Charts provided in HEC
with a round grate (Types GCP and GMP)
22 can be used to compute grate interception
and those with a rectangular grate (Type
capacities for the various grates contained
G1) hinges largely on hydraulic efficiency.
therein. Grate depressions will greatly increase
In a waterway where the greatest depth of
inlet capacity.
flow is at the center, both grates are equally
The HEC 22 charts neglect the effects of debris effective. In a waterway where the cross
and clogging on inlet capacity. In some slope concentrates the flow on one side of
localities inlet clogging from debris is the grate, the rectangular shape is
extensive, while in other locations clogging is preferred. For rectangular grates, the
negligible. Local experience should dictate the charts contained in HEC 22 can be used to
magnitude of the clogging factor, if any, to be compute flow intercept. Round grates
applied. In the absence of local experience, (Type 36R) with 0.5 foot of depression
design clogging factors of 33 percent for develop a capacity of 12 CFS to 15 CFS.
freeways and 50 percent for city streets may be
assumed.
837.5 Local Depressions
Grate type inlets are most economical and (1) Purpose. A local depression is a paved hollow
effective if designed and spaced to intercept in the waterway shaped to concentrate and
only 75 to 80 percent of the gutter flow. direct the flow into the intake opening and
increases the capacity of the inlet. In a gutter
(5) Combination Inlets. bordered by a curb, it is called a gutter
(a) Type GO and GDO Inlet. For design depression.
purposes, only the capacity of the grates (2) Requirements. Local depressions generally
need be considered. The auxiliary curb consist of a paved apron or transition of a shape
opening, under normal conditions, offers which serves the purpose. Local depressions
little or no increase in capacity; but does should meet the following requirements:
act as a relief opening should the grate
become clogged. Since the grates of Type (a) Valley Medians. In medians on a grade,
GDO are side by side, the inlet capacity is the depression should extend a minimum of
the combined capacity of the two grates. 10 feet upstream, 6 feet downstream and
6 feet laterally, measured from the edge of
(b) Type GOL Inlet. The interception capacity the opening. In a grade sag, the depression
of this inlet, a curb-opening upstream of a should extend a minimum of 10 feet on all
grate, is equal to the sum of the capacities sides. No median local depression,
for the two inlets except that the frontal however should be allowed to encroach on
flow and thus interception capacity of the the shoulder area.
grate is reduced by interception at the curb
opening. The normal depth of depression is 4 inches.
(6) Pipe Drop Inlets. (b) Paved Gutter Flares. The local depression
which adjoins the outer edge of shoulder at
(a) Wall Opening Intake. The standard intake the entrance to overside downdrains and
opening 2 feet wide and 8 inches to spillways is labeled "paved gutter flare" on
12 inches deep provides a capacity of Standard Plans D87-A and D87-D. The
March 7, 2014
flow line approaching the inlet is depressed (3) General Notes on Design. Except for traffic
to increase capacity and minimize water safety reasons, a local depression is to be
spread on the roadbed. Within a flare provided at every inlet even though the
length of 10 feet the gutter flow line is waterway is unpaved. Where the size of intake
depressed a minimum of 6 inches at the opening is a question, a depression of
inlet. Recommended flare lengths for maximum depth should be considered before
various gutter flow line depression depths deciding on a larger opening. For traffic
are given on the Standard Plans. When reasons, the gutter depression should be
conditions warrant, these flare lengths may omitted in driveways and median curb and
be exceeded. gutter installations.
Traffic safety should not be compromised It is permissible to omit gutter depressions at
for hydraulic efficiency. Any change in the sump inlets where the width of flow does not
shape of the paved gutter flare that will exceed design water spread.
result in a depression within the shoulder
area should not be made. The Type 2 Topic 838 - Storm Drains
entrance taper and paved gutter flare is
intended for use on divided highways 838.1 General
where gutter grades exceed 2 percent and The total drainage system which conveys runoff
flow is in the opposite direction of traffic. from roadway areas to a positive outlet including
(c) Roadside Gutter and Ditch Locations. gutters, ditches, inlet structures, and pipe is
Regardless of type of intake, the opening of generally referred to as a storm drain system. In
a drop inlet in a roadside gutter or ditch urban areas a highway storm drain often augments
should be depressed from 4 inches to an existing or proposed local drainage plan and
6 inches below the flow line of the should be compatible with the local storm drain
waterway with 10 feet of paved transition system.
upstream. This section covers the hydraulic design of the pipe
(d) Curb and Gutter Depressions. This type of or enclosed conduit portion of a storm drain
depression is carefully proportioned in system.
length, width, depth, and shape. To best 838.2 Design Criteria
preserve the design shape, construction
normally is of concrete. Further To adequately estimate design storm discharges for
requirements for curb and gutter a storm drain system in urban areas involving street
depressions are: flooding it may be necessary to route flows by
using hydrograph methods. Hydrographs are
• Length - As shown on Standard Plan discussed under Index 816.5 and further
D78. information on hydrograph methods may be found
• Width - Normally 4 feet, but for wide in Chapters 6 and 7 of HDS No.2, Highway
flows or a series of closely spaced Hydrology.
inlets, 6 feet is authorized. 838.3 Hydraulic Design
• Depth - Where traffic considerations Closed conduits should be designed for the full
govern, the depth commonly used is flow condition. They may be allowed to operate
0.1 foot. Use the maximum of under pressure, provided the hydraulic gradient is
0.25 foot wherever feasible at locations 0.75 foot or more below the intake lip of any inlet
where the resulting curb height would that may be affected. The energy gradient should
not be objectionable. not rise above the lip of the intake. Allowances
(e) Type of Pavement. Local depressions should be made for energy losses at bends,
outside the roadbed are usually surfaced junctions and transitions.
with asphalt concrete 0.15 foot thick.
March 7, 2014
To determine the lowest outlet elevation for Table 838.4

drainage systems which discharge into leveed
channels or bodies of water affected by tides, Minimum Pipe Diameter for
consideration should be given to the possibilities of Storm Drain Systems
backwater. The effect of storm surges (e.g., winds
and floods) should be considered in addition to the Type of Drain Minimum
predicted tide elevation. Diameter (in)
Normally, special studies will be required to
determine the minimum discharge elevation Trunk Drain 18
consistent with the design discharge of the facility.
Trunk Laterals 15(1)
838.4 Standards
(1) Location and Alignment. Longitudinal storm Inlet Laterals 15(1)
drains are not to be placed under the traveled NOTE:
way of highways. Depending upon local
(1) 18 minimum if wholly or partly under the
agency criteria, storm drains under the traveled
roadbed.
way of other streets and roads may be
acceptable. A manhole or specially designed Specific subjects for special consideration are:
junction structure is usually provided at
* Bedding and Backfill. Bedding and
changes in direction or grade and at locations
backfill consideration are discussed under
where two or more storm drains are joined.
Index 829.2. Maximum height of cover
Refer to Index 838.5 for further discussion on
tables are included in Chapter 850 and
manholes and junction structures.
minimum thickness of cover is given in
(2) Pipe Diameter. The minimum pipe diameter to Table 856.5.
be used is given in Table 838.4.
* Roughness Factor. The roughness factor,
(3) Slope. The minimum longitudinal slope should Manning's n value, generally assumes
be such that when flowing half full, a self greater importance for storm drain design
cleaning velocity of 3 feet per second is than it does for culverts. Suggested
attained. Manning's n values for various types of
pipe materials are given in Table 852.1.
(4) Physical Properties. In general, the
considerations which govern the selection of (6) Floating Trash. Except at pumping
culvert type apply to storm drain conduits. installations, every effort should be made to
Alternative types of materials, overfill tables carry all floating trash through the storm drain
and other physical factors to be considered in system. Curb and wall opening inlets are well
selecting storm drain conduit are discussed suited for this purpose. In special cases where
under Chapter 850. it is necessary to exclude trash, as in pumping
installations, a standard trash rack must be
(5) Storage. In developing the most economical
provided across all curb and wall openings of
installation, the designer should not overlook
tributary inlets. See the Standard Plans for
economies obtainable through the use of
details.
pipeline storage and, within allowable limits,
the ponding of water in gutters, medians and (7) Median Flow. In estimating the quantity of
interchange areas. Inlet capacity and spacing flow in the median, consideration should be
largely control surface storage in gutters and given to the effects of trash, weeds, and
medians; inlet capacity governs in sump areas. plantings.
March 7, 2014
838.5 Appurtenant Structures (c) Spacing. In general, the larger the storm
drain, the greater the manhole spacing. For
(1) Manholes. pipe diameter of 48 inches or more, or
(a) General Notes. The purpose of a manhole other shapes of equal cross sectional area,
is to provide access to a storm drain for the manhole spacing ranges from 700 feet
inspection and maintenance. Manholes are to 1200 feet. For diameters of less than
usually constructed out of cast in place 48 inches, the spacing may vary from
concrete, pre-cast concrete, or corrugated 300 feet to 700 feet. In the case of small
metal pipe. They are usually circular and drains where self-cleaning velocities are
approximately three or four feet in unobtainable, the 300 feet spacing should
diameter to facilitate the movement of be used. With self-cleaning velocities and
maintenance personnel. alignments without sharp curves, the
distance between manholes should be in
There is no Caltrans Standard Plan for
the upper range of the above limits.
manholes. Relocation and reconstruction
of existing storm drain facilities, owned by (d) Access Shaft. For drains less than
a city or county agency, is often necessary. 48 inches in diameter, the access shaft is to
Generally the local agency has adopted be centered over the drain. When the drain
manhole design standard for use on their diameter exceeds the shaft diameter, the
facilities. Use of the manhole design shaft should be offset and made tangent to
preferred by the responsible authority or one side of the pipe for better location of
owner is appropriate. the manhole steps. For drains 48 inches or
more in diameter, where laterals enter from
Commercial precast manhole shafts are
both sides of the manhole, the offset should
effective and usually more economical than
be toward the side of the smaller lateral.
cast in place shafts. Brick or block may
See Standard Plan D93A for riser
also be used, but only upon request and
connection details.
justification from the local agency or
owner. (e) Arrangement of Laterals. To avoid
unnecessary head losses, the flow from
(b) Location. Following are common locations
laterals which discharge opposite each
for manholes:
other should converge at an angle in the
• Where two or more drains join, direction of flow. If conservation of head
is critical, a training wall should be
• At locations and spacing which provided.
facilitate maintenance,
(2) Junction Structures.A junction structure is an
• Where the drain changes in size, underground chamber used to join two or more
• At sharp curves or angle points in conduits, but does not provide direct access
excess of 10 degrees, from the surface. It is designed to prevent
turbulence in the flow by providing a smooth
• Points where an abrupt flattening of the transition. This type of structure is usually
grade occurs, and needed only where the trunk drain is 42 inches
• On the smaller drains, at the or more in diameter. A standard detailsheet of
downstream end of a sharp curve. a junction structure is available for pipes
ranging from 42 inches to 84 inches in
Manholes are not required if the conduit is diameter at the following Office Engineer web
large enough to accommodate a man, site address:
unless spacing criteria govern. Manholes http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/esc/structures_cadd/XS_s
should not be placed within the traveled heets/Metric/dgn/. The XS sheet reference is XS
way. Exceptions are frontage roads and 4-26. Where required by spacing criteria, a
city streets, but intersection locations manhole should be used.
should be avoided.
July 1, 2015
(3) Flap Drainage gates. When necessary, (1) Districts. The District designs the collector
backflow protection should be provided in the and the outfall facilities leading from the
form of flap drainage gates. These gates offer chamber into which the pumps discharge. This
negligible resistance to the release of water applies to outfalls operating under gravity and
from the system and their effect upon the with a free outlet. Refer to Topic 838.
hydraulics of the system may be neglected.
Details of pumping stations supportive
If the outlet is subject to floating debris, a information to be submitted by the District to
shelter should be provided to prevent the debris the Division of Structures is covered under
from clogging the flap drainage gate. Where Index 805.8 and Chapter 3-3.1(4) of the
the failure of a flap drainage gate to close Drafting and Plans Manual.
would cause serious damage, a manually
(2) Division of Structures. The Division of
controlled gate in series should be considered
Structures will prepare the design and contract
for emergencies.
plans for the pumping station, the storage box
and appurtenant equipment, considering the
Topic 839 - Pumping Stations data and recommendations submitted by the
839.1 General District.
Drainage disposal by pumping should be avoided The Division of Structures will furnish the
where gravity drainage is reasonable. Because District a preliminary plan based on data
pumping installations have high initial cost, previously submitted by the District. It will
maintenance expense, power costs, and the show the work to be covered by the Division of
possibility of failure during a storm, large Structures plans, including a specific location
expenditures can be justified for gravity drainage. for the pumping plant and storage box, the
In some cases, this can be accomplished with long average and maximum pumping rates and the
runs of pipe or continuing the depressed grade to a power required.
natural low area. 839.4 Trash and Debris Considerations
Whenever possible, drainage originating outside Storm drain systems leading to pumping plants are
the depressed areas should be excluded. District to be designed to limit the inflow of trash and
and Division of Structures cooperation is essential debris, as these may cause damage to the pump
in the design of pumping stations, tributary storm impellers and create a maintenance removal
drains, and outfall facilities. This is particularly nuisance. Standard grate designs are effective at
true of submerged outlets, outlets operating under ensuring that trash and debris are screened out of
pressure, and outlets of unusual length. the inflow, but where side opening or curb opening
839.2 Pump Type inlets are constructed, trash racks must be added to
the inlet design. The only Standard Plan detail for
Horizontal pumps in a dry location are generally curb opening designs is shown on Standard Plan
specified for ease of access, safety, and D74B and is used in conjunction with Type GDO
standardization of replacement parts. inlets. On those occasions where pipe risers with
Only in special cases is stand-by power for side opening inlets are part of the system, refer to
pumping plants a viable consideration. All Standard Plan D93C for appropriate trash rack
proposals for stand-by power are to be reviewed by design details.
and coordinated with the Division of Structures. 839.5 Maintenance Consideration
839.3 Design Responsibilities Access to the pumping plant location for both
When a pumping station is required, responsibility maintenance personnel and maintenance vehicles is
for design between the District and the Division of generally provided by way of paved access road or
Structures is as follows: city street. One parking space minimum is to be
provided in the vicinity of the pumping plant. An
area light is generally provided when it is
July 1, 2015
determined that neither the highway lighting nor

the street lighting is adequate. Access to the
pumping plant for maintenance from the top of the
cut slope generally consists of a stairway located
adjacent to the pumping plant. The stairway
generally extends from the top of cut slope to the
toe of cut slope. Access to the pump control room
should be through a vertical doorway with the
bottom above flood level, and never through a
hatch.
839.6 Groundwater Considerations
As the lowest point in the storm drain system,
pumping plants are particularly susceptible to
problems associated with rises in groundwater
tables. Where the foundation of pump houses or
associated storage boxes are at an elevation where
they would be subjected to existing or future
groundwater tables, sealing around the base of the
foundation is necessary. The use of bentonite or
other impervious material is typically sufficient in
keeping groundwater from welling up through the
relatively pervious structure backfill.
Sealing requirements will typically be specified by
the Division of Structures during the pump plant
design. However, the district should provide any
information relative to historical groundwater
levels or fluctuations which would be of
importance, or known plans by local or regional
water districts to modify recharge patterns in a
manner that could impact the design.
September 1, 2006
required to obtain the design variables with

CHAPTER 840 reasonable accuracy.
SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE
841.2 Subsurface (Groundwater) Discharge
Groundwater, as distinguished from capillary
Topic 841 - General
water, is free water occurring in a zone of
saturation below the ground surface. Subsurface
Index 841.1 - Introduction discharge, the rate at which groundwater and
Saturation of the structural section or underlying infiltration water can be removed depends on the
foundation materials is a major cause of premature effective hydraulic head and on the permeability,
pavement failures. In addition, saturation can lead depth, slope, thickness and extent of the water-
to undesirable infiltration into storm drain systems bearing formation (the aquifer). The discharge can
and, where certain soil types are below be obtained by analytical methods. Such methods,
groundwater, liquefaction can occur due to seismic however, are usually cumbersome and
forces. Subsurface drainage systems designed to unsatisfactory; field explorations will yield better
rapidly remove and prevent water from reaching or results.
affecting the roadbed are discussed in this chapter.
841.3 Preliminary Investigations
The solution for subsurface drainage problems
often calls for a knowledge of geology and the Field investigations may include:
application of soil mechanics. The Project • Soils, geological, and geophysical studies.
Engineer should request assistance from
Geotechnical Services in the Division of • Borings, pits, or trenches to find the
Engineering Services for projects involving cuts, elevation, depth, and extent of the aquifer.
sections depressed below the original ground • Inspection of cut slopes in the immediate
surface, or whenever the presence of groundwater vicinity.
is likely. Geotechnical Services can also provide
assistance related to the design of features to • Measurement of groundwater discharge.
relieve hydrostatic pressure at bridge abutments. Preliminary investigations should be as thorough as
The designer should consider the potential for large possible, recognizing that further information is
fluctuations in groundwater levels. Wet periods sometimes uncovered during construction. Where
after several years of drought, or changes to an existing road is part of new construction, the
recharge practices can lead to considerable rises in presence and origin of groundwater is often known
groundwater levels. or easily detected. Personnel responsible for
For tunnel, structure abutments, or other structure maintenance of the existing road are an excellent
projects which might require relief of hydrostatic source of such information and should be
pressures, contact Geotechnical Services. consulted. Explorations, therefore, are likely to be
lesser in scope and cost than explorations for a
The basis for design will generally be the
project on new alignment. In slope stability
Geotechnical Design Report. This report will
questions, and other problems of equal importance,
include findings on subsurface conditions and
an extensive knowledge of subsurface conditions is
recommendations for design. Refer to Topic 113
required. The District should ask for the assistance
for more information on Geotechnical Design
of Geotechnical Services in such cases.
Reports.
There are many variables and uncertainties as to the
841.4 Exploration Notes
actual subsurface conditions. In general, the more In general, explorations should be made during the
obvious subsurface drainage problems can be rainy season or after the melting of snow in regions
anticipated in design; the less obvious are where snow cover is common. An exception
frequently uncovered during construction. would be where seepage occurs from irrigation
Extensive exploration and literature review may be sources.
October 4, 2010
Groundwater difficulties frequently stem from drainage of the pavement structural section.
water perched on an impermeable layer some
• Horizontal Drains. Horizontal drains are
distance above the actual water table. Perched
1 1/2 inch perforated or slotted pipes
water problems can often be solved with horizontal
placed in drilled holes bored into the
drains. See Index 841.5.
aquifer or water bearing formations. They
Pumped water supply wells often give unreliable are installed in cut slopes and under fills
indications of the water table and such data should more to guard against slides by relieving
be used with caution. hydrostatic pressure than to prevent
saturation of the roadbed. They may be
841.5 Category of System used in varying lengths up to 1,000 feet on
grades that range from 0 to 25 percent. A
Depending upon the scope and complexity of the
collection system to remove the intercepted
problem, an appropriate solution may require the
water from the area is generally also
installation of one or a combination of different
required.
types of subsurface drainage systems. The type of
subsurface drainage system initially considered is • Prefabricated Geocomposite Drains.
usually an underdrain. Available in sheets or rolls, geocomposite
The standard underdrain is the pipe underdrain. A drains provide a cost effective solution to
pipe underdrain consists of a perforated pipe near subsurface drainage behind bridge
the bottom of a narrow trench lined with filter abutments, wingwalls and retaining walls.
fabric and backfilled with permeable material. Prefabricated subsurface drainage systems
consist of a plastic drain core covered on
Pipe underdrains are discussed in more detail under one or both sides with a filter fabric.
Topic 842.
• Stabilization Trenches. This category of
"French Drains" have proven to be unreliable subsurface drainage system is constructed
underdrains. A "French drain" consists of a trench in swales, ravines, and under sidehill fills
backfilled with rock. They are not to be used to stabilize water logged fill foundations.
where a permanent solution is needed. Exceptions The Geotechnical Design Report should
may be made for special cases such as where depth contain depth and width of trench
of the underdrain and soil conditions would conflict recommendations. Stabilization trenches
with industrial safety regulations. Under such may be only a few feet in width requiring a
circumstances a design that includes a filter fabric backhoe or similar type of excavation
liner and permeable material backfill, without the equipment, or they may be large enough
perforated pipe may be used. for earth moving equipment such as dozers
In addition to pipe underdrains, the following and scrapers to operate. Trenches wide
special purpose categories of subsurface drains are enough to permit the use of earth moving
used to intercept, collect, and discharge equipment should be considered wherever
groundwater. feasible. A 1:1 side slope is commonly
used.
• Structural Section and Edge Drains.
Subsurface drainage systems that are The excavated trench, including the side
primarily designed for the rapid removal of slopes, is covered with a thick blanket of
surface water infiltration from treated or permeable material. One or more perfo-
untreated pavement structural section rated drain pipes, usually 8 inches to 12
materials are called structural section inches in diameter, are placed at the bottom
drains or more typically edge drains. A of the trench depending on the quantity of
3-inch slotted plastic pipe with 3 rows of groundwater, type of material, and area to
slots is the standard for structural section be stabilized.
drains. Refer to Chapter 650, Pavement The alignment of the trench and collector
Drainage for more information on the pipe are often made parallel to the highway
September 1, 2006
centerline. Conditions may be such that the bottom of a narrow trench. The trench is
trench alignment on a skew or with tee, usually lined with filter fabric prior to placement of
wye, or herringbone configurations are a the perforated pipe and permeable material backfill.
better design.
Two standard cross sections for pipe underdrains
Lining the trench with filter fabric is are shown on Standard Plan D102. The one with
recommended. The usual 3 feet or more the permeable material carried to the top of the
thickness of permeable material may be grading plane is used under paved areas. The
reduced and a less expensive gradation other, with a topping of earth backfill over the
may be specified if a filter fabric is used. permeable material, is used under unpaved areas.
Assistance in selecting filter fabric and
permeable material specifications should 842.2 Single Installations
be requested from Geotechnical Services.
A single pipe underdrain is commonly used in these
• Drainage Galleries. Drainage galleries cases:
consist of a row or rows of closely spaced
• Along the toe of a cut slope to intercept
wells 36 inches to 48 inches in diameter
seepage when slope stability is not a
bored with power augers to the depth
problem.
required to intercept the aquifer. They are
a variation of the stabilization trench • Along the toe of a fill on the side from
principle and may afford a more cost which groundwater originates.
effective solution under certain conditions.
• Across the roadway at the downhill end of
Drainage galleries are a viable option a cut.
where the depth of the aquifer exceeds the
economical or practical limits for open 842.3 Multiple Installations
trench excavation. Because of potential Multiple underdrain installations may be used in a
cave-ins or slides, open trench excavation herringbone or other effective pattern in situations
may not be practical. such as the following:
The bottom of the bored wells should be • Under the roadway structural section when
interconnected and a suitable collector and a permeable blanket is required.
outlet system must be provided. The wells
may be interconnected by belling out at the • To stabilize fill foundation areas.
bottoms, tunneling between wells, drilled- Refer to Table 842.4 for a guide to selecting depth
in-place outlets, or horizontal drains. and spacing of multiple pipe underdrain
The wells are backfilled with permeable installations.
material. The Geotechnical Design Report 842.4 Design Criteria
should contain well spacing and depth
recommendations. Assistance in selecting • Size and Length. For pipe underdrains of
permeable material and other specifications 500 feet or less in length, the standard
pertinent to drainage galleries should be perforated pipe size is 6 inches in diameter.
requested from Geotechnical Services. As a rule, the 6-inch diameter is adequate
for collectors and laterals in most soils.
For lengths exceeding 500 feet, the
Topic 842 - Pipe Underdrains minimum diameter of pipe is 8 inches.
842.1 General • Surface Runoff. Surface drainage should

be prevented from discharging into
As stated under Index 841.5, the standard underdrain systems.
underdrain treatment is the perforated pipe
underdrain. Pipe underdrain systems consist of a 6-
inch or 8-inch diameter perforated pipe placed near
November 2, 2009
• Outlets. Underdrain outlets should be

842.5 Types of Underdrain Pipe
provided at intervals of not more than
1,000 feet. The aim of any underdrain installation is long term
effectiveness. This aim is associated with filtering
Underdrain systems may be designed to
ability, durability, strength, and cost of conduit,
discharge directly into a storm drain or
mainly in that order. In choosing between pipes of
culvert as long as the underdrain outlet is
different types, the key considerations are filtering
not subjected to hydrostatic pressures that
ability and durability. Pipe cost assumes secondary
could cause backflow damage.
importance because it is a minor part of the
• Cleanouts. Terminal and intermediate underdrain investment.
risers may be placed for the convenience of
Pipes for underdrains are perforated and may be
the maintenance forces cleaning the
made of steel, aluminum, polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
system. When practical, a terminal riser
or polyethylene, all with corrugated profiles, or
should be placed at the upper end of an
smooth wall PVC. All of the listed types are
underdrain. Intermediate cleanout risers
acceptable for either shallow or deep burial
may be placed at intervals of 500 feet and
situations. Where plastic pipe underdrains are
at sharp angle points greater than 10
proposed and burial depths would exceed 30 feet,
degrees.
the Underground Structures Unit in the Division of
The diameter of risers should be the same Engineering Services should be contacted for
as the pipe underdrain. Details of approval.
underdrain risers are shown on Standard
Plan D102. 842.6 Design Service Life
• Grade. If possible, pipe underdrains Refer to Chapter 850 for further discussion and
should be placed on grades steeper than 0.5 criteria relative to design service life of pipe
percent. Minimum grades of 0.2 percent materials used in underdrain installations.
for laterals and 0.25 percent for mains are
acceptable. Experience with underdrains has shown that they
are not subject to corrosion in an environment that
• Depth and Spacing. The depth of the lacks an adequate supply of air and oxygen
underdrain depends on the permeability of entrained in the water. Subsurface waters that may
the soil, the elevation of the water table, be inclined to be corrosive chemically do not tend
and the amount of drawdown needed to to become so as long as they are not exposed to
ensure stability. Whenever practicable, an oxygen. However, subsurface water may become
underdrain pipe should be set in the corrosive after it has surfaced and been exposed to
impervious zone below the aquifer. oxygen. Furthermore, there is evidence that
Additionally, consideration should be indicates there is little oxygen available in long
given to the depth and proximity of storm lengths of the small diameter pipe normally used in
drains. Typically, the underdrain should be a subsurface drainage system.
placed at a depth sufficient to keep the
storm drain above the groundwater table. Although tests may indicate that corrosive salts are
Table 842.4 gives suggested depths and present in the soil solution, corrosion will not take
spacing of underdrains according to soil place without the presence of oxygen. Therefore,
types. It is only a guide and should not be when it is anticipated that the underdrain will be
considered a substitute for field placed to intercept groundwater under the above
observations or local experience. conditions, it will not be necessary to allow for
metal pipe corrosion.
When the above conditions do not prevail, the
design service life of metal pipe is determined from
November 2, 2009
842.7 Pipe Selection

pH and resistivity tests covered in California Test
643. This information is shown in the In cases where more than one material meets the
Geotechnical Design Report. The design service foregoing requirements, alternatives should be
life of steel pipe may be increased by a bituminous specified on the basis of optional selection by the
coating as indicated in Table 855.2C. contractor. The selection of a single type of
underdrain may be appropriate due to other related
The guide values contained in the tables mentioned factors. This selection should be supported by
above may be modified where field observation of complete analysis of factors and documentation
existing installations dictates. placed on file in the District.
Table 842.4
Suggested Depth and Spacing of Pipe
Underdrains for Various Soil Types
Soil Composition Drain Spacing (ft)
Percent Percent Percent 3 feet 4 feet 5 feet 6 feet

Soil Class
Sand Silt Clay Deep Deep Deep Deep
Clean Sand 80-100 0-20 0-20 110 - 150 150 - 200 -- --
Sandy Loam 50-80 0-50 0-20 50 - 100 100 - 150 -- --
Loam 30-50 30-50 0-20 30 - 60 40 - 80 50 - 100 60 - 120
Clay Loam 20-50 20-50 20-30 20 - 40 25 - 50 30 - 60 40 - 80
Sandy Clay 50-70 0-20 30-50 15 - 30 20 - 40 25 - 50 30 - 60

*
Silty Clay 0-20 50-70 30-50 10 - 25 15 - 30 20 - 40 25 - 50
*
Clay 0-50 0-50 30-100 15(max) 20(max) 25(max) 40(max)
* Drainage blankets or stabilization trenches should be considered.
March 7, 2014
Table 851.2 for each type of conduit. See

CHAPTER 850 Index 866.3 for use of Manning's formula.
PHYSICAL STANDARDS Topic 852 - Pipe Materials
Topic 851 - General 852.1 Reinforced Concrete Pipe (RCP)
Index 851.1 - Introduction (1) Durability. RCP is generally precast prior to
delivery to the project site. The durability of
This chapter deals with the selection of drainage
reinforced concrete pipe can be affected by
facility material type and sizes including pipes, pipe
abrasive flows or acids, chlorides and sulfate in
liners, pipe linings, drainage inlets and trench
the soil and water. See Index 855.2 Abrasion,
drains.
and Index 855.4 Protection of Concrete Pipe
851.2 Selection of Material and Type and Drainage Structures from Acids, Chlorides
and Sulfates.
The choice of drainage facility material type and
size is based on the following factors: The following measures increase the durability
of reinforced concrete culverts:
(1) Physical and Structural Factors. Of the many
physical and structural considerations, some of (a) Cover Over Reinforcing Steel. Additional
the most important are: cover over the reinforcing steel should be
specified where abrasion is likely to be
(a) Durability.
severe as to appreciably shorten the design
(b) Headroom. service life of a concrete culvert. This extra
(c) Earth Loads. cover is also warranted under exposure to
corrosive environments, see Index 855.4
(d) Bedding Conditions. Protection of Concrete Pipe and Drainage
(e) Conduit Rigidity. Structures from Acids, Chlorides and
Sulfates. Extra cover over the reinforcing
(f) Impact. steel does not necessarily require extra wall
(g) Leak Resistance. thickness, as it may be possible to provide
the additional cover and still obtain the
(2) Hydraulic Factors. Hydraulic considerations specified D-load with standard wall
involve: thicknesses.
(a) Design Discharge. (b) Increase cement content.
(b) Shape, slope and cross sectional area of (c) Reduce water content.
channel.
(d) Invert paving/plating.
(c) Velocity of approach.
(2) Indirect Design Strength Requirements.
(d) Outlet velocity.
(a) Design Standards. The “D” load strength of
(e) Total available head. reinforced concrete pipe is determined by
(f) Bedload. the load to produce a 0.01 inch crack under
the “3-edge bearing test” called for in
(g) Inlet and outlet conditions. AASHTO Designations M 170, M 207M/M
(h) Slope. 207, and M 206M/M 206 for circular
reinforced pipe, oval shaped reinforced
(i) Smoothness of conduit. pipe, and reinforced concrete pipe arches,
(j) Length. respectively.
Suggested values for Manning's Roughness (b) Height of Fill. See Topic 856.
coefficient (n) for design purposes are given in
October 4, 2010
Table 851.2
Manning "n" Value for Alternative
Pipe Materials(1)
Type of Recommended "n" Value

Conduit Design Value Range
Corrugated Metal Pipe (2)
(3)
(Annular and Helical)
2⅔" x ½" corrugation 0.025 0.022 - 0.027
3" x 1" " 0.028 0.027 - 0.028
5" x 1" " 0.026 0.025 - 0.026
6" x 2" " 0.035 0.033 - 0.035
9" x 2½" " 0.035 0.033 - 0.037
Concrete Pipe
Pre-cast 0.012 0.011 - 0.017
Cast-in-place 0.013 0.012 - 0.017
Concrete Box 0.013 0.012 - 0.018
Plastic Pipe (HDPE and PVC)
Smooth Interior 0.012 0.010 - 0.013
Corrugated Interior 0.022 0.020 - 0.025
Spiral Rib Metal Pipe
¾" (W) x 1" (D) @ 11½" o/c 0.013 0.011 - 0.015
¾" (W) x ¾" (D) @ 7½" o/c 0.013 0.012 - 0.015
¾" (W) x 1" (D) @ 8½" o/c 0.013 0.012 - 0.015
Composite Steel Spiral Rib Pipe 0.012 0.011 - 0.015
Steel Pipe, Ungalvanized 0.015 --
Cast Iron Pipe 0.015 --
Clay Sewer Pipe 0.013 --
Polymer Concrete Grated Line Drain 0.011 0.010 - 0.013
Notes:
(1) Tabulated n-values apply to circular pipes flowing full except for the grated line drain. See Note 5.
(2) For lined corrugated metal pipe, a composite roughness coefficient may be computed using the procedures outlined in the HDS
No. 5, Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts.
(3) Lower n-values may be possible for helical pipe under specific flow conditions (refer to FHWA's publication Hydraulic Flow
Resistance Factors for Corrugated Metal Conduits), but in general, it is recommended that the tabulated n-value be used for both
annular and helical corrugated pipes.
(4) For culverts operating under inlet control, barrel roughness does not impact the headwater. For culverts operating under outlet
control barrel roughness is a significant factor. See Index 825.2 Culvert Flow.
(5) Grated Line Drain details are shown in Standard Plan D98C and described under Index 837.2(6) Grated Line Drains. This type
of inlet can be used as an alternative at the locations described under Index 837.2(5) Slotted Drains. The carrying capacity is
less than 18-inch slotted (pipe) drains.
March 7, 2014
(3) Shapes. Reinforced concrete culverts are in situations which require stage construction
available in circular and oval shapes. Reinforced and when the culvert is to be aligned on a high
Concrete Pipe Arch (RCPA) shapes have been skew. This situation will require either a longer
discontinued by West Coast manufacturers. culvert than otherwise may have been needed,
or a special design allowing for skewed joints.
In general, the circular shaped is the most
Prior to selecting the latter option DES -
economical for the same cross-sectional area.
Structures Design should be consulted.
Oval shapes are appropriate for areas with
limited head or overfill or where these shapes (2) Concrete Arch Culverts. Technical questions
are more appropriate for site conditions. A regarding concrete arch culverts should be
convenient reference of commercially available directed to the Underground Structures Branch
products and shapes is the AASHTO of DES - Structures Design.
publication, “A Guide to Standardized Highway
(3) Three-Sided Concrete Box Culverts Design
Drainage Products”.
details for cast-in-place (CIP) construction
(4) Non-Reinforced Concrete Pipe Option. Non- three-sided bottomless concrete box culverts in
reinforced concrete pipe may be substituted at 2-foot span increments from 12 feet to < 20 feet,
the contractor’s option for reinforced concrete inclusive, with strength classifications shown
pipe for all sizes 36 inches in diameter and for 10 feet and 20 feet overfills are available
smaller as long as it conforms to Section 65 of upon request from DES - Structures Design.
the Standard Specifications. Non-Reinforced CIP Bottomless Culvert XS-sheets 17-050-1, 2,
concrete pipe is not affected by chlorides or 3, 4 and 5 may be obtained electronically.
stray currents and may be used in lieu of RCP in Precast three-sided box culverts are an
these environments without coating or the need acceptable alternative to CIP designs, where
to provide extra cover over reinforcement. contractors may submit such designs for
approval. Both precast and CIP designs must be
(5) Direct Design Method - RCP. (Contact DES -
placed on a foundation designed specifically for
Structures Design)
the project site.
852.2 Concrete Box and Arch Culverts (4) Corrosion, Abrasion, and Invert Protection.
(1) Box Culverts. Single and multiple span Refer to Index 855.2 Abrasion, and Index 855.4
reinforced concrete box culverts are completely Protection of Concrete Pipe and Drainage
detailed in the Standard Plans. For cast-in-place Structures from Acids, Chlorides and Sulfates
construction, strength classifications are shown for corrosion, abrasion and invert protection of
for 10 feet and 20 feet overfills. Precast concrete box and arch culverts.
reinforced concrete box culverts require a
minimum of 1 foot of overfill and are not to
852.3 Corrugated Steel Pipe, Steel Spiral Rib
exceed 12 feet in span length. Special details Pipe and Pipe Arches
are necessary if precast boxes are proposed as Corrugated steel pipe, steel spiral rib pipe and pipe
extensions for existing box culverts. Where the arches are available in the diameters and arch shapes
use of precast box culverts is applicable, the as indicated on the maximum height of cover tables.
project plans should include them as an For larger diameters, arch spans or special shapes,
alternative to cast-in-place construction. see Index 852.5. Corrugated steel pipe and pipe
Because the standard measurement and payment arches are available in various corrugation profiles
clauses for precast RCB’s differ from cast-in- with helical and annular corrugations. Corrugated
place construction, precast units must be steel spiral rib pipe is available in several helical
identified as an alternative and the special corrugation patterns.
provision must be appropriately modified.
(1) Hydraulics. Annular and helical corrugated
The standard plan sheets for precast boxes show steel pipe configurations are applicable in the
details which require them to be layed out with situations where velocity reduction is important
joints perpendicular to the centerline of the box. or if a culvert is being designed with an inlet
This is a consideration for the design engineer control condition. Spiral rib pipe, on the other
March 7, 2014
hand, may be more appropriate for use in without need to increase thickness of
stormdrain situations or if a culvert is being the steel pipe. To ensure that a
designed with an outlet control condition. damaged coating does not lead to
Spiral rib pipe has a lower roughness coefficient premature catastrophic failure, the base
(Manning's “n”) than other corrugated metal steel thickness for pipes that are to be
pipe profiles. coated with a polymeric sheet must be
able to provide a minimum 10-year
(2) Durability. The anticipated maintenance-free
service life prior to application of the
service life of corrugated steel pipe, steel spiral
polymeric material. In addition, a
rib pipe and pipe arch installations is primarily a
bituminous lining or bituminous paving
function of the corrosivity and abrasiveness of
can be applied over a bituminous
the environment into which the pipe is placed.
coating primer on the inside of the pipe
Corrosion potential must be determined from
for extra corrosion or abrasion
the pH and minimum resistivity tests covered in
protection (see Section 66 of the
California Test 643. Abrasive potential must be
Standard Specifications).
estimated from bed material that is present and
anticipated flow velocities. Refer to Index Citing Section 5650 of the Fish and
855.1 for a discussion of maintenance-free Game Code, the Department of Fish and
service life and Index 855.2 Abrasion, and Game (DFG) may restrict the use of
Index 855.3 Corrosion. bituminous coatings on the interior of
pipes if they are to be placed in streams
The following measures are commonly used to
that flow continuously or for an
prolong the maintenance-free service life of
extended period (more than 1 to 2 days)
steel culverts:
after a rainfall event. Their concern is
(a) Galvanizing. Under most conditions plain that abraded particles of asphalt could
galvanizing of steel pipe is all that is enter the stream and degrade the fish
needed; however, the presence of corrosive habitat. Where abrasion is unlikely,
or abrasive elements may require additional DFG concerns should be minimal. DFG
protection. has indicated that they have no concerns
regarding interior application of
• Protective Coatings - The necessity for
polymeric sheet coatings, even under
any coating should be determined
abrasive conditions.
considering hydraulic conditions, local
experience, possible environmental Where the materials report indicates
impacts, and long-term economy. that soil side corrosion is expected, a
Approved protective coatings are bituminous asphalt coating which is
bituminous asphalt, asphalt mastic and hot-dipped to cover the entire inside and
polymeric sheet, which can be applied outside of the pipe or an exterior
to the inside and/or outside of the pipe; application of polymeric sheet, as
and polyethylene for composite steel provided in the Standard Specifications,
spiral ribbed pipe which is a steel spiral combined with galvanizing of steel, is
ribbed pipe externally pre-coated with a usually effective in forestalling
polymeric sheet, and internally accelerated corrosion on the backfill
polyethylene lined. All of these side of the pipe. Where soil side
protective coatings are typically shop- corrosion is the only, or primary, factor
applied prior to delivery to the leading to deterioration, the bituminous
construction site. Polymeric sheet asphalt protection layer described above
coating provides much improved is typically expected to add up to 25
corrosion resistance over bituminous years of service life to an uncoated (i.e.,
coatings and can be considered to plain galvanized) pipe. A polymeric
typically allow achievement of a sheet coating is typically expected to
50-year maintenance-free service life provide up to 50-years of service life to
March 7, 2014
an uncoated pipe. For locations where For pH ranges outside the 5.5 and 8.5 limits
water side corrosion and/or abrasion is or minimum resistivity values below 1500
of concern, protective coatings, or ohm-cm, aluminized steel (type 2) should
protective coatings with pavings, or not be used. In no case should the thickness
protective coatings with linings, in of aluminized steel (type 2) be less than the
combination with galvanizing will add minimum structural requirements for a
to the culvert service life to a variable given diameter of galvanized steel. Refer to
degree, depending upon site conditions Index 855.2 Abrasion, and Index 855.3
and type of coating selected. Refer to Corrosion.
Index 855.2 Abrasion, and Index 855.3
The AltPipe Computer Program is also
Corrosion. If hydraulic conditions at
available to help designers estimate service
the culvert site require a lining on the
life for various corrosive/abrasive
inside of the pipe or a coating different
conditions. See
than that indicated in the Standard
http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/oppd/altpipe.htm
Specifications, then the different
requirements must be described in the (3) Strength Requirements. The strength
Special Provisions. requirements for corrugated steel pipes and pipe
arches, fabricated under acceptable methods
• Extra Metal Thickness. Added service
contained in the Standard Specifications, are
life can be achieved by adding metal
given in Tables 856.3A, B, C, & D. For steel
thickness. However, this should only
spiral rib pipe see Tables 856.3E, F & G.
be considered after protective coatings
and pavings have been considered. (a) Design Standards.
Since 0.052 inch thick steel culverts is
• Corrugation Profiles - Corrugated steel
the minimum steel pipe Caltrans allows,
pipe and pipe arches are available in 2⅔"
it must be limited to locations that are
x ½", 3" x 1", and 5" x 1" profiles with
nonabrasive.
helical corrugations, and 2⅔" x ½"
See Table 855.2C for estimating the profiles with annular corrugations.
added service life that can be achieved Corrugated steel spiral rib pipe is
by coatings and invert paving of steel available in a ¾" x ¾" x 7½" or
pipes based upon abrasion resistance ¾" x 1" x 11½" helical corrugation
characteristics. pattern. For systems requiring large
diameter and/or deeper fill capacity a
(b) Aluminized Steel (Type 2). Evaluations of
¾" x 1" x 8½" helical corrugation pattern
aluminized steel (type 2) pipe in place for
is available. Composite steel spiral rib
over 40 years have provided data that
pipe is available in a ¾" x ¾" x 7½"
substantiate a design service life with
helical ribbed profile.
respect to corrosion resistance equivalent to
aluminum pipe. Therefore, for pH values • Metal Thickness - Corrugated steel pipe
between 5.5 and 8.5, and minimum and pipe arches are available in the
resistivity values in excess of 1500 ohm-cm, thickness as indicated on Tables 856.3A,
0.064 inch aluminized steel (type 2) is B, C & D. Corrugated steel spiral rib
considered to provide a 50 year design pipe is available in the thickness as
service life. Where abrasion is of concern, indicated on Tables 856.3E, F & G.
aluminized steel (type 2) is considered to be Where a maximum overfill is not listed
roughly equivalent to galvanized steel. on these tables, the pipe or arch size is
Bituminous coatings are not recommended not normally available in that thickness.
for corrosion protection, but may be used in All pipe sections provided in Table 856.3
accordance with Table 855.2C for abrasion meet handling and installation flexibility
resistance. A concrete invert may also be requirements of AASHTO LRFD.
considered where abrasion is of concern. Composite steel spiral rib pipe is
March 7, 2014
available in the thickness as indicated on 3/4" wide x 3/4" high at a maximum rib pitch of
Table 856.3G. 7-1/2 inches, two rectangular ribs and one half-
circle rib equally spaced between seams with
• Height of Fill - The allowable overfill
ribs 3/4" wide x 1" high at a maximum rib pitch
heights for corrugated steel and
of 11-1/2 inches with the half-circle rib diameter
corrugated steel spiral rib pipe and pipe
spaced midway between the rectangular ribs, or
arches for the various diameters or arch
two rectangular ribs equally spaced between
sizes and metal thickness are shown on
seams with ribs 3/4" wide x 1" high at a
Tables 856.3A, B, C, & D. For
maximum rib pitch of 8-1/2 inches.
corrugated steel spiral rib pipe, overfill
heights are shown on Tables 856.3E, F & Aluminized steel spiral rib pipe, type 2
G. Table 856.3G gives the allowable (ASSRP) is available in the same sizes as
overfill height for composite steel spiral galvanized steel spiral rib and will support the
rib pipe. same fill heights (the aluminizing is simply a
replacement coating for zinc galvanizing that
(4) Shapes. Corrugated steel pipe, steel spiral rib
allows thinner steel to be placed in certain
pipe and pipe arches are available in the
corrosive environments. See Figure 855.3A for
diameters and arch shapes as indicated on the
the acceptable pH and resistivity ranges for
maximum height of cover tables. For larger
placement of aluminized steel pipes). Tables
diameters, arch spans or special shapes, see
856.3E, F & G give the maximum height of
Index 852.5.
overfill for steel spiral rib pipe constructed
(5) Invert Protection. Refer to Index 855.2 under the acceptable methods contained in the
Abrasion. Invert protection should be Standard Specifications and essentials discussed
considered for corrugated steel culverts exposed in Index 829.2.
to excessive wear from abrasive flows or
corrosive water. Severe abrasion usually occurs
852.4 Corrugated Aluminum Pipe,
when the flow velocity exceeds Aluminum Spiral Rib Pipe and Pipe Arches
12 feet per second to 15 feet per second and Corrugated aluminum pipe, aluminum spiral rib
contains an abrasive bedload of sufficient pipe and pipe arches are available in the diameters
volume. When severe abrasion or corrosion is and arch shapes as indicated on the maximum height
anticipated, special designs should be of cover tables. For larger diameters, arch spans or
investigated and considered. Typical invert special shapes see Index 852.6. Corrugated
protection includes invert paving with portland aluminum pipe and pipe arches are available in
cement concrete with wire mesh reinforcement, various corrugation profiles with helical and annular
and invert lining with metal plate. The paving corrugations. Helical corrugated pipe must be
limits for invert linings are site specific and specified if anticipated heights of cover exceed the
should be determined by field review. tabulated values for annular corrugated pipe. Non-
Additional metal thickness will increase service standard pipe diameters and arch sizes are also
life. Reducing the velocity within the culvert is available. Aluminum spiral rib pipe is similar to
an effective method of preventing severe spiral rib steel and is available in several helical
abrasion. Index 853.6 provides additional corrugation patterns.
guidance on invert paving with concrete.
(1) Hydraulics. Corrugated aluminum pipe comes
(6) Spiral Rib Steel. Galvanized steel spiral rib pipe in various corrugated profiles. Annular and
is fabricated using sheet steel and continuous helical corrugated aluminum pipe
helical lock seam fabrication as used for helical configurations are applicable in the situations
corrugated metal pipe. The manufacturing where velocity reduction is important or if a
complies with Section 66, “Corrugated Metal culvert is being designed with an inlet control
Pipe,” of the Standard Specifications, except for condition. Spiral rib pipe, on the other hand,
profile and fabrication requirements. Spiral rib may be more appropriate for use in stormdrain
pipe is fabricated with either: three rectangular situations or if a culvert is being designed with
ribs spaced midway between seams with ribs
March 7, 2014
an outlet control condition. Spiral rib pipe has a (e) Aluminum must not be used as a section or
lower roughness coefficient (Manning's “n”) extension of a culvert containing steel
than other corrugated metal pipe profiles. sections.
(2) Durability. Aluminum culverts or stormdrains (3) Strength Requirements. The strength
may be specified as an alternate culvert requirements for corrugated aluminum pipe and
material. When a 50-year maintenance-free pipe arches fabricated under the acceptable
service life of aluminum pipe is required the pH methods contained in the Standard
and minimum resistivity, as determined by Specifications, are given in Tables 856.3H, I &
California Test Method 643, must be known and J. See Table 856.3K and Table 856.3L for
the following conditions met: aluminum spiral rib pipe. Tables 856.3H
through L are based on the material properties
(a) The pH of the soil, backfill, and effluent is
of H-32 temper aluminum. Additional cover
within the range of 5.5 and 8.5, inclusive.
heights can be achieved for an aluminum
Bituminous coatings are not recommended
section when H-34 temper material is used.
for corrosion protection or abrasion
Contact DES-Structures Design for a special
resistance. However, a concrete invert
design using H-34 temper material.
lining may be considered. Abrasive
potential must be estimated from bed (a) Design Standards.
material that is present and anticipated flow
• Corrugation Profiles - Corrugated
velocities. Refer to Index 855.1 for a
aluminum pipe and pipe arches are
discussion of maintenance-free service life
and Index 855.2 Abrasion, and Index 855.3 available in 2⅔" x ½" and 5" x 1"
Corrosion prior to selecting aluminum as an profiles with helical or annular
allowable alternate. corrugations. Aluminum spiral rib pipe
is available in a ¾" x ¾" x 7½" or a
(b) The minimum resistivity of the soil, ¾" x 1" x 11½" helical corrugation
backfill, and effluent is 1500 ohm-cm or profile.
greater.
• Metal thickness - Corrugated aluminum
(c) Aluminum culverts should not be installed pipe and pipe arches are available in the
in an environment where other aluminum thickness as indicated on Tables
culverts have exhibited significant distress, 856.3H, I & J. Where a maximum
such as extensive perforation or loss of overfill is not listed on these tables, the
invert, for whatever reason, apparent or not. pipe or pipe arch is not normally
(d) Aluminum may be considered for side available in that thickness. All pipe
drains in environments having the following sections provided in Table 856.3 meet
parameters: handling and installation flexibility
requirements of AASHTO LRFD.
• When pH is between 5.5 and 8.5 and Aluminum spiral rib pipe are available
the minimum resistivity is between 500 in the thickness as indicated on Tables
and 1500 ohm-cm. 856.3K & L.
• When pH is between 5.0 and 5.5 or • Height of Fill - The allowable overfill
between 8.5 and 9.0 and the minimum heights for corrugated aluminum pipe
resistivity is greater than 1500 ohm-cm. and pipe arches for various diameters
For these conditions, the Corrosion and metal thicknesses are shown on
Technology Branch in METS should be Tables 856.3H, I & J. For aluminum
contacted to confirm the advisability of spiral rib pipe, overfill heights are
using aluminum on specific projects. shown on Tables 856.3K, & L.
(4) Shapes. Corrugated aluminum pipe, aluminum
spiral rib pipe and pipe arches are available in
the diameters and arch shapes as indicated on
March 7, 2014
the maximum height of cover tables. Helical • Height of Fill - The allowable height of
corrugated pipe must be specified if anticipated cover over structural plate pipe and pipe
heights of cover exceed the tabulated values for arches for the available diameters and
annular corrugated pipe. thickness are shown on Tables 856.3M,
For larger diameters, arch spans or special N, O & P.
shapes, see Index 852.5. Non-standard pipe Where a maximum overfill is not listed on
diameters and arch sizes are also available. these tables, the pipe or arch size is not
(5) Invert Protection. Invert protection of normally available in that thickness. All
corrugated aluminum is not recommended. pipe sections provided in Table 856.3
conform to handling and installation
(6) Spiral Rib Aluminum. Aluminum spiral rib pipe flexibility requirements of AASHTO
is fabricated using sheet aluminum and LRFD. Strutting of culverts, as depicted on
continuous helical lock seam fabrication as used Standard Plan D88A, is typically necessary
for helical corrugated metal pipe. The if the pipe is used as a vertical shaft or if the
manufacturing complies with Section 66, backfill around the pipe is being removed in
“Corrugated Metal Pipe,” of the Standard an unbalanced manner.
Specifications, except for profile and fabrication
requirements. Aluminum spiral rib pipe is (b) Basic Premise. To properly use the above
fabricated with either: three rectangular ribs mentioned tables, the designer should be
spaced midway between seams with ribs aware of the premises on which the tables
3/4" wide x 3/4" high at a maximum rib pitch of are based as well as their limitations. The
7-1/2 inches or two rectangular ribs and one design tables presuppose:
half-circle rib equally spaced between seams • That bedding and backfill satisfy the
with ribs 3/4" wide x 1" high at a maximum rib terms of the Standard Specifications,
pitch of 11-1/2 inches with the half-circle rib the conditions of cover, and pipe or arch
diameter spaced midway between the size required by the plans and the
rectangular ribs. Figure 855.3A should be used essentials of Index 829.2.
to determine the limitations on the use of spiral
rib aluminum pipe for the various levels of pH • That a small amount of settlement will
and minimum resistivity. occur under the culvert, equal in
magnitude to that of the adjoining
852.5 Structural Metal Plate material outside the trench.
(1) Pipe and Arches. Structural plate pipes and (c) Limitations. In using the tables, the
arches are available in steel and aluminum for following restrictions should be kept in
the diameters and thickness as shown on Tables mind.
856.3M, N, O & P.
• The values given for each size of
(2) Strength Requirements. structural plate pipe or arch constitute
(a) Design Standards. the maximum height of overfill or cover
over the pipe or arch for the thickness
• Corrugation Profiles - Structural plate of metal and kind of corrugation.
pipe and arches are available in a
6" x 2" corrugation for steel and a • The thickness shown is the structural
9" x 2½" corrugation profile for minimum. For steel pipe or pipe arches,
aluminum. where abrasive conditions are
anticipated, additional metal thickness
• Metal Thickness - structural plate pipe for the invert plate(s) or a paved invert
and pipe arches are available in should be provided when required to
thickness as indicated on Tables fulfill the design service life
856.3M, N, O & P. requirements. Table 855.2C may be
March 7, 2014
used. See Index 855.2 Abrasion and embankment that can be constructed by
Tables 855.2A, 855.2D and 855.2F. conventional tunnel methods. Typically, tunnel
liner plate is not used for direct burial
• Where needed, adequate provisions for
applications where structural metal plate pipe is
corrosion resistance must be made to
recommended. DES - Structures Design will
achieve the required design service life
prepare designs upon request. See Index 853.7
called for in the references mentioned
for structural repairs.
herein.
852.6 Plastic Pipe
• Tables 856.3M & P show the limit of
heights of cover for structural plate Plastic pipe is a generic term which currently
arches based on the supporting soil includes two independent materials; the Standard
sustaining a bearing pressure of Specifications states plastic pipe shall be made of
3 tons per square foot at the corners. either high density polyethylene (HDPE) or
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) material. See Index
(d) Special Designs. If the height of overfill
852.6(2)(a) Strength Requirements for allowed
exceeds the tabular values, or if the
materials and wall profile types.
foundation investigation reveals that the
supporting soil will not develop the bearing (1) Durability. Caltrans standards regarding the
pressure on which the overfill heights for durability of plastic pipe are based on the long
structural plate pipe or pipe arches are term performance of its material properties.
based, a special design prepared by DES - Both forms of plastic pipe culverts (HDPE and
Structures Design is required. PVC) exhibit good abrasion resistance and are
virtually corrosion free. See Index 855.2
(3) Arches. Design details with maximum
Abrasion and Index 855.5 Material
allowable overfills for structural plate arches,
Susceptibility to Fire. Also, see Tables 855.2A,
with cast in place concrete footings may be
855.2E and 855.2F. The primary environmental
obtained from DES - Structures Design.
factor currently considered in limiting service
(4) Vehicular Underpasses. Design details with life of plastic materials is ultraviolet (UV)
maximum allowable overfills for structural plate radiation, typically from sunlight exposure.
vehicular underpasses with spans from While virtually all plastic pipes contain some
12 feet 2 inches to 20 feet 4 inches, inclusive, amount of UV protection, the level of protection
are given in the Standard Plans. These designs is not equal. Polyvinyl chloride resins used for
are based on “factored” bearing soil pressures pipe rarely incorporate UV protection (typically
from 2.5 tons per square foot to 11 tons per Titanium Dioxide) in amounts adequate to
square foot. offset long term exposure to direct sunlight.
Therefore, frequent exposure (e.g., cross
(5) Special Shapes.
culverts with exposed ends) can lead to
(a) Long Span. brittleness and such situations should be
avoided. Conversely, testing performed to date
• Arch
on HDPE products conforming to specification
• Low Profile Arch requirements for inclusion of carbon black have
exhibited adequate UV resistance. PVC pipe
• High Profile Arch
exposed to freezing conditions can also
(b) Ellipse. (Text Later) experience brittleness and such situations should
be avoided if there is potential for impact
• Vertical
loadings, such as maintenance equipment or
• Horizontal heavy (3" or larger) bedload during periods of
freeze. Plastic pipes can also fail from long term
(6) Tunnel Liner Plate. The primary applications stress that leads to crack growth and from
for tunnel liner plate include lining large chemical degradation. Improvements in plastic
structures in need of a structural repair, or resin specifications and testing requirements has
culvert installations through an existing
March 7, 2014
led to increased resistance to slow crack growth.

Inclusion of anti-oxidants in the material
Topic 853 - Pipe Liners and
formulation is the most common form of Linings for Culvert Rehabilitation
delaying the onset of chemical degradation, but
more thorough testing and assessment protocols 853.1 General
need to be developed to more accurately This topic discusses alternative pipe liner and pipe
estimate long term performance characteristics lining materials specifically intended for culvert
and durability. repair and does not include materials used for
(2) Strength Requirements. Trenchless Excavation Construction (e.g., pipe
jacking, pipe ramming, augur boring), joint repair,
(a) Design Standards various types of grouting, or standard pipe materials
• Materials - Plastic pipe shall be either that are presented elsewhere in Chapter 850 and in
Type C (corrugated exterior and the Standard Plans and Standard Specifications.
interior) corrugated polyethylene pipe, Many new products and techniques have been
Type S (corrugated exterior and smooth developed that often make complete replacement
interior) corrugated polyethylene pipe, with open cut as shown in the Standard Plans
or corrugated polyvinyl chloride pipe. unnecessary. When used appropriately, these new
• Height of Fill - The allowable overfill products and techniques can benefit the Department
heights for plastic pipe for various in terms of increased mobility, cost, and safety to
diameters are shown in Tables 856.4 both the public and contractors. Design Information
and 856.5. Bulletin 83 (DIB 83) outlines a collection of
procedures that are cost-effective for their location
852.7 Special Purpose Types and that will meet the needs of their particular area,
supplementing Topic 853. Use the following link:
(1) Smooth Steel. Smooth steel (welded) pipe can
http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/oppd/dib/dibprg.htm for
be utilized for drainage facilities under
further information.
conditions where corrugated metal or concrete
pipe will not meet the structural or design 853.2 Caltrans Host Pipe Structural
service life requirements, or for certain jacked Philosophy
pipe operations (e.g., auger boring).
In general, if the host (i.e., existing) pipe cannot be
(2) Composite Steel Spiral Rib Pipe. Composite made capable of sustaining design loads, it should
steel spiral rib pipe is a smooth interior pipe be replaced rather than rehabilitated. This is a
with efficient hydraulic characteristics. See conservative approach and when followed
Table 851.2. eliminates the need to make a detailed evaluation of
Composite steel spiral rib pipe with its interior the liner’s ability to effectively accept and support
polyethylene liner exhibits good abrasion dead and live loads. Prior to making the decision
resistance and also resists waterside corrosion whether or not to rehabilitate the culvert and/or
found in a typical stormdrain or culvert which method to choose, a determination of the
environment. The exterior of the pipe is structural integrity of the host pipe must be made. If
protected with a polyethylene film, which offers rehabilitation of the culvert is determined to be a
resistance to corrosive backfills. The pipe will feasible option, existing voids within the culvert
meet a 50-year maintenance-free service life backfill or in the base material under the existing
under most conditions. See Table 856.3G for culvert identified either by Maintenance (typically
allowable height of cover. as part of their culvert management system) or
already noted in the Geotechnical Design Report,
(3) Proprietary Pipe. See Index 110.10 for further should be filled with grout to re-establish its load
discussion and guidelines on the use of carrying capability. Therefore, structural
proprietary items. considerations for pipe liners are generally limited
to their ability to withstand construction handling
and/or grouting pressures. When a structural repair
March 7, 2014
is needed, contact Underground Structures within http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/oppd/dib/dib83-01-

DES – Structures Design. See Index 853.7. 6.htm#6-1-3-1.
853.3 Problem Identification and The plastic pipeliners listed in the notes under Table
Coordination 853.1A are installed as slipliners, however, other
standard pipe types that are described in Topic 852
Before various alternatives for liners or linings can (e.g., metal), may be equally viable as material
be selected, the first step following a site options to be added as sliplining alternatives.
investigation which may include taking soil and
water samples and pipe wall thickness Table 853.1A
measurements, is to determine the actual cause of
the problem. Relative to Caltrans host pipe Allowable Alternative Pipe Liner
structural philosophy, the host pipe may be in need Materials
of stabilization, rehabilitation or replacement.
Further, it will need to be determined if the structure Annular
Allowable Diameter
is at the end of its maintenance-free service life, Space
Alternatives Range (1)
whether it has been damaged by mechanical Grouting
abrasion, or corrosion (or both) and if there are any PP (2) 15" – 120" Yes
changes to the hydrology or habitat (e.g. fish
passage). To make these determinations, the Project CIPP 8" – 96" No
Engineer should coordinate with the District MSWPVCPLED 6" – 30" No
Maintenance Culvert Inspection team, Hydraulics
and Environmental units. Further assistance may be SWPVCPLFD 21" – 108" Yes
needed from Geotechnical Design, the Corrosion Abbreviations:
Technology Branch within DES, Underground
PP – Plastic Pipe (sliplining)
Structures and/or Structures Maintenance within
CIPP – Cured in Place Pipe
DES. Prior to a comprehensive inspection either by
SWPVCPLFD – Spiral Wound PVC Pipe Liner
trained personnel or camera, it may also be (Fixed Diameter)
necessary to first clean out the culvert. Problem MSWPVCPLED – Machine Spiral Wound PVC Pipe
identification and assessment, and coordination with Liner (Expandable Diameter)
Headquarters and DES, is discussed in greater detail Note:
in DIB 83. Use the following link;
(1) Headquarters approval needed for pipe liner diameters
http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/oppd/dib/dib83-01- 60 inches or larger. Diameter range represents liners only,
7.htm#7-1-6 not Caltrans standard pipe.
853.4 Alternative Pipe Liner Materials (2) The designer must edit the following plastic pipeliner list
within SSP 15-6.10 to suit the work:
Similar to the basic policy in Topic 857.1 for
• Type S corrugated high density polyethylene (HDPE)
alternative pipes, when two or more liner materials pipe conforming to the provisions in Section 64,
meet the design service life and minimum thickness “Plastic Pipe,” of the Standard Specifications; or
requirements for various materials that are outlined • Standard Dimension Ratio (SDR) 35 polyvinyl
under Topic 855, as well as hydraulic requirements, chloride (PVC) pipe conforming to the requirements
the plans and specifications should provide for in AASHTO Designation: M 278 and ASTM
alternative pipe liners to allow for optional selection Designation: F 679; or
by the contractor. A table of allowable alternative • Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) closed profile wall pipe
conforming to the requirements in ASTM
pipe liner materials for culverts and drainage Designation: F 1803, F 794 (Series 46); or
systems is included as Table 853.1A. This table
• Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) dual wall corrugated pipe
also identifies the various diameter range limitations conforming to the requirements in ASTM
and whether annular space grouting is needed. Designation: F 794 (Series 46), and ASTM
Sliplining consists of sliding a new culvert inside an Designation F 949; or
existing distressed culvert as an alternative to total • High density polyethylene (HDPE) solid wall pipe
replacement. See DIB No 83; conforming to the requirements in AASHTO M 326
and ASTM Designation: F 714; or
March 7, 2014
• Large diameter high density polyethylene (HDPE) are large enough for human entry (with
closed profile wall pipe conforming to the equipment) is by paving them with reinforced
requirements in ASTM Designation: F 894.
concrete shotcrete or authorized cementitious
material. Standard Specification Section 15-6.04
Table 853.1B provides a guide for plastic pipeliner includes specifications for preparing the surface
selection in abrasive conditions to achieve a 50-year of the culvert invert, installing bar
maintenance-free service life. reinforcement and anchorage devices, and
paving the invert with concrete, shotcrete or
For further information on sliplining using plastic authorized cementitious material. For most non-
pipe liners including available dimensions and abrasive sites, concrete may comply with the
stiffness, see DIB 83. Use the following link: requirements for minor concrete or shotcrete.
http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/oppd/dib/dib83-01- See index 110.12 Tunnel Safety Orders.
6.htm#6-1-3-1-1 Generally, this method is feasible for pipes
853.5 Cementitious Pipe Lining 48 inches in diameter and larger. If abrasion is
present, see Table 855.2F for minimum material
This method may be used to line corroded thickness of concrete or authorized material.
corrugated steel pipes ranging from 12 inches to a Concrete should have a minimum compressive
maximum of 36 inches diameter and involves lining strength of 6,000 psi at 28 days and the
an existing culvert with concrete, shotcrete or aggregate source should be harder material than
mortar using a lining machine. If the bedload is the streambed load and have a high durability
abrasive, alternative cementitious materials such as index (consult with District Materials Branch
calcium aluminate mortar or geopolymer mortar for sampling and recommendation). The
may be selected from the Authorized Materials list maximum grading specified (1.5 inch) for
for cementitious pipeliners. See Table 855.2F and coarse aggregate may need to be modified if the
Section 15-6.14 of the Standard Specifications for concrete must be pumped. The abrasion
specifications. Regardless of type of cementitious resistance of cementitious materials is affected
material used, the resulting lining is a minimum of by both its compressive strength and hardness of
one inch thick when measured over the top of the aggregate. There is a correlation between
corrugation crests and has a smooth surface texture. decreasing the water/cement ratio, increasing
As with other liners, the pipes must first be compressive strength and increasing abrasion
thoroughly cleaned and dried. For diameters resistance. Therefore, where abrasion is a
between 12 and 24 inches, the cement mortar is significant factor, the lowest practicable
applied by robot. The mortar is pumped to a head, water/cement ratios and the hardest available
which rotates at high speed using centrifugal force aggregates should be used.
to place the mortar on the walls. A conical-shaped
trowel attached to the end of the machine is used to Paving thickness will range from 2 inches to
smooth the walls. The maximum recommended 13 inches depending on abrasiveness of site
length of small-diameter pipe that can be lined using based on Table 855.2A, and paving limits
this method is approximately 650 feet. Although typically vary from 90 to 120 degrees for the
this method will line larger diameter pipes, it is internal angle. See Index 855.2 and Table
mostly appropriate for non-human entry pipes (less 855.2F. Note that in Table 855.2F cementitious
than 30 inches). Generally, most problems with concrete is not recommended for extremely
steel pipe are limited to the lower 180 degrees, abrasive conditions (Level 6 in Table 855.2A).
therefore, in larger diameter metal pipes where For extremely abrasive conditions alternative
human entry is possible, invert paving may be all materials are recommended such as abrasion
that is required. See Index 853.6. resistant concrete (calcium aluminate), steel
plate or adding RSP. Calcium aluminate
853.6 Invert Paving with Concrete abrasion resistant concrete or mortar may be
(1) Existing Corrugated Metal Pipe (CMP). One of selected from the Authorized Materials list for
the most effective ways to rehabilitate corroded concrete invert paving. If hydraulically feasible,
and severely deteriorated inverts of CMP that a flattened invert design may be warranted.
December 30, 2015
Table 853.1B
Guide for Plastic Pipeliner Selection in Abrasive Conditions(2) to Achieve
50 Years of Maintenance-Free Service Life
Abrasion Level(1)
MATERIAL 4 5 6
Type S corrugated polyethylene pipe - - -
Standard Dimension Ratio (SDR) 35 PVC (3) (46 psi) 4" – 48" 12"- 48" 36"– 48"
(75 psi) 18" – 48" 18" – 48" 30" – 48"
(115 psi) 18" – 48" 18" – 48" 27" – 48"
Standard Dimension Ratio (SDR) PVC(4)
SDR 41 30" – 36" 30" – 36" -
(AWWA C900 & C905)
SDR 32.5 30" – 36" 30" – 36" 30" – 36"
SDR 25 4" – 36" 8" – 36" 24" – 36"
SDR 21 14" – 24" 14" – 24" 20" – 24"
SDR 18 4" – 24" 6" – 24" 18" – 24"
SDR 14 4" – 12" 4" – 12" -
PVC closed profile wall (ASTM F 1803) 18" – 60" 42"– 60" -
Corrugated PVC (ASTM F 794 & F 949) (46 psi) 18" – 36" - -
(115 psi) 15" - -
Standard Dimension Ratio (SDR) HDPE(3)
(AASHTO M 326 and ASTM Designation F SDR 41 10" – 63" 36" – 63" -
714)
SDR 32.5 8" – 63" 30" – 63" -
SDR 26 6" – 63" 24" – 63" -
SDR 21 5" – 63" 20" – 63" 54" – 63"
SDR 17 5" – 55" 16" – 55" 42" – 55"
SDR 15.5 5" – 48" 14" – 48" 42" – 48"
SDR 13.5 5" – 42" 12" – 42" 34" – 42"
SDR 11 5" – 36" 10" – 36" 28" - 36"
SDR 9 5" – 24" 8" – 24" 22"
Polyethylene (PE) large diameter profile
RSC(5) 160 18" – 120" 120" -
wall sewer and drain pipe (ASTM F 894)
RSC(5) 250 33" – 108" 96" – 108" -
NOTES:
(1) See Tables 855.2A and 855.2F for Abrasion Level Descriptions and minimum thickness.
(2) No restrictions for Abrasion Levels 1 through 3.
(3) Measured pipe designated SDR is measured to outside diameter.
(4) Measured to inside diameter.
(5) RSC = Ring Stiffness Class
March 7, 2014
Consult the District Hydraulic Branch for a Design within the Division of Design and the
recommendation. Underground Structures unit of Structures
Design within the Division of Engineering
Where there is significant loss of the pipe invert,
Services (DES) is advised.
it may be necessary to tie the concrete to more
structurally sound portions of the pipe wall in 853.7 Structural Repairs with Steel Tunnel
order to transfer compressive thrust of culvert Liner Plate
walls into the invert slab to create a
“mechanical” connection using welding studs, Cracks in RCP greater than 0.1 inch in width and
angle iron or by other means. When a flexible metal pipes with deflections beyond
mechanical connection is used, paving limits 10 – 12 percent may indicate a serious condition.
may vary up to 180 degrees for the internal When replacement is not an option for existing
angle. These types of repairs should be treated human entry pipes in need of structural repair, an
as a special design and consultation with the inspection by Structures Maintenance and a
Headquarters Office of Highway Drainage structural analysis by Underground Structures
Design within the Division of Design and the within DES are recommended. Further assistance
Underground Structures unit of Structures may be needed from Geotechnical Design and/or the
Design within the Division of Engineering Corrosion Unit within DES.
Services (DES) is advised. Depending on the Two flange or four flange steel tunnel liner plate can
size of the culvert being paved, pipes with be specially designed by Underground Structures
significant invert loss often also have a within DES as a structural repair to accommodate
significant loss of structural backfill with voids all live and dead loads. The flange plate lap joints
present. Where large voids are present, facilitate internal bolt connections (structural metal
consultation with Geotechnical Services within plate requires access to both sides). After the rings
the Division of Engineering Services (DES) is have been installed, the annular space between the
advised to develop a grouting plan. liner plates and the host pipe is grouted.
See DIB 83 for some invert paving case studies
using the following link: Topic 854 - Pipe Connections
http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/oppd/dib/dib83-01-
854.1 Basic Policy
12.htm#h
The Standard Specifications set forth general
(2) Existing RCB and RCP. For existing reinforced
performance requirements for transverse field joints
concrete boxes (RCB) and reinforced concrete
in all types of culvert and drainage pipe used for
pipes (RCP) with worn inverts and exposed
highway construction.
reinforcing steel (generally from abrasive
bedloads), the same paving thickness Table 857.2 indicates the alternative types of joints
considerations outlined under Index 853.6(1) that are to be specified for different arch and
will apply. However, depending on the circular pipe installations with regard to joint
structural condition, the existing steel strength. The two joint strength types specified for
reinforcement may need to be augmented. culvert and drainage systems are identified as
Consultation with Structures Maintenance and “standard” and “positive.”
Underground Structures within DES is (1) Joint Strength. Joint strength is to be designated
recommended. on the culvert list.
(3) Existing Plastic Pipe. Generally, concrete (a) Standard Joints. The “standard” joint is
invert paving is not feasible for plastic pipes usually for pipes or arches not subject to
because the cement will not adhere to plastic. large soil movement or disjointing forces.
However, it may be possible to create a These “standard” joints are satisfactory for
“mechanical” connection by other means but ordinarily installations, where tongue and
these types of repairs should be treated as a groove or simple slip type joints are
special design and consultation with the
Headquarters Office of Highway Drainage
March 7, 2014
typically used. The “standard” joint type is Standard Plans and/or Standard
generally adequate for underdrains. Specifications.
(b) Positive Joints. “Positive” joints are for Any part of an installed joint that has
more adverse conditions such as the need to less than ¼ inch overlap will be
withstand soil movements or resist considered disjointed. Whenever the
disjointing forces. Examples of these plans require that the culvert be
conditions are steep slopes, sharp curves, constructed on a curve, specially
and poor foundation conditions. See Index manufactured sections of culvert will be
829.2 for additional discussion. “Positive” required if the design joint cannot meet
joints should always be designated on the the minimum ¼ inch overlap
culvert list for siphon installations. requirement after the culvert section is
placed on the specified curve.
(c) Downdrain Joints. Pipe “downdrain” joints
are designed to withstand high velocity • Sleeve Joints. The joint overlap is the
flows, and to prevent leaking and minimum sleeve width (typically
disjointing that could cause failure. defined by the width of a coupling
(d) Joint Strength Properties. A description of band) required to engage both the
the specified joint strength properties culvert barrels which are abutted to
tabulated in Section 61 “Culvert and each other.
Drainage Pipe Joints” of the Standard (2) Joint Leakage. The ability of a pipe joint to
Specifications is as follows: prevent the passage of either soil particles or
water defines its soiltightness or watertightness.
• Shear Strength. The shear strength
These terms are relative and do not mean that a
required of the joint is expressed as a
joint will be able to completely stop the
percentage of the calculated shear
movement of soil or water under all conditions.
strength of the pipe at a transverse
Any pipe joint that allows significant soil
section remote from the joint. All
migration (piping) will ultimately cause damage
joints, including any connections must
to the embankment, the roadway, or the pipe
be capable of transferring the required
itself. Therefore, site conditions, such as soil
shear across the joint.
particle size, presence of groundwater, potential
• Moment Strength. The moment for pressure flow, etc., must be evaluated to
strength required of the joint is determine the appropriate joint requirement.
expressed as a percent of the calculated Other than solvent or fusion welded joints,
moment capacity of the pipe on a almost all joints can exhibit some amount of
transverse section remote from the joint. leakage. Joint performance is typically defined
by maximum allowable opening size in the joint
• Tensile Strength. The tensile strength is
itself or by the ability to pass a standardized
that which resist the longitudinal force
pressure test. The following criteria should be
which tends to separate (disjoint)
used, with the allowable joint type(s) indicated
adjacent pipe sections.
on the project plans:
• Joint Overlap.
• Normal Joint. Many pipe joint systems are
Integral Preformed Joint. The Joint not defined as either soiltight or watertight.
overlap is the amount of protection of However, for the majority of applications,
one culvert barrel into the adjacent such as culverts or storm drains placed in
culvert barrel by the amount specified well graded backfill and surrounding soils
for the size of pipe designated. The containing a minimum of fines; no potential
amount of required overlap will vary for groundwater contact; limited internal
based on several factors (material type, pressure, hydraulic grade line below the
diameter, etc.) and is designated on the pavement grade, etc., this type of joint is
acceptable. All currently accepted joint
March 7, 2014
types will meet or exceed “Normal Joint” CSSRP -Cuffed end w/gasket
requirements. The following non-gasketed
joint types should not be used beyond the PLASTIC -Split Coupler w/gasket
“Normal Joint” criteria range: (premium)
-Bell/Spigot w/gasket
CMP -Annular
-Hat
* Where substantial differential settlement
-Helical
is anticipated, would only meet Normal
-Hugger
Joint criteria.
-2-piece Integral Flange
-Universal
Where soil migration is of concern, but
PLASTIC -Split Coupler leakage rate is not, a soiltight joint can be
-Bell/Spigot achieved in most situations by external
wrapping of the joint area with filter fabric
• Soiltight Joint. This category includes those (see Index 831.4). Joints listed under both
joints which would provide an enhanced the normal joint and soiltight joint
level of security against leakage and soil categories, with a filter fabric wrap, would
migration over the normal joint. One be suitable in these conditions and would
definition of a soiltight joint is contained in not require a gasket or sealant. In many
Section 26.4.2.4(e) of the AASHTO cases, fabric wrapping can be less expensive
Standard Specifications for Highway than a rubber gasket or other joint sealant.
Bridges. In part, this specification requires Coordination with the District Materials
that if the size of the opening through which Unit is advised to ensure that the class of
soil might migrate exceeds 1/8 inch, the filter fabric will withstand construction
length of the channel (length of path along handling and screen fine soil particles from
which the soil particle must travel, i.e., the migrating through the joint.
coupling length) must exceed 4 times the
• Watertight Joint. Watertight joints are
size of the opening. Alternatively,
specified when the potential for soil erosion
AASHTO allows the joint to pass a
or infiltration/exfiltration must be restricted,
hydrostatic test (subjected to approx. 4.6
such as for downdrains, culverts in
feet of head) without leaking to be
groundwater zones, etc. Watertight joint
considered soiltight. Typical pipe joints
requirements are typically met by the use of
that can meet this criteria are:
rubber gasket materials as indicated in the
RCP and -Flared Bell Standard Specifications. The watertight
NRCP -Flushed Bell certification test described in Standard
-Steel Joint-Flush Bell Specification Section 61 requires that no
-Single or Double Offset leakage occur when a joint is tested for a
Design (Flared or Flushed period of 10 minutes while subjected to a
Bell) head of 10 feet over the crown of the pipe.
-Double Gasket This is a test that is typically performed in a
-Tongue and Groove* laboratory under optimal conditions not
-Self-Centering T & G* typical of those found in the field. Where
an assurance of water tightness is needed, a
CMP and -Annular w/gasket field test should be specified. Designers
SSRP -Hat w/gasket should be aware that field tests can be
-Helical w/gasket relatively expensive, and should only be
-Hugger w/gasket required if such assurance is critical. A
-2-piece Int. Fl. w/gasket field leakage rate in the range of 700 gallons
-Universal w/gasket to 1,000 gallons per inch of nominal
diameter per mile of pipe length per day,
March 7, 2014
with a hydrostatic head of 6 feet above the are to be used instead of O-ring or other
crown of the pipe, is not unusual for joints sealants.
that pass the watertight certification test,
and is sufficiently watertight for well Table 854.1 provides information to help
graded, quality backfill conditions. Where the designer select the proper joint under
conditions are more sensitive, a lower rate most conditions.
should be specified. Rates below 50 to
100 gallons per inch per mile per day are Topic 855 - Design Service Life
difficult to achieve and would rarely be
necessary. For example, sanitary sewers are 855.1 Basic Concepts
rarely required to have leakage rates below The prediction of design service life of drainage
200 gallons per inch per mile per day, even facilities is difficult because of the large number of
though they have stringent health and variables, continuing changes in materials, wide
environmental restrictions. Field range of environments, and use of various protective
hydrostatic tests are typically conducted coatings. The design service life of a drainage
over a period of 24 hours or more to facility is defined as the expected maintenance-free
establish a valid leakage rate. Designers service period of each installation. After this period,
should also be aware that non-circular pipe it is anticipated major will be needed for the facility
shapes (CMP pipe arches, RCP oval shapes, to perform as originally designed for further periods.
etc.) should not be considered watertight
For all metal pipes and arches that are listed in
even with the use of rubber gaskets or other
Table 857.2, maintenance-free service period, with
sealants due to the lack of uniform
respect to corrosion, abrasion and/or durability, is
compression around the periphery of the
the number of years from installation until the
joint. Additionally, watertight joints
deterioration reaches the point of perforation at any
specified for pressure pipe or siphon
location on the culvert (See Figures 855.3A,
applications must meet the requirements
855.3B, and Tables 855.2D and 855.2F). AltPipe
indicated in Standard Specification Sections
can be used to estimate service life of all circular
65 and 66. Pipe joints that meet Standard
metal pipe. See Index 857.2 Alternative Pipe
Specification Section 61 water-tightness
Culvert Selection Procedure Using AltPipe.
performance criteria are:
For reinforced concrete pipe (RCP), box (RCB) and
RCP and -Flared Bell
arch (RCA) culverts, maintenance-free service
NRCP -Flushed Bell
period, with respect to corrosion, abrasion and/or
-Steel Joint-Flush Bell
durability, is the number of years from installation
-Single or Double Offset
until the deterioration reaches the point of exposed
Design (Flared or Flushed
reinforcement at any point on the culvert. AltPipe
Bell)
can be used to estimate service life of reinforced
-Double Gasket
concrete pipe (RCP), but not RCB, RCA or NRCP.
See Index 857.2 Alternative Pipe Culvert Selection
CMP and -Hugger Bands (H-10, 12)
Procedure Using AltPipe.
SSRP w/gasket and double bolt
bar For non-reinforced concrete pipe culverts (NRCP),
-Annular Band w/gasket maintenance-free service period, with respect to
-Two Piece Integral Flange corrosion, abrasion and/or durability, is the number
w/sleeve-type gasket* of years from installation until the deterioration
reaches the point of perforation or major cracking
PLASTIC -Bell/Spigot w/gasket with soil loss at any point on the culvert.
* Acceptable as a watertight pipe only in

For plastic pipe, maintenance-free service period,
downdrain applications and in 6, 8 and 10 inch with respect to corrosion, abrasion, and long term
diameters. Factory applied sleeve-type gaskets structural performance, is the number of years from
installation until the deterioration reaches the point
August 1, 2011
Table 854.1
Joint Leakage Selection Criteria
JOINT TYPE ⇒ “NORMAL” “SOIL TIGHT” “WATER TIGHT”

JOINT JOINT JOINT
⇓ SITE CONDITIONS
SOIL FACTORS
Limited potential for soil migration (e.g., X X X

gravel, medium to coarse sands, cohesive soil)
Moderate potential for soil migration (e.g.,

X(1) X X
fine sands, silts)
High potential for soil migration (e.g., very

fine sands, silts of limited cohesion) X(1) X(1)
INFILTRATION / EXFILTRATION
No concern over either infiltration or

exfiltration. X X X
Infiltration or exfiltration not permitted (e.g.,
potential to contaminate groundwater,
contaminated plume could infiltrate) X(2)
HYDROSTATIC POTENTIAL
Installation will rarely flow full. No contact X X X

with groundwater.
Installation will occasionally flow full.

Internal head no more than 10 feet over X X
crown. No potential groundwater contact.
Installation may or may not flow full. Internal

head no more than 10 feet over crown. May X
contact groundwater.
Possible hydrostatic head (internal or external)

greater than 10 feet, but less than 25 ft(3). X(2)
Notes:
“X” indicates that joint type is acceptable in this application. The designer should specify the most cost-effective option.
(1) Designer should specify filter fabric wrap at joint. See Index 831.4.
(2) Designer should consider specifying field watertightness test.
(3) Pipe subjected to hydrostatic heads greater than 25 ft should have joints designed specifically for pressure
applications.
November 2, 2009
of perforation at any location on the culvert or until (b) Underdrains outside of roadbed - 25 years.
the pipe material has lost structural load carrying
(c) Stabilization trench drains - 50 years.
capacity typically represented by wall buckling or
excessive deflection/deformation. AltPipe can be In case of conflict in the design service life
used to estimate service life of all plastic pipe. See requirements between the above controls, the
Index 857.2 Alternative Pipe Culvert Selection highest design service life is required except for
Procedure Using AltPipe. All types of culverts are those cases of interim alignment with more than
subject to deterioration from corrosion, or abrasion, 10 feet of cover. For temporary construction, a
or material degradation. lesser design service life than that shown above is
acceptable.
Corrosion may result from active elements in the
soil, water and/or atmosphere. Abrasion is a result Where the above indicates a minimum design
of mechanical wear and depends upon the service life of 25 years, 50 years may be used. For
frequency, duration and velocity of flow, and the example an anticipated change in traffic conditions
amount and character of bedload. Material or when the highway is considered to be on
degradation may result from material quality, UV permanent alignment may warrant the higher design
exposure, or long term material structural service life.
performance.
855.2 Abrasion
To assure that the maintenance-free service period is
All types of pipe material are subject to abrasion
achieved, alternative metal pipe may require added
and can experience structural failure around the pipe
thickness and/or protective coatings. Concrete pipe
invert if not adequately protected. Abrasion is the
may require extra thickness of concrete cover over
wearing away of pipe material by water carrying
the steel reinforcement, high density concrete, using
sands, gravels and rocks (bed load) and is dependent
supplementary cementitious materials, epoxy coated
upon size, shape, hardness and volume of bed load
reinforcing steel, and/or protective coatings. Means
in conjunction with volume, velocity, duration and
for estimating the maintenance-free service life of
frequency of stream flow in the culvert. For
pipe, and techniques for extending the useful life of
example, at independent sites with a similar velocity
pipe materials are discussed in more detail in Topic
range, bedloads consisting of small and round
852.
particles will have a lower abrasion potential than
The design service life for drainage facilities for all those with large and angular particles such as
projects should be as follows: shattered or crushed rocks. Given different sites
(1) Culverts, Drainage Systems, and Side Drains. with similar flow velocities and particle size, studies
have shown the angularity and/or volume of the
(a) Roadbed widths greater than 28 feet - 50 material may have a significant impact to the
years. abrasion potential of the site. Likewise, two sites
(b) Greater than 10 feet of cover - 50 years. with similar site characteristics, but different
hydrologic characteristics, i.e., volume, duration and
(c) Roadbed widths 28 feet or less and with less frequency of stream flow in the culvert, will
than 10 feet of cover - 25 years. probably also have different abrasion levels.
(d) Installations under interim alignment - 25 In Table 855.2A six abrasion levels have been
years. defined to assist the designer in quantifying the
(2) Overside Drains. abrasion potential of a site. The designer is
encouraged to use the guidelines provided in Table
(a) Buried more than 3 feet- 50 years. 855.2A in conjunction with Table 855.2B “Bed
(b) All other conditions, such as on the surface Materials Moved by Various Flow Depths and
of fill slopes - 25 years. Velocities” and the abrasion history of a site (if
available) to achieve the required service life for a
(3) Subsurface Drains. pipe, coating or invert lining material. Sampling of
(a) Underdrains within roadbed - 50 years. the streambed materials generally is not necessary,
but visual examination and documentation of the
March 7, 2014
size, shape and volume of abrasive materials in the Figure 855.1

streambed and estimating the average stream slope
will provide the designer data needed to determine
Minor Bedload Volume
the expected level of abrasion. Where an existing
culvert is in place, the condition of the invert and
estimated combined wear rate due to abrasion and
corrosion based on remaining pipe thickness
measurements or if it is known approximately when
first perforation occurred (steel pipe only), should
always be used first. Figure 855.3B should be used
to estimate the expected loss due to corrosion for
steel pipe.
The descriptions of abrasion levels in Table 855.2A
are intended to serve as general guidance only, and
not all of the criteria listed for a particular abrasion
level need to be present to justify defining a site at
that level. For example, the use of one of the three
lower abrasion levels in lieu of one of the upper
three abrasion levels is encouraged where there are
minor bedload volumes, regardless of the gradation.
See Figure 855.1.
Table 855.2C constitutes a guide for estimating the
added service life that can be achieved by coatings
and invert paving of steel pipes based upon abrasion
resistance characteristics. However, the table does
not quantify added service life of coatings and
paving of steel pipe based upon corrosion
protection. In heavily abrasive situations, concrete
inverts or other lining alternatives outlined in Table
855.2A should be considered. The guide values for
years of added service life should be modified
where field observations of existing installations
show that other values are more accurate. The
designer should be aware of the following
limitations when using Table 855.2C:
• Channel Materials: If there is no existing
culvert, it may be assumed that the channel is
potentially abrasive to culvert if sand and/or
rocks are present. Presence of silt, clay or
heavy vegetation may indicate a non-abrasive
flow.
• Flow velocities: The velocities indicated in the
table should be compared to those generated by
the 2-5 year return frequency flood. Large, round bedload (top) and RCP with minimal wear
and minor bedload volume with moderate to high
• The abrasion levels represent all six abrasion velocity.
levels presented in Table 855.2A however,
Table 855.2D constitutes a guide for anticipated
levels 2 and 3 have been combined.
wear (in mils/year) to metal pipe by abrasive
channel materials. No additional abrasion wear is
November 2, 2009
anticipated for steel for the lower three abrasion material thickness of abrasive resistant invert
levels defined in Table 855.2A, because it is protection for various materials to achieve 50 years
assumed that there is some degree of abrasion of maintenance-free service life.
incorporated within California Test 643 and Figure
Structural metal plate pipe and arches provide a
855.3B. Figure 855.3B, “Chart for Estimating
viable option for large diameter pipes (60 inches or
Years to Perforation of Steel Culverts,” is part of a
larger) in abrasive environments because increased
Standard California Department of Transportation
thickness can be specified for the lower 90 degrees
Test Method derived from highway culvert
or invert plates. If the thickness for structural
investigations. This chart alone is not used for
requirements is inadequate for abrasion potential, it
determining service life because it does not consider
is recommended to apply the increased thickness to
the effects of abrasion or overfill; it is for estimating
the lower 90 degrees of the pipe only. Arches,
the years to the first corrosion perforation of the
which have a relatively larger invert area than
wall or invert of the CSP. Additional gauge
circular pipe, generally will provide a lower
thickness or invert protection may be needed if the
abrasion potential from bedload being less
thickness for structural requirements (i.e., for
concentrated.
overfill) is inadequate for abrasion potential.
Under similar conditions, aluminum culverts will
Table 855.2E indicates relative abrasion resistance
abrade between one and a half to three times faster
properties of pipe and lining materials and
than steel culverts. Therefore, aluminum culverts
summarizes the findings from “Evaluations of
are not recommended where abrasive materials are
Abrasion Resistance of Pipe and Pipe Lining
present, and where flow velocities would encourage
Materials Final Report FHWA /CA/TL-CA01-0173
abrasion to occur. Culvert flow velocities that
(2007)”. This report may be viewed at the
frequently exceed 5 feet per second where abrasive
following web address:
materials are present should be carefully evaluated
http://www.dot.ca.gov/new/tech/researchreports/reports/
2007/evaluation_of_abrasion_resistance_final_report.pdf.
prior to selecting aluminum as an allowable
See Figure 855.2. alternate. In a corrosive environment, Aluminum
may display less abrasive wear than steel depending
Figure 855.2 on the volume, velocity, size, shape, hardness and
rock impact energy of the bed load. However, if it
Abrasion Test Panels is deemed necessary to place aluminum pipe in
abrasion levels 4 through 6 in Table 855.2C, contact
Headquarters Office of State Highway Drainage
Design for assistance.
Aluminized Steel (Type 2) can be considered
equivalent to galvanized steel for abrasion resistance
and therefore does not have the same limitations as
aluminum in abrasive environments.
Concrete pipes typically counter abrasion through
increased minimum thickness over the steel
reinforcement, i.e., by adding additional sacrificial
material. See Table 855.2F. However, there are
significantly fewer limitations involved in
increasing the invert thickness of RCB in the field
verses increasing minimum thickness over the steel
Various culvert material test panels shown in Figure
reinforcement of RCP in the plant. Therefore, RCP
855.2 after 1 year of wear at site with moderate to severe
abrasion (velocities generally exceed 13 ft/s with heavy
is typically not recommended in abrasive flows
bedload). greater than 10 feet per second but may be
considered for higher velocities if the bedload is
Table 855.2F is based on Tables 855.2D and 855.2E insignificant (e.g. storm drain systems and most.
and constitutes a guide for selecting the minimum
March 7, 2014
Table 855.2A
Abrasion Levels and Materials
Abrasion Level General Site Characteristics Allowable Pipe Materials and Lining Alternatives
• Bedloads of silts and clays All pipe materials listed in Table 857.2 allowable
or clear water with virtually for this level.
Level 1 no abrasive bed load. No No abrasive resistant protective coatings listed in
velocity limitation. Table 855.2C needed for metal pipe.
All allowable pipe materials listed in Table 857.2
with the following considerations:
• Generally, no abrasive resistant protective
• Moderate bed loads of sand coatings needed for steel pipe.
or gravel • Polymeric, or bituminous coating or an
Level 2 additional gauge thickness of metal pipe may
• Velocities ≥ 1 ft/s and
≤ 5 ft/s (See Note 1) be specified if existing pipes in the same
vicinity have demonstrated susceptibility to
abrasion and thickness for structural
requirements is inadequate for abrasion
potential.
All allowable pipe materials listed in Table 857.2
with the following considerations:
• Steel pipe may need one of the abrasive
resistant protective coatings listed in Table
855.2C or additional gauge thickness if existing
pipes in the same vicinity have demonstrated
susceptibility to abrasion and thickness for
structural requirements is inadequate for
• Moderate bed load volumes abrasion potential.
of sands, gravels and small • Aluminum pipe may require additional gauge
cobbles. thickness for abrasion if thickness for structural
Level 3
requirements is inadequate for abrasion
• Velocities > 5 ft/s and potential.
≤ 8 ft/s (See Note 1)
• Aluminized steel (type 2) not recommended
without invert protection or increased gauge
thickness (equivalent to galv. Steel) where pH
< 6.5 and resistivity < 20,000.
Lining alternatives:
• PVC,
• Corrugated or Solid Wall HDPE,
• CIPP
Note:
(1) If bed load volumes are minimal, a 50% increase in velocity is permitted.
March 7, 2014
Table 855.2A
Abrasion Levels and Materials (Con’t)
Abrasion General Site
Allowable Pipe Materials and Lining Alternatives
Level Characteristics
All allowable pipe materials listed in Table 857.2 with the
following considerations:
• Steel pipe will typically need one of the abrasive resistant
protective coatings listed in Table 855.2C or may need
additional gauge thickness if thickness for structural
requirements is inadequate for abrasion potential.
• Aluminum pipe not recommended.
• Aluminized steel (type 2) not recommended without invert
protection or increased gauge thickness (wear rate equivalent to
• Moderate bed load galv. steel) where pH < 6.5 and resistivity < 20,000 if thickness
volumes of angular for structural requirements is inadequate for abrasion potential.
sands, gravels, and/or
• Increase concrete cover over reinforcing steel for RCB (invert
Level 4 small cobbles/rocks.
only). RCP generally not recommended.
(See Note 1)
• Velocities > 8 ft/s • Corrugated HDPE (Type S) limited to ≥ 48" min. diameter.
and ≤ 12 ft/s Corrugated HDPE Type C not recommended.
• Corrugated PVC limited to > 18" min. diameter
Lining alternatives:
• Closed profile or SDR 35 PVC (corrugated and ribbed PVC
limited to > 18" min. diameter.
• SDR HDPE
• CIPP (min. thickness for abrasion specified)
• Concrete and authorized cementitious pipeliners and invert
paving. See Table 855.2F.
Note:
(1) For minor bed load volumes, use Level 3.
March 7, 2014
Table 855.2A
Abrasion
General Site Characteristics Allowable Pipe Materials and Lining Alternatives
Level
• Aluminized steel (type 2) not recommended without
invert protection or increased gauge thickness (wear
rate equivalent to galv. steel) where pH < 6.5 and
resistivity < 20,000 if thickness for structural
requirements is inadequate for abrasion potential.
• For steel pipe invert lining additional gauge thickness
is recommended if thickness for structural
requirements is inadequate for abrasion potential. See
• Moderate bed load volumes lining alternatives below.
of angular sands and gravel or
• Increase concrete cover over reinforcing steel for RCB
Level 5 rock (See Note 1).
(invert only). RCP generally not recommended
• Velocities > 12 ft/s
and ≤ 15 ft/s Lining alternatives:
• Closed profile (≥ 42 in) or SDR 35 PVC (PVC liners
not recommended when freezing conditions are often
encountered and cobbles or rocks are present)
• SDR HDPE
• CIPP (with min. thickness for abrasion specified)
• Concrete and authorized cementitious pipeliners and
invert paving. See Table 855.2F.
Note:
March 7, 2014
Table 855.2A
Abrasion General Site
Allowable Pipe Materials and Lining Alternatives
Level Characteristics
• Aluminized steel (type 2) not recommended without invert
protection or increased gauge thickness (wear rate equivalent to
galv. steel) where pH < 5.5 and resistivity < 20,000.
• None of the abrasive resistant protective coatings listed in Table
855.2C are recommended for protecting steel pipe.
• Invert lining and additional gauge thickness is recommended. See
lining alternatives below.
• Moderate bed load • Corrugated HDPE not recommended. Corrugated and closed
volumes of angular profile PVC pipe not recommended.
sands and gravel or • RCP not recommended. Increase concrete cover over reinforcing
rock (See Note 1). steel recommended for RCB (invert only) for velocities up to 15
• Velocities > 15 ft/s ft/s. RCB not recommended for velocities greater than 15 ft/s
and ≤ 20 ft/s unless invert lining is placed (see lining alternatives below).
Lining/replacement alternatives:
Level 6 or • ≥ 27 in SDR 35 PVC (PVC liners not recommended when
freezing conditions are often encountered and cobbles or rocks are
• Heavy bed load present) or HDPE SDR (minimum wall thickness 2.5")
volumes of angular
sands and gravel or • CIPP (with min. thickness for abrasion specified),
rock (See Note 1). • Concrete with embedded aggregate (e.g. cobbles or RSP (facing)):
• Velocities > 12 ft/s (for all bed load sizes a larger, harder aggregate than the bed load,
decreased water cement ratio and an increased concrete
compressive strength should be specified).
• Alternative invert linings may include steel plate, rails or
concreted RSP, and abrasion resistant concrete (Calcium
Aluminate). See authorized cementitious pipeliners and invert
paving in Table 855.2F.
• For new/replacement construction, consider “bottomless”
structures.
Note:
August 1, 2011
Table 855.2B
Bed Materials Moved by Various Flow Depths and Velocities
Approximate Nonscour Velocities
Grain (feet per second)
Bed Material Dimensions Mean Depth (feet)
(inches)
1.3 3.3 6.6 9.8
Boulders more than 10 15.1 16.7 19.0 20.3
Large cobbles 10 – 5 11.8 13.4 15.4 16.4
Small cobbles 5 – 2.5 7.5 8.9 10.2 11.2
Very coarse gravel 2.5 – 1.25 5.2 6.2 7.2 8.2
Coarse gravel 1.25 – 0.63 4.1 4.7 5.4 6.1
Medium gravel 0.63 – 0.31 3.3 3.7 4.1 4.6
Fine gravel 0.31 – 0.16 2.6 3.0 3.3 3.8
Very fine gravel 0.16 – 0.079 2.2 2.5 2.8 3.1
Very coarse sand 0.079 – 0.039 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7
Coarse sand 0.039 – 0.020 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.3
Medium sand 0.020 – 0.010 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.0
Fine sand 0.010 – 0.005 0.98 1.3 1.6 1.8
Compact cohesive soils
Heavy sandy loam 3.3 3.9 4.6 4.9
Light 3.1 3.9 4.6 4.9
Loess soils in the conditions of
2.6 3.3 3.9 4.3
finished settlement
Notes:
(1) Bed materials may move if velocities are higher than the nonscour velocities.
(2) Mean depth is calculated by dividing the cross-sectional area of the waterway by the top width of the water
surface. If the waterway can be subdivided into a main channel and an overbank area, the mean depths of the
channel and the overbank should be calculated separately. For example, if the size of moving material in the main
channel is desired, the mean depth of the main channel is calculated by dividing the cross-sectional area of the
main channel by the top width of the main channel.
March 7, 2014
Table 855.2C
Guide for Anticipated Service Life Added to Steel Pipe by Abrasive
Resistant Protective Coating (2)
Bituminous Bituminous
Polymeric Polyethylene
Flow Velocity Channel Coating Coating &
Sheet Coating (CSSRP)
(ft/s) Materials (yrs.) Paved Invert
(yrs.) (yrs.)
(hot-dipped) (yrs.)
Non-Abrasive 8 15 * *
≥ 1 – ≤ 8 (1) Abrasive 6-0 15-2 30-5 *
> 8 – ≤ 12 Abrasive 0 2-0 5-0 70-35
> 12 – ≤ 15 Abrasive ** ** ** 35-8***
Abrasive &
> 12 – ≤ 20 **** **** **** ****
heavy bedloads
* Provides adequate abrasion resistance to meet or exceed a 50-year design service life.
** Abrasive resistant protective coatings not recommended, increase steel thickness to 10 gage.
*** Not recommended above 14 fps flow velocity.
**** Contact District Hydraulics Branch. See Table 855.2F.
Notes:
(1) Where there are increased velocities with minor bedload volumes, much higher velocities may be applicable.
(2) Range of additional service life commensurate with flow velocity range.
March 7, 2014
Table 855.2D
Guide for Anticipated Wear to Metal Pipe by Abrasive Channel Materials
Anticipated Wear
(mils/yr)
Flow Velocity
Channel Materials Aluminized
(ft/s) Plain
Steel Aluminum**
Galvanized
(Type 2)
Non-Abrasive 0* 0* 0
≥1–≤8 Abrasive 0* 0* 0 – 1.5
> 8 – ≤ 12 Abrasive 0.5 – 1 0.5 – 1 1.5 – 3
> 12 – ≤ 15 Abrasive 1 – 3.5 1 – 3.5 3 – 10.5
Abrasive
> 12 – ≤ 20 & 2.5 – 10 2.5 – 10 7.5 – 30
Heavy bedloads
* Refer to California Test 643 and Figure 855.3B.

** Refer to Figure 855.3A.
Note:
1 mil = 0.001"
Table 855.2E
Relative Abrasion Resistance Properties of Pipe and Lining Materials*
Relative Wear
Material
(dimensionless)
Steel 1
Aluminum 1.5 – 3
PVC 2
Polyester Resin (CIPP) 2.5 – 4
HDPE 4–5
Concrete (RCP 4000 – 7000 psi) 75 – 100
Calcium Aluminate (Mortar) 30-40
Calcium Aluminate (Concrete) 20 – 25
Basalt Tile 1
Polyethylene (CSSRP) 1–2
* Evaluation of Abrasion Resistance of Pipe and Pipe Lining Materials Final Report FHWA/CA/TL-CA01-
0173 (2007).
March 7, 2014
Table 855.2F
Guide for Minimum Material Thickness of Abrasive Resistant Invert
Protection to Achieve 50 Years of Maintenance-Free Service Life
Aluminum Pipe & Plate

Mortar (5)
Calcium Aluminate
Abrasion Resistant
Channel Materials
Steel Pipe & Plate

Abrasion
Concrete (4)
Concrete (5)
Level
HDPE
&
CIPP
PVC
Geopolymer
(in)
(in)
(in)
(in)
(in)
(in)
(in)
Aluminate
Calcium
Flow
(in)
(in)
Velocity
(ft/s)
Level 4 0.075
0.125 0.1 – (6)
>8– Abrasive 2–4 0.052 – 0.1 1-2 2-4
– 0.25 0.3
≤ 12 0.164
Level 5
0.052 (2) 0.1 – 0.25 – 0.3 –
> 12 – Abrasive 4 – 13 3(6) 2-5 4-13
– 0.18 0.35 0.875 0.70
≤ 15
Level 6 Abrasive
& (1) 0.109 (2) 0.25 – 0.625 (1)
> 12 – 0.5 – 2 3–5 5-8
Heavy – 0.5 1.0(3) – 2.5
≤ 20 bedloads
Notes:
(1) For flow velocity > 12 ft/s ≤ 14 ft/s use 9" – 15". For > 14 ft/s use CRSP or other abrasion resistant layer
special design with, or in lieu of concrete or geopolymer mortar.
(2) Not recommended without invert protection.
(3) PVC liners not recommended when freezing conditions are often encountered and cobbles and rocks are
present.
(4) Values shown based on RCP abrasion test results. See Table 855.2E. Results may differ from concrete
specified under 15-6.04 for invert paving which must have a minimum compressive strength of 6,000 psi
at 28 days and 1 ½-inch maximum grading.
(5) See Authorized Materials List for Cementitious Pipeliners and Concrete Invert Paving:
http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/esc/approved_products_list/
Standard Mortar (Section 51-1.02F of the Standard Specifications) not recommended for Abrasion Level
4 or higher.
(6) Minimum thickness recommended is 3". Not practical or economically viable for Level 4. Consider
calcium aluminate mortar or standard concrete (Section 90 of the Standard Specifications) for lower
range of Level 5.
December 30, 2015
culverts smaller than 30 inches or larger diameters 855.3 Corrosion

with insignificant abrasive bedload volumes).
Corrosion is the destructive attack on a pipe by a
Abrasion resistance for any concrete lining is chemical reaction with the materials surrounding the
dependent upon the thickness, quality, strength, and pipe. Corrosion problems can occur when metal
hardness of the aggregate and compressive strength pipes are used in locations where the surrounding
of the concrete as well as the velocity of the water materials have excess acidity or alkalinity. The
flow coupled with abrasive sediment content and relative acidity of a substance is often expressed by
acidity. Abrasion resistant concrete or mortar made its pH value. The pH scale ranges from 1 to 14,
from calcium aluminate provides much improved with 1 representing extreme acidity, and 14
abrasion resistance over cementitious concrete and representing extreme alkalinity, and 7 representing a
should be considered as a viable countermeasure in neutral substance. The closer the pH value is to 7,
extremely abrasive conditions (i.e, velocity greater the less potential the substance has for causing
than 15 feet per second with heavy bedload). See corrosion.
Table 855.2F.
Corrosion is an electrolytic process and requires an
Plastic materials typically exhibit good abrasion electrolyte (generally moisture) and oxygen to
resistance but service life is constrained by the proceed. As a result, it has the greatest potential for
manufactured thickness of typical pipe profiles. causing damage in soils that have a relative high
Both PVC and HDPE corrugated pipe are limited ability to pass electric current. The ability of a soil
for their use in moderate and heavy bedload to convey current is expressed as its resistivity in
abrasion conditions by the combined manufactured ohm-cm, and a soil with a low resistivity has a
inner liner and corrugated wall thicknesses. For greater ability to conduct electricity. Very dry areas
culvert rehabilitation, PVC and HDPE pipe slip (e.g., desert environments) have a limited
lining products (e.g. solid wall HDPE) are viable availability of electrolyte, and totally and
options for applications in moderate and heavy continuously submerged pipes have limited oxygen
bedload abrasion conditions (see Table 855.2A). availability. These extreme conditions (among
Table 855.2A can be used as a “preliminary others) are not well represented by AltPipe, and
estimator” of abrasion potential for material some adjustment in the estimated service life for
selection to achieve the required service life, pipes in these conditions should be made. See Index
however, it incorporates only three of the primary 857.2
abrasion factors; bedload volume, bedload type and Corrosion can also be caused by excessive acidity in
flow velocity and the general assumption is the the water conveyed by the pipe. Water pH can vary
materials are angular, hard and abrasive. As considerably between watersheds and seasons.
discussed above, the other factors that are not used
in the table should also be carefully considered. For Because failure can occur at any point along the
example, under similar hydraulic conditions, heavy length of the pipe (e.g. tidal zones), the designer
volumes of hard, angular sand may be more must look at the conditions and how they may vary
abrasive than small volumes of relatively soft, large along the pipe length - and select for input into
or rounded rocks. Furthermore, two sites with AltPipe those conditions that represent the most
similar site characteristics, but different hydrologic severe situation along the length.
characteristics, i.e., volume, duration and frequency AltPipe operates based on some fairly basic
of stream flow in the culvert, will likely also have assumptions for corrosion and minimum resistivity
different abrasion levels. Table 855.2B can be used that are part of California Test 643. Altpipe will list
as a guide with Table 855.2A to determine the all viable alternatives for achieving design service
maximum size of material that can be moved life. Where enhanced soilside corrosion protection
through a pipe. Field observations of channel bed is needed, aluminum or aluminized pipe (if within
material both upstream and downstream from the acceptable pH/min. resistivity ranges), bituminous
pipe are extremely important for estimating the size coatings or polymeric sheet coating should be
range of transportable material in the channel. considered.
March 7, 2014
Aluminum, and the aluminum coating provided by 855.4 Protection of Concrete Pipe and
Aluminized Steel (Type 2) pipe, corrodes differently Drainage Structures from Acids, Chlorides
than steel and will provide adequate durability to and Sulfates
meet the 50-year service life criterion within the
acceptable pH range of 5.5-8.5 and minimum Table 855.4A indicates the limitation on the use of
resistivity greater than 1500 ohm-cm without need concrete by acidity of soil and water. Table 855.4A
for specifying a thicker gauge or additional coating, is also a guide for designating cementitious material
whereas under the same range galvanized steel may restrictions and water content restrictions for various
need a protective coating or an increase in thickness ranges of sulfate concentrations in soil and water for
to provide a 50-year maintenance-free service life all cast in place and precast construction of drainage
(with respect to corrosion). Figure 855.3A should structures.
be used to determine the limitations on the use of For pH ranging between 7.0 and 3.0 and for sulfate
corrugated aluminum pipe for various levels of pH concentrations between 1500 and 15,000 ppm,
and minimum resistivity. The minimum thickness concrete mix designs conforming to the
(0.060 inch) of aluminum pipe obtained from the recommendations given in Table 855.4A should be
chart only satisfies corrosion requirements. Overfill followed. Higher sulfate concentrations or lower
requirements for minimum metal thickness must pH values may preclude the use of concrete or
also be satisfied. The metal thickness of corrugated would require the designer to develop and specify
aluminum pipe should satisfy both requirements. the application of a complete physical barrier.
Figure 855.3A should be used to determine the Reinforcing steel can be expected to respond to
minimum thickness and limitation on the use of corrosive environments similarly to the steel in CSP.
corrugated steel and spiral rib pipe for various levels Table 855.4B provides a guide for minimum
of pH and minimum resistivity. For example, given concrete cover requirements for various ranges of
a soil environment with pH and minimum resistivity chloride concentrations in soil and water for all
levels of 6.5 and 15,000 ohm-cm, respectively, the precast and cast in place construction of drainage
minimum thicknesses for the various metal pipes structures.
are: 1) 0.109 inch (12 gage) galvanized steel, 2)
0.064 inch (16 gage) aluminized steel (type 2) and (1) RCP. In relatively severe acidic, chloride or
3) 0.060 inch (16 gage) aluminum. The minimum sulfate environments (either in the soil or water)
thickness of metal pipe obtained from the figure as identified in the project Materials Report, the
only satisfies corrosion requirements. Overfill means for offsetting the effects of the corrosive
requirements for minimum metal thickness must elements is to either increase the cover over the
also be satisfied. The metal thickness of corrugated reinforcing steel, increase the cementitious
pipe and steel spiral rib pipe that satisfies both material content, or reduce the water/
requirements should be used. cementitious material ratio. The identified
constituent concentration levels should be
Figure 855.3B, “Chart for Estimating Years to entered into AltPipe to verify what
Perforation of Steel Culverts,” is part of a Standard combinations of increased cover (in 1/4-inch
California Department of Transportation Test intervals from 1 inch to a maximum of
Method derived from highway culvert 1-1/2 inches), increased cementitious material
investigations. This chart alone is not used for content (in increments of 47 pounds from
determining service life because it does not consider 470 pounds to a maximum of 564 pounds), will
the effects of abrasion or overfill; it is for estimating provide the necessary service life (typically
the years to the first corrosion perforation of the 50 years). Per an agreement with Industry, the
wall or invert of the CSP. water to cementitious material ratio is set at
0.40. AltPipe is specifically programmed to
provide RCP mix and cover designs that are
compatible with industry practice, and are based
on their agreements with Caltrans. For corrosive
condition installations such as low pH (<4.5),
March 7, 2014
Figure 855.3A
Minimum Thickness of Metal Pipe
for 50-Year Maintenance-Free Service Life (2)
Notes:
(1) For pH and aluminum resistivity levels not shown refer to Fig. 855.3B steel pipes. (California Test 643)
(2) Service life estimate are for various corrosive conditions only.
(3) Refer to Index 852.3(2) and 852.4(2) for appropriate selection of metal thickness and protection coating to
achieve service life requirements.
March 7, 2014
Figure 855.3B
Chart for Estimating Years
to Perforation of Steel Culverts
December 30, 2015
Chlorides (>2,000 ppm) or Sulfates flammable liquids that ignite or vandalism. Storm
(> 2,000 ppm), the following service life (SL) drains, which are completely buried would typically
equation provides the basis for RCP design in be impacted by spills or vandalism. Because these
AltPipe: are such low probability events, prohibitions on
material placement for storm drains are not typically
SL = 103 × 1.107Cc × Cc0.717 × Dc1.22 × (K + 1)−0.37 warranted.
× W − 0.631 − 4.22 × 1010 × pH −14.1 − 2.94 × 10−3 Cross culverts and exposed overside drains are the
× S + 4.41 placement types most subject to burning or melting
and designers should consider either limiting the
alternative pipe listing to non-flammable pipe
Where: S = Environmental sulfate content in materials or providing a non-flammable end
ppm. treatment to provide some level of protection.
Cc = Sacks of cement (94 lbs each) Plastic pipe and pipes with coatings (typically of
per cubic yard of concrete. bituminous or plastic materials) are the most
Dc = Concrete cover in inches. susceptible to damage from fire. Of the plastic pipe
types which are allowed, PVC will self extinguish if
K = Environmental chloride the source of the fire is eliminated (i.e., if the grass
concentration in ppm.
or brush is consumed or removed) while HDPE can
W = Water by volume as percentage continue to burn as long as an adequate oxygen
of total mix. supply is present. Based on testing performed by
Florida DOT, this rate of burning is fairly slow, and
pH = The measure of relative acidity
often self extinguished if the airflow was inhibited
or alkalinity of the soil or water.
(i.e., pipe not aligned with prevailing wind or ends
See Index 855.3.
sheltered from air flow).
Where the measured concentration of chlorides
Due to the potential for fire damage, plastic pipe is
exceeds 2000 ppm for RCP that is placed in
not recommended for overside drain locations where
brackish or marine environments and where the
there is high fire potential (large amounts of brush
high tide line is below the crown of the invert,
or grass or areas with a history of fire) and where
the AltPipe input for chloride concentration will
the overside drain is placed or anchored on top of
default to 25,000 ppm.
the slope.
Contact the District Materials unit or the
Where similar high fire potential conditions exist for
Corrosion Technology Branch in DES for
cross culverts, the designer may consider limiting
design recommendations when in extremely
the allowable pipe materials indicated on the
corrosive conditions. Non-Reinforced concrete
alternative pipe listing to non-flammable material
pipe is not affected by chlorides or stray
types, use concrete endwalls that eliminate exposure
currents and may be used in lieu of RCP with
of the pipe ends, or require that the end of
additional concrete cover and/or protective
flammable pipe types be replaced with a length of
coatings for sizes 36" in diameter and smaller.
non-flammable pipe material.
See Index 852.1(4) and Table 855.4A. Where
conditions occur that RCP designs as produced
Topic 856 - Height of Fill
by AltPipe will not work, the Office of State
Highway Drainage Design within the Division An essential aspect of pipe selection is the height of
of Design should be contacted. fill/cover over the pipe. This cover dissipates live
855.5 Material Susceptibility to Fire loads from traffic, both during construction and after
the facility is open to the public.
Fire can occur almost anywhere on the highway
system. Common causes include forest, brush or 856.1 Construction Loads
grass fires that either enter the right-of-way or begin See Standard Plan D88 for table of minimum cover
within it. Less common causes include spills of for construction loads.
March 7, 2014
Table 855.4A
Guide for the Protection of Cast-In-Place and Precast Reinforced and
Unreinforced Concrete Structures(5) Against Acid and Sulfate Exposure
Conditions(1),(2)
Sulfate Concentration of Soil or
Soil or Cementitious Material
Water Water Content Restrictions
Water pH Requirements (3)
(ppm)
Standard Specifications Section
7.1 to 14 0 to 1,499 90 No Restrictions
Maximum water-to-
Standard Specifications Section
5.6 to 7.0 1,500 to1,999 cementitious material ratio of
90
0.45
675 lb/cy minimum: Type II or
Type V portland cement and Maximum water-to-
3 to 5.5(4) 2,000 to 15,000(4) required supplementary cementitious material ratio of
cementitious materials per 0.40
Standard Specification 90-1.02H
Notes:
(1) Recommendations shown in the table for the cementitious material requirements and water content
restrictions should be used if the pH and/or the sulfate conditions in Column 1 and/or Column 2 exists.
Sulfate testing is not required if the minimum resistivity is greater than 1,000 ohm-cm.
(2) The table lists soil/water pH and sulfate concentration in increasing level of severity starting from the top of
the table. If the soil/water pH and the sulfate concentration are at different levels of severity, the
recommendation for the more severe level will apply. For example, a soil with a pH of 4.0, but with a sulfate
concentration of only 1,600 ppm would require a minimum of 675 lb/cy of cementitious material. The
maximum water-to-cementitious material ratio would be 0.40.
(3) Cementitious material shall conform to the provisions in Section 90 of the Standard Specifications.
(4) Additional mitigation measures will be needed for conditions where the pH is less than 3 and/or the sulfate
concentration exceeds 15,000 ppm. Mitigation measures may include additional concrete cover and/or
protective coatings. For additional assistance, contact the Corrosion Technology Branch of Materials
Engineering and Testing Services (METS) at 5900 Folsom Boulevard Sacramento, CA. 95819.
(5) Does not include RCP.
March 7, 2014
Table 855.4B
Guide for Minimum Cover Requirements for Cast-In-Place and Precast
Reinforced Concrete Structures(3) for 50-Year Design Life in Chloride
Environments
Chloride Concentration
(ppm)
500 to 2000 2001 to 5000 5001 to 10000 10000 +
1.5 in.(1) 2.5 in.(1) 3 in.(1) 4 in.(1)
1.5 in.(2) 1.5 in.(2) 2 in.(2) 3 in.(2)
Notes:
(1) Supplementary cementitious materials are required. Typical minimum requirement consists of 675#/cy
minimum cementitious material with 75% by weight of Type II or Type V portland cement and 25% by
weight of either fly ash or natural pozzolan. A maximum w/cm ratio of 0.40 is specified. Fly ash or natural
pozzolan may have a CaO content of up to 10%. Section 90-1.02B(3) of the Standard Specifications
provides requirements.
(2) Additional supplementary cementitious materials per the requirements of Section 90-1.02B(3) of the
Standard Specifications are required in order to achieve the listed reduction in concrete cover.
(3) Does not include RCP.
March 7, 2014
856.2 Concrete Pipe, Box and Arch Culverts 3-sided rigid frame culverts see XS-Sheets
17-050-1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. Cast-in-place
(1) Reinforced Concrete Pipe. See Standard Plan reinforced concrete arch culverts are no longer
A62D and A62DA for the maximum height of economically feasible structures and last
overfill for reinforced concrete pipe, up to and appeared in the 1997 Standard Plans. Questions
including 120-inch diameter (or reinforced oval regarding fill height for concrete arch culverts
pipe and reinforced concrete pipe arch with or extensions should be directed to the
equivalent cross-sectional area), using the Underground Structures Branch of DES -
backfill method or type shown. For oval shaped Structures Design.
reinforced concrete pipe fill heights, see
Standard Plan A62D and Indirect Design D- 856.3 Metal Pipe and Structural Plate Pipe
Load (Marsten/Spangler Method). Allowable
Basic Premise - To properly use the fill height
cover for oval shaped reinforced concrete pipe
design tables, the designer should be aware of the
is determined by using Method 2 (Note 8). See
premises on which the tables are based as well as
Standard Plan D79 and D79A for pre-cast
their limitations. The design tables presuppose:
reinforced concrete pipe Direct Design Method
(pertains to circular pipe only). • That bedding and backfill satisfy the terms of
the Standard Specifications and Standard Plan
The designer should be aware of the premises
A62F, the conditions of cover, and pipe size
on which the tables on Standard Plan A62D,
required by the plans and the essentials of Index
A62DA, D79 and D79A are computed as well
829.2.
as their limitations. The cover presupposes:
• That a small amount of settlement will occur
• That the bedding and backfill satisfy the
under the culvert, equal in magnitude to that of
terms of the Standard Specifications, the
the adjoining material outside the trench.
conditions of cover and pipe size required
by the plans, and take into account the Limitations - In using the tables, the following
essentials of Index 829.2. restrictions must be kept in mind:
• That a small amount of settlement will • The values given for each size of pipe constitute
occur under the culvert equal in magnitude the maximum height of overfill or cover over
to that of the adjoining material outside the the pipe for the thickness of metal and kind of
trench. corrugation.
• Subexcavation and backfill as required by • The thickness shown is the structural minimum.
the Standard Specifications where Where abrasive conditions are anticipated,
unyielding foundation material is additional metal thickness or invert treatments
encountered. as stated under Index 852.4(5) and Index
852.6(2)(c) should be provided when required to
If the height of overfill exceeds the tabular
fulfill the design service life requirements of
values on Standard Plan A62D and A62DA a
Topic 855.
special design is required; see Index 829.2.
(1) Concrete Box and Arch Culverts. Single and • Where needed, adequate provisions for
multiple span reinforced concrete box culverts corrosion resistance must be made to achieve
are completely detailed in the Standard Plans. the required design service life called for in the
For cast-in-place construction, strength references mentioned herein.
classifications are shown for 10 feet and 20 feet • Table 856.3D shows the limit of heights of
overfills. See Standard Plan numbers D80, D81 cover for corrugated steel pipe arches based on
and D82. Pre-cast reinforced concrete box the supporting soil sustaining a factored bearing
culverts require a minimum of 1 foot overfill pressure varying between 3.38 tons per square
and limit fill height to 12 feet maximum. See feet to 3.55 tons per square feet. Table 856.3J
Standard Plans D83A, D83B and A62G. For shows similar values for corrugated aluminum
fill height design criteria for CIP Bottomless pipe arches.
March 7, 2014
• The values given for each size of structural plate heights for corrugated aluminum pipe and pipe
pipe or arch constitute the maximum height of arches for various diameters and metal thickness
overfill or cover over the pipe or arch for the are shown on Tables 856.3H, I & J. For
thickness of metal and kind of corrugation. aluminum spiral rib pipe, overfill heights are
shown on Tables 856.3K & L.
• Tables 856.3N & P show the limit of heights of
cover for structural plate arches based on the For structural aluminum plate pipe and
supporting soil sustaining a factored bearing structural aluminum plate pipe arches, overfill
pressure of 6 tons per square foot at the corners. heights are shown on Tables 856.3O, & P.
Special Designs. 856.4 Plastic Pipe
• If the height of overfill exceeds the tabular The allowable overfill heights for plastic pipe for
values, or if the foundation investigation reveals various diameters are shown in Tables 856.4 and
that the supporting soil will not develop the 856.5. To properly use the plastic pipe height of fill
bearing pressure on which the overfill heights table, the designer should be aware of the basic
for pipe arches are based, a special design premises on which the table is based as well as their
prepared by DES - Structures Design is limitations. The design tables presuppose:
required. See index 829.2.
• That bedding and backfill satisfy the terms of
• Non-standard pipe diameters and arch sizes are the Standard Specifications and Standard Plan
available. Loading capacity of special designs A62F, the conditions of cover, and pipe size
needs to be verified with the Underground required by the plans and the essentials of Index
Structures Branch of DES - Structures Design. 829.2.
• Aluminum pipe fill height tables are based on • That corrugated high density polyethylene
use of H-32 temper aluminum. If use of (HDPE) pipe that is greater than 48" in size
aluminum is necessary and greater structural shall be backfilled with cementitious (slurry
capacity is required, H-34 temper can be cement, CLSM or concrete) backfill.
specified. Contact Underground Structures
• That where cementitious or flowable backfill is
branch of DES-Structures Design for calculation
used for structural backfill, the backfill shall be
of allowable fill height.
placed to a level not less than 12 inches above
(1) Corrugated Steel Pipe and Pipe Arches, Steel the crown of the pipe.
Spiral Rib Pipe, Structural Steel Plate Pipe and
• That a small amount of settlement will occur
Structural Steel Plate Pipe Arches. The
under the culvert, equal in magnitude to that of
allowable overfill heights for corrugated steel
the adjoining material outside the trench.
pipe and pipe arches for the various diameters
or arch sizes and metal thickness are shown on • That the average water table elevation is at or
Tables 856.3A, B, C & D. For steel spiral rib below the pipe springline.
pipe, overfill heights are shown on Tables
856.3E, F, G & H. Table 856.3G gives the • Corrugated HDPE pipe, Type C is
allowable overfill height for composite steel recommended for placement only outside the
spiral rib pipe. roadbed where vehicular loading is unlikely
(e.g., overside drains, medians) unless
For structural steel plate pipe and structural steel cementitious backfill is specified.
plate pipe arches, overfill heights are shown on
Tables 856.3M & N. For maximum height of 856.5 Minimum Height of Cover
fill over structural steel plate vehicular Table 856.5 gives the minimum thickness of cover
undercrossings, see Standard Plan B14-1. required for design purposes over pipes and pipe
(2) Corrugated Aluminum Pipe and Pipe Arches, arches. For construction purposes, a minimum
Aluminum Spiral Rib Pipe and Structural cover of 6 inches greater than the roadway structural
Aluminum Plate Pipe and Structural Aluminum section is desirable for all types of pipe.
Plate Pipe Arches. The allowable overfill
March 7, 2014
Table 856.3A
Corrugated Steel Pipe
Helical Corrugations
MAXIMUM HEIGHT OF COVER (ft)
Diameter (in) Metal Thickness (in)
0.052 0.064 0.079 0.109 0.138 0.168
(18 ga.) (16 ga.) (14 ga.) (12 ga.) (10 ga.) (8 ga.)
2⅔" x ½" Corrugations
12-15 118 148 177 -- -- --
18 99 124 148 207 -- --
21 85 106 132 177 -- --
24 74 93 116 155 200 245
30 59 74 93 130 160 195
36 49 62 77 108 139 163

42 42 53 66 93 119 139
48 -- 46 58 81 104 128
54 -- -- 51 72 93 113
60 -- -- -- 65 83 102
66 -- -- -- -- 76 93
72 -- -- -- -- 70 85
78 -- -- -- -- -- 75
84 -- -- -- -- -- 65
3" x 1" Corrugations
48 -- 53 67 93 120 147
54 -- 47 59 83 107 131
60 -- 42 53 75 96 118
66 -- 39 48 68 87 107
72 -- 35 44 62 80 98
78 -- 33 41 57 74 91
84 -- 30 38 53 69 84
90 -- 28 35 50 64 78
96 -- -- 33 47 60 74
102 -- -- 31 44 56 69
108 -- -- -- 41 53 65
114 -- -- -- 39 50 62
120 -- -- -- 37 48 59
March 7, 2014
Table 856.3B

Metal Thickness (in)
Diameter (in)
0.064 0.079 0.109 0.138
(16 ga.) (14 ga.) (12 ga.) (10 ga.)
48 47 59 83 --
54 42 53 74 95
60 38 47 66 86
66 34 43 60 78
72 31 39 55 71
78 29 36 51 66
84 27 34 47 61
90 25 31 44 57
96 -- 29 41 53
102 -- 28 39 50
108 -- -- 37 47
114 -- -- 35 45
120 -- -- 33 43
March 7, 2014
Table 856.3C
2⅔" x ½" Annular Corrugations

0.064 0.079 0.109 0.138 0.168
(16 ga.) (14 ga.) (12 ga.) (10 ga.) (8 ga.)
18 54 -- -- -- --
21 46 -- -- -- --
24 40 44 -- -- --
30 32 35 -- -- --
36 27 29 38 -- --
42 30 41 65 68 --
48 26 36 57 59 62
54 -- 32 50 53 55
60 -- -- 45 47 50
66 -- -- -- 43 45
72 -- -- -- 39 41
78 -- -- -- -- 38
84 -- -- -- -- 35
March 7, 2014
Table 856.3D
Corrugated Steel Pipe Arches
2⅔" x ½" Helical or Annular Corrugations

Factored Minimum
Bearing Corner
Span-Rise Demand Radius 0.079 0.109 0.138 0.168
2
(in) (tons/ft ) (in) (14 ga.) (12 ga.) (10 ga.) (8 ga.)
21 x 15 3.50 4 1/8 10 -- -- --
24 x 18 3.38 4 7/8 10 -- -- --
28 x 20 3.49 5 1/2 10 -- -- --
35 x 24 3.49 6 7/8 10 -- -- --
42 x 29 3.49 8 1/4 10 -- -- --
49 x 33 3.49 9 5/8 10 -- -- --
57 x 38 3.55 11 -- 10 -- --
64 x 43 3.54 12 3/8 -- 10 -- --
71 x 47 3.54 13 3/4 -- -- 10 --
77 x 52 3.49 15 1/8 -- -- -- 10
83 x 57 3.45 16 1/2 -- -- -- 10
Note:
(1) Cover limited by corner soil bearing pressure as shown.
March 7, 2014
Table 856.3E
Steel Spiral Rib Pipe
¾" x 1" Ribs at 11½" Pitch

0.064 0.079 0.109
(16 ga.) (14 ga.) (12 ga.)
24 44 62 105
30 36 50 84
36 30 42 70
42 25 36 60
48 22 31 53
54 20 28 47
60 -- 25 42
66 -- 22 38
72 -- 21 35
78 -- -- 32
84 -- -- 30
90 -- -- 28
96 -- -- --
March 7, 2014
Table 856.3F
¾" x 1" Ribs at 8½" Pitch

0.064 0.079 0.109
(16 ga.) (14 ga.) (12 ga.)
24 59 83 137
30 48 66 110
36 40 55 92
42 34 47 78
48 30 41 69
54 26 37 61
60 24 33 55
66 21 30 50
72 20 27 46
78 -- 25 42
84 -- 23 39
90 -- -- 36
96 -- -- 34
102 -- -- 32
108 -- -- 30
114 -- -- --
March 7, 2014
Table 856.3G
¾” x ¾" Ribs at 7½" Pitch

0.064 0.079 0.109 0.138
(16 ga.) (14 ga.) (12 ga.) (10 ga.)
24 61 85 141 205
30 49 68 113 164
36 40 57 94 137
42 35 48 81 117
48 30 42 71 103
54 27 38 63 91
60 -- 34 57 82
66 -- 31 51 75
72 -- -- 47 68
78 -- -- 43 63
84 -- -- 40 59
90 -- -- -- 55
March 7, 2014
Table 856.3H
Corrugated Aluminum Pipe
Annular Corrugations
Diameter
(in)
0.060 0.075 0.105 0.135 0.164
(16 ga.) (14 ga.) (12 ga.) (10 ga.) (8 ga.)
12 43 43 -- -- --
15 35 34 60 -- --
18 29 29 50 -- --
21 25 25 43 -- --
24 21 21 37 39 --
30 -- 17 30 31 --
36 -- 14 25 26 --
42 -- -- 43 45 --
48 -- -- 38 40 41
54 -- -- 34 35 36
60 -- -- -- 32 33
66 -- -- -- -- 30
72 -- -- -- -- 27
30 32 40 54 81 --
36 26 33 45 68 88
42 23 28 39 58 75
48 20 25 34 51 66
54 17 22 30 45 59
60 16 20 27 41 53
66 14 18 24 37 48
72 13 16 22 34 44
78 -- 15 21 31 40
84 -- -- 19 29 38
90 -- -- 18 27 35
96 -- -- 17 25 33
102 -- -- -- 24 31
108 -- -- -- 22 29
114 -- -- -- -- 28
120 -- -- -- -- 26
March 7, 2014
Table 856.3I
Corrugated Aluminum Pipe
0.060 0.075 0.105 0.135 0.164
(16 ga.) (14 ga.) (12 ga.) (10 ga.) (8 ga.)
12 112 140 -- -- --
15 90 112 156 -- --
18 75 93 130 -- --
21 64 80 112 -- --
24 56 70 98 126 --
30 -- 56 78 101 --
36 -- 47 65 84 --
42 -- -- 56 72 --
48 -- -- 49 63 77
54 -- -- 43 56 68
60 -- -- -- 46 58
66 -- -- -- -- 47
72 -- -- -- -- 37
30 51 65 90 121 --
36 43 54 75 101 118
42 37 46 64 86 102
48 32 40 56 76 89
54 28 36 50 67 79
60 26 32 45 60 71
66 23 29 41 55 65
72 21 27 37 50 59
78 -- 25 35 46 55
84 -- -- 32 43 51
90 -- -- 30 40 47
96 -- -- 28 38 44
102 -- -- -- 35 42
108 -- -- -- 33 39
114 -- -- -- -- 36
120 -- -- -- -- 32
March 7, 2014
Table 856.3J
Corrugated Aluminum Pipe Arches
2⅔" x ½" Helical or Annular Corrugations

Factored Minimum
Bearing Corner
Span-Rise Demand Radius 0.060 0.075 0.105 0.135 0.164
2
(in) (tons/ft ) (in) (16 ga.) (14 ga.) (12 ga.) (10 ga.) (8 ga.)
17 x 13 3.34 3 1/2 10 -- -- -- --
21 x 15 3.49 4 1/8 10 -- -- -- --
24 x 18 3.38 4 7/8 10 -- -- -- --
28 x 20 3.49 5 1/2 -- 10 -- -- --
35 x 24 3.49 6 7/8 -- 10 -- -- --
42 x 29 3.49 8 1/4 -- -- 10 -- --
49 x 33 3.49 9 5/8 -- -- 10 -- --
57 x 38 3.55 11 -- -- -- 10 --
64 x 43 3.54 12 3/8 -- -- -- 10 --
71 x 47 3.54 13 3/4 -- -- -- -- 10
Note:
(1) Cover is limited by corner soil bearing pressure as shown.
March 7, 2014
Table 856.3K
Aluminum Spiral Rib Pipe
¾" x 1” Ribs at 11½" Pitch

0.060 0.075 0.105
(16 ga.) (14 ga.) (12 ga.)
24 22 31 50
30 18 24 40
36 15 20 33
42 -- 17 29
48 -- -- 25
54 -- -- 22
60 -- -- 20
66 -- -- --
72 -- -- --
March 7, 2014
Table 856.3L
Aluminum Spiral Rib Pipe
¾" x ¾" Ribs at 7½" Pitch
Diameter (in) MAXIMUM HEIGHT OF COVER (ft)

0.60 0.075 0.105
(16 ga.) (14 ga.) (12 ga.)
24 30 41 66
30 24 33 53
36 20 27 44
42 -- 23 38
48 -- -- 33
54 -- -- 29
60 -- -- 26
66 -- -- --
72 -- -- --
March 7, 2014
Table 856.3M
Structural Steel Plate Pipe
Diameter Metal Thickness (in)
(in)
0.110 0.140 0.170 0.218 0.249 0.280 0.318 0.380
(12 ga.) (10 ga.) (8 ga.) (5 ga.) (3 ga.) (1 ga.) (0 ga.) (000 ga.)
60 42 60 79 105 128 140 223 268
66 38 55 71 99 116 127 203 243
72 35 50 65 91 107 116 186 223
77 32 47 61 85 100 109 174 209
84 30 43 56 78 92 100 160 192
90 28 40 52 72 85 93 149 179
96 26 37 49 68 80 87 140 168
102 24 35 46 64 75 82 132 158
108 23 33 44 60 71 78 124 149
114 22 31 41 57 67 74 118 141
120 21 30 39 54 64 70 112 134
126 20 28 37 52 61 67 107 128
132 19 27 36 49 58 63 102 122
138 18 26 34 47 56 61 91 117
144 17 25 33 45 53 58 93 112
150 16 24 31 43 51 56 89 108
156 16 23 30 42 49 54 86 103
162 15 22 29 40 47 52 83 100
168 15 21 28 39 46 50 80 96
174 14 20 27 37 44 48 77 93
180 14 20 26 36 43 46 75 90
186 13 19 25 35 41 45 72 87
192 -- 18 24 34 40 44 70 84
198 -- 18 24 33 39 42 68 81
204 -- 17 23 32 38 41 66 79
210 -- 17 22 31 36 40 64 77
216 -- -- 22 30 35 39 62 75
222 -- -- 21 29 34 38 60 73
228 -- -- 20 28 34 37 59 71
234 -- -- 20 28 33 36 57 69
240 -- -- -- 27 32 35 56 67
246 -- -- -- 26 31 34 54 65
252 -- -- -- 26 30 33 53 64
March 7, 2014
Table 856.3N
Structural Steel Plate Pipe Arches

Factored Corner Soil
Bearing – 6 tons/ft2
Span Rise Metal Thickness (in)
0.110 0.140
(12 ga.) (10 ga.)
18" Corner Radius
6'-1" 4'-7" 21 --
7'-0" 5'-1" 18 --
7'-11" 5'-7" 16 --
8'-10" 6'-1" 14 --
9'-9" 6'-7" 13 --
10'-11" 7'-1" 12 --
31" Corner Radius
13'-3" 9'-4" 17 --
14'-2" 9'-10" 16 --
15'-4" 10'-4" 13 --
16'-3" 10'-10" 12 --
17'-2" 11'-4" 12 --
18'-1" 11'-10" 11 --
19'-3" 12'-4" -- 10
19'-11" 12'-10" -- 10
20'-7" 13'-2" -- 10
NOTES:
(1) For intermediate sizes, the depth of cover may be interpolated.
(2) The 31-inch corner radius arch should be specified when conditions will permit it use.
March 7, 2014
Table 856.3O
Structural Aluminum Plate Pipe
9" x 2½" Corrugations

Diameter Metal Thickness (in)
(in)
0.100 0.125 0.150 0.175 0.200 0.225 0.250
60 27 40 52 62 71 81 90
66 24 36 48 56 65 73 82
72 22 33 44 51 59 67 75
77 21 31 41 48 55 63 70
84 19 28 37 44 51 58 64
90 18 26 35 41 47 54 60
96 17 25 33 38 44 50 56
102 16 23 31 36 42 47 53
108 15 22 29 34 39 45 50
114 14 21 27 32 37 42 47
120 13 20 26 31 35 40 45
126 13 19 25 29 34 38 43
132 12 18 24 28 32 36 41
138 11 17 23 27 31 35 39
144 -- 16 22 25 29 33 37
150 -- 16 21 24 28 32 36
156 -- 15 20 23 27 31 35
162 -- -- 19 23 26 30 33
168 -- -- 18 22 25 29 32
174 -- -- 18 21 24 28 31
180 -- -- -- 20 23 27 30
186 -- -- -- 20 23 26 29
192 -- -- -- -- 22 25 28
198 -- -- -- -- 21 24 27
204 -- -- -- -- -- 23 26
210 -- -- -- -- -- 23 26
216 -- -- -- -- -- 22 25
222 -- -- -- -- -- -- 24
228 -- -- -- -- -- -- 23
March 7, 2014
Table 856.3P
Structural Aluminum Plate Pipe Arches
9" x 2½" Corrugations

Factored Corner Soil
Bearing – 6 tons/ft2
Span Rise 0.100 0.125 0.150 0.175 0.200 0.225
6'-7" 5'-8" 20 -- -- -- -- --
7'-9" 6'-0" 17 -- -- -- -- --
8'-10" 6'-4" 15 -- -- -- -- --
9'-11" 6'-8" 13 -- -- -- -- --
10'-3" 6'-9" 13 19 -- -- -- --
11'-1" 7'-0" 12 18 20 -- -- --
12'-3" 7'-3" 11 16 18 -- -- --
12'-11" 7'-6" 10 15 17 -- -- --
13'-1" 8'-2" 10 15 17 -- -- --
13'-11" 8'-5" 9 14 16 -- -- --
14'-0" 8'-7" 9 14 16 -- -- --
14'-8" 9'-8" -- 13 15 -- -- --
15'-7" 10'-2" -- 12 13 -- -- --
16'-1" 10'-4" -- 12 13 -- -- --
16'-9" 10'-8" -- -- 12 -- -- --
17'-9" 11'-2" -- -- -- 11 -- --
18'-8" 11'-8" -- -- -- 11 -- --
19'-10" 12'-1" -- -- -- -- 10 --
20'-10" 12'-7" -- -- -- -- -- 9
21'-6" 12'-11" -- -- -- -- -- 9
Note:
(1) 31 inch Corner Radius
March 7, 2014
Where cover heights above culverts are less than the

values shown in Table 856.5, stress reducing slab
Table 856.4
details available from the Headquarters Design Thermoplastic Pipe Fill Height
drainage detail library using the following web
address may be used:
Tables
http://onramp.dot.ca.gov/hq/design/drainage/library. High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)
php Corrugated Pipe - Type S
Where cover heights are less than the values shown
in the stress reducing slab details, contact Office of Size Maximum Height of Cover
State Highway Drainage Design or the Underground (in) (ft)
Structures Branch of DES - Structures Design. 12 15
15 15
Topic 857 - Alternate Materials 18 15
857.1 Basic Policy 24 15
30 15
When two or more materials meet the design service
life, and structural and hydraulic requirements, the 36 15
plans and specifications must provide for alternative 42 15
pipes, pipe arches, overside drains, and underdrains 48 15
to allow for optional selection by the contractor. 54 15
See Index 114.3 (2). 60 15
(1) Allowable Alternatives. A table of allowable
alternative materials for culverts, drainage High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)
systems, overside drains, and subsurface drains Corrugated Pipe - Type C
is included as Table 857.2. This table also
identifies the various joint types described in Size Maximum Height of
Index 854.1(1) that should be used for the (in) Cover
different types of installations. (ft)
(2) Design Service Life. Each pipe type selected as 12 5
an alternative must have the appropriate 15 5
protection as outlined in Topic 852 to assure 18 5
that it will meet the design service life 24 5
requirements specified in Topic 855. The
maximum height of cover must be in Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Corrugated Pipe
accordance with the tables included in Topic
with Smooth Interior
856.
(3) Selection of a Specific Material Type. In the Size Maximum Height of
cases listed below, the selection of a specific (in) Cover
culvert material must be supported by a (ft)
complete analysis based on the foregoing 12 35
factors. All pertinent documentation should be 15 35
placed on file in the District.
18 35
• Where satisfactory performance for a life 21 35
expectancy of 25 or 50 years, as defined 24 35
under design service life, cannot be
30 35
obtained with certain materials by reason of
highly corrosive conditions, severe abrasive 36 35
March 7, 2014
Table 856.5
Minimum Thickness of Cover
for Culverts
MINIMUM THICKNESS OF COVER AT ETW
Reinforced
Corrugated
Aluminum Aluminum Concrete RCP Under
Metal Steel
Spiral Rib Spiral Rib Structural Pipe (RCP) Flexible Plastic
Pipes and Spiral
Pipe, Pipe, Plate Pipe Under Pavement or Pipes
Pipe Rib Pipe
S ≤ 48" S > 48" Rigid Unpaved
Arches
Pavement
(Max Outside
S/8 S/4 S/2 S/2.75 S/8 S/2
Dimension)/8
or or or or or 12" Min. or
or
24" Min. 24" Min. 24" Min. 24" Min. 24" Min. 24" Min.
24" Min.
Notes:
(1) Minimum thickness of cover is measured at ultimate or failure edge of traveled way.
(2) Table is for HL-93 live load conditions only.
(3) ”S” in the table is the maximum inside diameter or span of a section.
March 7, 2014
conditions, or critical structural and design life of culverts and make determination if
construction requirements. any of the outfalls are in salty or brackish water.
The Materials Report should include proposed
• For individual drainage systems such as
design life and recommendations for pipe material
roadway drainage systems or culverts which
alternatives. See Indexes 114.2 (3) and 114.3 (2).
operate under hydrostatic pressure or
culverts governed by hydraulic Step 2. Obtain hydraulic studies and location data
considerations and which would require for pipe minimum sizes, and expected Q2-5 flow
separate design for each culvert type. velocities. For pipes operating under outlet control,
a critical element of pipe selection is the Manning’s
• When alterations or extensions of existing internal roughness value used in the hydraulic
systems are required, the culvert type may design. It is important to independently verify the
be selected to match the type used in the roughness used in the design is applicable for the
existing system. selected alternate materials from AltPipe. Rougher
857.2 Alternative Pipe Culvert Selection pipes may require larger sizes to provide adequate
Procedure Using AltPipe hydraulic capacities and need steeper slopes to
produce desired cleaning velocities, usually
These instructions are general guidelines for however, pipe slope is maintained, and the only
alternative pipe culvert selection using the AltPipe variable provided on the plans is pipe size.
computer program that is located on the
Headquarters Division of Design alternative pipe Step 3. Determine the abrasion level from Table
culvert selection website at the following web 852.2A from the maximum size of material that can
address: http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/oppd/altpipe.htm. be moved through a pipe, the expected Q2-5 flow
velocities, and Table 855.2B. Field observations of
AltPipe is a web-based tool that may be used to channel bed material both upstream and downstream
assist materials engineers and designers in the are recommended.
appropriate selection of pipe materials for culvert
and storm drain applications. The computations Step 4. Determine the maximum fill height.
performed by AltPipe are based on the procedures Step 5. Using the AltPipe computer program that is
and California Test Methods described in this located on the Headquarters Division of Design
Chapter. AltPipe is not a substitute for the alternative pipe culvert selection website enter:
appropriate use of engineering judgment as • Pipe diameter
conditions and experience would warrant. AltPipe
establishes uniform procedures to assist the designer • Maximum fill height
in carrying out the majority of the alternative pipe • Design service life
culvert selection functions of the Department, and is
neither intended as, nor does it establish, a legal • pH
standard for these functions. Implementation of the • Minimum resistivity
results and output of this program is solely at the
discretion of the user. The user is encouraged to • Sulfate concentration
first read the two informational links on the website
• Chloride concentration (for values greater than
titled ‘Get More Information’ and ‘How to use
2000, check boxes if end of culvert is exposed
Altpipe’ prior to using the program.
to brackish conditions and high tide line is
Each alternative material selected for a drainage below the crown of the culvert)
facility must provide the required design service life
• Abrasion level
based on physical and structural factors, be of
adequate size to satisfy the hydraulic design, and • 2-5-year Storm Flow Velocity (ft/sec)
require the minimum of maintenance and
construction cost for each site condition. Repeat step 5 as necessary and save each pipe in
worksheet as needed and go to the final summary
Step 1. Obtain the results of soil and water pH, upon completion.
resistivity, sulfate and chloride tests, proposed
August 1, 2011
Table 857.2
Allowable Alternative Materials
Type of Service Joint Type

Installation Life Allowable Alternatives Standard Positive Downdrain
(yrs)1
Culverts & Drainage 50 ASSRP, ASRP, CAP, CASP, CSSRP, X X --
Systems CIPCP, CSP, NRCP, SAPP, SSPP, SSRP,
RCP, RCB, PPC
Overside Drains 50 CAP, CASP, CSP, PPC -- -- X
Underdrains 50 PAP, PSP, PPET, PPVCP X -- --
Arches (Culverts & 50 ACSPA, CAPA, CSPA, RCA, SAPPA, X X --

Drainage Systems) SSPPA, SSPA
LEGEND
ACSPA - Aluminized Corrugated Steel Pipe Arch PPVCP - Perforated Polyvinyl Chloride Pipe
ASSRP - Aluminized Steel Spiral Rib Pipe PSP - Perforated Steel Pipe
ASRP - Aluminum Spiral Rib Pipe RCA - Reinforced Concrete Arch
CAP - Corrugated Aluminum Pipe RCB - Reinforced Concrete Box
CAPA - Corrugated Aluminum Pipe Arch RCP - Reinforced Concrete Pipe
CSSRP - Composite Steel Spiral Rib Pipe SAPP - Structural Aluminum Plate Pipe
CASP - Corrugated Aluminized Steel Pipe, Type 2 SAPPA - Structural Aluminum Plate Pipe Arch
CIPCP - Cast-in-Place Concrete Pipe SSPA - Structural Steel Plate Arch
CSP - Corrugated Steel Pipe SSPP - Structural Steel Plate Pipe
CSPA - Corrugated Steel Pipe Arch SSPPA - Structural Steel Plate Pipe Arch
NRCP - Non-Reinforced Concrete Pipe SSRP - Steel Spiral Rib Pipe
PAP - Perforated Aluminum Pipe X - Permissible Joint Type for the Type
PPC - Plastic Pipe Culvert of installation Indicated
PPET - Perforated Polyethylene Tubing
NOTE:
1. The design service life indicated for the various types of installations listed in the table may be reduced to 25
years in certain situations. Refer to Index 855.1 for a discussion of service life requirements.
March 7, 2014
Step 6. The following alternatives are not included There may be situations where there is a different
in AltPipe and will not be provided in the output set of alternatives for the same nominal size of
Alternative pipe list: all non-circular shapes (arches, alternative drainage facilities. In this case the
boxes, etc.), non reinforced concrete pipe (NRCP) different sets of the same nominal size should be
and non-standard new products. Check Materials further identified by different types, for example,
and Hydraulics reports and verify if any of these 18-inch alternative pipe culvert (Type A), 18-inch
alternatives were recommended and supplement the alternative pipe culvert (Type B), etc. No attempt to
AltPipe final summary accordingly. For reinforced correlate type designation between projects is
concrete pipe (RCP), box (RCB) and arch (RCA) necessary. The first alternative combination for
culverts, maintenance-free service life, with respect each culvert size on each project should be
to corrosion, abrasion and/or durability, is the designated as Type A, second as Type B, etc.
number of years from installation until the
Since the available nominal sizes for pipe arches
deterioration reaches the point of exposed
vary slightly between pipe arch materials, it is
reinforcement at any point on the culvert. Changes
recommended that the listed alternative pipe arch
in the design may be required in relatively severe
sizes conform to those sizes shown for corrugated
acidic, chloride or sulfate environments. The levels
steel pipe arches shown on Table 856.3D. The
of these constituents (either in the soil or water) will
designer should verify the availability of reinforced
need to be identified in the project Materials or
concrete pipe arches. If reinforced concrete pipe
Geotechnical Design Report. The adopted
arches are not available, oval shaped reinforced
procedure consists of a formula that the constituent
concrete pipe of a size necessary to meet the
concentrations are entered into in order to determine
hydraulic requirements may be used as an
a pipe service life. The means for offsetting the
alternative.
affects of the corrosive elements is to increase the
cover over the reinforcing steel, increase the cement
content, or reduce the water/cement ratio.
Step 7. Table 855.2C constitutes a guide for
abrasive resistant coatings in low to moderate
abrasive conditions for metal pipe (i.e., Levels 1
through 5 in Table 855.2A) and is included in
AltPipe. Table 855.2F constitutes a guide for
minimum material thickness of abrasive resistant
invert protection to achieve 50 years of
maintenance-free service life in moderate to highly
abrasive conditions (i.e., Levels 4 through 6 in
Table 855.2A) and was not programmed into
AltPipe. If pipe material thickness does not meet
service life due to abrasive conditions, consideration
for invert protection should be made using Table
855.2F as a guide.
857.3 Alternative Pipe Culvert (APC) and
Pipe Arch Culvert List
Because of the difference in roughness coefficients
between various materials, it may be necessary to
specify a different size for each allowable material
at any one location. In this event, it is
recommended that the material with the smallest
dimension be listed as the alternative size. Refer to
Plans Preparation Manual for standard format to be
used.
March 7, 2014
considerations are usually so interrelated that

CHAPTER 860 optimum conditions cannot be met for one without
ROADSIDE CHANNELS compromising one or more of the others. The
objective is to achieve a reasonable balance, but the
Topic 861 – General importance of traveler safety must not be
underrated. See Index 861.4, “Safety
Index 861.1 - Introduction Considerations”.
Chapter 860 addresses the design of small open Roadside channels play an important role in the
channels called roadside channels that are highway drainage system as the initial conveyance
constructed as part of a highway drainage system. for highway runoff. Roadside channels are often
See Figure 861.1. included as part of the typical roadway section.
Therefore, the geometry of roadside channels
Figure 861.1 depends on available right-of-way, flow capacity
requirements, and the alignment and profile of the
Small Roadside Channel highway. Most roadside channels capture sheet
flow from the highway pavement and cut slope and
convey that runoff to larger channels or to culverts
within the drainage system. See Figure 861.2.
Figure 861.2
Roadside Channel Outlet to Storm
Drain at Drop Inlet
An open channel is a conveyance in which water

flows with a free surface. Although closed conduits
such as culverts and storm drains function as open
channels when flowing partially full, the term is
generally applied to natural and improved
watercourses, gutters, ditches, and channels. While
the hydraulic principles discussed in this chapter are
valid for all drainage structures, the primary
consideration is given to roadside channels.
In addition to performing its hydraulic function, the
roadside channel should be economical to construct
and maintain. Some roadside channels serve as
dual purpose channels which concurrently function This initial concentration of runoff may create
as infiltration swales for stormwater purposes. See hydraulic conditions that are erosive to the soil that
Index 861.11, “Water Quality Channels”. Roadside forms the channel boundary. To perform reliably,
channel design should consider errant vehicles the roadside channel is often stabilized against
leaving the traveled way, be pleasing in appearance, erosion by placing a protective lining over the soil.
convey collected water without damage to the This chapter presents two classes of channel linings
transportation facility or adjacent property and called rigid and flexible linings that are well suited
minimize environmental impacts. These for construction of small roadside channels.
March 7, 2014
861.2 Hydraulic Considerations minimizes the effect on existing water surface

profiles. Open channel designs which lower the
An evaluation of hydraulic considerations for the water surface elevation can result in excessive
channel design alternatives should be made early in flow velocities and cause erosion problems. A
the project development process. The extent of the planned rise in water surface elevation can
hydrologic and hydraulic analysis should be
cause:
commensurate with the type of highway,
complexity of the drainage facility, and associated • Objectionable flooding of the roadbed and
costs, risks, and impacts. Most of the roadside adjacent properties or facilities;
channels and swales discussed in this chapter
• An environmental and maintenance
convey design flows less than 50 cubic feet per
problem with sedimentation due to reduced
second and generally do not require detailed
flow velocities.
hydrologic and hydraulic analyses beyond
developing the parameters required for the Rational Additional hydraulic considerations may
Formula (see Index 819.2(1)), Manning’s Equation, include: movable beds, heavy bedloads and
and the shear stress equations presented within this bulking during flood discharges. A detailed
Chapter and Hydraulic Engineering Circular (HEC) discussion of sediment transport and channel
No. 15, “Design of Roadway Channels with morphology is contained in the FHWA’s HDS
Flexible Linings”. The hydraulic design of an open No. 6 River Engineering for Highway
channel consists of developing a channel section to Encroachments.
carry the design discharge under the controlling
Reference is made to Volume VI of the
conditions, adding freeboard as needed and
AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines for a
determining the type of channel protection required
general discussion on channel hydraulic
to prevent erosion. In addition to erosion protection,
considerations.
channel linings can be used to increase the
hydraulic capacity of the channel by reducing the 861.3 Selection of "Design Flood"
channel roughness.
As with other drainage facilities, the first step in the
The hydraulic capacity of a roadside channel is hydraulic design of roadside channels is to establish
dependent on the size, shape, slope and roughness the range of peak flows which the channel section
of the channel section. For a given channel, the must carry. The recommended design flood and
hydraulic capacity becomes greater as the grade or water spread criteria for roadway drainage type
depth of flow increases. The channel capacity installations are presented in Table 831.3.
decreases as the channel surface becomes rougher.
For flood control and cross drainage channels
A rough channel can sometimes be an advantage on
within the right of way, see Index 821.3, “Selection
steep slopes where it is desirable to keep flow
of Design Flood”. Empirical and statistical methods
velocities from becoming excessively high. See
for estimating design discharges are discussed in
Topics 866 and 867.
Chapter 810, "Hydrology".
(1) Flood Control Channels. Flood control
channels are typically administered by a local 861.4 Safety Considerations
agency and present extreme consequences An important aspect of transportation facility
should failure occur. Therefore, when channels drainage design is that of traffic safety.
or drainage facilities under the jurisdiction of
The shape of a roadside channel section should
local flood control agencies or Corps of
minimize vehicular impact and provide a
Engineers are involved, the design must be
traversable section for errant traffic leaving the
coordinated via negotiations with the District
traveled way. The ideal channel section, from a
Hydraulic Engineer and the agencies involved.
traversability standpoint, will have flattened side
See Index 861.7, “Coordination with other
slopes and a curved transition to the channel
Agencies” and Index 865.2.
bottom. When feasible, it is recommended that
For flood control purposes, a good open channels be constructed outside the clear recovery
channel design within the right of way zone.
March 7, 2014
861.5 Maintenance Considerations Figure 861.4

Design of open channels and roadside ditches Concrete Lined Channel with
should recognize that periodic maintenance Excessive Weed Growth
inspection and repair is required. Provisions should
be incorporated into the design for access to a
channel by maintenance personnel and equipment.
Consideration should be given to the size and type
of maintenance equipment required when assessing
the need for permanent or temporary access
easements for entrance ramps and gates through the
right of way fences.
Damaged channels can be expensive to repair and
interfere with the safe and orderly movement of
traffic.
Figure 861.3
Accumulation of sediment and debris may destroy
Damaged Channel vegetative linings leading to additional erosion
damage.
Channel work on some projects may be completed
several months before total project completion.
During this interim period, the contractor must
provide interim protection measures. Per Index
865.3(3), the design engineer should include
temporary channel linings to assure that minor
erosion will not develop into major damage. As
needed, the District Project Engineer may obtain
vegetative recommendations from the District
Landscape Architect. The Project Engineer must
verify vegetative component compatibility with the
final design.
861.6 Economics
Minor erosion damage within the right of way
should be repaired immediately after it occurs and Economical drainage design is achieved by
action taken to prevent the recurrence. Conditions selecting the design alternative which best satisfies
which require extensive repair or frequently the established design criteria at the lowest cost.
recurring maintenance may require a complete The economic evaluation of design alternatives
redesign rather than repetitive or extensive should be commensurate with the complexity and
reconstruction. The advice of the District importance of the facility. Analysis of the channel
Hydraulics Engineer should be sought when location, shape, size, and materials involved may
evaluating the need for major restoration. reveal possibilities for reducing construction costs,
The growth of weeds, brush, and trees in a drainage flood damage potential, maintenance problems and
channel can effectively reduce its hydraulic environmental impacts.
efficiency. See Figure 861.4. The result being that a
861.7 Coordination with Other Agencies
portion of the design flow may overflow the
channel banks causing flooding and possible There are many Federal, State and local agencies
erosion. and private entities engaged in water related
planning, construction and regulation activities
whose interests can affect the design of some
March 7, 2014
highway drainage channels (e.g., flood control effective at trapping litter, total suspended solids
channels described under Index 861.2(1)). Such (soil particles), and particulate metals. In most
agencies may request the channel design satisfy cases, flow attenuation is also provided.
additional and perhaps governing design criteria.
Refer to Appendix B, Table B-1 of the Project
Early coordination with these agencies may help
Planning and Design Guide for a summary of
avoid delays in the project development process and
preliminary design factors for biofiltration strips
post-project conflicts. Early coordination may also
and swales:
reveal opportunities for cooperative projects which
may benefit both Caltrans and the water resources http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/oppd/stormwtr/ppdg/swdr
agency. For information on cooperative agreements 2012/PPDG-May-2012.pdf
refer to Index 803.2. See HDM Table 816.6A and Index 865.5 for
861.8 Environment Manning’s roughness coefficients used for travel
time calculations for the rational formula based on
Many of the same principles involved in sound water quality flow (WQF) to check swale
highway construction and maintenance of open performance against biofiltration criteria at WQF,
channels parallel environmental considerations. i.e., a Hydraulic Residence Time of 5 minutes or
Environmental problems can arise if riparian more; a maximum velocity of 1.0 ft/s; and a
species inhabit the channel. Erosion, sedimentation, maximum depth of flow of 0.5 ft. See Bio-Strips
water quality, and aesthetics should be of prime and Bio-Swales under Biofiltration Design
concern to the highway design engineer. Refer to Guidance at:
Index 110.2 and the Project Planning and Design
Guide for discussion on control of water pollution. http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/oppd/storm1/caltrans_20
090729.html
861.9 Unlined Channels
861.12 References
Whenever feasible, roadside channels should be
designed with natural bottoms. Use linings only More complete information on hydraulic principles
when warranted. and engineering techniques of open channel design
may be found in FHWA's Hydraulic Design Series
Refer to Table 865.2 for typical permitted shear No. 3, "Design Charts for Open Channel Flow",
stress and velocity for bare soil and vegetation. Hydraulic Design Series No. 4, "Introduction to
861.10 Lined Channels Highway Hydraulics", Hydraulic Engineering
Circular No. 15 (HEC No. 15), “Design of
The main purposes of channel linings are: Roadway Channels with Flexible Linings” and
(a) To prevent erosion damage. Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 22 (HEC No.
22), Chapter 5, “Urban Drainage Design Manual –
(b) To increase velocity for prevention of excessive Roadside and Median Channels”. For a general
sedimentation textbook discussion of open channel hydraulics,
(c) To increase capacity. reference is made to "Open-Channel Hydraulics" by
Ven Te Chow. In addition, many helpful design
See Topic 865 for design concepts.
aids are included in "Handbook of Hydraulics", by
861.11 Water Quality Channels Brater and King.
Biofiltration swales are vegetated channels, Topic 862 - Roadside Drainage
typically configured as trapezoidal or v-shaped
channels (trapezoidal recommended where feasible) Channel Location
that receive and convey stormwater flows while
862.1 General
meeting water quality criteria and other flow
criteria independent of Chapter 860. Pollutants are Assuming adequate functional design, the next most
removed by filtration through the vegetation, important design consideration is channel location.
sedimentation, absorption to soil particles, and Locations that avoid poorly drained areas, unstable
infiltration through the soil. Strips and swales are soil conditions, and frequently flooded areas can
March 7, 2014
greatly reduce drainage related problems. Refer to flowing water, the material used to line the channel,
Index 110.4 for discussion on wetlands protection. the nature of the bedding soil and the sediment
being transported by the flow. Refer to Table 865.2
Typically drainage and open channel considerations
for recommended permissible flow velocities in
are not considered the primary decision factors in
unlined channels.
the roadway location; however they are factors
which will often directly or indirectly affect many Realignment considerations for channels within the
other considerations. Often minor alignment right of way are discussed in Index 867, Channel
adjustments can avoid serious drainage problems. Changes.
If a channel can be located far enough away from 862.3 Point of Discharge
the highway, the concerns of traffic safety and
aesthetics can be significantly mitigated. See Figure The point of discharge into a natural watercourse
862.1. The cost of additional right of way may be requires special attention. Water entering a natural
offset somewhat by the reduced cost of erosion watercourse from a highway drainage channel
control, traffic protection, and landscaping. should not cause eddies with attendant scour of the
natural watercourse. In erodible embankment soils,
Figure 862.1 if the flow line of the drainage channel is
appreciably higher than that of the watercourse at
Small-Rock Lined Channel the point of discharge, then the use of a spillway
Outside of Clear Recovery Zone may be advisable to prevent erosion of the channel.
Topic 863 - Channel Section

863.1 Roadside and Median Channels
Roadside and median channels are open-channel
systems which collect and convey stormwater from
the pavement surface, roadside, and median areas.
These channels may outlet to a storm drain piping
system via a drop inlet (see Figure 861.2), to a
detention or retention basin or other storage
component, or to an outfall channel. Roadside and
median channels are normally triangular or
trapezoidal in cross section and are lined with grass
or other protective lining.
Reference is made to the FHWA publication HEC
862.2 Alignment and Grade No. 22, Chapter 5.
Ordinarily, the highway drainage channel must be The shape of a channel section is generally
located where it will best serve its intended determined by considering the intended purpose,
purpose, using the grade and alignment obtainable terrain, flow velocity and quantity of flow to be
at the site. Insofar as practicable, abrupt changes in conveyed.
alignment and grade should be avoided. A sharp
change in alignment presents a point of attack for 863.2 Triangular
flowing water, and abrupt changes in grade can The triangular channel or V-ditch is intended
result in possible scour when the grade is steepened primarily for low flow conditions such as in median
or deposition of transported material when the and roadside ditches. V-shaped ditches are
grade is flattened. susceptible to erosion and will require lining when
Ideally, a drainage channel should have flow shear stress and velocity exceed the values given for
velocities that neither erode nor cause deposition in bare soil in Table 865.2. It is good practice to round
the channel. This optimum velocity is dependent the bottom of a V-ditch. See Figure 862.1 and
on the size and slope of channel, the quantity of Figure 863.1.
March 7, 2014
Figure 863.1 Though rectangular channels are relatively

expensive to construct, since the walls must be
Small-Rock Lined Triangular designed as earth retaining structures, the
Channel with Rounded Bottom construction costs can be somewhat offset by the
reduced costs associated with right of way,
materials, and channel excavation. See Index 865.2
for the design of concrete lined flood control
channels.
Topic 864 - Channel Stability

Design Concepts
864.1 General
The gradient of roadside channels typically parallels
the grade of the highway. Even at relatively mild
highway grades, highly erosive hydraulic conditions
can exist in adjacent roadside channels.
Consequently, designing a stable conveyance
becomes a critical component in the design of
863.3 Trapezoidal roadside channels.
The most common channel shapes is the trapezoidal The need for erosion prevention is not limited to the
section. highway drainage channels; it extends throughout
Trapezoidal channels are easily constructed by the right-of-way and is an essential feature of
machinery and are often the most economical. adequate drainage design. Erosion and maintenance
are minimized largely by the use of flat side slopes
When a wide trapezoidal section is proposed, both rounded and blended with natural terrain, drainage
traffic safety and aesthetics can be improved by channels designed with due regard to location,
rounding all angles of the channel cross section width, depth, slopes, alignment, and protective
with vertical curves. The approximate length of treatment, proper facilities for groundwater
these vertical curves can be determined by the interception, dikes, berms, and other protective
formula: devices, and protective ground covers and planting.
40
𝐿= 864.2 Stable Channel Design Procedure
𝑋
For most highway drainage channels bed and side
where:
slope instability cannot be tolerated and stable
L = Length of vertical curve in feet channel design must be based on the concepts of
static equilibrium, including the use of a lining
X = Horizontal component of side slopes
material if necessary. The permissible tractive force
expressed as x, y coordinates with y = 1
(shear stress) procedure requires that the shear
For narrow channels, L, is limited to the bottom stresses on the channel bottom and sides do not
width. exceed the allowable amounts for the given channel
boundary. Based on the actual physical processes
863.4 Rectangular
involved in maintaining a stable channel,
Rectangular channels are used to convey large specifically the stresses developed at the interface
flows in areas with limited right of way. At some between flowing water and materials forming the
locations, guardrail or other types of positive traffic channel boundary, the tractive force procedure is a
barrier may be necessary between the traveled way more realistic model and was adopted as the
and the channel. preferred design procedure for HEC No. 15, which
is the primary reference for stable channel design.
March 7, 2014
The maximum shear stress along the channel where:

bottom may be estimated by the following equation:
Vp = Permissible velocity, ft/s
𝜏𝑑 = 𝛾𝑑𝑆
τp = Permissible shear stress, lb/ft2
where:
α = Unit conversion constant, 1.49
τd = Shear stress in channel at maximum depth,
As a guide, Table 865.2 provides typical values of
lb/ft2
permissible velocity and permissible shear stress for
γ = Specific weight of water selected lining types.
d = Maximum depth of flow in channel for the The basic procedure for designing a flexible lining
design discharge, ft consists of the following steps.
S = Slope of channel, ft/ft Step 1. Determine a design discharge, Q, and select
the channel slope and channel shape.
When the permissible shear stress is greater than or
equal to the computed shear stress, the lining is Step 2. Select a trial lining type. Initially, the
considered acceptable: Engineer may need to determine if a long-term
lining is needed and whether or not a temporary or
𝜏𝑝 ≥ 𝑆𝐹𝜏𝑑
transitional lining is required. For determining the
where: latter, the trial lining type could be chosen as the
native material (unlined), typically bare soil. For
τp = Permissible shear stress for the channel example, it may be determined that the bare soil is
lining, lb/ft insufficient for a long-term solution, but vegetation
SF = Safety factor is a good solution. For the transitional period
between construction and vegetative establishment,
The safety factor provides for a measure of analysis of the bare soil will determine if a
uncertainty, as well as a means for the designer to temporary lining is prudent. Per Index 865.1,
reflect a lower tolerance for failure by choosing a District Landscape should be consulted to provide
higher safety factor. A safety factor of 1.0 is feasible long-term vegetation recommendations.
appropriate in many cases and may be considered The Engineer and the Landscape Architect should
the default. However, safety factors from 1.0 to 1.5 discuss the compatibility of any living materials
may be appropriate, subject to the designer's (temporary, transitional or permanent) with the
discretion, where one or more of the following proposed lining material and verify impacts to
conditions may exist: conveyance before the Engineer finalizes the
(a) critical or supercritical flows are expected design.
(b) climatic regions where vegetation may be Step 3. Estimate the depth of flow, di in the channel
uneven or slow to establish and compute the hydraulic radius, R. The estimated
depth may be based on physical limits of the
(c) significant uncertainty regarding the design
channel, but this first estimate is essentially a guess.
discharge
Iterations on Steps 3 through 5 may be required.
(d) consequences of failure are high
Step 4. Estimate Manning's n and the discharge
The relationship between permissible shear stress implied by the estimated n and flow depth values.
and permissible velocity for a lining can be found Calculate the discharge (Qi).
by substituting the equation for maximum shear
Step 5. Compare Qi with Q. If Qi is within 5 percent
stress and continuity equation into Manning’s
of the design, Q, then proceed on to Step 6. If not,
equation:
return to Step 3 and select a new estimated flow
𝛼 1 1� depth, di+1. This can be estimated from the
𝑉𝑝 = 𝑅 �6 𝜏𝑝 2
𝑛�𝛾𝑑 following equation or any other appropriate
method.
March 7, 2014
𝑄 0.4 𝜏𝑑 = 𝛾𝑑𝑆
𝑑𝑖+1 = 𝑑𝑖 � �
𝑄𝑖 For trapezoidal and triangular channels, the
Step 6. Calculate the shear stress at maximum following K1 values may be applied:
depth, τd, determine the permissible shear stress, τp, K1 = 0.77 Z ≤ 1.5
according to the methods described in HEC No. 15
and select an appropriate safety factor (i.e., 1 to K1 = 0.066Z + 0.67 1.5 < Z < 5
1.5). K1 = 1.0 5 ≤ Z
Step 7. Compare the permissible shear stress to the The Z value represents the horizontal dimension
calculated shear stress from Step 6 using: 1:Z (V:H). Use of side slopes steeper than
𝜏𝑝 ≥ 𝑆𝐹𝜏𝑑 1:3 (V:H) is not encouraged for flexible linings
because of the potential for erosion of the side
If the permissible shear stress is adequate then the slopes. Steep side slopes are allowable within a
lining is acceptable. If the permissible shear is channel if cohesive soil conditions exist. Channels
inadequate, then return to Step 2 and select an with steep slopes should not be allowed if the
alternative lining type with greater permissible channel is constructed in non-cohesive soils.
shear stress from Table 865.2. As an alternative, a
For channels lined with gravel or small-rock slope
different channel shape may be selected that results
protection, the maximum suggested side slope is
in a lower depth of flow. The selected lining is
1 V : 3 H, and flatter slopes are encouraged. If
stable and the design process is complete. Other
steeper side slopes are required, see Chapter 6 of
linings may be tested, if desired, before specifying
HEC No. 15 for design procedures.
the preferred lining.
Direct solutions for Manning's equation for many Topic 865 - Channel Linings
channels of trapezoidal, rectangular, triangular and
circular cross sections can be found within the 865.1 Flexible Verses Rigid
Channel Analysis subcomponent FHWA's Lining materials may be classified as flexible or
Hydraulic Toolbox software program. rigid. Flexible linings are able to conform to
864.3 Side Slope Stability changes in channel shape and can sustain such
changes while maintaining the overall integrity of
Shear stress is generally reduced on the channel the channel. In contrast, rigid linings cannot change
sides compared with the channel bottom. The shape and tend to fail when a portion of the channel
maximum shear on the side of a channel is given by lining is damaged. Channel shape may change due
the following equation: to frost-heave, slumping, piping, etc. Typical
𝜏𝑠 = 𝐾1 𝜏𝑑 flexible lining materials include grass or small-rock
slope protection, while typical rigid lining materials
where: include hot mixed asphalt or Portland cement
τs = Side shear stress on the channel, lb/ft2 concrete. Flexible linings are generally less
expensive, may have a more natural appearance,
K1 = Ratio of channel side to bottom shear permit infiltration and exfiltration and are typically
stress more environmentally acceptable. Vegetative
τd = Shear stress in channel at maximum channel lining is also recognized as a best
depth, lb/ft2 management practice for storm water quality design
in highway drainage systems. A vegetated channel
The value K1 depends on the size and shape of the helps to deposit highway runoff contaminants
channel. For parabolic or V-shape with rounded (particularly suspended sediments) before they
bottom channels there is no sharp discontinuity leave the highway right of way and enter streams.
along the wetted perimeter and therefore it can be See Index 861.11 ‘Water Quality Channels’ and
assumed that shear stress at any point on the side Figure 865.1.
slope is related to the depth at that point using the
shear stress equation from Index 864.2:
March 7, 2014
On steep slopes, most vegetated flexible linings are Table 865.1 provides a guide for Portland cement
limited in the erosive forces they can sustain concrete and air blown mortar roadside channel
without damage to the channel and lining unless the linings. See photo below Table 865.1 for example.
vegetative lining is combined with another more
For the design of concrete lined flood control
erosion-resistant long-term lining below, such as a
channels discussed in Index 861.2 (1), see U.S.
cellular soil confinement system. See Figure 865.1
Army Corps of Engineers publication; “Structural
and Index 865.3(1). The District Landscape
Design of Concrete Lined Flood Control Channels”,
Architect should be contacted to provide viable
EM 1110-2-2007:
vegetation alternatives within the District, however
all design responsibilities belong to the Project http://planning.usace.army.mil/toolbox/library/EMs
Engineer. /em1110.2.2007.pdf
Figure 865.1 Table 865.1

Steep-Sloped Channel with Concrete(2) Channel Linings
Composite Vegetative Lining Minimum
Abrasion Thickness of Lining (in)
Level(1) Reinforcement
Sides Bottom
1-3 5 5 6 x 6-
W2.9 x W2.9
welded wire
fabric
NOTES:
(1) See Table 855.2A.
(2) Portland Cement Concrete or Air Blown
Mortar
Figure 865.2
Vegetative flexible lining placed on top of cellular soil Concrete Lined Channel
confinement system on a steep-sloped channel.
865.2 Rigid
A rigid lining can typically provide higher capacity
and greater erosion resistance and in some cases
may be the only feasible alternative.
Rigid linings are useful in flow zones where high
shear stress or non-uniform flow conditions exist,
such as at transitions in channel shape or at an
energy dissipation structure.
The most commonly used types of rigid lining are
hot mixed asphalt and Portland cement concrete.
Hot mixed asphalt is used mainly for small ditches,
gutters and overside drains (see Standard Plan
D87D) because it cannot withstand hydrostatic For large flows, consideration should be given to
pressure from the outside. using a minimum bottom width of 12 feet for
construction and maintenance purposes, but depths
of flow less than one foot are not recommended.
March 7, 2014
Despite the non-erodible nature of rigid linings, rocks (cobble, gravel, crushed gravel, crushed
they are susceptible to failure from foundation rock, or any combination of these) on the slope.
instability and abrasion. The major cause of failure Where the channel design includes a
is undermining that can occur in a number of ways. requirement for runoff infiltration to address
stormwater needs, the designer may need to
865.3 Flexible consider installation of a granular filter in lieu
Flexible linings can be long-term, transitional or of RSP fabric if it is anticipated that the RSP
temporary. Long-term flexible linings are used fabric would become clogged with sediment.
where the channel requires protection against See following link to HEC No. 23, Volume 2,
erosion for the design service life of the channel. Design Guideline 16, Index 16.2.1, for
Per Index 861.12, more complete information on information on designing a granular filter:
hydraulic principles and engineering techniques of http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/engineering/hydraulic
flexible channel lining design may be found in HEC s/pubs/09112/page16.cfm
No. 15 and Chapter 5 of HEC No. 22.
Standard Specification Section 72-16 includes
Flexible linings act to reduce the shear stress on the specifications for constructing gabion
underlying soil surface. Therefore, the erodibility of
structures. Gabions consist of wire mesh
the underlying soil is a key factor in the baskets that are placed and then filled with
performance of flexible linings. Erodibility of non- rock. Gabion basket wires are susceptible to
cohesive soils (plasticity index less than 10) is corrosion and are most appropriate for use as a
mainly due to particle size, while cohesive soil channel lining where corrosion potential is
erodibility is a function of cohesive strength and minimized, such as desert or other arid
soil density. Vegetative and rolled erosion control locations.
product lining performance relates to how well they
protect the underlying soil from shear stress, and so Cellular soil confinement systems may be used
these lining types do not have permissible shear as an alternative for steep channels with a
stresses independent of soil type. The soil plasticity variety of infills available including soil and
index should be included in the Materials or gravel. Soil confinement systems consist of
Geotechnical Design Report. sheet polyethylene spot welded to form a
system of individual confinement cells. See
In general, when a lining is needed, the lowest cost
Figure 865.3.
lining that affords satisfactory protection should be
used. This may include vegetation used alone or in Figure 865.3
combination with other types of linings. Thus, a
channel might be grass-lined on the flatter slopes Long-Term Flexible Lining
and lined with more resistant material on the steeper
slopes. In cross section, the channel might be lined
with a highly resistant material (e.g., cellular soil
confinement system – see Index 865.3(1) Long
Term) within the depth required to carry floods
occurring frequently and lined with grass above that
depth for protection from the rare floods.
(1) Long Term. Long-term lining materials include
vegetation, rock slope protection, gabions
(wire-enclosed rock), and turf reinforcement
mats with enhanced UV stability. Standard
Specification Section 72-4 includes
specifications for constructing small-rock slope
protection for gutters, ditches or channels and
includes excavating and backfilling the footing Placing a polyethylene cellular soil confinement system
trench, placing RSP fabric and placing small on a steep-sloped channel.
March 7, 2014
Per Index 865.1, these systems may be Step 2. Need to select both a low flow and side
combined with other vegetated flexible linings, slope lining. (See Table 866.3A.)
e.g., turf reinforcement mats.
Step 3. Estimate the depth of flow in the channel
(2) Transitional. Transitional flexible linings are and compute the hydraulic radius. (No change.)
used to provide erosion protection until a long-
Step 4. After determining the Manning's n for the
term lining, such as grass, can be established.
low flow and side slope linings, calculate the
For mild slopes, these may include jute netting
effective Manning's n:
(depending on environmental, i.e., wildlife,
2�
parameters) or turf reinforcement. Turf 3� 3
𝑃𝐿 𝑃𝐿 𝑛𝑠 2
reinforcement can serve either a transitional or 𝑛𝑒 = � + �1 − � � � � 𝑛𝐿
long-term function by providing additional 𝑃 𝑃 𝑛𝐿
structure to the soil/vegetation matrix. Typical where:
turf reinforcement materials include gravel/soil
mixes and turf reinforcement mats (TRM's). A ne = Effective Manning’s n value for the
TRM is a non-degradable rolled erosion control composite channel
product (RECP) processed into a three- PL = Low flow lining perimeter, ft
dimensional matrix. For examples see
following link: P = Total flow perimeter, ft
http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/LandArch/ec/recp/tr ns = Manning’s n value for the side slope lining
m.htm nL = Manning’s n value for the low flow lining
The design for transitional products should be Step 5. Compare implied discharge and design
based on a flood event with an exceedance discharge. (No change.)
probability at least equal to the expected
product service life (i.e., 12 to 36 months). Step 6. Determine the shear stress at maximum
depth, τd (𝜏𝑑 = 𝛾𝑑𝑆), and the shear stress on the
(3) Temporary. Temporary channel linings are used channel side slope, τs (see Index 864.2).
without vegetation to line channels that might
be part of a construction site or some other Step 7. Compare the shear stresses, τd and τs, to the
short-term channel situation. permissible shear stress, τp, for each of the channel
linings. If τd or τs is greater than the τp for the
Standard Specification Section 21-1 was respective lining, a different combination of linings
developed primarily to address slope erosion should be evaluated. See Table 865.2.
products, however, it includes specifications for
constructing turf reinforcing mats, netting and 865.5 Bare Soil Design and Grass Lining
rolled erosion control products (RECP’s – see Per Index 865.1, the District Landscape Architect
Index 865.6) which may also be applied to should be contacted to recommend vegetation
channels as temporary and transitional linings. alternatives (including vegetation for transitional
See Index 865.1for coordinating vegetative products, if needed) and the same procedure for the
recommendation with District Landscape stable channel design procedure presented in Index
Architecture. 864.2 should be followed by the Project Engineer.
865.4 Composite Lining Design See Figure 865.4 for grass lining example in a
median channel. For slope stability when
The procedure for composite lining design is based constructing embankment (4:1 and steeper), 85-
on the stable channel design procedure presented in 90% relative compaction is desired. Although not
Index 864.2 with additional sub-steps to account for optimal for best plant growth, compaction of up to
the two lining types. Specifically, the modifications 90% is not a major constraint for grass
are: establishment. Prior to seeding, scarification to a
Step 1. Determine design discharge and select depth of 1 inch of the compacted soil surface is
channel slope and shape. (No change.) recommended for improving initial runoff
absorption and ensuring the seed is incorporated
March 7, 2014
into the soil. A temporary degradable erosion Cn = Grass roughness coefficient (use 0.20 or
control blanket (ECB) (e.g., single net straw) can Tables 4.3 and 4.4 from HEC-15)
then be installed on top.
The remaining shear at the soil surface is termed the
The permissible shear stress for the vegetation is effective shear stress. When the effective shear
based on the design flood (Table 831.3). If the stress is less than the allowable shear for the soil
calculated shear for any given vegetation method is surface, then erosion of the soil surface will be
inadequate, then an alternative vegetation type with controlled. The effective shear at the soil surface is
greater shear stress must be selected and/or a given by the following equation.
different channel shape may be selected that results 𝑛𝑠 2
in a lower depth of flow. 𝜏𝑒 = 𝜏𝑑 �1 − 𝐶𝑓 � � �
𝑛
Figure 865.4 where:
Grass-Lined Median Channel τe = Effective shear stress on the soil surface,
lb/ft2
τd = Design shear stress, lb/ft2
Cf = Grass cover factor (use 0.6 to 0.8 or Table
4.5 from HEC-15)
ns = Soil grain roughness
n = Overall lining roughness
The soil grain roughness, ns, is 0.016 when D75 <
0.05 in. For larger grained soils the soil grain
roughness is
1�
𝑛𝑠 = 𝛼(𝐷75 ) 6
where:
The permissible shear stress for rolled erosion ns = Soil grain roughness (D75 > 1.3 (0.05 in))
control products should be based on a flood event
D75 = Soil size where 75 percent of the material
with an exceedance probability no less than the
is finer, in
expected product service life (i.e., 12 to 36 months).
The maximum shear stresses for channel α = Unit conversion constant, 0.026
applications shown in Erosion Control Technology
The permissible soil shear stress for fine-grained,
Council Rolled Erosion Control Products
non-cohesive soils (D75 < 0.05 in. is relatively
Specification Chart must be lower than the
constant and is conservatively estimated at
permissible shear stresses indicated in Table 865.2.
0.02 lb/ft2. For coarse grained, non-cohesive soils
See: http://www.ectc.org/specifications.asp
(0.05 in. < D75 < 2 in.) the following equation
The Manning's roughness coefficient for grass applies.
linings varies depending on grass properties and
𝜏𝑝,𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 𝛼𝐷75
shear stress given that the roughness changes as the
grass stems bend under flow. The equation where:
describing the n value for grass linings is:
τp,soil = Permissible soil shear stress, lb/ft2
𝑛= 𝛼𝐶𝑛 𝜏0−0.4
D75 = Soil size where 75 percent of the
where: material is finer, in
τ0 = Average boundary shear stress, lb/ft2 α = Unit conversion constant, 0.4
α = Unit conversion constant, 0.213
March 7, 2014
Table 865.2(2)
Permissible Shear and Velocity for Selected Lining Materials
Permissible
Permissible
Boundary Category Boundary Type Shear Stress
Velocity (ft/s)
(lb/ft2)
Fine colloidal sand 0.03 1.5
Sandy loam (noncolloidal) 0.04 1.75
Clayey sands (cohesive, PI ≥ 10) 0.095 2.6
Inorganic silts (cohesive, PI ≥ 10) 0.11 2.7
Silty Sands (cohesive, PI ≥ 10) 0.072 2.4
Alluvial silt (noncolloidal) 0.05 2
Silty loam (noncolloidal) 0.05 2.25
Finer than course sand - D75 < 0.05 in. 0.02 1.3
(non-cohesive)
Firm loam 0.075 2.5
Soils(1) Fine gravels 0.075 2.5
Fine gravel (non-cohesive, D75 = 0.3 0.12 2.8
in, PI<10)
Gravel (D75 = 0.6 in) (non-cohesive, 0.24 3.7
D75 = 0.6 in, PI<10)
Inorganic clays (cohesive, PI ≥ 20) 0.14 2.9
Stiff clay 0.25 4.5
Alluvial silt (colloidal) 0.25 3.75
Graded loam to cobbles 0.38 3.75
Graded silts to cobbles 0.43 4
Shales and hardpan 0.67 6
Class A turf (Table 4.1, HEC No. 15) 3.7 8
Class B turf (Table 4.1, HEC No. 15) 2.1 7
Vegetation Class C turf (Table 4.1, HEC No. 15) 1.0 3.5
Long native grasses 1.7 6
Short native and bunch grass 0.95 4
March 7, 2014
Table 865.2(2) (con’t.)

Permissible Shear and Velocity for Selected Lining Materials
Permissible
Permissible
Boundary Category Boundary Type Shear Stress
Velocity (ft/s)
(lb/ft2)
Rolled Erosion Control Products (RECPs)
Temporary Degradable Single net straw 1.65 3
Erosion Control Blankets Double net coconut/straw blend 1.75 6
(ECBs) Double net shredded wood 1.75 6
Jute 0.45 2.5
Coconut fiber 2.25 4
Open Weave Textile (OWT)
Vegetated coconut fiber 8 9.5
Straw with net 1.65 3
Unvegetated 3 7
Non Degradable Turf
Partially established 6.0 12
Reinforcement Mats (TRMs)
Fully vegetated 8.00 12
Rock Slope Protection, Cellular Confinement and Concrete
Small-Rock Slope Protection 0.8 6
(4-inch Thick Layer)
Small-Rock Slope Protection 2 8
Rock Slope Protection
(7-inch Thick Layer)
No. 2 2.5 10
Facing 5 12
Gabions Gabions 6.3 12
2
Cellular Confinement: 71 in cell and TRM 11.6 12
Vegetated infill
1.14 - in. D50 (45 in2 cell) 6.9 12
2
3.5” D50 (45 in cell) 15.1 11.5
2
Cellular Confinement: 1.14” D 50 (71 in cell) 13.2 12
2
Aggregate Infill 3.5” D50 (71 in cell) 18 11.7
2
1.14” D50 (187 in cell) 10.92 12
2
3.5” D50 (187 in cell) 10.55 12
2
Cellular Confinement: (71 in cell) 2 12
Concrete Infill
Hard Surfacing Concrete 12.5 12
NOTES:
(1) PI = Plasticity Index (From Materials or Geotechnical Design Report)
(2) Some materials listed in Table 856.2 have been laboratory tested at shear stresses/velocities above those
shown. For situations that exceed the values listed for roadside channels, contact the District Hydraulic
Engineer.
March 7, 2014
A simplified approach for estimating the erosion products, however, the specifications
permissible shear stress for cohesive soils (based on for constructing turf reinforcing mats (TRM’s),
Equation 4.6 in Chapter 4 of HEC No. 15) is open weave textiles and erosion control
illustrated in Figure 4.1 of Chapter 4 in HEC No. blankets may also be applied to channels as
15. The combined effects of the soil permissible temporary and transitional linings, and some
shear stress and the effective shear stress transferred TRM’s may be used as permanent linings.
through the vegetative lining results in a
(2) Non-Hydraulic Design Considerations. The
permissible shear stress for the given conditions.
long-term performance of TRMs has
Table 865.2 provides typical values of permissible
traditionally been evaluated using hydraulic
shear stress and permissible velocity for cohesive
testing performance within controlled flume
soils and selected lining types. Representative
environments, or laboratory testing of specific
values for different soil, vegetation and lining types
parameters, usually conforming to ASTM or
are based on the methods found in Chapter 4 of
other industry standards. In recent years
HEC No. 15 while those for gravel, rock gabions
additional important design factors have been
and rock slope protection are based on methods
identified, from damages due to insect
found in Chapters 6 and 7 of HEC No. 15. The
infestation to drainage problems or soil
permissive shear stress values shown for soil
conditions resulting in poor vegetative
confinement systems are based on testing by others,
establishment. Table 5.5 within Chapter 5 of
however, the maximum permissive velocity shown
HEC No. 15 provides a detailed TRM protocol
in Table 865.2 for all boundary types has been
checklist.
limited to 12 feet per second based on the following
assumptions: Six broad categories of stressors or potential
damages to RECPs are listed below that can
• The upper limit of flow rate is 50 cfs cause decrease in performance, considered as a
• The longitudinal slope is 10 percent maximum function of specific properties of these lining
materials.
• The maximum side slope is 2H:1V
(a) Environmental stress – tensile stresses that
• The maximum storm duration is one hour exceed the mechanical strength of the
When the permissible shear stress is greater than or material accelerated by other stresses in the
equal to the computed shear stress, the lining is exposure environment.
considered acceptable. If the computed velocity Many manufacturer-reported values for
exceeds the permissive velocity, or any of the maximum velocity or shear stress are based
above-listed assumptions are exceeded, contact the on short duration testing, however, longer
District Hydraulic Engineer for support. duration flows – hours to days – more
865.6 Rolled Erosion Control Products closely represent field conditions. Erosive
properties of soils change with saturation,
(1) General. Manufacturers have developed a vegetation becomes stressed or damaged,
variety of rolled erosion control products and properties of some lining materials
(RECPs) for erosion protection of channels. change with long periods of inundation or
RECPs consist of materials that are stitched or hydraulic stress. The result is that
bound into a fabric. Vegetative and RECP maximum reported shear stress and velocity
lining performance relates to how well they may overestimate actual field performance
protect the underlying soil from shear stresses of the full range of channel lining materials
so these linings do not have permissible shear in the event of longer duration flows (Table
stresses independent of soil types. Chapters 4 865.2). See Index 865.5 for safety factor
(vegetation) and 5 (RECPs) of HEC No. 15 discussion.
describe the methods for analyzing these (b) Mechanical damage – localized damage
linings. Standard Specification Section 21-1 due to externally applied loads such as
was developed primarily to address slope debris or machinery, often during
March 7, 2014
installation but also due to operation and vegetation recommendations (if required by the
maintenance activities designer).
(c) Oxidation – due to exposure to air and
water, a chemical reaction with a specific
Topic 866 - Hydraulic Design of
chemical group in a constituent polymer Roadside Channels
that leads to damage at a molecular level
and changes in physical properties. Other 866.1 General
chemical stresses can include acidity, Open channel hydraulic design is of particular
corrosives, salinity, ozone and other air importance to highway design because of the
pollutants. interrelationship of channels to most highway
(d) Photo degradation – change in chemical drainage facilities.
structure due to exposure to UV The hydraulic principles of open channel flow are
wavelengths of sunlight, most often based on steady state uniform flow conditions, as
occurring during installation, prior to full defined in Index 866.2. Though these conditions
vegetation establishment or inadequate are rarely achieved in the field, generally the
vegetation establishment and coverage over variation in channel properties is sufficiently small
time. that the use of uniform flow theory will yield
UV-Resistance per ASTM D-4355 should sufficiently accurate results for most roadside
conform to the following for the specified channels.
type of TRM and design life: 866.2 Flow Classifications
• Temporary or transitional TRM – 90% (1) Steady vs. Unsteady Flow. The flow in an open
tensile strength retained at 500 hr for channel can be classified as steady or unsteady.
the TRM product to be considered up to The flow is said to be steady if the depth of
a 5-year design life. flow at a section, for a given discharge, is
constant with respect to time. The flow is
• Long-term TRM – 90% tensile strength
considered unsteady if the depth of flow varies
retained at 5,000 hr for the TRM
with respect to time.
product to be considered up to a 50-
year design life. (2) Uniform Flow. Steady flow can further be
classified as uniform or nonuniform. The flow
(e) Temperature instability – changes in
is said to be uniform if the depth of flow and
appearance, weight, dimension or other
quantity of water are constant at every section
properties as a result of low, high, or cyclic
of the channel under consideration. Uniform
temperature exposure.
flow can be maintained only when the shape,
As TRM or other materials are degrading, the size, roughness and slope of the channel are
vegetative component of a project is constant. Under uniform flow conditions, the
simultaneously becoming established, depth and mean velocity of flow is said to be
presumably leading to an overlap in normal. Under these conditions the water
effectiveness of each component. The engineer surface and flowlines will be parallel to the
must carefully evaluate published performance stream bed and a hydrostatic pressure condition
data for specific materials with anticipated will exist, the pressure at a given section will
degradation, consider specific performance vary linearly with depth.
added by vegetative components, and apply a
As previously mentioned, uniform flow
factor of safety in choosing materials that may
conditions are rarely attained in the field, but
provide enough strength initially to bridge the
the error in assuming uniform flow in a channel
gap. Per Index 865.6(1), the District Landscape
of fairly constant slope, roughness and cross
Architect should be consulted to provide viable
section is relatively small when compared to the
long-term and compatible transitional
uncertainties of estimating the design discharge.
March 7, 2014
(3) Non-uniform Flow. There are two types of potential energy and (2) kinetic energy.
steady state non-uniform flow: Potential energy is due to the position of the
water surface above some datum. Kinetic
• Gradually varied flow.
energy is due to the energy of the moving
Gradually varied flow is described as a water. The total energy at a given section as
steady state flow condition where the depth expressed by the Bernoulli equation is equal to:
of water varies gradually over the length of
𝑉2
the channel. Under this condition, the 𝐻 =𝑧+𝑑+
streamlines of flow are practically parallel 2𝑔
and therefore, the assumption of hydrostatic where:
pressure distribution is valid and uniform
flow principles can be used to analyze the H = Total head, in feet of water
flow conditions. z = Distance above some datum, in feet
• Rapidly varied flow. d = Depth of flow, in feet
With the rapidly varied flow condition, 𝑉2
there is a pronounced curvature of the flow = Velocity head, in feet
2𝑔
streamlines and the assumption of
hydrostatic pressure distribution is no g = Acceleration of gravity
longer valid, even for the continuous flow = 32.2 feet per second squared
profile. A number of empirical procedures
have been developed to address the various (3) Energy Equation. The basic principle used
phenomena of rapidly varied flow. For most often in hydraulic analysis is conservation
additional discussion on the topic of rapidly of energy or the energy equation. For uniform
varied flow, refer to "Open-Channel flow conditions, the energy equation states that
Hydraulics" by Chow. the energy at one section of a channel is equal
to the energy at any downstream section plus
866.3 Open Channel Flow Equations the intervening energy losses. The energy
The equations of open channel flow are based on equation, expressed in terms of the Bernoulli
uniform flow conditions. Some of these equations equation, is:
have been derived using basic conservation laws 𝑉12 𝑉22
(e.g. conservation of energy) whereas others have 𝑧1 + 𝑑1 + = 𝑧2 + 𝑑2 + + ℎ𝐿
2𝑔 2𝑔
been derived using an empirical approach.
where:
(1) Continuity Equation. One of the fundamental
concepts which must be satisfied in all flow hL = Intervening head losses, in feet
problems is the continuity of flow. The (4) Manning's Equation. Several equations have
continuity equation states that the mass of fluid been empirically derived for computing the
per unit time passing every section in a stream average flow velocity within an open channel.
of fluid is constant. The continuity equation One such equation is the Manning Equation.
may be expressed as follows: Assuming uniform and turbulent flow
𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 =. . . = 𝐴𝑛 𝑉𝑛 conditions, the mean flow velocity in an open
channel can be computed as:
Where Q is the discharge, A is the cross-
sectional flow area, and V is the mean flow 1.486 2� 1�
𝑉= 𝑅 3𝑆 2
velocity. This equation is not valid for spatially 𝑛
varied flow, i.e., where flow is entering or where:
leaving along the length of channel under
consideration. V = Mean velocity, in feet per second
(2) Bernoulli Equation. Water flowing in an open n = Manning coefficient of roughness
channel possesses two kinds of energy: (1)
March 7, 2014
S = Channel slope, in foot per feet Table 866.3A

R = Hydraulic Radius, in feet
Average Values for Manning's
= A/WP
Roughness Coefficient (n)
where:
A = Cross sectional flow area, in Type of Channel n value
square feet Unlined Channels:
WP = Wetted perimeter, in feet Clay Loam 0.023
Commonly accepted values for Manning's Sand 0.020
roughness coefficient, n, based on materials and Gravel 0.030
workmanship required in the Standard Rock 0.040
Specifications, are provided in Table 866.3A.
Lined Channels:
The tabulated values take into account
deterioration of the channel lining surface, Portland Cement Concrete 0.014
distortion of the grade line due to unequal Air Blown Mortar (troweled) 0.012
settlement, construction joints and normal Air Blown Mortar 0.016
surface irregularities. These average values (untroweled)
should be modified to satisfy any foreseeable Air Blown Mortar 0.025
abnormal conditions. See Chapters 4 and 6 in (roughened)
HEC No. 15 for Manning’s roughness Asphalt Concrete 0.016-0.018
equations for grass linings, RSP, cobble and
Sacked Concrete 0.025
gravel linings. Refer to Index 861.11 for a
discussion of Manning’s roughness coefficients Pavement and Gutters:
for water quality channels. Portland Cement Concrete 0.013-0.015
Direct solutions for Manning's equation for Hot Mix Asphalt Concrete 0.016-0.018
many channels of trapezoidal, rectangular, Depressed Medians:
triangular and circular cross sections can be Earth (without growth)
found within the Channel Analysis 0.016 - 0.025
subcomponent FHWA's Hydraulic Toolbox Earth (with growth) 0.050
software program.
Gravel (d50 = 1 in. flow depth
(5) Conveyance Equation. Often it is convenient to < 6 in.) 0.040
group the properties peculiar to the cross Gravel (d50 = 2 in. flow depth
section into one term called the conveyance < 6 in.) 0.056
factor, K. The conveyance factor, as expressed
NOTES:
by the Manning's equation, is equal to:
For additional values of n, see HEC No. 15,
1.486 2� Tables 2.1 and 2.2, and "Introduction to
𝐾= 𝐴𝑅 3
𝑛 Highway Hydraulics", Hydraulic Design Series
For the non-pressure, full flow condition, the No. 4, FHWA Table 14.
geometric properties and conveyance of a
channel section can be computed. Then for a water with respect to the channel bottom. For a
given channel slope the discharge capacity can channel of small slope;
be easily determined. 𝑉2
𝐸=𝑑+
(6) Critical Flow. A useful concept in hydraulic 2𝑔
analysis is that of "specific energy". The where:
specific energy at a given section is defined as
the total energy, or total head, of the flowing E = Specific energy, in feet
March 7, 2014
d = Depth of flow, in feet on the opposite limb of the specific energy

curve. If the unstable flow region cannot be
𝑉2
= Velocity head, in feet avoided in design, the least favorable type of
2𝑔 flow should be assumed for the design.
When the depth of flow is plotted against the When the depth of flow is greater than critical
specific energy, for a given discharge and depth, the velocity of flow is less than critical
channel section, the resulting plot is called a velocity for a given discharge and hence, the
specific energy diagram (see Figure 866.3C). flow is subcritical. Conversely, when the depth
The curve shows that for a given specific of flow is less than critical depth, the flow is
energy there are two possible depths, a high supercritical.
stage and a low stage. These flow depths are
called alternate depths. Starting at the upper When velocities are supercritical, air
right of the curve with a large depth and small entrainment may occur. This produces a
velocity, the specific energy decreases with a bulking effect which increases the depth of
decrease in depth, reaching a minimum energy flow. For concrete lined channels, the normal
content at a depth of flow known as critical depth of flow with bulking can be computed by
depth. A further decrease in flow depth results using a Manning's "n" value of 0.018 instead of
in a rapid increase in specific energy. the 0.014 value given in Table 866.3A. Air
entrainment also causes a reduction in channel
Flow at critical depth is called critical flow. friction with a resulting increase in flow
The flow velocity at critical depth is called velocity. A Manning's "n" value of about 0.008
critical velocity. The channel slope which is recommended for computing the velocity and
produces critical depth and critical velocity for specific energy of flow in concrete-lined
a given discharge is the critical slope. channels carrying supercritical flow
Figure 866.3C Critical depth is an important hydraulic
Specific Energy Diagram parameter because it is always a hydraulic
control. Hydraulic controls are points along the
channel where the water level or depth of flow
is limited to a predetermined level or can be
computed directly from the quantity of flow.
Flow must pass through critical depth in going
from subcritical flow to supercritical flow.
Typical locations of critical depth are at:
(a) Abrupt changes in channel slope when a
flat (subcritical) slope is sharply increased
to a steep (supercritical) slope,
(b) A channel constriction such as a culvert
entrance under some conditions,
(c) The unsubmerged outlet of a culvert on
subcritical slope, discharging into a wide
Uniform flow within approximately 10 percent channel or with a free fall at the outlet, and
of critical depth is unstable and should be (d) The crest of an overflow dam or weir.
avoided in design, if possible. The reason for
Critical depth for a given channel is dependent
this can be seen by referring to the specific
on the channel geometry and discharge only,
energy diagram. As the flow approaches
and is independent of channel slope and
critical depth from either limb of the curve, a
roughness.
very small change in energy is required for the
depth to abruptly change to the alternate depth
March 7, 2014
When flow occurs at critical depth the analysis may be sufficient to adequately describe
following relationship must be satisfied the channel stage discharge relationship. The basic
assumptions to a single section analysis are uniform
𝐴3 𝑄 2
= cross section, slope, and Manning's "n" values
𝑇 𝑔 which are generally applicable to most roadside and
where: median channels. The condition of uniform flow in
a channel at a known discharge is computed using
A = Cross sectional area, ft2 the Manning's equation combined with the
T = Top width of water surface, ft continuity equation:
Q = Discharge, CFS 1.49 2� 1�
𝑄= 𝐴𝑅 3 𝑆 2
𝑛
g = Acceleration of gravity, 32.2 ft/s2
The depth of uniform flow is solved by rearranging
Critical depth formulas, based on the above Manning's Equation to the form the given below.
equation, for various channel cross-sections This equation is solved by trial and error by varying
include: the depth of flow until the left side of the equation
• Rectangular sections, is zero:
1� 𝑄𝑛 2�
𝑞2 3
1 − 𝐴𝑅 3 =0
𝑑𝑐 = � � 1.49𝑆 �2
𝑔
Per Index 866.3 (4), direct solutions for Manning's
Where: equation for many channels of trapezoidal,
rectangular, triangular and circular cross sections
q = Flow per unit width, CFS
can be found within the Channel Analysis
• Trapezoidal sections. The tables in King's subcomponent FHWA's Hydraulic Toolbox
"Handbook of Hydraulics" provide easy software program.
solutions for critical depth for channels of
Where uniform flow conditions do not adequately
varying side slopes and bottom widths.
describe the actual flow conditions (e.g., natural
• Circular sections. The tables in King's channels) or where additional accuracy is desired,
"Handbook of Hydraulics" can be used for the computation of complete water surface profiles
obtaining easy solutions for critical depth. for each discharge value may be necessary using
detailed backwater analysis methods. Per Index
(7) Froude Number. The Froude number is a
802.1(4)(g) contact the District Hydraulic Engineer
useful parameter which uniquely describes open for support.
flow. The Froude number is a dimensionless
value: Topic 867 - Channel Changes
𝑉
𝐹𝑟 = 1� 867.1 General
(𝑔𝐷) 2
Chapter 860 primarily addresses the design of small
Where: man-made open channels called roadside channels
D = A/T = Hydraulic depth, in feet (gutters, ditches, swales etc.) that are constructed as
part of a highway drainage system. However, both
Fr < 1.0 ==> Subcritical flow the terms ‘open channel’ or ‘channel’ may be
Fr = 1.0 ==> Critical flow applied to any natural or improved watercourse as
well as roadside channels. See Index 861.1.
Fr > 1.0 ==> Supercritical flow
A channel change is any realignment or change in
866.4 Water Surface Profiles the hydraulic characteristics of an existing channel.
Depending on the site conditions, accuracy Per Index 802.1(4)(g), contact the District
required, and risks involved, a single section Hydraulic Engineer for support.
March 7, 2014
The main reasons for channel changes to either • A flattened downstream gradient which
natural or improved watercourses (flood control progresses upstream undercutting the channel
channels, irrigation channels etc.) within the right banks or highway fill
of way are to:
• Flattened downstream gradient or channel
• Permit better drainage restrictions may create undesirable backwater
conditions.
• Improve flow conditions
A channel change perched above the bottom of an
• Protect the highway from flood damage
old flood stage stream bed may cause the stream to
• Reduce right of way requirements return to its old channel during a subsequent flood.
In addition, the designer should consult with
The guidelines in Topic 823 (Culvert Location)
Geotechnical Services to ensure that infiltration
generally recommend alignment of the thalweg of
through the bank would not be problematic.
the stream with the centerline of the culvert,
however, for economic reasons, small skews should Topic 868 - Freeboard
be eliminated, moderate skews retained and large
skews reduced. Road crossings requiring fish Considerations
passage are strongly encouraged to retain the
868.1 General
natural alignment of the stream, regardless of the
skew. Alignment of the culvert centerline with the Freeboard is the extra height of bank above the
channel approach angle aids debris passage during design depth where overflow is predicted to cause
storm flows and minimizes hydraulic turbulence damage. Freeboard allowances will vary with each
which may impede fish passage. situation.
Sometimes a channel change may be to its vertical 866.2 Height of Freeboard
alignment. For example, inverted siphons or sag
(1) Straight Alignment. In channels where
culverts may be used to carry irrigation channels
overflow may cause substantial damage, a
crossing the right of way via vertical realignment
guide for freeboard height for channels on a
entirely below the hydraulic grade line. However,
straight alignment, is provided in Table 868.2
maintenance concerns include sediment build-up
and potential leakage problems with full-flow
barrel(s). See Index 829.7(2) and Index 867.2
Table 868.2
below.
Guide to Freeboard Height
867.2 Design Considerations
Shape of Subcritical Supercritical
Channel changes should be designed with extreme
Channel Flow Flow
caution and coordinated with District Hydraulics.
Careful study of the channel characteristics Rectangular 0.1 He 0.20 d
upstream and downstream as well as within the Trapezoidal 0.2 He 0.25 d
channel change area is required to achieve a safe
and effective design. where:
Channel changes may result in a decreased surface He = Energy head, in feet
roughness or increased channel slope. As a result
the following may occur: d = Depth of flow, in feet for a straight
alignment
• Higher velocities which result in damage due to
scour (2) Critical Flow. An unstable zone of flow occurs
where the flow is near critical state. This is
• Sedimentation and meandering at downstream characterized by random waves. An allowance
end of channel change for waves should be added to the normal depth
when the slope of the channel is between 0.7 Sc
and 1.3 Sc.
March 7, 2014
2
𝑆
𝐻𝑤 = 0.25𝑑𝑐 �1 − 11.1 � − 1� �
𝑆𝑐
where:
Hw = height of wave, in feet
dc = critical depth, in feet
S = slope of channel, in foot per feet
Sc = critical slope, in foot per feet
(3) Superelevation. The height of freeboard
discussed above does not provide for
superelevation of the water surface on curved
alignments.
Flow around a curve will result in a rise of the
water surface on the outside of the curve and
extra lining is necessary to guard against
overtopping.
Additional freeboard is necessary in bends and
can be calculated use the following equation:
𝑉 2𝑇
∆𝑑 =
𝑔𝑅𝑐
where:
Δd = Additional freeboard required because of
superelevation, feet
V = Average channel veloctiy, ft/s
T = Water surface top width, ft
G = Acceleration due to gravity, ft/s2
Rc = Radius of curvature of the bend to the
channel centerline, ft
See HEC No. 15, Chapter 3, for shear stress
considerations around bends.
July 15, 2016
designer may also require input from fluvial

CHAPTER 870 geomorphologists (or engineers with geomorphology
BANK PROTECTION - EROSION training), geologists and biologists. The District
Hydraulic Engineer will typically be able to assist
CONTROL with flood analysis, water surface elevations/profiles,
shear stress computations, scour analysis, and
Topic 871 - General hydraulic analysis for placement of in-stream
structures. A geomorphologist can provide input
Index 871.1 - Introduction regarding characterization of channel form and
Highways, bikeways, pedestrian facilities and dominant geomorphic processes and hydraulic
appurtenant installations are often attracted to geometry relationships such as an analysis of lateral
parallel locations along man-made channels, streams, and longitudinal channel adjustment. The
and rivers. These locations may be effected from the geomorphologist can also make an identification of
action of flowing water, and may require protective the processes responsible for forming and
measures. maintaining key habitats and assist in making an
assessment of the long-term project effects.
Bank protection can be a major element in the design,
construction, and maintenance of highways. This There are a number of ways to deal with the problem
section deals with procedures, methods, devices, and of bank erosion as follows:
materials commonly used to mitigate the damaging
• Although not always feasible or economical, the
effects of flowing water on transportation facilities
simplest way and generally the surest of success
and adjacent properties. Potential sites for such
and permanence, is to locate the facility away
measures should be reviewed in conjunction with
from the erosive forces. Locating the facility to
other features of the project such as long and short
higher ground or solid support should be
term protection of downstream water quality,
considered, even when it requires excavation of
aesthetic compatibility with surrounding
solid rock, since excavated rock may serve as a
environment, and ability of the newly created
valuable material for bank protection.
ecological system to survive with minimal
maintenance. See Index 110.2 for further • The most commonly used method of bank
information on water quality and environmental protection is with a more resistant material like
concerns related to erosion control. See Chapter 880 rock slope protection. Other protection methods
for shore protection along coastal zones and lake (e.g., training systems) are discussed in Index
shores that are subjected to wave attack. 873.4 and summarized in Table 872.1.
Refer to Index 806.2 for definitions of drainage • A third method is to reduce the force of the
terms. attacking water. This is often done by various
plantings such as willows. Plantings once
871.2 Design Philosophy
established not only reduce stream velocity near
In each district there should be a designer or advisor, the bank during heavy flows, but their roots add
usually the District Hydraulic Engineer, structure to the bank material.
knowledgeable in the application of bank protection
principles and the performance of existing works. • Another method is to re-direct flows away from
Information is also available from headquarters the embankment. In the case of stream attack, a
specialists in the Division of Design and Structures new channel can be created or the stream can be
Design in the Division of Engineering Services diverted away from the embankment by the use
(DES). The most effective designs result from of baffles, deflectors, or spurs.
involvement with Design, Environmental, Landscape Combinations of the above four methods may be
Architecture, Structures, Construction, and used. Even protective works destroyed in floods
Maintenance (for further discussion on functional have proven to be effective and cost efficient in
responsibilities see Topic 802). For channel and minimizing damage to transportation facilities.
habitat characterization and assessment relative to
design and obtaining project specific permits, the
July 15, 2016
Design of protective features should be governed by increasing the mass of stones. See Index
the importance of the facility and appropriate design 873.3(3)(a)(2)(b) for equation to estimate rock
principles. Some of the factors which should be size.
considered are:
• Selection. Selection of class and type of
• Roughness. Revetments generally are less protection should be guided by the intended
resistant to flow than the natural channel bank. function of the installation.
Channel roughness can be significantly reduced
• Limits. Horizontal and vertical limits of
if a rocky vegetated bank is denuded of trees and
protection should be carefully designed. The
rock outcrops. When a rough natural bank is
bottom limit should be secure against toe scour.
replaced by a smooth revetment, the current is
The top limit should not arbitrarily be at high-
accelerated, increasing its power to erode,
water mark, but above it if overtopping would
especially along the toe and downstream end of
cause excessive damage and below it if floods
the revetment. Except in narrowed channels,
move slowly along the upper bank. The end
protective elements should approximate natural
limits should reach and conform to durable
roughness and simulate the effect of trees and
natural features or be secure with respect to
boulders along natural banks and in overflow
design parameters.
channels.
• Undercutting. Particular attention must be paid
871.3 Selected References
to protecting the toe of revetments against Hydraulic and drainage related publications are listed
undercutting caused by the accelerated current by source under Topic 807. References specifically
along smoothed banks, since this is the most related to slope protection measures are listed here
common cause of bank failure. for convenience.
• Standardization. Standardization should be a (a) FHWA Hydraulic Engineering Circulars (HEC)
guide but not a restriction in designing the -- The following seven circulars were developed
elements and connections of protective to assist the designer in using various types of
structures. slope protection and channel linings:
• Expendability. The primary objective of the • HEC 14, Hydraulic Design of Energy
design is the security of the transportation Dissipators for Culverts and Channels
facility, not security of the protective structure. (2006)
Less costly replaceable protection may be more
• HEC 15, Design of Roadside Channels with
economical than expensive permanent structures.
Flexible Linings (2005).
• Dependability. An expensive structure is
• HEC 18, Evaluating Scour at Bridges (2012)
warranted primarily where transportation
facilities carry high traffic volumes, where no • HEC 20, Stream Stability at Highway
reasonable detour is available, or where facility Structures (2012)
replacement is very expensive.
• HEC 23, Bridge Scour and Stream Instability
• Longevity. Short-lived structures or materials Countermeasures (2009)
may be economical for temporary situations.
Expensive revetments should not be placed on • HEC 25, Highways in the Coastal
banks likely to be buried in widened Environment (2008 with 2014 supplement)
embankments, nor on banks attacked by transient • HEC 26, Culvert Design for Aquatic
meander of mature streams. Organism Passage (2010)
• Rock Materials. Optimum use should be made (b) FHWA Hydraulic Design Series (HDS) No. 6,
of local materials, considering the cost of special River Engineering for Highway Encroachments
handling. Specific gravity of stone is a major (2001) -- A comprehensive treatise of natural and
factor in bank protection and the specified man-made impacts and responses on the river
minimum should not be lowered without
July 15, 2016
environment, sediment transport, bed and bank 30-meter grid intervals, where ”x” and “y” represent
stabilization, and countermeasures. horizontal position coordinates of a topographic
point and “z” is its elevation. These data files and the
(c) AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines --
USGS 7.5-minute quadrangle image files can be
General guidelines for good erosion control
imported into software programs, including the
practices are covered in Volume III - Erosion and
Watershed Modeling System (WMS), AutoCAD
Sediment Control in Highway Construction
Civil 3D, and ArcGIS.
(d) AASHTO Drainage Manual (2014) – Refer to
Nearby bridges that are located along the same
Chapters; 11 – Energy Dissipators; 16 – Erosion
stream reach should be reviewed for site history and
and Sediment Control; 17 – Bank Protection.
changes in stream cross-section. All bridge files are
The manual provides guidance on engineering
located in the Division of Maintenance, Office of
practice in conformance with FHWA’s HEC and
Structures Maintenance.
HDS publications and other nationally
recognized engineering policy and procedural District biologist staff should be consulted early on
documents. during the project planning phase for subject matter
expertise regarding fisheries, habitat, and wildlife
(e) U.S. Army Corps of Engineers EM 1110-2-1601
and to perform an initial stream habitat assessment.
Hydraulic Design of Flood Control Channels
Manual. Contact information for Department biologists can be
accessed through the CalBioRoster.
(f) California Department of Fish and Wildlife
California Salmonid Stream Habitat Restoration For channel and habitat characterization and
Manual. preliminary assessment relative to design and
acquisition of project specific permits, the initial site
Topic 872 - Planning and Location investigation team should include the project
Studies engineer, the district hydraulic engineer, and a
biologist. Depending on the complexity of the
872.1 Planning project, it may be necessary to include Caltrans staff
that are trained to perform a geomorphic assessment
The development of sustainable, cost effective and
and/or a geologist during the site investigation.
environmentally friendly protective works requires
careful planning and a good understanding of both The selection of the type of protection can be
the site location and habitat within the stream reach determined during or following the site investigation.
and overall watershed. Planning begins with an For some sites the choice is obvious; at other sites
office review followed by a site investigation. several alternatives or combinations may be
applicable. See the FHWA’s HDS No. 6, River
Google Earth can be a useful tool for determining site
Engineering for Highway Encroachments for a
location, changes to stream planform (pattern), bend
complete and thorough discussion of hydraulic and
radius to channel width ratio (to estimate rock size
environmental design considerations associated with
per Index 873.3(3)(a)(2)(b), and location within the
hydraulic structures in moveable boundary
overall watershed. USGS StreamStats will facilitate
waterways.
simple watershed delineation and provide basin
characteristics such as area, cover and percentage of Some specific site conditions that may dictate
impervious cover, average elevation, stream slope, selection of a type of protection different from those
mean annual precipitation, and peak flow from shown in Table 872.1 are:
regression equations. When more detailed watershed
• Available right of way.
delineation is required, United States Geological
Survey (USGS) 7.5-minute quadrangle maps are • Available materials.
used to trace the tributary area and sub-basins. The
• Possible damage to other properties through
USGS maps are found in graphic image form, such
streamflow diversion or increased velocity.
as TIFF and JPEG, and are also found in the form of
a Digital Elevation Model (DEM). A DEM contains • Environmental concerns.
x-y-z topographic data points usually at 10 or
July 15, 2016
• Channel capacity or conveyance. The second step is the selection and layout of
protective elements in relation to the highway
• Conformance to new or existing structures. facility.
• Provisions for side drainage, either surface 872.2 Class and Type of Protection
waters or intersecting streams or rivers.
Protective devices are classified according to their
The first step is to determine the limits of the function. They are further categorized as to the type
protection with respect to length, depth and the of material from which they are constructed or shape
degree of security required. For more detailed stream of the device. For additional information on specific
reconnaissance considerations, see HEC 20, Index material types and shapes see Topic 873, Design
4.2.1 (Appendix C and D) and the FHWA’s HDS No. Concepts.
6, River Engineering for Highway Encroachments
(Table 8.1). There are two basic classes of protection, armor
treatment and training works. Table 872.1 relates
Considerations at this stage are: different location environments to these classes of
• The severity of stream attack. protection.
• The present alignment of the stream or river and 872.3 Geomorphology and Site
potential meander changes. Consideration
• The ratio of cost of highway replacement versus The determination of the lengths, heights, alignment,
cost of protection. and positioning of the protection are affected to a
large extent by the facility location environment.
• Whether the protection should be permanent or
temporary. An evaluation is required for any proposed highway
construction or improvement that encroaches on a
• Analysis of foundation and materials floodplain. See Topic 804, Floodplain
explorations. Encroachments for detailed procedures and
• Access for construction. guidelines.
• Bank slope (H:V). (1) Geomorphology. An understanding of stream
morphology is important for identifying both
• Bed and bank material gradations. stream instability and associated habitat
• Stream stability (lateral and vertical). Caltrans problems at highway-stream locations. A study
Hydromodification Requirements Guidance of the plan and profile of a stream is very useful
Storm Water Best Management Practices Rapid in understanding stream morphology. Plan view
Assessment of Stream Crossings Higher Level appearances of streams are varied and result from
Stream Stability Analysis presents 13 channel many interacting variables. Small changes in a
characteristics that are indicators of present variable can change the plan view and profile of
stream stability. See Index 4.1. a stream, adversely affecting a highway crossing
or encroachment. This is particularly true for
• Local stream profile. alluvial streams. Conversely, a highway crossing
• Vegetation type and location. or encroachment can inadvertently change
multiple variables such as Manning’s “n-value”,
• Physical habitat (temperature, shade, pools, channel width, and average velocity, which may
riffles, sediment supply). adversely affect the stream.
• Toe scour/bank failure mode (see Table 872.2). Chapter 2 in HEC 20 presents an overview of
general landform and channel evolutionary
• Thalweg location.
processes to illustrate the dynamics of alluvial
• Hardpoint location(s). channel systems. It discusses lateral stability,
factors effecting bed elevation changes, and the
• Total length of protection needed.
July 15, 2016
Table 872.1
Guide to Selection of Protection
Armor Training
Flexible Rigid Bendway Weirs Check
Guide Banks
Mattresses and Spurs Dams
Drop Structure
Location
Grouted Rock
Grouted Rock
Conc. Lined
Conc. Rock
Bulk Heads
Vegetation
Gabions
Rip Rap
Conc. F
Piling
Piling
Piling
Other
Other
Cribs
Earth
Rock
Rock
Rock
Rock
Cross Channel
Young Valley X X X X X
Mature Valley X X X X X X X X X X X X
Parallel Encroachment
Young Valley X X X X X
Mature Valley X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Desert-wash
Top debris cone X X X X X
Center debris cone X X X X X
Bottom debris cone X X X X X
Overflow and X X X X X X
Floodplain
Artificial Channel or X X X X X X
Roadside Ditch X X
(Ch. 860)
Culvert
Inlet X X X
Outlet X X X
Bridge
Abutment X X X
Upstream X X X X X X
Downstream X X X X X X X X X
July 15, 2016
sediment continuity principle to provide an systems, such as bank erosion, sediment

introduction to alluvial channel response to transport, and bed material sorting.
natural and human-induced change.
This section is intended to give the engineer
River morphology and river response is background, perspective, and respect of stream
discussed in detail in Chapter 5 of FHWA’s HDS processes and their dynamics when designing
No. 6, River Engineering for Highway and constructing bank protection for natural
Encroachments. streams and to lay the groundwork for
application of the concepts of open-channel flow,
(2) Stream Processes. Prior to the current interest in
fluvial geomorphology, sediment transport, and
ecology, water quality, and the environment, few
river mechanics to the design, maintenance, and
engineers involved with highway crossings and
environmental challenges associated with
encroachments considered the short-term and
highway crossings and encroachments.
long-term changes that were possible or the
Encroachment is any occupancy of the river and
many problems that humans can cause to
floodplain for highway use. Encroachments
streams. It is imperative that anyone working
usually present no issues during normal stages,
with rivers, either on localized areas or entire
but require special protection against floods.
systems, have an understanding of the many
Classifying the regions requiring protection, the
factors involved, and of the potential for change
possible types of protection, the possible flow
within the river system. Highway construction
conditions, the possible channel shapes, and the
can have significant general and local affects on
various geometric conditions aids the engineer in
the geomorphology and hydraulics of river
selecting the design criteria for the conditions
systems. Hence, it is necessary to consider
encountered.
induced short-term and long-term effects of
erosion and sedimentation on the surrounding (a) Types of Encroachment. In the vicinity of
landscape and the river. The biological response rivers, highways generally impose a degree
of the river system should also be considered and of encroachment. In some instances,
evaluated. Certain species of fish can only particularly in mountainous regions or in
tolerate large quantities of suspended sediment river gorges and canyons, river crossings can
for relatively short periods of time. This is be accomplished with absolutely no
particularly true of the eggs and fry. It is useful encroachment on the river. The bridge and
for the project engineer to understand what is its approaches are located far above and
important for regulators. Some of the most beyond any possible flood stage. More
common topics include: commonly, the economics of crossings
require substantial encroachment on the river
• Site geomorphology and steam stability
and its floodplain, the cost of a single span
• Stressors to historic aquatic organism habitat over the entire floodplain tends to be
prohibitive. The encroachment can be in the
• Locations of hydraulic constrictions form of earth fill bridge approach
Only with such knowledge can the project embankments on the floodplain or into the
engineer develop the necessary arguments to main channel itself, reducing the required
make the case that erosion control measures must bridge length; or in the form of piers and
be designed to avoid significant deterioration of abutments or culverts in the main channel of
the stream environment not only in the the river. Longitudinal encroachments may
immediate vicinity of the highway encroachment exist that are not connected with river
or crossing, but in many instances for great crossings. Floodplains often appear to
distances downstream. provide an attractive low cost alternative for
highway location, even when the extra cost
Fluvial geomorphology is the science dealing of flood protection is included. As a
with the shape of stream channels and includes
consequence, highways, including
the study of physical processes within river interchanges, often encroach on a floodplain
over long distances. In some regions, such
July 15, 2016
as mountainous regions, river valleys (or of hydraulic forces exerted on the bed and
canyons) provide the only feasible route for banks. These changes may be gradual or
highways. This is true in areas where a rapid and may be the result of natural causes
floodplain does not exist. In many locations or human activities. At any location in a
the highway encroaches on the main channel stream, the cross-sectional shape is
itself and the channel is partly filled to allow dependent upon the volume flow-rate (flow),
room for the roadway. See Figure 872.4. In the composition of sediment transported
some instances, this encroachment becomes through a section, and the integrity or
severe, particularly as older highways are gradation of the bed and bank materials. As
upgraded and widened. water flows through the stream channel, it
exerts a fluid shear stress on the bed and
(b) Effects of River Development Works. These
banks. For a constant and stable cross-
works may include water diversions to and
sectional shape for a given flow at a specific
from the river system, dams, cutoffs (channel
location, the resisting bed and bank material
straightening), levees, navigation works, and
shear stress must be equal to the fluid stress
the mining of sand and gravel. It is essential
at every point in the stream cross section
to consider the probable long-term plans of
perimeter. In this state, a stream is in the
all agencies and groups as they pertain to a
threshold condition where each point along
river when dealing with the river in any way.
the perimeter is at the threshold of movement
For example, dams serve as traps for the
or incipient motion. This condition also
sediment normally flowing through the river
indicates a dynamic equilibrium with scour
system. With sediment trapped in the
and deposition of sediment being equal. As
reservoir, essentially clear water is released
flow, velocity, and fluid shear stress
downstream of the dam site. This clear water
increase, the amount of scour and sediment
has the capacity to transport more sediment
deposition will change, which will also
than may be immediately available.
change the stream cross section for a given
Consequently the channel begins to supply
bed/bank gradation.
this deficit with resulting degradation of the
bed or banks. The degraded or widened main Alluvial streams are commonly trapezoidal
channel causes steeper gradients on tributary in cross section through their straight reaches
streams in the vicinity of the main channel. and become asymmetric through their bends.
The result is degradation in the tributary When streams incise in response to possible
streams. It is entirely possible, however, that instability, their depth increases and the
the additional sediments supplied by the stream takes on a more rectangular cross-
tributary streams would ultimately offset the sectional shape. Also, streams with very
degradation in the main channel. Thus, it large flows may become rectangular as the
must be recognized that downstream of bed width increases to convey the large
storage structures the channel may either flows, especially if bedrock outcroppings are
aggrade or degrade (most common) and the present on the banks preventing them from
tributaries will be affected in either case. flattening.
(c) Alluvial Streams. Most streams that (d) Non-Alluvial Streams. Some streams are not
highways cross or encroach upon are alluvial. The bed and bank material is very
alluvial; that is, the streams are formed in coarse, and except at extreme flood events,
materials that have been and can be do not erode. These streams are classified as
transported by the stream. In alluvial stream sediment supply deficient, i.e., the transport
systems, it is the rule rather than the capacity of the streamflow is greater than the
exception that banks will erode; sediments availability of bed material for transport.
will be deposited; and floodplains, islands, The bed and bank material of these streams
and side channels will undergo modification may consist of cobbles, boulders, or bedrock.
with time. Alluvial channels continually In general these streams are stable, but
change position and shape as a consequence should be carefully analyzed for stability at
July 15, 2016
large flows. A study of the plan and profile under control. The points that should be
of a stream is useful in understanding stream stressed are that a river through time is
morphology. Plan view appearances of dynamic and that human-induced change
streams are varied and result from many frequently sets in motion a response that can
interacting variables. Small changes in a be propagated upstream or downstream for
variable can change the plan view and profile long distances.
of a stream, adversely affecting a highway
In spite of their complexity, all rivers are
crossing or encroachment. This is
governed by the same basic forces. The
particularly true for alluvial streams.
design engineer must understand, and work
Conversely, a highway crossing or
with these natural forces:
encroachment can inadvertently change a
variable, adversely affecting the stream. • Geological factors, including soil and
seismic conditions.
(e) Dynamics of Natural Streams. Long-term
climatic and tectonic fluctuations have • Hydrologic factors, including possible
caused major changes of river morphology, changes in flows, runoff, and the
but rivers can display a remarkable hydrologic effects of changes in land
propensity for change of position and use.
morphology in time periods of a century. For
shorter time periods river channels will shift • Geometric characteristics of the stream,
through erosion and deposition at bends and including the probable geometric
may form chutes, islands or oxbow lakes. alterations that will be activated by the
Lateral migration, erosion and deposition changes a project and future projects will
rates are not linear; i.e., a river may maintain impose on the channel.
a stable position for several years and then • Hydraulic characteristics such as depths,
experience rapid movement. At low flow the slopes, and velocity of streams and what
bed of a sand bed stream can be dunes, but at changes may be expected in these
large flows the bed may become plane or characteristics in space and time.
have antidune flow. With dunes, resistance
to flow is large and bed material transport is • Sea level rise may also cause river
low. Whereas, with plane bed or antidune instability, particularly when the 75-year
flow the resistance to flow is small and the design life of a bridge is considered.
bed material transport is large. Much, (f) Basic Stream Pattern. The three basic stream
therefore, depends on flood events, bank patterns are straight, braided, and
stability, permanence of vegetation on banks meandering as seen in aerial or plan view.
and the floodplain and watershed land use. Pattern is one way of classifying a stream and
In summary, archaeological, botanical, generalizing its behavior, another is
geological, and geomorphic evidence sediment load. See Figure 872.1.
supports the conclusion that most rivers are Commonly, stream patterns are identified by
subject to constant change as a normal part sinuosity, which is defined as channel length
of their morphologic evolution. Therefore, divided by valley (floodplain) length. For
stable or static channels are the exception in straight and braided streams, sinuosity varies
nature. between 1.0 and 1.5, while meandering
If an engineer modifies a river channel streams have sinuosity greater than 1.5.
locally, this local change may cause These different patterns and their associated
unintended modification of channel gradients contribute to changes and
characteristics both up and down the stream. adjustments in streams, and specifically
The response of a river to human-induced influence flow resistance that effects
changes often occurs in spite of attempts by sediment transport and formation of cross-
engineers to keep the anticipated response sectional shape. Engineers using any stream
July 15, 2016
Figure 872.1
Stream Classification
July 15, 2016
classifications should be aware that they are (h) Braided Streams. Similar to straight streams,
artificial constructs, and no strict science streams with braided pattern have low
laws or principles of classification (such as sinuosity, but have the highest gradient of
used in biology) are possible. Although we any of the stream patterns. Braided streams
may assign channel reaches to discrete have many sub-channels within the main
categories based on arbitrary thresholds of stream channel that interweave and
slope, sinuosity, bed material size, sediment crisscross. The sub-channels are separated
load, width-depth ratio, etc., these quantities by islands or bars which are visible during
vary continuously, and channels tend to low flows and normally submerged under
behave in rather individualistic fashion. high flows. Because braided streams have
Different types of streams occur within a steep slopes, they possess the higher energy
given subregion. Index 3.9 of Caltrans necessary to erode and transport sediment
Hydromodification Requirements Guidance that comprises the bars and islands. Even
presents the various stream forms within though braided streams have high energy,
each of the physiographic subregions of these streams will deposit their coarser and
California available at the following website: larger material that cannot be physically
transported by the stream’s average velocity
http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/oppd/stormwtr/gu
and shear stress. In other words, the process
idance/CT-Hydromodification-
of braiding occurs during flood events as a
Requirements-Guidance.pdf
stream adjusts in response to the larger
(g) Straight Streams. Straight river channels can sediment and debris loads that cannot be
be of two types. The first forms on a low- sustained while trying to find dynamic
gradient valley slope, has a low width-depth equilibrium. This deposition of larger
ratio channel, and is relatively stable. The material creates the bars and islands. See
first type of straight channel may contain Figure 872.2. As flow and velocity fluctuate
alternate islands or bars that result in a during a flood event, it is common to see
sinuous thalweg (flow path connecting movement and re-creation of bars, islands,
deepest points in successive cross sections) and sub-channels.
within the straight channel. It may seem that
the first type of straight stream is very stable Figure 872.2
because of low slope and energy, but Diagram of a Braided River
alternating sediment deposits can cause
lateral instability. In general, it is more
Channel
natural for a stream to meander than to have
a straight stream pattern, therefore it is
difficult to find low-gradient straight streams
in the field, especially long reaches.
The second type is a steep gradient, high
width-depth ratio, high energy river that has
many islands or bars, and at low flow is
braided. It is relatively active. (i) Meandering Streams. Meandering is the
most common stream pattern, having a series
In general, the designer should not attempt to of alternating curves or bends, and is
develop straight channels fully protected associated with flatter valleys. Meandering
with riprap. In a straight channel the stream types have the highest sinuosity
alternate islands or bars and the thalweg are because of their longer stream length, due to
continually changing; thus, the current is not several alternating curves, with respect to
uniformly distributed through the cross- valley length, see Figure 872.6. One way
section but is deflected toward one bank and that streams seek dynamic equilibrium is to
then the other. dissipate energy through erosion of their
banks, creating meandering patterns. When
July 15, 2016
meanders are created, overall stream length because the bed material is transported at the
is increased, and energy is released through capacity of the stream and is functionally
the work necessary to scour its banks, which related to measurable hydraulic variables.
brings a stream closer to dynamic The washload is not transported at the
equilibrium. Streambank revetments are capacity of the stream. Instead, the washload
often constructed through these meanders to depends on availability and is not
prevent excessive erosion that may cause functionally related to measurable hydraulic
instability of nearby or adjacent variables.
transportation facilities.
The division size between washload and bed
Once curves have been created in a stream’s sediment load is sediment size finer than the
alignment, velocity increases as the flow of smallest 10 percent of the bed material. It is
water moves through the outside bank of a important to note that in a fast flowing
bend caused by secondary circulation mountain stream with a bed of cobbles the
currents. Given the geometry of a curve, washload may consist of coarse sand sizes.
velocity is resolved into three components For these conditions, the transport of sand
described in the longitudinal, width-wise, sizes is supply limited. In contrast, if the bed
and vertical directions, contrary to straight of a channel is silt, the rate of bed load
reaches of stream. transport of the silt sizes is less a question of
supply than of capacity.
As flow moves through a curve, the
circulation currents and their turbulence are When a river reaches equilibrium, its
influenced by radius of curvature, stream transport capacities for water and sediment
bottom width, flow depth, curve deflection are in balance with the rates supplied. In
angle, and Reynolds Number. As often fact, most rivers are subject to some kind of
occurs, turbulence is magnified by counter- control or disturbance, natural or human-
circulating currents from an upstream bend induced that gives rise to non-equilibrium
merging with circulating currents of an conditions. HDS No. 6, Index 4.3.2, states
immediate downstream bend. The increased total sediment load can be expressed by three
turbulence usually increases the amount of equations:
scour at the outside bend, and the transported
1. By type of movement
material is deposited on the inside bend at the
downstream reversing curve creating a point 𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇 = 𝐿𝐿𝑏𝑏 + 𝐿𝐿𝑠𝑠
island or bar.
2. By method of measurement
Another characteristic of flow through a
𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇 = 𝐿𝐿𝑚𝑚 + 𝐿𝐿𝑢𝑢
curve is that the top of the water surface will
superelevate along the outside bank of a 3. By source of sediment
curve as it is pulled by centrifugal forces
𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇 = 𝐿𝐿𝑤𝑤 + 𝐿𝐿𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
while the bottom water surface at the bed is
being pulled toward the inside of a bend. Where:
These two actions will cause skewing of the LT = Total load;
circulating current contributing to increased
erosion around a bend. Lb = Bed load which is defined as the
transport of sediment particles that
(j) Sediment Transport. For engineering are close to or maintain contact
purposes, the two sources of sediment with the bed;
transported by a stream are: (1) bed material
that makes up the stream bed; and (2) fine Ls = Suspended load defined as the
material that comes from the banks and the suspended sediment passing
watershed (washload). Geologically both through a stream cross-section
materials come from the watershed, but for above the bed layer;
the engineer, the distinction is important
July 15, 2016
Lm = Measured sediment; stress acting on the particle as water flows

over them. The fluid stress can be expressed
Lu = Unmeasured sediment that is the
as an average boundary shear stress acting on
sum of bed load and a fraction of
a stream bed considering steady, uniform
suspended load below the lowest
flow:
sampling elevation;
𝜎𝜎0 = 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑆𝑆𝑓𝑓
Lw = Wash load which is the fine
particles not found in the bed Where:
material (Ds < D10), and originates
from available bank and upstream σ0 = Shear stress = Force per unit area in
supply; flow direction;
Lbm = Capacity limited bed material g = Specific weight of water;

load. D = Flow-depth;
Streams are unique from other hydraulic Sf = Friction slope.
conveyance facilities, such as engineered
Particle movement can be further expressed
channels and pipes, in that its boundaries are
at a specific point in a stream bed as incipient
mobile, and they move sediment within their
motion, which is the initial movement of a
water column or along the bed by skipping
particle. The calculation of a critical shear
and rolling, which is a complicated
stress or critical velocity can be performed at
interrelationship. The suspended sediment
the threshold movement condition that
load is carried through the flow by
assumes active hydraulic forces are equal to
turbulence and is typically fine sand, silt, and
particle resistant forces. At the point of
clay. Bedload is coarser possibly as large as
critical shear stress or critical velocity, a
boulders, and moves along the bed by fluid
particle is just about to move. This means
stress action, see Figure 872.3. Sediment
that values of shear stress or velocity greater
supply and its movement are the life of a
than critical shear stress or critical velocity
stream that can become unstable when this
cause particles to be in motion, while
process is interrupted if supply becomes
particles will be at rest with values of shear
limited or if a stream is unable to transport its
stress and velocity lower than critical shear
excess downstream.
stress and velocity. An incipient motion
Instability can be seen through channel calculation can provide an indication of
incision, where the stream bed degrades and erosion potential and stream stability.
banks over steepen, excessive meandering, Fischenich (2001) provides a variation of the
or large alignment shifts as a stream attempts widely accepted and industry standard
to control energy as it searches for dynamic Shields equation for approximated critical
equilibrium. The ability of a stream to shear stress considering different materials:
control and manage its sediment is not the
only influence on stream stability, but one of Clays: 𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 0.5𝑑𝑑(𝑔𝑔𝑠𝑠 − 𝑔𝑔𝑤𝑤 ) tan 𝐹𝐹
the more important factors. Silts & Sands:
Within a stream bed, immersed sediment 𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 0.25𝑑𝑑0 − 0.6𝑑𝑑(𝑔𝑔𝑠𝑠 − 𝑔𝑔𝑤𝑤 ) tan 𝐹𝐹
particles resting on the stream bed over other Gravels & Cobbles:
particles exert their effective weight in the 𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 0.06𝑑𝑑(𝑔𝑔𝑠𝑠 − 𝑔𝑔𝑤𝑤 ) tan 𝐹𝐹
form of a vertical force, which can be divided
Where:
into normal and tangential components based
1�
on the stream bed slope. Simply stated, in 𝑑𝑑0 = 𝑑𝑑[(𝐺𝐺 − 1)𝑔𝑔𝜈𝜈 −2 ] 3;
order for sediment particles to become
mobile, a force greater than their normal σcr = Critical shear stress;
weight must be applied to them. This force F = Soil grain angle of repose;
that causes mobility is a drag force or fluid
July 15, 2016
Figure 872.3
Bed Load and Suspended Load
July 15, 2016
capacity modeling. Several empirical

Figure 872.4 sediment transport functions used in
Longitudinal Encroachments modeling have been developed and named
after their creators, such as Einstein, Acker
and White, Laursen-Copeland, Meyer-Peter
Muller, and Yang. These functions are
complex and notoriously data intensive.
Three classic sediment transport formulae
are discussed in detail in Index 4.5 of HDS
No. 6 to illustrate sediment transport
processes. While not often, resource
agencies and flood control districts may
request this type of analysis during the
permit review process. If sediment modeling
is necessary, HEC-RAS v4.1 (or higher), the
Army Corps of Engineers’ river and stream
modeling software, contains sediment
transport modeling capabilities using these
transport functions and others.
(k) Stream Channel Form. Major factors
affecting alluvial stream channel forms are:
• stream discharge, viscosity, temperature;
• sediment discharge;
• longitudinal slope;
• bank and bed resistance to flow;
• vegetation;
• geology, including types of sediments
Highway 49, North Fork Yuba River (Near Downieville) and;
and Highway 190, Furnace Creek, (Death Valley)
• human activity.
d = Soil diameter;
At any location in a stream, the cross-
gs = Sediment unit weight; sectional shape is dependent upon the
volume flow-rate (flow), the composition of
gw = Water unit weight;
sediment transported through a section, and
G = Sediment specific gravity; the integrity or gradation of the bed and bank
g = Gravity; materials. As water flows through the stream
channel, it exerts a fluid shear stress on the
ν = Water/sediment mixture kinematic bed and banks. For a constant and stable
viscosity. cross-sectional shape for a given flow at a
The Shields equation and the beginning of specific location, the resisting bed and bank
motion is described in more detail in Index material shear stress must be equal to the
3.5 of HDS No. 6. fluid stress at every point in the stream cross
section perimeter. In this state, a stream is in
Modeling of a stream reach, although the threshold condition where each point
complex, can be performed in order to along the perimeter is at the threshold of
predict sediment transport potential on a movement or incipient motion. This
larger scale, transport rates, volume, and condition also indicates a dynamic
July 15, 2016
equilibrium with scour and deposition of floodplain overbanks will differ from the
sediment being equal. As flow, velocity, and main channel due to uniqueness of form
fluid shear stress increase, the amount of (shape), gradient, alignment, and likely the
scour and sediment deposition will change, flow resistance (roughness) of the floodplain
which will also change the stream cross versus the stream channel. Therefore, water
section for a given bed/bank gradation. will move and deposit varying sediment
types differently, also at different frequency,
The form and appearance of a stream can
creating a separate floodplain form. Once
also be influenced by features within the
sediment is moved to the floodplain, coarser
stream profile, such as riffles and pools
sediment is generally deposited along the
because of their affects on the acting fluid
streambanks forming levees, while finer
shear stress and velocity. Riffles are
sediment is dropped between the valley walls
longitudinal sections of streams with higher
and the levees on the floodplain floor.
velocity, where lower flow-depth usually
Sediment is stored and becomes dormant
caused by obstructions, such as gravels,
until larger flows return to the floodplain that
cobbles, and boulders created by island or
may convey the sediment down-valley.
bar development. On the contrary, pools
have higher flow-depth and lower velocity, Similar to the stream channel, floodplain
and are typically comprised of finer silts and form is directly linked to the sediment
sands compared to a riffle. These bed transport process, as well as floodplain
materials associated with pools and riffles stability affected by sediment supply and its
have an affect on resisting bed shear stress movement. Fluid shear stress and velocity
that will influence stream shape and stability. control the sediment/debris degradation and
The alternating pool and riffle sequence is deposition properties within the floodplain
common for nearly all perennial streams that that impact its form, landscape, and
have gravel to boulder size bed formations. appearance. Because the floodplain can be
Different types of streams occur within a dormant for considerable time depending on
given subregion. Index 3.9 of Caltrans watershed hydrology, its form can remain
Hydromodification Requirements Guidance relatively constant and preserved for
presents the various stream forms within extended periods, as well as be less dynamic
each of the physiographic subregions of than the stream channel.
California, see:
(m) Streambank Erosion. Simply defined,
http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/oppd/stormwtr/gu streambank erosion occurs when the soil
idance/CT-Hydromodification- resisting strength is less than the driving
Requirements-Guidance.pdf forces acting on the bank. It can occur
through bank-toe scour below the water line
(l) Floodplain Form. From a geomorphic
and bank mass failure from above. This
perspective, floodplains are flatter lands
erosion occurs first as a geotechnical failure
adjacent to a river main channel that are dry
followed by the hydraulic action that
until larger flows force water out of the
removes the failed soil and sediment by fluid
stream channel into these overbank lands
shear stress. The hydraulic action further
during significant flood events. Floodplains
causes lateral scour of the bank and is the
typically include the following features: the
principal contributor to bank-toe failure.
main stream channel itself, point islands or
This is a natural process for both stable and
bars, oxbows and lakes, natural raised berms
unstable streams, but is exaggerated in the
(levees) above floodplain surface, terraces,
latter case. The degree of erosion can be
sloughs and depressions, overbank fine and
influenced by impervious development in the
coarse sediment deposition, scattered debris,
watershed, agricultural use, and changes in
and vegetation.
climate. With or without these influences
When water exceeds the capacity of the main and whether a stream is stable or unstable,
channel, the conveyance of flow through the streambank erosion will take place at some
July 15, 2016
level. Therefore, scour must be reduced at of unstable banks typically exceed

critical locations to protect highway 30 percent, where a cover of woody
structures and preserve public safety, vegetation is rarely present. At a bend,
although restraint needs to be exercised the point island or bar opposite of an
during the project development process so unstable cut bank is likely to be bare at
that a stream does not greatly change its normal stage, but it may be covered with
morphology in response to the protection annual vegetation and low woody
measures. vegetation, particularly willows. Where
very rapid erosion is occurring, the
The driving and resisting forces for
bankline may have irregular
streambank erosion, mentioned above, are
indentations. Fissures, which represent
controlled by a series of factors. The factors
the boundaries of actual or potential
that influence the calculation of the driving
slump blocks along the bankline indicate
(active) forces within geotechnical failure
the potential for rapid bank erosion.
are soil saturated unit weight, pore pressure,
bank height, and angle of repose, as well as (2) Unstable banks with slow to moderate
object surcharges within and above the bank erosion rate occur when a bank is partly
such as vegetation. The effects of driving graded (smooth slope) and the degree of
forces are commonly seen through soil instability is difficult to assess where
saturation as a result of intense precipitation reliance is placed mainly on vegetation.
with subsequent increase in pore pressure The grading of a bank typically begins
and bank soil saturated unit weight that can with the accumulation of slumped
cause mass bank failure. The forces that will material at the base such that a slope is
resist and give soil its strength from formed, and progresses by smoothing of
geotechnical type failure are dependent upon the slope and the establishment of
effective soil cohesion, normal stress, pore vegetation.
pressure, and soil effective angle of friction.
(3) Stable banks with very slow erosion rate
During streambank erosion, the bank soil can occur where banks tend to be graded to a
fail by different modes. Generally speaking, smooth slope and the slope angle is
steep slopes present slab-type or toppling usually less than about 30 percent. In
failures where large slabs (blocks of soil) of most regions, the upper parts of stable
the bank break away from the top and fall banks are vegetated, but the lower part
into the stream, while mild slopes show a may be bare at normal stage, depending
rotational failure that begins at the bank toe on bank height and flow regime of the
causing soil to slide from above into the stream. Where banks are low, dense
stream. Once the eroded soil reaches flowing vegetation may extend to the water's
water, it is usually transported downstream edge at normal stage. Mature trees on
depending upon its size and composition. graded bank slopes are particularly
convincing evidence for bank stability.
As for bank-toe scour, its main influences are
Where banks are high, occasional
derived from bank soil composition and
slumps may occur on even the most
gradation, volume of sediment in transport,
stable graded banks. Shallow mountain
stream flow and stream gradient. These
streams that transport coarse bed
factors and the principles of scour and
sediment tend to have stable banks.
sediment movement from hydraulic forces
are a reoccurring theme in fluvial For a more detailed discussion of bank
geomorphology. The following paragraphs stability and the mechanics of bank failure
summarize the characteristics of unstable see HEC 20.
and stable banks;
(n) Young Valley. Typically young valleys are
(1) Unstable banks with moderate to high narrow V-shaped valleys with streams on
erosion rate occur when the slope angle steep gradients. Relief elevation greater than
July 15, 2016
1,000 ft is regarded as mountainous, while to erosion-resistant banks or

relief in the elevation range of 100 to 1,000 ft outcrops.
is regarded as hilly. Streams in mountainous
• Structural inadequacy at points of
regions are likely to have steep slopes, coarse
impingement overtopping.
bed materials (gravel or cobble-boulder),
narrow floodplains, and have nonalluvial • Inadequate rock size, see Table
characteristics (i.e., supply-limited sediment 872.2.
transport rates). At flood stage, the stream
flow covers all or most of the valley floor. • Lack of proper gradation/ layering/
The usual situation for such locations is a RSP fabric, leading to loss of
structure crossing a well-defined channel in embankment, see Table 872.2.
which the design discharge will flow at a Any of the more substantial armor
moderate to high velocity. treatments can function properly in such
(1) Cross-Channel Location. A cross exposures providing precautions are
channel location is a highway crossing a taken to alleviate the probable causes of
stream on normal or skewed alignment. failure. If the foundation is questionable
The erosive forces of parallel flow for concreted-rock or other rigid types it
associated with a normal crossing are would not be necessary to reject them
generally less of a threat than the from consideration but only to provide a
impinging and eddy flows associated more acceptable treatment of the
with a skewed crossing. The effect of foundation, such as heavy rock or sheet
constriction by projection of the piling.
roadway embankment into the channel Whether the highway crosses a stream
should be assessed. channel on a bridge or over a culvert,
Characteristics to be considered include: economic considerations often lead to
constriction of the waterway. The most
• Stream velocity. common constriction is in width, to
shorten the structure. Next in frequency
• Scouring action of stream.
is obstruction by piers and bents of
• Bank stability. bridges or partitions of multiple culverts.
• Channel constrictions (artificial or Figure 872.5
natural).
• Nature of flow (tangential or Slope Failure Due to Loss of Toe
curvilinear).
• Areas of impingement at various
stages.
• Security of leading and trailing
edges.
Common protection failures occur from:
• Undermining of the toe (inadequate
depth/size of foundation), see Figure
872.5 and Table 872.2.
• Local erosion due to eddy currents.
• Inadequate upstream and
downstream terminals or transitions
July 15, 2016
Table 872.2
Failure Modes and Effects Analysis for Riprap Revetment
Effects on Other Effects on Compensating
Failure Modes Detection Methods
Components Whole System Provisions
• Reduce bank
slope
• Mound of rock
Translational at bank toe • Use more angular
Disruption of Catastrophic
slope or slump or smaller rock
armor layer failure • Unprotected
(slope failure)
upper bank • Use granular
filter rather than
geotextile fabric
• Rock moved
downstream
Loss of armor • Increase rock size
Particle erosion Progressive from original
layer, erosion of location • Modify rock
(rock undersized) failure
filter gradation
• Exposure of
filter
• Scalloping of
upper bank
Piping or erosion • Use appropriate
Displacement of Progressive • Bank cutting
beneath armor granular or
armor layer failure
(improper filter) • Void beneath geotextile filter
and between
rocks
• Slumping of • Increase size,
Displacement or rock
Loss of toe or key Catastrophic thickness, depth
disruption or
(under designed) failure • Unprotected or extent of toe or
armor layer
upper bank key
July 15, 2016
The risk of constricting the width of the considered in the economic studies to
waterway is closely related to the choose a bridge length which minimizes
relative conveyance of the natural total cost.
waterway obstructed, the channel scour,
Accurate estimates of anticipated scour
and to the channel migration.
depths are a prerequisite for safe, cost
Constricting the width of flow at
effective designs. Design criteria
structures has the following effects:
require that bridge foundations be
• Increase in the upstream water placed below anticipated scour depths.
surface elevation (backwater For this reason the design of protection
profile). to control scour at such locations is
seldom necessary for new construction.
• Increase in flow velocity through However, if scour may undercut the toes
the structure opening (waterway). of dikes or embankments positive
• Causes eddy currents around the methods including self-adjusting armor
upstream and downstream ends of at the toe, jetties or retards to divert
the structure. scouring currents away from the toe, or
sill-shaped baffles interrupting
Unless protection is provided the eddy transport of bedloads should be
currents can erode the approach considered.
roadway embankment and the
accelerated flow can cause scour at There is the potential for instability
bridge abutments. The effects of from saturated or inundated
erosion can be reduced by providing embankments at crossings with
transitions from natural to constricted embankments projecting into the
and back to natural sections, either by channel. Failures are usually reported
relatively short wingwalls or by as "washouts", but several distinct
relatively long training embankments or processes should be noted:
structures. • Saturation of an embankment
Channel changes, if properly designed, reduces its angle of repose.
can improve conditions of a crossing by Granular fills with high
reducing skew and curvature and permeability may "dissolve"
enlarging the main channel. steadily or slough progressively.
Unfortunately there are "side effects" Cohesive fills are less permeable,
which actually increase erosion but failures have occurred during
potential. Velocity is almost always falling stages.
increased by the channel change, both
• As eddies carve scallops in the
by a reduction of channel roughness and
embankment, saturation can be
increase of slope due to channel
accelerated and complete failure
shortening. In addition, channel
may be rapid. Partial or total losses
changes affecting stream gradient may
can occur due to an upstream eddy,
have upstream and/or downstream
a downstream eddy, or both eddies
effects as the stream adjusts in relation
eroding toward a central
to its sediment load.
conjunction. Training devices or
At crossing locations, lateral erosion armor can be employed to prevent
can be controlled by positive protection, damage.
such as armor on the banks, rock spurs
• If the fill is pervious and the
to deflect currents away from the banks,
pavement overtopped, the buoyant
retards to reduce riparian velocity, or
pressure under the slab will exceed
vertical walls or bulkheads. The life
the weight of slab and shallow
cycle cost of such devices should be
July 15, 2016
overflow by the pressure head of the meanders or where highway

hydraulic drop at the shoulder line. embankment encroaches on the main
A flat slab of thickness, t, will float channel.
when the upstream stage is 4t higher
The encroaching parallel location is
than the top of the slab. Thereafter
very common, especially for highways
the saturated fill usually fails
following mountain streams in narrow
rapidly by a combination of erosion
young valleys or canyons. Much of the
and sloughing. This problem can
roadway is supported on top of the bank
occur or be increased when curbs,
or a berm and the outer embankment
dikes, or emergency sandbags
encroaches on the channel in a zone of
maintain a differential stage at the
low to moderate velocity. Channel
embankment shoulder. It is
banks are generally stable and
increased by an impervious or less
protection, except at points of
pervious mass within the fill.
impingement, is seldom necessary.
Control of flotation, insofar as bank
protection is concerned, should be The constricting parallel location is an
obtained by using impervious extreme case of encroaching location,
armor on the upstream face of the causing such impairment of channel
embankment and a pervious armor that acceleration of the stream through
on the downstream face. the constriction increases its attack on
the highway embankment requiring
Culvert problem locations generally
extra protection, or additional waterway
occur in and along the downstream
must be provided by deepening or
transition. Sharp divergence of the high
widening along the far bank of the
velocity flow develops outward
stream.
components of velocity which attack
the banks directly by impingement and In young valleys, streams are capable of
indirectly by eddies entrained in quieter high velocity flows during flood stages
water. Downward components and the that may be damaging to adjacent
high velocity near the bed cause the highway facilities. Locating the
scour at the end of the apron. highway to higher ground or solid
support is always the preferred
Standard plans of warped wingwalls
alternative when practical.
have been developed for a smooth
transition from the culvert to a Characteristics to be considered
trapezoidal channel section. A rough include:
revetment extension to the concrete
• High velocity flow.
wingwalls is often necessary to reduce
high velocity to approximate natural • Narrow confined channels.
flow. Energy dissipaters may be used to
• Accentuated impingement.
shorten the deceleration process when
such a transition would be too long to be • Swift overflow.
economical. Bank protection at the end
of wingwalls is more cost effective in • Disturbed flow due to rock outcrops
most cases. on the banks or within the main
channel.
(2) Parallel Location. With parallel
locations the risk of erosion damage • Alterations in flow patterns due to
along young streams increases where the entrance of side streams into the
valleys narrow and gradients steepen. main channel.
The risk of erosion damage is greatest Protective methods that have proven
along the outer bend of natural effective are:
July 15, 2016
• Rock slope protection. dominant discharge. A discussion of

dominant discharge may be found in
• Concreted-rock slope protection. Hydraulic Design Series No. 6, but the
• Walls of masonry and concrete. bankfull flow condition is recommended for
use where a detailed analysis of dominant
• Articulated concrete block discharge is not feasible. In addition to the
revetments. general information previously given, the
• Sacked concrete. following applies to mature valleys:
• Cribs walls of various materials. (1) Cross-Channel Location. The usual

situation is a structure crossing a
(o) Mature Valley. Typically mature valleys braided or meandering normal flow
are broad V-shaped valleys with associated channel. The marginal area subject to
floodplains. See Figure 872.6. The gradient overflow is usually traversed by the
and velocity of the stream are low to highway on a raised embankment and
moderate. Streams in regions of lower relief may have long approaches extending
are usually alluvial and exhibit more from both banks.
problems because of lateral erosion in the
channels. Vegetative cover, land use, and Characteristics to be considered
flow depth on the floodplain are also include:
significant factors in stream channel • Shifting of the main channel.
stability. Changes in channel geometry with
time are particularly significant during • Skew of the stream to the structure.
periods when alluvial channels are • Foundation in deep alluvium.
subjected to high flows, and few changes
occur during relatively dry periods. Erosive • Erodible embankment materials.
forces during high-flow periods may have a • Channel constrictions, either
capacity as much as 100 times greater than artificial or natural, which may
those forces acting during periods of affect or control the future course of
intermediate and low-flow rates. the stream.
Figure 872.6 • Variable flow characteristics at
Mature Valley with Meandering various stages.
Stream • Stream acceleration at the structure.
Armor protection has proven effective
to prevent erosion of road approach
embankments, supplemented if
necessary by stream training devices
such as guide dikes, permeable retards
or jetties to direct the stream through the
structure. The abutments should not
depend on the training dikes to protect
them from erosion and scour. At bridge
ends one of the more substantial armor
types may be required, but bridge
Russian River near Geyserville
approach embankments affected only
When considering the stability of alluvial by overflow seldom require more than a
streams, in most instances it can be shown light revetment, such as a thin layer of
that approximately 90 percent of all changes rocky material, vegetation, or a fencing
occur during that small percentage of the along the toe of slope. For channel flow
time when the flow equals or exceeds
July 15, 2016
control upstream, the size and type of designs that consist of riprap, concrete,
training system ranges from pile wings or other inert structures alone may be
for high velocity, through permeable unacceptable for lack of environmental
jetties for moderate velocity, to the earth and aesthetic benefits. Resource
dike suitable for low velocity. agencies have increased interest in
designs that combine vegetation and
The more common failures in this
inert materials into living systems that
situation occur from:
can reduce erosion while providing
• Lack of upstream control of channel environmental and aesthetic benefits.
alignment.
(3) Desert Wash Locations. Particular
• Damage of unprotected consideration should be given to highway
embankments by overflow and locations that traverse natural geographical
return flow. features of desert washes, sand dunes, and other
similar regions.
• Undercut foundations.
Desert washes are a prominent feature of the
• Formation of eddies at abrupt physiography of California. Many long
changes in channel. stretches of highway are located across a
• Stranding of drift in the converging succession of outwash cones. Infrequent
channel. discharge is typically wide and shallow,
transporting large volumes of solids, both
(2) Parallel Location. Parallel highways mineral and organic. Rather than bridge the
along mature rivers are often situated on natural channels, the generally accepted
or behind levees built, protected and technique is to concentrate the flow by a series
maintained by other agencies. Along of guide dikes leading like a funnel to a
other streams, rather extensive relatively short crossing.
protective measures may be required to
control the action of these meandering An important consideration at these locations is
streams. instability of the channel, see Figure 872.7. For
a location at the top of a cone (Line A),
Channel change is an important factor discharge is maximum, but the single channel
in locations parallel to mature streams. emerging from the uplands is usually stable. For
The channel change may be to close an a location at the bottom of the cone (Line C),
embayment, to cut off an oxbow, or to instability is maximum with poor definition of
shift the alignment of a long reach of a the channel, but discharge is reduced by
stream. In any case, positive means infiltration and stream dispersion. The energy
must be adopted to prevent the return of of the stream is usually dissipated so that any
the stream to its natural course. For a protection required is minimal. The least
straight channel, the upstream end is desirable location is midway between top and
critical, usually requiring bank bottom (Line B), where large discharge may
protection equivalent to the facing of a approach the highway in any of several old
dam. On a curved channel change, all channels or break out on a new line. Control
of the outer bend may be critical, may require dikes continuously from the top of
requiring continuous protection. the cone to such a mid-cone site with slope
Continuous and resistive bank protection added near the highway where the
protection measures, such as riprap and converging flow is accelerated. See Figure
longitudinal rock toes are primarily 872.8, which depicts a typical alluvial fan.
used to armor outer bends or areas with
impinging flows. These continuous and Also common are roadway alignments which
concentrated high velocity areas will longitudinally encroach, or are fully within the
generally result in reduced aquatic desert wash floodplain, see Figure 872.9. Re-
habitat. Since streambank protection alignment to a stable location should be the first
July 15, 2016
consideration, but restrictions imposed by Figure 872.8

federal or state agencies (National Park Service,
USDA Forest Service, etc.) may preclude that
Alluvial Fan
option, somewhat similar to transverse
crossings. The designer may need to consider
allowing frequent overtopping and increased
sediment removal maintenance since an “all
weather design” within these regimes can often
lead to large scale roadway washout.
Figure 872.7
Alternative Highway Locations
Across Debris Cone
Typical multi-channel stream threads on alluvial fan.

Note location of roadway crossing unstable channels.
A. Cross at a single definite channel
Figure 872.9
B. A series of unstable indefinite channels and
C. A widely dispersed and diminished flow
Desert Wash Longitudinal
Encroachment
Characteristics to be considered include:
• The intensity of rainfall and subsequent run-
off.
• The relatively large volumes of solids that
are carried in such run-off.
• The lack of definition and permanence of
the channel.
• The scour depths that can be anticipated.
• The lack of good foundation. Road washout due to longitudinal location in desert
wash channel
Effective protective methods include armor
along the highway and at structures and the The Federal Emergency Management Agency
probable need for baffles to control the direction (FEMA) Flood Hazard Mapping website
and velocity of flow. Installations of rock, contains information on recognizing alluvial fan
fence, palisades, slope paving, and dikes have landforms and methods for defining active and
been successful. inactive areas. See their “Guidelines for
Determining Flood Hazards on Alluvial Fans” at
http://www.fema.gov/fhm/ft_tocs.shtm.
July 15, 2016
(4) Construction, Easements, Access and Staging. Numerous State and Federal agencies are
A primary site consideration for any bank responsible for fish management in California -
protection design is its constructability. This including California Department of Fish and
may include the need for supplemental plans and Wildlife, the National Marine Fisheries Service
temporary construction easements for stage and the United Stated Army Corps of Engineers.
construction to accommodate equipment access. Each agency has its own guidelines and
See Figure 872.10. jurisdiction. For example, detailed information
on the requirements for fish habitat in riparian
Figure 872.10 corridors may be found in Volume One and Two
Stage Construction of the California Salmonid Stream Habitat
Restoration Manual:
http://www.dfg.ca.gov/fish/Resources/Habitat
Manual.asp
872.4 Data Needs
The types and amount of data needed for planning
and analysis of channel protection varies from
project to project depending upon the class and
extent of the proposed protection, site location
environment, and geographic area. See Index 872.1.
The data that is collected and developed including
preliminary calculations, and alternatives
considered should be documented in project
development reports (Environmental Document,
Project Report, etc.) or as a minimum in the project
(5) Biodiversity. The riparian area provides one of file. These records serve to guide the detailed
the richest habitats for large numbers of fish and designs, and provide reference background for
wildlife species, which depend on it for food and analysis of environmental impacts and other needs
shelter. Many species, including coho and such as permit applications and historical
Chinook salmon, steelhead, yellow-billed documentation for any litigation which may arise.
cuckoo, and the red-legged frog, are threatened See Index 873.3(3)(a)(2)(b) for rock sizing equation
or endangered in California. Natural riparian parameters.
habitat also includes the assortment of native Recommendations for data needs can be requested
plants that occur adjacent to streams, creeks and from the District Hydraulics Engineer or determined
rivers. These plants are well adapted to the from Chapter 8 of FHWA’s HDS No. 6, for a more
dynamic and complex environment of complete discussion of data needs for highway
streamside zones. A key threat to fish species in crossings and encroachments on rivers. Further
any migrating corridor therefore will include references to data needs are contained in Chapter
loss of riparian habitat and instream cover 810, Hydrology and FHWA's HDS No. 2, Highway
affecting juvenile rearing and outmigration. Hydrology and HEC 20, Stream Stability at Highway
For channel and habitat characterization and Structures.
preliminary assessment relative to designing 872.5 Rapid Assessment
and obtaining project specific permits, District
biologist staff should be consulted early on The National Pollutant Discharge Elimination
within the project planning phase for subject System (NPDES) permit mandates a risk-based
matter expertise regarding fisheries, habitat, and approach to be employed during planning and
wildlife. District biologist staff can also design for assessing stream stability at highway
perform an initial stream habitat assessment. crossings. This approach involves conducting a
Contact information for Department biologists rapid pre-project assessment of the vertical and
can be accessed through the CalBioRoster. lateral stability of the receiving stream channel
July 15, 2016
related to an existing or planned highway crossing will provide recommendations for temporary and
structure. If the rapid stability assessment (RSA) permanent erosion and sediment control measures.
indicates potential problems, more detailed The Caltrans Bank and Shore Protection Committee
engineering analyses are required to determine if is available on request to provide advice on
countermeasures are needed to stabilize the crossing extraordinary situations or problems and to provide
to prevent the release of sediment. Therefore, if evaluation and formal approvals for acceptable non-
available, stream stability assessments for nearby standard designs. See Index 802.3 for further
highway crossings should be included in the site information on the organization and functions of the
consideration for channel protection. Committee.
Section 3 of Caltrans Hydromodification Combinations of armor-type protection can be used,
Requirements Guidance Storm Water Best the slope revetment being of one type and the
Management Practices Rapid Assessment of Stream foundation treatment of another. The use of rigid,
Crossings Higher Level Stream Stability Analysis is non-flexible slope revetment may require a flexible,
an excellent resource for understanding the concepts self-adjusting foundation for example: concreted-
of basic geomorphology and California earth rock on the slope with heavy rock foundation below,
science. or PCC slope paving with a steel sheet-pile cutoff
wall for foundation.
Table 8 of Assessing Stream Channel Stability at
Bridges in Physiographic Regions (FHWA-HRT- Bank protection may be damaged while serving its
05-072) presents an extensive listing of factors primary purpose. Lower cost replaceable facilities
affecting stream stability. may be more economical than expensive permanent
structures. However, an expensive structure may be
Topic 873 - Design Concepts economically warranted for highways carrying large
volumes of traffic or for which no detour is
873.1 Introduction available.
No attempt will be made here to describe in detail all Cost of stone is extremely sensitive to location.
of the various devices that have been used to protect Variables are length of haul, efficiency of the quarry
embankments against scour. Methods and devices in producing acceptable sizes, royalty to quarry and,
not described may be used when justified by necessity for stockpiling and rehandling. On some
economic analysis. Not all publicized treatments are projects the stone may be available in roadway
necessarily suited to existing conditions for a excavation.
specific project.
873.2 Design High Water and Hydraulics
A set of plans and specifications must be prepared to
define and describe the protection that the design The most important, and often the most perplexing
engineer has in mind. These plans should show obligation, in the design of bank and shore
controlling factors and an end product in such detail protection features is the determination of the
that there will be no dispute between the appropriate design high water elevation to be used.
construction engineer and contractor. To serve the The design flood stage elevation should be chosen
dual objectives of adequacy and economy, plans and that best satisfies site conditions and level of risk
specifications should be precise in defining associated with the encroachment. The basis for
materials to be incorporated in the work, and flexible determining the design frequency, velocity,
in describing methods of construction or backwater, and other limiting factors should include
conformance of the end product to working lines and an evaluation of the consequences of failure on the
grades. highway facility and adjacent property. Stream
stability and sediment transport of a watercourse are
Recommendations on channel lining, slope critical factors in the evaluation process that should
protection, and erosion control materials can be be carefully weighted and documented. Designs
requested from the District Hydraulic Engineer, the should not be based on an arbitrary storm or flood
District Materials Branch and the Office of Highway frequency.
Drainage and Water Quality Design in
Headquarters. The District Landscape Architect
July 15, 2016
A suggested starting point of reference for the damage should always be anticipated during
determination of the design high water level is that high water stages.
the protection withstands high water levels caused
Essential to the design of streambank protection
by meteorological conditions having a recurrence
is sufficient information on the characteristics of
interval of one-half the service life of the protected
the watercourse under consideration. For proper
facility. For example, a modern highway
analysis, information on the following types of
embankment can reasonably be expected to have a
watercourse characteristics must be developed
service life of 100 years or more. It would therefore
or obtained:
be appropriate to base the preliminary evaluation on
a high water elevation resulting from a storm or • Design Discharge
flood with a 2 percent probability of exceedance
• Design High Water Level
(50 year frequency of recurrence). The first
evaluation may have to be adjusted, either up or • Flow Types
down, to conform with a subsequent analysis which
considers the importance of the encroachment and • Channel Geometry
level of related risks which may include • Flow Resistance
consideration of historic high water marks and
climate change. Scour countermeasures protecting • Sediment Transport
structures designed by the Division of Engineering Refer to Chapter 810, Hydrology, for a general
Services (DES) may include consideration of floods discussion on hydrologic analysis and
greater than a 1 percent probability of exceedance specifically to Topic 817, Flood Magnitudes;
(100 year frequency of recurrence). Topic 818, Flood Probability and Frequency;
There is always some risk associated with the design and Topic 819, Estimating Design Discharge.
of protection features. Special attention must be For a detailed discussion on the fundamentals of
given to life threatening risks such as those alluvial channel flow, refer to Chapter 3, HDS
associated with floodplain encroachments. No. 6, and to Chapter 4, HDS No. 6, for further
Significant floodplain risks are classified as those information on sediment transport.
having probability of: (2) Ocean & Lake Shore Locations. Refer to
• Catastrophic failure with loss of life. Chapter 880 for information needed to design
shore protection.
• Disruption of fire and ambulance services or
closing of the only evacuation route available to 873.3 Armor Protection
a community. (1) General. Armor is the artificial surfacing of
Refer to Topic 804, Floodplain Encroachments, for bed, banks, shore or embankment to resist
further discussion on evaluation of risks and erosion or scour. Armor devices can be flexible
impacts. (self-adjusting) or rigid.
(1) Streambank Locations. The velocity along the Hard armoring of stream banks, primarily with
banks of watercourses with smooth or uniformly rock slope protection (RSP), has been the most
rough tangent reaches may only be a small common means of providing long-term
percentage of the average stream velocity. protection for transportation facilities, and most
However, local irregularities of the bank and importantly, the traveling public. With many
streambed may cause turbulence that can result years of use, dozens of formal studies and
in the bank velocity being greater than that of thousands of constructed sites, RSP is the armor
the central thread of the stream. The location of type for which there exists the most quantifiable
these irregularities is not always permanent as data on performance, constructability,
they may be caused by local scour, deposition of maintainability and durability, and for which
rock and sand, or stranding of drift during high there exist several nationally recognized design
water changes. It is rarely economical to protect methods.
against all possibilities and therefore some
July 15, 2016
Due to the above factors, RSP is the general assistance together with specifications and
standard against which other forms of armoring details for the vegetative portion of this work.
are compared.
(a) Flexible Types.
The results of internal research led to the
• Rock slope protection.
publication of Report No. FHWA-CA-TL-95-
10, “California Bank and Shore Rock Slope • Gabions, Standard Plan D100A and
Protection Design”. Within that report, the D100B.
methodology for RSP design adopted as the
Departmental standard for many years, was the • Precast concrete articulated blocks.
California Bank and Shore, (CaBS), layered (b) Rigid Types.
design. The CaBS layered design methodology
and its associated gradations have become • Concreted-rock slope protection.
obsolete. For reference only, the full report is • Partially-grouted rock slope protection.
available at the following website:
• Sacked concrete slope protection.
http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/oppd/hydrology/hydr
oidx.htm. • Concrete filled cellular mats.
FHWA Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 23 (2) Bulkheads. The bulkhead types are steep or
(HEC 23) presents guidelines for RSP for a vertical structures, like retaining walls, that
range of applications, including: RSP on support natural slopes or constructed
streams and river banks, bridge piers and embankments which include the following:
abutments, and bridge scour countermeasures • Gravity or pile supported concrete or
such as guide banks and spurs. These guidelines masonry walls.
were formally adopted by the Caltrans Bank and
Shore Protection Committee with a modified • Crib walls
version of HEC 23 gradations. See Tables • Sheet piling
873.3A and 873.3B as well as HEC 23, Volume
1, Chapter 5 and Design Guideline 4, 5, 11, 12, (a) General Design Criteria. In selecting the
15 and 16 from Volume 2. Section 72 of the type of flexible or rigid armor protection to
Standard Specifications provides all use the following characteristics are
construction and material specifications for RSP important design considerations.
designs. While standards (i.e., Standard Plans, (1) The lower limit, or toe, of armor should
Standard Specifications and/or SSP’s) do exist be below anticipated scour or on
for some other products discussed in this bedrock. If for any reason this is not
Chapter (most notably for gabions, but also for economically feasible, a reasonable
certain rolled or mat-style erosion control degree of security can be obtained by
products), their primary application is for placement of additional quantities of
relatively flat slope or shallow ditch erosion heavy rock at the toe which can settle
control (gabions are also used as an earth vertically as scour occurs.
retaining structure, see Topic 210 for more
details). (2) In the case of slope paving or any
expensive revetment which might be
Rigid and other armor types listed below are seriously damaged by overtopping and
viable and may be considered where conditions subsequent erosion of underlying
warrant. Although the additional step of embankment, extension above design
headquarters approval of any nonstandard high water may be warranted. The
designs is required, designers are encouraged to usual limit of extension for streambank
consider alternative designs, particularly those protection above design high water is
that incorporate vegetation or products naturally 1 foot to 2 feet in unconstricted reaches
present in stream environments. The District
Landscape Architect can provide design
July 15, 2016
and 2 feet to 3 feet in constricted (3) Flexible Revetments.

reaches.
(a) Streambank Rock Slope Protection.
(3) The upstream terminal can be
(1) General Features. This kind of
determined best by observation of
protection, commonly called riprap,
existing conditions and/or by measuring
consists of rock courses placed upon the
velocities along the bank.
embankment or the natural slope along
The terminal should be located to a stream. Rock, as a slope protection
conform to outcroppings of erosion- material, has a number of desirable
resistant materials, trees, shrubs or other features which have led to its
indications of stability. widespread application.
In general, the upstream terminal on It is usually the most economical type of
bends in the stream will be some revetment where stones of sufficient
distance upstream from the point of size and quality are available, it also has
impingement or the beginning of curve the following advantages:
where the effect of erosion is no longer
• It is flexible and is not impaired nor
damaging.
weakened by slight movement of
(4) When possible the downstream terminal the embankment resulting from
should be made downstream from the settlement or other minor
end of the curve and against adjustments.
outcroppings, erosion-resistant
materials, or returned securely into the • Local damage or loss is easily
bank so as to prevent erosion by eddy repaired by the addition of similar
currents and velocity changes occurring sized rock where required.
in the transition length. • Construction is not complicated and
(5) The encroachment of embankment into special equipment or construction
the stream channel must be considered practices are not usually necessary.
with respect to its effect on the (Note that Method A placement of
conveyance of the stream and possible very large rock may require large
damaging effect on properties upstream cranes or equipment with special
due to backwater and downstream due lifting capabilities).
to increased stream velocity or • Appearance is natural, and usually
redirected stream flow. acceptable in recreational and
(6) A smooth surface will generally scenic areas.
accelerate velocity along the bank, • If exposed to fresh water,
requiring additional treatment (e.g., vegetation may be induced to grow
extended transition, cut-off wall, etc.) at through the rocks adding structural
the downstream terminal. Rougher value to the embankment material
surfaces tend to keep the thread of the and restoring natural roughness.
stream toward the center of the channel. See Index 873.3(3)(a)(2)(d) for
(7) Heavy-duty armor used in exposures further vegetative rock slope
along the ocean shore may be protection information.
influenced or dictated by economics, or • Additional thickness (i.e., mounded
the feasibility of handling heavy toe design) can be provided at the
individual units. toe to offset possible scour when it
is not feasible to found it upon
bedrock or below anticipated scour.
July 15, 2016
• It is salvageable, may be stockpiled Army Corps of Engineers. Based

and reused if necessary. on the flume studies at the Corps’
Waterways Experiment Station, the
In designing the rock slope protection
program is primarily used by the
for a given embankment the following
Corps for RSP designs on streams
determinations are to be made for the
with 2 percent or lesser gradients,
typical section.
but contains an option for scour
• Depth at which the stones are depth estimates in bends for sand
founded (bottom of toe trench). channels. CHANLPRO is available
at the following USACE website:
• Elevation at the top of protection. http://chl.erdc.usace.army.mil/chan
• Thickness of protection. lpro along with a user guide
containing equations, charts,
• Need for geotextile or rock filter assumptions and limitations to the
material. method and example problems.
• Face slope. (c) Embankment Considerations.
(a) Placement. Two different methods Embankment material is not
of placement for rock slope normally carried out over the rock
protection are allowed under slope protection so that the rock
Section 72 of the Standard becomes part of the fill. With this
Specifications: Placement under type of construction fill material
Method A requires considerable can filter down through the voids of
care, judgment, and precision and is the large stones and that portion of
consequently more expensive than the fill above the rocks could be
Method B. Method A should be lost. If it is necessary to carry
specified primarily where large embankment material out over the
rock is required, but also for rock slope protection a geotextile is
relatively steeper slopes. required to prevent the loses of fill
material.
(b) Foundation Treatment. The
foundation excavation must afford The embankment fill slope is
a stable base on bedrock or extend usually determined from other
below anticipated scour. considerations such as the angle of
repose for embankment material, or
Terminals of revetments are often the normal 1V:4H specified for
destroyed by eddy currents and high-standard roads. If the
other turbulence because of necessary size of rock for the given
nonconformance with natural exposure is not locally available,
banks. Terminals should be consideration should be given to
secured by transitions to stable bank flattening of the embankment slope
formations, or the end of the to allow a smaller size stone, or
revetment should be reinforced by substitution of other types of
returns of thickened edges. protection. On high embankments,
While a significant amount of alternate sections on several slopes
research is currently being should be compared, practically and
conducted, few methods exist for economically; flatter slopes require
estimating scour along stream smaller stones in thinner sections,
banks. One of the few is the method but at the expense of longer slopes,
contained in HEC 23 Volume 1, a lower toe elevation, increased
Index 4.3.5 and the CHANLPRO embankment, and perhaps
Program developed by the U.S. additional right of way.
July 15, 2016
Where the roadway alignment is where CA Fish & Wildlife and

fixed, slope flattening will often NOAA Fisheries strongly
increase embankment discourage the use of RSP Fabric, a
encroachment into the stream. gravel filter is usually necessary
When such an encroachment is with most native soil conditions to
environmentally or technically stop fines from bleeding through
undesirable, the designer should the typical RSP classes. A gravel
consider various vertical, or near filter will be specified and placed
vertical, wall type alternatives to between the native base soil and
provide adequate stream width, RSP for hybrid revetments to avoid
allowing natural channel migration conflicts associated with planting
and the opportunity for enhancing vegetation and placing RSP fabric
habitat. together. A universal gravel filter
gradation is presented in Design
(d) Rock Slope Protection Fabric.
Information Bulletin No. 87 (see
Rock Slope Protection fabrics are
Table H, Index 7.1.2), which should
described in Standard Specification
work for many stream sites in
Section 96. The RSP fabric
California and eliminate the need
placement ensures that fine soil
for a site-specific gravel filter
particles do not migrate through the
design for every project.
RSP due to hydrostatic forces and,
thus, eliminate the potential for When a gravel filter is to be placed,
bank failure. The use of RSP fabric the designer is advised to work with
provides an inexpensive layer of the District Materials Office to get a
protection retaining embankment recommendation for the necessary
fines in lieu of placing a gravel filter gradation to work effectively with
of small, well graded materials. See both the native backfill and the base
Index 873.3(3)(a)(1)(e) “Gravel layer of the RSP that is being
Filter.” placed. Among the methods
available for designing the gravel
Stronger and heavier RSP fabrics
filter are the Terzaghi method,
than those listed in the Standard
developed exclusively for situations
Specifications are manufactured.
where the native backfill is sand,
They are used in special designs for
and the Cisten-Ziems method,
larger than standard RSP sizes, or
which is often used for a broad
emergency installations where
variety of soil types and
placement of large RSP must be
recommended in HEC 23. Where
placed directly on the fabric. These
streambanks must be significantly
heavy weight fabrics have unit
rebuilt and reconfigured with
weights of up to 16 ounces per
imported material before RSP
square yard. Contact the
placement, the designer must
Headquarters Hydraulic Engineer
ensure that the imported material
for assistance regarding usage
will not bleed through the designed
applications of heavy weight RSP
gravel filter. See HEC 23 Volume
fabrics.
2, Design Guideline 16, Index
(e) Gravel Filter. Generally RSP 16.2.1 Granular Filter Design
fabric should always be used unless Procedure and 16.3.1 Granular
there is a permit requirement that filter (design example).
precludes the placement of fabric.
(2) Streambank Protection Design. In the
Where RSP fabric cannot be placed,
lower reaches of larger rivers wave
such as in stream environments
action resulting from navigation or
July 15, 2016
wind blowing over long reaches may be material to slough into local scour
much more serious than velocity. A holes (i.e., mounded toe).
2 foot wave, for example, is more
• Reinforce critical zones on outer
damaging than direct impingement of a
bends subject to impinging flow,
current flowing at 10 feet per second.
using heavier stones, thicker
Therefore, consideration of a wave
section, and deeper toe.
attack based design may be necessary.
See Chapter 880 for further • Be constructed of rock of such
information. shape as to form a stable protection
Well designed streambank rock slope structure of the required section.
protection should: Rounded boulders or cobbles must
not be used on prepared ground
• Assure stability and compatibility surfaces having slopes steeper than
of the protected bank as an integral 2.5H:1V.
part of the channel as a whole.
(a) Stone Shape. The shape of a stone
• Connect to natural bank, bridge can be generally described by
abutments or adjoining designating three axes of
improvements with transitions measurement: major, intermediate,
designed to ease differentials in and minor, also known as the “A, B,
alignment, grade, slope and and C” axes, as shown in Figure
roughness of banks. 873.3A.
• Eliminate or ease local embayments Figure 873.3A
and capes so as to streamline the
protected bank. Stone Shape
• Consider the effects of backwater
above constrictions,
superelevations on bends, as well as
tolerance of occasional
overtopping.
• Not be placed on a slope steeper
than 1.5H:1V. Flatter slopes use
lighter stones in a thinner section
and encourage overgrowth of
vegetation, but may not be
Riprap stones should not be thin and
permissible in narrow channels.
platy, nor should they be long and
• Use stone of adequate weight to needle-like. Therefore, specifying a
resist erosion, derived from Index maximum allowable value of the
873.3(3)(a)(2)(b). ratio A/C, also known as the shape
factor, provides a suitable measure
• Prevent loss of bank materials of particle shape, since the B axis is
through interstitial spaces of the intermediate between the two
revetment. Rock slope protection extremes of length A and thickness
fabric should be used. C. A maximum allowable value for
• Rest on a good foundation on A/C of 3.0 is recommended.
bedrock or extend below the depth Based on field studies, the
of probable scour. If questionable, recommended relationship between
use heavy bed stones and provide a stone size and weight is given by:
wide base section with a reserve of
July 15, 2016
Table 873.3A
RSP Class by Median Particle Size(3)
Nominal RSP Class by
d15 d50 d100 Placement
Median Particle Size(3)
Class (1), (2) Size (in) Min Max Min Max Max Method
I 6 3.7 5.2 5.7 6.9 12.0 B
II 9 5.5 7.8 8.5 10.5 18.0 B
III 12 7.3 10.5 11.5 14.0 24.0 B
IV 15 9.2 13.0 14.5 17.5 30.0 B
V 18 11.0 15.5 17.0 20.5 36.0 B
VI 21 13.0 18.5 20.0 24.0 42.0 A or B
VII 24 14.5 21.0 23.0 27.5 48.0 A or B
VIII 30 18.5 26.0 28.5 34.5 48.0 A or B
IX 36 22.0 31.5 34.0 41.5 52.8 A
X 42 25.5 36.5 40.0 48.5 60.5 A
XI 46 28.0 39.4 43.7 53.1 66.6 A
NOTES:
(1) Rock grading and quality requirements per Standard Specifications.
(2) RSP-fabric Type of geotextile and quality requirements per Section 96 Rock Slope Protection Fabric of the Standard
Specifications. For RSP Classes I thru VIII, use Class 8 RSP-fabric which has lower weight per unit area and it also
has lower toughness (tensile x elongation, both at break) than Class 10 RSP-fabric. For RSP Classes IX thru XI, use
Class 10 RSP-fabric.
(3) Intermediate, or B dimension (i.e., width) where A dimension is length, and C dimension is thickness.
July 15, 2016
Table 873.3B
RSP Class by Median Particle Weight(3)
Nominal RSP Class by
W15 W50 W100 Placement
Median Particle Weight
Class (1), (2) Weight Min Max Min Max Max Method
I 20 lb 4 11 15 27 140 B
II 60 lb 14 39 50 94 470 B
III 150 lb 32 94 120 220 1,100 B
IV 300 lb 63 180 250 440 2,200 B
V 1/4 ton 110 300 400 700 3,800 B
VI 3/8 ton 180 520 650 1,100 6,000 A or B
VII 1/2 ton 250 750 1000 1,700 9,000 A or B
VIII 1 ton 520 1,450 1,900 3,300 9,000 A or B
IX 2 ton 870 2,500 3,200 5,800 12,000 A
X 3 ton 1,350 4,000 5,200 9,300 18,000 A
XI 4 ton 1,800 5,000 6,800 12,200 24,000 A
NOTES:
(1) Rock grading and quality requirements per Standard Specifications.
(2) RSP-fabric Type of geotextile and quality requirements per Section 96 Rock Slope Protection Fabric of the Standard
Specifications. For RSP Classes I thru VIII, use Class 8 RSP-fabric which has lower weight per unit area and it also
has lower toughness (tensile x elongation, both at break) than Class 10 RSP-fabric. For RSP Classes IX thru XI, use
Class 10 RSP-fabric.
(3) Values shown are based on Table 873.3A dimensions and an assumed specific gravity of 2.65. Weight will vary
based on density of rock available for the project.
July 15, 2016
𝑊𝑊 = 0.85(𝛾𝛾𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑3 ) Based on the recommended

relationship between size and
Where:
weight, which assumes the volume
W = Weight of stone, lb; of the stone is 85% of a cube, Table
873.3B provides the equivalent
d = Size of intermediate ("B")
particle weights for the same eleven
axis, ft;
classes as Table 873.3A using a
γs = Density of stone, lb/ft3; specific gravity of 2.65 for the
= Sg γw particle density.
Where: (b) Stone Size. Where stream velocity

governs, rock size may be estimated
γw = 62.4 lb/ft3; from the following formula, which can
Sg = Specific gravity of be used with uniform or gradually
stone. varying flow. Coefficients are included
to account for the desired safety factor
Tables 873.3A and 873.3B provide for design, specific gravity of the riprap
recommended gradations for eleven stone, bank slope, and bendway
standard classes of riprap based on character;
median particle size d50 as
determined by the dimension of the 𝑑𝑑30
2.5
intermediate ("B") axis. The D or ⎡ ⎤
W refers to size or weight, 𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑦𝑦�𝑆𝑆𝑓𝑓 𝐶𝐶𝑆𝑆 𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉 𝐶𝐶𝑇𝑇 � ⎢ ⎥
respectively. The number is the ⎢ ⎥
�𝐾𝐾 �𝑆𝑆 − 1�𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
percent finer by weight. Tables ⎣ 1 𝑔𝑔 ⎦
873.3A and 873.3B are modified
versions of Tables 4.1 and 4.2 in Where:
HEC 23, Volume 2, Design d30 = Particle size for which
Guideline 4, which provide 30% is finer by weight, ft;
recommended gradations for ten
y = Local depth of flow, ft;
standard classes of riprap and
conform to those recommended in Sf = Safety factor (typically =
NCHRP Report 568 (Lagasse et al. 1.1);
2006). The gradation criteria in
CS = Stability coefficient (for
Table 873.3A are based on a
blanket thickness 1.5d50 or
nominal or "target" d50. See Index
d100, whichever is greater)
873.3(3)(a)(2)(b) for equations to
= 0.30 for angular rock;
calculate d30 and d50. The most
significant modifications to Tables CV = Velocity distribution
873.A and 873.B from the coefficient;
gradations shown in Tables 4.1 and = 1.0 for straight channels or
4.2 are to the d100max and W100max the inside of bends;
gradation for classes VIII through
XI, which have been truncated for = 1.283 – 0.2 log (Rc/W) for
practicality. An additional class XI the outside of bends (1.0
is included in Tables 873.3A and for Rc/W > 26);
873.3B. Contact the Headquarters = 1.25 downstream from
Hydraulic Engineer if more concrete channels;
information is needed on the
modification to the HEC 23 = 1.25 at the end of dikes;
gradations.
July 15, 2016
CT = Blanket thickness depth can be used. The smaller of

coefficient = 1.0; these values will result in a slightly
larger computed d30 size, since
Sg = Specific gravity of stone
riprap size is inversely proportional
(2.5 minimum);
to (y0.25). The blanket thickness
g = Acceleration due to coefficient (CT) is 1.0 for standard
2
gravity, 32.2 ft/s ; riprap applications where the
Vdes = Characteristic velocity for thickness is equal to 1.5d50 or d100,
design, defined as the whichever is greater. Because
depth-averaged velocity at limited data is available for
a point 20% upslope from selecting lower values of CT when
the toe of the revetment, greater thicknesses of riprap are
ft/s; used, a value of 1.0 is reasonable for
all applications. The recommended
For natural channels, Safety Factor Sf is 1.1 for bank
Vdes = Vavg (1.74 – 0.52 log (Rc/W)) revetment. Greater values should
Vdes = Vavg for Rc/W > 26 be considered where there is
significant potential for ice or
For trapezoidal channels, impact from large debris, freeze-
Vdes = Vavg (1.71 – 0.78 log (Rc/W)) thaw degradation that would
Vdes = Vavg for Rc/W > 8 significantly decrease particle size,
or large uncertainty in the design
Where: variables, especially velocity. The
Rc = Centerline radius of specific gravity (Sg) of stone is
curvature of channel commonly taken as 2.65 for
bend, ft; planning purposes, however, this
will result in a less conservative
W = Width of water design than utilizing a 2.5 specific
surface at upstream gravity assumption, which would
end of channel bend, be the minimum accepted in the
ft; field. Therefore, the designer
Vavg = Channel cross- should contact the District
sectional average Materials Engineer in the project’s
velocity, ft/s; area and determine if there is any
history of RSP materials used in
K1 = Side slope correction that region. Where such
factor; information or history is
1.6 unavailable, use of a 2.5 specific
sin(𝜃𝜃 − 14°) gravity within the design should be
𝐾𝐾1 = �1 − � �
sin 32° considered.
Where: The d30 size of the riprap is related
to the recommended median (d50)
θ = is the bank angle in size by:
degrees.
d50 = 1.20d30
The flow depth "y" used in the
above equation is defined as the Using standard sizes the
local flow depth. The flow depth at appropriate gradation can be
the toe of slope is typically used for achieved by selecting the next
bank revetment applications; larger size class, thereby creating a
alternatively, the average channel slightly over-designed structure,
July 15, 2016
but economically a less expensive resulting potential for damage to the

one. For example, if a riprap sizing bank, the potential for streambed
calculation results in a required d50 aggradation; and the confidence in
of 16.8 inches, Class V riprap data used to estimate design
should be specified because it has a highwater. Freeboard may also be
nominal d50 of 18 inches. See Table affected by regulatory or local
873.3A. agency requirements. Freeboard
may be more generous on the
A limitation to the rock size
outside bends of channels, or
equation above is that the
around critical bridges.
longitudinal slope of the channel
should not be steeper than 2.0% The 50-year design high water plus
(0.02 ft/ft). For steeper channels, freeboard goal should be followed
the riprap sizing approach for whenever possible, but the biggest
overtopping flows presented in exception to this goal occurs when
HEC 23, Volume 2, Design the design height exceeds the main
Guideline 5 should be considered channel top of bank. Because
and the results compared with the floodplain overbank areas can be
rock size equation above . wide and extensive, the footprint of
the RSP could grow exponentially
Where wave action is dominant,
if extended above and beyond the
design of rock slope protection
top of bank. This increased
should proceed as described for
footprint would bring higher costs
shore protection, see Chapter 880.
and permitting challenges that
(c) Design Height. The top of rock could make a project no longer
slope protection along a stream viable. Given this possibility, the
bank should be carried to the RSP vertical limit (height) should
elevation of the design high water typically end at the main channel
plus some allowance for freeboard. top of bank; however, a vegetation
Cost and severity of damage if component may extend above and
overtopped as well as the beyond the top of bank.
importance of the facility should
For cases where significant erosion
also be considered. The goal for the
has occurred above the main
design high water is based on the
channel top of bank into its
50-year (2% probability) flow, but
overbank(s), contact the District
can be modified using engineering
Hydraulic Engineer to discuss
judgment which may include
alternatives for repair and
consideration of historic high
protection.
water marks and climate change.
This stage may be exceeded during Design Example -- The following
infrequent floods, usually with little example reflects the HEC 23
or no damage to the upper slope. method for designing RSP. The
See Hybrid RSP cross section in designer is encouraged to review
Figure 873.3D for an example Design Guideline 4, Riprap
showing the top of rock slope Revetment from HEC 23, Volume
protection. 2. The following example assumes
that the designer has conducted the
When determining freeboard, or the
appropriate site assessments and
height above design high water
resulting calculations to establish
from which the RSP is to extend,
average stream velocity, flow depth
one should consider: the size and
at bank toe, estimated depth of
nature of debris in the flow; the
July 15, 2016
scour, stream alignment (i.e., 1.6

sin(26.6° − 14°)
parallel or impinging flow), width = �1 − � �
of channel, radius of bend (if sin 32°
impinging flow ), length and side
slope of stream bank to be protected = 0.87
and locations of natural hard points Step 2: Select the appropriate
(e.g., rock outcroppings). Field stability coefficient for riprap:
reviews and discussions with Cs (for blanket thickness 1.5d50 or
maintenance staff familiar with the d100, whichever is greater) = 0.30
site are critical to the success of the for angular rock
design.
Step 3: Compute the vertical
Given for example: velocity factor (Cv) for Rc /W = 5.0:
• Average stream velocity for Cv = 1.283 − 0.2 log (Rc/W)
design event of 9.8 feet per = 1.283 − 0.2 log (5.0)
second = 1.14
• Flow depth of 11.4 feet at bank Step 4: Compute local velocity on

toe the side slope (Vdes) for a natural
channel with Rc/W = 5.0:
• Estimated scour depth – Vdes = Vavg [1.74− 0.52 log (Rc /W)]
3.5 feet = 9.8[1.74 − 0.52 log (5.0)]
• Length of bank requiring = 13.5 ft/s
protection – 550 feet Step 5: Compute the d30 size using
• Bank slope – 2:1 stone size equation from Index
873.2(2)(a)(2)(b):
• Specific gravity of rock used 𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2.5
for RSP – 2.54 (based on data 𝑑𝑑30 = 𝑆𝑆𝑓𝑓 𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣 𝑦𝑦 � �
from local quarry) �(𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 − 1)𝐾𝐾1 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
= (1.2)(0.3)(1.14)(11.4)
• Embankment is on outside of 13.5
2.5
stream bend of 100 ft wide ×� �
natural channel on a bend that �(2.54 − 1)(0.87)(32.2)(11.4)
has a centerline radius (Rc) of = 1.35 ft
500 ft. The radius of curvature Step 6: Compute the d50 size =
divided by width (Rc/W) is 5.0. 1.2d30 = 1.2(1.35)
• A desired factor of safety (Sf) = 1.62 ft = 19 inches.
of 1.2. Note: Use next larger size class (see
Determine the target d50, select Table 873.3A)
appropriate RSP class from Table Step 7: Select Class VI riprap from
873.3A and determine the blanket Table 873.3A: d50 = 21 inches
thickness:
Step 8: Blanket thickness = 1.5d50
Step 1: Compute the side slope or d100, whichever is greater
correction factor: 1.5d50 = 1.5 (21 inches)
1.6
= 31.5 inches
sin(𝜃𝜃 − 14°) d100 = 42 inches, therefore, use
𝐾𝐾1 = �1 − � �
sin 32° 42 inches
Step 9: Determine the depth of
riprap embedment below the
July 15, 2016
streambed at the toe of the bank facility. As for the upstream and
slope: downstream ends, the given length
of revetment is 550 feet. Again, this
Since toe scour is expected to be
will typically be a minimum, as the
3.5 ft, the 2H:1V slope should be
designer should seek natural rock
extended below the ambient bed
outcroppings, areas of quiescent
level 7 ft horizontally out from the
stream flow, or other inherently
toe to accommodate this scour.
stable bank segments to end the
Alternatively, a mounded riprap toe
RSP.
3.5 ft high could be established at
the base of the slope and allowed to (d) Vegetated Rock Slope Protection.
self-launch when toe scour occurs, The use of vegetation in streambank
see Figure 873.3D. stabilization has positive attributes
on stream integrity, such as
Step 10: Assess Stream Impact Due
improving stream ecology,
to Revetment. In some cases, the
increasing soil strength, and
thickness of the completed RSP
providing flow resistance, but
revetment creates a narrowing of
vegetation can also have negative
the available stream channel width,
impacts on stream integrity by
to the extent that stream velocity or
altering conveyance characteristics
stage at the design event is
of the stream, affecting soil
increased to undesirable levels, or
characteristics, in addition to being
the opposite bank becomes
unpredictable in its long term
susceptible to attack. In these cases,
establishment and performance.
the bank upon which the RSP is to
be placed must be excavated such Streams with stable vegetation
that the constructed face of the typically have good water quality,
revetment is flush with the original as well as good biological and
embankment. chemical health due in part to the
ability of the vegetation to filter
Step 11: Exterior Edges of
pollutants including nitrates and
Revetment. The completed design
phosphates through their uptake of
must be compatible with existing
moisture in the soil. Vegetation
and future conditions. Freeboard
will also promote good fish,
and top edge of revetments were
wildlife, and aquatic organism
covered in Index 873.3(2)(a)(2)(c)
habitat by providing cover,
“Design Height.” For depth of toe,
reducing stream temperature and
the estimated scour was given as
controlling temperature
3.5 feet. This is the minimum toe
fluctuations, and supplying an
depth to be considered. Again,
organic food source. In addition to
based on site conditions and
ecological improvements,
discussions with maintenance staff
vegetation can strengthen the
and others, determine if any long-
underlying soils. It can create
term conditions need to be
additional cohesion and binding
addressed. These could include
properties through its roots. The
streambed degradation due to local
fibrous woody roots are strong in
aggregate mining or headcutting.
tension, but weak in compression,
Regardless of the condition, the toe
which is the opposite case for soil.
must be founded below the lowest
Therefore, roots and soil working in
anticipated elevation that could
tandem can complement the other
become exposed over the service
providing a material that has both
life of the embankment or roadway
tension and compression resistance.
July 15, 2016
Vegetation can also improve soil process, and the n-value and
strength by lowering pore-water velocity/flow resistance will also be
pressure through its soil moisture dynamic making revetment
extraction. performance unpredictable. Even
though the use of vegetation in bank
These benefits of the vegetation
stabilization may have negative
root system also carry some
effects, its ecological benefits
negative effects. Their additional
generally outweigh them.
mass and surcharge can increase
slope failure potential under The design premise is to use rock
saturated conditions where the and vegetation together in a
magnitude of saturation can streambank revetment in such a
actually be compounded because of way that will highlight their
root development. Another positive positive attributes while also
effect of vegetation use in addressing and managing their
revetments is its ability to improve negative impacts. In the design of
flow resistance creating higher hybrid revetments, mounded toes
roughness that will dissipate referenced in Index 873.3(3)(a)(1)
energy, shear stress, and velocity. are not recommended because of
The vegetation deflects velocity their encroachment into the middle
upwards away from the of the channel, which can impact
streambank, which reduces the cross-sectional area and capacity.
influence of drag and lift. For With the use of vegetation on the
example, willows planted on a bank and possible projection
streambank have the capacity to toward the middle of the channel,
deflect and resist velocities up to cross-sectional area could possibly
10 feet/second in their mature state, be impacted as well. A mounded
which would equate to a 12-inch to toe used with bank vegetation
18-inch rock (RSP Class III to IV) would only exacerbate this issue,
having similar permissive velocity. therefore an embedded toe is
To reach this point, it may take chosen for hybrid revetment
three to five years. In the first few application. See Figure 873.3D for
years after planting, the vegetation an example cross section of hybrid
is providing little resistance. RSP with an embedded toe. For
During this establishment period, hybrid revetment design, the
the streambanks can be subject to 50-year (2% probability) flood
scour and erosion because of the event should be used. Per Index
lack of flow resistance without 873.2, depending on the importance
some other means of protection. of the encroachment and level of
Even after vegetation reaches related risks, subsequent analysis
maturity and beyond, potential may consider historic high water
exists for it to succumb to drought marks and climate change for
conditions or to yield to large design. In order to manage possible
flows/velocities and break apart negative impacts from vegetation
rendering the vegetation ineffective use, planting needs to be performed
to dissipating velocity and in a controlled manner. Placement
hydraulic forces. Because the of vegetation within the bank-toe
stages of vegetation growth can be zone and the main channel is highly
dynamic as it is affected by drought discouraged to keep turbulence
or high flows, the vegetation may intensity in check that could cause
go through a reestablishment excessive sediment accumulation.
July 15, 2016
Plant mortality must be considered rock sizing, Index 7.1.1.2 should be

during the initial planting and substituted with Index
establishment period. Overplanting 873.3(3)(a)(2)(b) of this manual.
must be avoided so that high density
(e) Gabions. Gabion revetments
and projection does not occur
consist of rectangular wire mesh
causing increased sediment
baskets filled with stone. See
deposition and
Standard Plan D100A and D100B
capacity/conveyance reduction.
for gabion basket details and the
Given these issues, plant density in
Standard Specifications for
the design of a hybrid revetment
requirements.
and consideration of natural plant
density is critical to the Gabions are formed by filling
performance of the hybrid commercially fabricated and
revetment. The goal for design preassembled wire baskets with
should be medium density, where rock. There are two types of
horizontal projection and cross- gabions, wall type and mattress
sectional area reduction at maturity type. In wall type the empty cells
are minimal. See Figure 873.3B. are positioned and filled in place to
For woody vegetation, medium form walls in a stepped fashion.
density is described as mature trees Mattress type baskets are
or shrubs with full foliage on a positioned on the slope and filled.
streambank, where preferably See HEC 23, Volume II, Design
individual canopies or outer layers Guideline 10 and Figure 873.3B.
retain some free space between Wall type revetment is not fully
them, but may have minimal self-adjusting but has some
overlapping without being flexibility. The mattress type is
interwoven. very flexible and well suited for
man-made roadside channels (with
Figure 873.3B uniform flow) discussed in Chapter
Medium Density Vegetation 860 and as overside drains that are
constructed on steep, unstable
slopes. For some stream locations,
gabions may be more aesthetically
acceptable than rock riprap or may
be considered when larger stone
sizes are not readily available and
flows are nonabrasive. Due to
abrasion, corrosion and vandalism
concerns and difficulty of repairs,
caution is advised regarding in-
stream placement of gabions. In
addition, the California Department
of Fish and Wildlife recommends
against using gabions as weirs in
streams. If gabions are placed in-
Lower limit of medium vegetation density
stream, some form of abrasion
Pre-construction and post- protection in the form of wooden
construction hydraulic modelling planks or other facing will typically
and hybrid revetment design are be necessary for wall type, see
discussed in more detail in Design Figure 873.3C. Maintenance-free
Information Bulletin No. 87. For design service life in most
July 15, 2016
Figure 873.3D
Hybrid RSP with Embedded Toe
NOTES:
(1) Thickness "T" = 1.5 d50 or d100, whichever is greater.
(2) Face stone size is determined from Index 873.3(2)(a)(2)(a).
(3) RSP fabric not to extend more than 20 percent of the base width of the Mounded Toe past the Theoretical Toe.
July 15, 2016
environments is generally under Individual blocks are commonly

20 years. joined together with steel cable or
synthetic rope, to form articulated
Figure 873.3C block mattresses. Pre-assembled in
Gabion Lined Streambank sections to fit the site, the
mattresses can be used on slopes up
to 2:1. They are anchored at the top
of the revetment to secure the
system against slippage.
Pre-cast block revetments that are
formed by butting individual blocks
end to end, with no physical
connection, should not be used on
slopes steeper than 3:1. An
engineering fabric is normally used
on the slope to prevent the
migration of the underlying
embankment through the voids in
Gabion wall with timber facing to protect wires from the concrete blocks.
abrasive flow.
Refer to HEC 11, Design of Riprap
(f) Articulated Precast Concrete. This Revetment, Section 6.2, and HEC
type of revetment consists of pre- 23, Bridge Scour and Stream
cast concrete blocks which Instability Countermeasures,
interlock with each other, are Design Guideline 4, for further
attached to each other, or butted discussion on the use of articulated
together to form a continuous concrete blocks.
blanket or mat. A number of block
designs are commercially available. (4) Rigid Revetments.
They differ in shape and method of (a) Concreted-Rock Slope Protection.
articulation, but share common
features of flexibility and rapid (1) General Features. This type of
installation. Most provide for revetment consists of rock slope
establishment of vegetation within protection with interior voids filled with
the revetment. PCC to form a monolithic armor. A
typical section of this type of
The permeable nature of these installation is shown in Figure 873.3E.
revetments permits free draining of
the embankment and their It has application in areas where rock of
flexibility allows the mat to adjust sufficient size for ordinary rock slope
to minor changes in bank geometry. protection is not economically
Pre-cast concrete block revetments available.
may be economically justified (2) Design Concepts. Concreting of RSP is
where suitable rock for slope a common practice where availability of
protection is not readily available. large stones is limited, or where there is
They are generally more a need to reduce the total thickness of a
aesthetically pleasing than other RSP revetment. Inclusion of the
types of revetment, particularly concrete, and the labor required to place
after vegetation has become it, makes concreted RSP installations
established. more expensive per unit area than non-
concreted installations.
July 15, 2016
Figure 873.3E embankment are particularly important,

see Figure 873.3F. The concreted-rock
Concreted-Rock Slope Protection must be founded on solid rock or below
the depth of possible scour. Ends
should be protected by tying into stable
rock or forming smooth transitions with
embankment subjected to lower
velocities. As a precaution, cutoff stubs
may be provided. If the embankment
material is exposed at the top, freeboard
is warranted to prevent overtopping.
NOTES: Figure 873.3F

(1) If needed to relieve hydrostatic pressure. Toe Failure - Concreted RSP
(2) 1.5d50 or d100, whichever is greater from Table
873.3A for section thickness.
Dimensions and details should be modified as
required.
Design procedures for concreted RSP
revetments are similar to that of non-
concreted RSP. Start by following the
design example provided in Index
873.3(3)(a)(2)(c) to select a stable rock
class for a non-concreted design based
on the d50 and the next larger class in Toe of concreted RSP that has been undermined.
Table 873.3A. This non-concreted rock
size is divided by a factor of roughly The design intent is to place an adequate
four or five to arrive at the appropriate volume of concrete to tie the rock mass
d50 size rock for a concreted revetment. together, but leave the outer face
The factor is based on observations of roughened with enough rock projecting
previously constructed facilities and above the concrete to slow flow
represents the typical sized pieces that velocities to more closely approximate
stay together even after severe cracking natural conditions.
(i.e., failed revetments will still usually The volume of concrete required is
have segments of four to five rocks based on filling roughly two-thirds of
holding together). As with the non- the void space of the rock layer, as
concreted design procedures, use the shown in Figure 873.3E. The concrete
rock size derived from this calculation is rodded or vibrated into place leaving
to enter Table 873.3A (i.e., round up to the outer stones partially exposed. Void
the next larger d50 rock to select the space for the various RSP gradations
appropriate RSP Class. ranges from approximately 30 percent
As this type of protection is rigid to 35 percent for Method A placed rock
without high strength, support by the to 40 percent to 45 percent for Method
embankment must be maintained. B placed rock of the total volume
Slopes steeper than the angle of repose placed.
of the embankment are risky, but with Specifications. Quality specifications
rocks grouted in place, little is to be for rock used in concreted-rock slope
gained with slopes flatter than 1.5:1. protection are usually the same as for
Precautions to prevent undermining of
July 15, 2016
rock used in ordinary rock slope footprint than a non-grouted design. Both
protection. However, as the rocks are Headquarters Office of Highway Drainage
protected by the concrete which Design and District biologist staff should be
surrounds them, specifications for consulted early on during the planning
specific gravity and hardness may be phase for subject matter expertise relative to
lowered if necessary. The concrete used design and obtaining project specific
to fill the voids is normally 1 inch permits. For more guidance, see HEC 23,
maximum size aggregate minor Volume 2, Design Guideline 12.
concrete. Except for freeze-thaw
(c) Sacked-Concrete Slope Protection. This
testing of aggregates, which may be
method of protection consists of facing the
waived in the contract special
embankment with sacks filled with
provisions, the concrete should conform
concrete. It is expensive, but historically
to the provisions of Standard
was a much used type of revetment. Much
Specification Section 90.
hand labor is required but it is simple to
Size and grading of stone and concrete construct and adaptable to almost any
penetration depth are provided in embankment contour. Use of this method of
Standard Specification Section 72. slope protection is generally limited to
replacement or repair of existing sacked
(b) Partially Grouted Rock Slope Protection.
concrete facilities, or for small, unique
Partially grouted rock slope protection
situations that lend themselves to hand-
(PGRSP) is a viable alternative to larger
placed materials.
rock or concreted rock slope protection
where either the availability of large Tensile strength is low and as there is no
material is limited, or site limitations flexibility, the installation must depend
regarding placement of large material (e.g., almost entirely upon the stability of the
no excavation below spread footing base) embankment for support and therefore
would lead the designer to consider using should not be placed on face slopes much
some form of smaller rock held together steeper than the angle of repose of the
with a cementitious material. With partially embankment material. Slopes steeper than
grouted rock slope protection, there are no 1:1 are rare; 1.5:1 is common. The flatter
relationships per se for selecting the size of the slope, the less is the area of bond
rock, other than the practical considerations between sacks. From a construction
of proper void size, gradation, and adequate standpoint it is not practical to increase the
stone-to-stone contact area. The intent of area of bond between sacks; therefore for
partial grouting is to "glue" stones together slopes as flat as 2:1 all sacks should be laid
to create a conglomerate of particles. Each as headers rather than stretchers.
conglomerate is therefore significantly
Integrity of the revetment can be increased
larger than the d50 stone size, and typically
by embedding dowels in adjoining sacks to
is larger than the d100 size of the individual
reinforce intersack bond. A No. 3 deformed
stones in the matrix. The proposed
bar driven through a top sack into the
gradation criteria are based on a nominal or
underlying sack while the concrete is still
"target" d50 and only stones with a d50
fresh is effective. At cold joints, the first
ranging from 9 inches to 15 inches may be
course of sacks should be impaled on
used with the partial grouting technique.
projecting bars that were driven into the last
See rock classes II, III and IV in Table
previously placed course. The extra
873.3A. In HEC 23, PGRSP is presented as
strength may only be needed at the
a pier scour countermeasure, but it may be
perimeter of the revetment.
also used for bridge abutment protection, as
well as for bed/bank protection for short Most failures of sacked concrete are a result
localized areas with high velocities and of stream water eroding the embankment
shear stresses that require a smaller rock
July 15, 2016
material from the bottom, the ends, or the • Encroachment on a channel cannot be
top. tolerated.
The bottom should be founded on bedrock • Retreat of highway alignment is not viable.
or below the depth of possible scour. • Right of Way is restricted.
If the ends are not tied into rock or other • The force and direction of the stream can
nonerosive material, cutoff returns are to be best be redirected by a vertical structure.
provided and if the protection is long, cutoff
The foundation for bulkheads must be positive
stubs are built at 30-foot intervals, in order
and all terminals secure against erosive forces.
to prevent or retard a progressive failure.
The length of the structure should be the
Protection should be high enough to minimum necessary, with transitions to other
preclude overtopping. If the roadway grade less expensive types of slope protection when
is subject to flooding and the shoulder possible. Eddy currents can be extremely
material does not contain sufficient rock to damaging at the terminals and transitions. If
prevent erosion from the top, then pavement overtopping of the bulkheads is anticipated,
should be carried over the top of the slope suitable protection should be provided.
protection in order to prevent water entering
Along a stream bank, using a bulkhead
from this direction.
presumes a channel section so constricted as to
Class 8 RSP fabric as described in Standard prohibit use of a cheaper device on a natural
Specification Section 96 should be placed slope. Velocity will be unnaturally high along
behind all sacked concrete revetments. For the face of the bulkhead, which must have a
revetments over 4 feet in height, weep tubes fairly smooth surface to avoid compounding the
should also be placed, see Figure 873.3E. restriction. The high velocity will increase the
threat of scour at the toe and erosion at the
For good appearance, it is essential that the
downstream end. Allowance must be made for
sacks be placed in horizontal courses. If the
these threats in selecting the type of foundation,
foundation is irregular, corrective work
grade of footing, penetration of piling,
such as placement of entrenched concrete or
transition, and anchorage at downstream end.
sacked concrete is necessary to level up the
Transitions at both ends may appropriately taper
foundation. Refer to HDS No. 6, Section
the width of channel and slope of the bank.
6.6.5, for further discussion on the use of
Transition in roughness is desirable if attainable.
sacked concrete slope protection.
Refer to HDS No. 6, Section 6.4.8, for further
(5) Bulkheads. A bulkhead is a steep or vertical discussion on the use of bulkheads to prevent
structure supporting a natural slope or streambank erosion or failure.
constructed embankment. As bank protection
(a) Concrete or Masonry Walls. The expertise
structures, bulkheads serve to secure the bank
and coordination of several engineering
against erosion as well as retaining it against
disciplines is required to accomplish the
sliding. As a retaining structure, conventional
development of PS&E for concrete walls
design methods for retaining walls, cribs and
serving the dual purpose of slope protection
laterally loaded piles are used.
and support. The Division of Structures is
Bulkheads are usually expensive, but may be responsible for the structural integrity of all
economically justified in special cases where retaining walls, including bulkheads.
valuable riparian property or improvements are
(b) Crib walls. Timber and concrete cribs can
involved and foundation conditions are not
be used for bulkheads in locations where
satisfactory for less expensive types of slope
some flexibility is desirable or permissible.
protection. They may be used for toe protection
Metal cribs are limited to support of
in combination with other revetment types of
embankment and are not recommended for
slope protection. Some other considerations
use as protection because of vulnerability to
that may justify the use of bulkheads include:
corrosion and abrasion.
July 15, 2016
The design of crib walls is essentially a Erosion control and revegetation mats are
determination of line, foundation grade, and flexible three-dimensional mats or nets of
height with special attention given to natural or synthetic material that protect soil and
potential scour and possible loss of backfill seeds against water erosion prior to
at the base and along the toe. Design details establishment of vegetation. They permit
for concrete crib walls are shown on vegetation growth through the web of the mat
Standard Plans C7A through C7C. material and have been used as temporary
Concrete crib walls used as bulkheads and channel linings where ordinary seeding and
exposed to salt water require special mulching techniques will not withstand erosive
provisions specifying the use of coated flow velocities. The designer should recognize
rebars and special high density concrete. that flow velocity estimates and a particular soils
Recommendations from METS Corrosion resistance to erosion are parameters that must be
Technology Branch should be requested. based on specific site conditions. Using
arbitrarily selected values for design of
(c) Sheet Piling. Timber, concrete and steel
vegetative slope protection without consultation
sheet piling are used for bulkheads that
with the District Hydraulic Unit and/or the
depend on deep penetration of foundation
District Landscape Architect Unit is not
materials for all or part of their stability.
recommended. However, a suggested starting
High bulkheads are usually counterforted at
point of reference is Table 865.2 in which the
upper levels with batter piles or tie back
resistance of various unprotected soil
systems to deadmen. Any of the three
classifications to flow velocities are given.
materials is adaptable to sheet piling or a
Under near ideal conditions, ordinary seeding
sheathed system of post or column piles.
and mulching methods cannot reasonably be
Excluding structural requirements, design expected to withstand sustained flow velocities
of pile bulkheads is essentially as follows: above 4 feet per second. If velocities are in
excess of 4 feet per second, a lining maybe
• Recognition of foundation conditions
needed, see Table 865.2.
suitable to or demanding deep
penetration. Penetration of at least Temporary channel liners are used to establish
15 feet below scour level, or into soft vegetative growth in a drainage way or as slope
rock, should be assured. protection prior to the placement of a permanent
armoring. Some typical temporary channel
• Choice of material. Timber is suitable
liners presented in Table 865.2 are:
for very dry or very wet climates, for
other situations economic comparison • Single net straw
of preliminary designs and alternative
• Double net coconut/straw blend
materials should be made.
• Double net shredded wood
• Determination of line and grade. Fairly
smooth transitions with protection to Vegetative and temporary channel liners are
high-water level should be provided. suitable for conditions of uniform flow and
moderate shear stresses.
(6) Vegetation. Vegetation is the most natural
method for stabilization of embankments and Permanent soil reinforcing mats and rock riprap
channe bank protection. Vegetation can be may serve the dual purpose of temporary and
relatively easy to maintain, visually attractive permanent channel liner. Some typical
and environmentally desirable. The root system permanent channel liners are:
forms a binding network that helps hold the soil.
• Small rock slope protection
Grass and woody plants above ground provide
resistance to the near bank water flow causing it • Geosynthetic mats
to lose some of its erosive energy.
• Polyethelene cells or grids
July 15, 2016
• Gabion Mattresses (see Index culverts or other encroachments on the tributary

873.3(3)(a)(2)(e)) systems. In general, any increase in transported
materials from the tributaries to the main
However, geosynthetics and plastic
channel causes a reduction in the quality of the
(polyethylene, polypropylene, polyamide, etc.)
environment within the river.
based mats with no enhanced UV resistance
must be installed in a fashion where there will (a) Bendway Weirs. Bendway weirs, also
be no potential for long-term sunlight exposure, referred to as stream barbs, bank barbs, and
as these products will degrade due to UV reverse sills are low elevation stone sills
radiation. used to improve lateral stream stability and
flow alignment problems at river bends and
Composite designs are often used where there
highway crossings on streams and smaller
are sustained low flows of high to moderate
rivers.
velocities and intermediate high water flows of
low to moderate velocities. Brush layering is a They are placed at an angle with the
permanent type of erosion control technique that embankment in meandering streams for the
may also have application for channel purpose of directing or forcing the current
protection, particularly as a composite design. away from the embankment, see Figure
873.4A. They also encourage deposition of
Additional design information on vegetation,
bed material and growth of vegetation.
and temporary and permanent channel liners is
When the purpose is to deposit material and
given in Chapter IV, HEC 15, Design of
promote growth, the weirs are considered to
Roadside Channels and Flexible Linings and in
have fulfilled their function and are
Chapter 860 of this manual.
expendable when this occurs.
873.4 Training Systems
Figure 873.4A
(1) General. Training systems are structures,
usually within a channel, that act as Thalweg Redirection Using
countermeasures to control the direction, Bendway Weirs
velocity, or depth of flowing water. When
training systems are used, they generally
straighten the channel, shorten the flow line, and
increase the local velocity within the channel.
Any such changes made in the system that cause
an increase in the gradient may cause an
increase in local velocities. The increase in
velocity increases local and contraction scour
with subsequent deposition downstream, where
the channel takes on its normal characteristics.
If significant lengths of the river are trained and
straightened, there can be a noticeable decrease
in the elevation of the water surface profile for a Bendway weirs in conjunction with rock slope protection.
given discharge in the main channel. Tributaries
Bendway weirs are similar in appearance to
emptying into the main channel in such reaches stone spurs, but have significant functional
are significantly affected. Having a lower water differences. Spurs are typically visible
level in the main channel for a given discharge above the flow line and are designed so that
means that the tributary streams entering in that flow is either diverted around the structure,
vicinity are subjected to a steeper gradient and
or flow along the bank line is reduced as it
higher velocities which can cause degradation in passes through the structure. Bendway
the tributary streams. In extreme cases, weirs are normally not visible, especially at
degradation can be induced of such magnitude stages above low water, and are intended to
as to cause failure of structures such as bridges, redirect flow by utilizing weir hydraulics
July 15, 2016
over the structure. Flow passing over the moving the location of any scour away from
bendway weir is redirected such that it flows the bank, partial failure of the spur can often
perpendicular to the axis of the weir and is be repaired before damage is done to
directed towards the channel centerline. See structures along and across the stream.
Figure 873.4B for typical cross section and
In braided streams, the use of spurs to
layout. Similar to stone spurs, bendway
establish and maintain a well-defined
weirs reduce near bank velocities, reduce
channel location, cross section, and
the concentration of currents on the outer
alignment can decrease the required bridge
bank, and can produce a better alignment of
length, thus decreasing the cost of bridge
flow through the bend and downstream
construction and maintenance.
crossing. Experience with bendway weirs
has indicated that the structures do not Spur types are classified based upon their
perform well in degrading or sediment permeability as retarder spurs,
deficient reaches. retarder/deflector spurs, and deflector spurs.
The permeability of spurs is defined simply
Material sizing should be based on the
as the percentage of the spur surface area
Isbash equation plotted in Figure 873.4C.
facing the streamflow that is open.
Riprap stone size is designed using the
Deflector spurs are impermeable spurs
critical velocity near the boundary where the
which function by diverting the primary
riprap is placed. Typically the size ranges
flow currents away from the bank.
between 1 and 3 ft and should be
Retarder/deflector spurs are more
approximately 20% greater than that
permeable and function by retarding flow
computed from the rock sizing formula
velocities at the bank and diverting flow
presented in Index 873.3(3)(a)(2)(b). The
away from the bank. Retarder spurs are
minimum rock size should not be less than
highly permeable and function by retarding
the D100 of the streambed material. See
flow velocities near the bank.
Tables 873.3A and 873.3B to determine
rock class. These structures should be designed not to
overtop. Therefore, for permeable spurs,
See HEC 23 Volume 2, Design Guideline 1
the rock sizing formula presented in Index
for detailed guidance on weir height, length,
873.3(3)(a)(2)(b) may be used and a Cv
angle, location and spacing,
value of 1.25 is recommended. Where
(b) Spurs. A spur can be a pervious or overtopping the spur is unavoidable, the
impervious structure projecting from the riprap size may be determined by equations
streambank into the channel. Similar to 5.2 (for slopes > 25%) or 5.3 (for slopes
bendway weirs, spurs are used to halt < 25%) in HEC 23 Volume 2, Design
meander migration at a bend and channelize Guideline 5. Since these equations are for
wide, poorly defined streams into well- free flow down the slope, always check to
defined channels by reducing flow see if the structure is actually drowned
velocities in critical zones near the (submerged) by high tailwater. If that is the
streambank to prevent erosion and establish case, then use the rock sizing formula
a more desirable channel alignment or presented in Index 873.3(3)(a)(2)(b) for
width. The main function of spurs is to sizing riprap on a stream bank should be
reduce flow velocities near the bank, which used. See Tables 873.3A and 873.3B to
in turn, encourages sediment deposition due determine rock class.
to these reduced velocities. Increased
In general a top width equal to the width of
protection of banks can be achieved over
a dump truck can be used. The side slopes
time, as more sediment is deposited behind
of the spur should be 2H:1V or flatter. Rock
the spurs. Because of this, spurs may
riprap should be placed on the upstream and
protect a streambank more effectively and at
downstream faces as well as on the nose of
less cost than revetments. Furthermore, by
the spur to inhibit erosion of the spur.
July 15, 2016
Figure 873.4B
Bendway Weir Typical Cross Section and Layout
July 15, 2016
Figure 873.4C
Bendway Weir Rock Size Chart
July 15, 2016
Depending on the embankment material banks can be used on both sand and gravel-
being used, a gravel, sand, or geotextile bed streams.
filter may be required. It is recommended
that riprap be extended below the bed Figure 873.4E
elevation to the combined long-term Bridge Abutment Guide Banks
degradation and contraction scour depth.
Riprap should also extend to the crest of the
spur, in cases where the spur would be
submerged at design flow, or to 2 feet above
the design flow, if the spur crest is higher
than the design flow depth. Additional
riprap should be placed around the nose of
the spur, so that spur will be protected from
scour.
See Figure 873.4D for example of spur
design and HEC 23 Volume 2, Design
Guideline 2, for detailed guidance on spur
height, length, shape, angle, permeability, Guide banks are usually earthen
location and spacing. embankment faced with rock slope
protection. Optimum shape and length of
(c) Guide Dikes/Banks. Guide banks are
guide dikes will be different for each site.
appendages to the highway embankment at
Field experience has shown that an elliptical
bridge abutments, see Figure 873.4E. They
shape with a major to minor axis ratio of
are smooth extensions of the fill slope on the
2.5:1 is effective in reducing turbulence.
upstream side. When embankments
The length is dependent on the ratio of flow
encroach on wide floodplains to attain an
diverted from the floodplain to flow in the
economic length of bridge, the flows from
first 100 feet of waterway under the bridge.
these areas must flow parallel to the
If the use of another shape dike, such as a
approach embankment to the bridge
straight dike, is required for practical
opening. These flows can cause a severe
reasons more scour should be expected at
flow contraction at the abutment with
the upstream end of the dike. The bridge
damaging eddy currents that can scour away
end will generally not be immediately
abutment and pier foundations, erode the
threatened should a failure occur at the
approach embankment, and reduce the
upstream end of a guide dike.
effective bridge opening.
Toe dikes are sometimes needed
Guide banks can be used in these cases to
downstream of the bridge end to guide flow
prevent erosion of the approach
away from the structure so that
embankments by cutting off the flow
redistribution in the floodplain will not
adjacent to the embankment, guiding
cause erosion damage to the embankment
streamflow through a bridge opening, and
due to eddy currents. The shape of toe dikes
transferring scour away from abutments to
is of less importance than it is with upstream
prevent damage caused by abutment scour.
guide banks.
The two major enhancements guide banks
bring to bridge design are (1) reduce the Principal factors to be considered when
separation of flow at the upstream abutment designing guide banks, are their orientation
face and thereby maximize the use of the to the bridge opening, plan shape, upstream
total bridge waterway area, and (2) reduce and downstream length, cross-sectional
the abutment scour due to lessening shape, and crest elevation.
turbulence at the abutment face. Guide
It is apparent from the Figure 873.4E that
without this guide bank, overbank flows
July 15, 2016
Figure 873.4D
Example of Spur Design
July 15, 2016
would return to the channel at the bridge longitudinal dikes and bulkheads, see HEC
opening, which can increase the severity of 23 Volume 1, Chapter 8.
contraction and scour at the abutment. With
(e) Check Dams and Drop Structures. Drop
installation of guide banks the scour holes
structures or check dams are an effective
which normally would occur at the
means of gradient control. They may be
abutments of the bridge are moved upstream
constructed of rock, gabions, concrete,
away from the abutments. Guide banks may
treated timber, sheet piling or combinations
be designed at each abutment, as shown, or
of any of the above. They are most suited to
singly, depending on the amount of
locations where bed materials are relatively
overbank or floodplain flow directed to the
impervious otherwise underflow must be
bridge by each approach embankment.
prevented by cutoffs. Rock riprap and
The goal in the design of guide banks is to timber pile construction have been most
provide a smooth transition and contraction successful on channels having small drops
of the streamflow through the bridge and widths less than 100 ft. Sheet piles,
opening. Ideally, the flow lines through the gabions, and concrete structures are
bridge opening should be straight and generally used for larger drops on channels
parallel. As in the case with other with widths ranging up to 300 ft. Check
countermeasures, the designer should dams can initiate erosion of banks and the
consider the principles of river hydraulics channel bed downstream of the structure as
and morphology, and exercise sound a result of energy dissipation and turbulence
engineering judgment. at the drop. This local scour can undermine
the check dam and cause failure. The use of
The Division of Engineering Services
energy dissipators downstream of check
(DES) and Structures Maintenance and
dams can reduce the energy available to
Investigations (SMI) Hydraulics Branches
erode the channel bed and banks. In some
are responsible for the hydraulic design of
cases it may be better to construct several
bridges, therefore, for protection at bridge
consecutive drops of shorter height to
abutments and approaches, the District is
minimize erosion. Lateral erosion of
responsible for consulting with them to
channel banks just downstream of drop
verify the design parameters and also
structures is another adverse result of check
obtaining the bridge hydraulic model. See
dams and is caused by turbulence produced
Index 873.6 “Coordination with the
by energy dissipation at the drop, bank
Division of Engineering Services and
slumping from local channel bed erosion, or
Structures Maintenance and
eddy action at the banks. The usual solution
Investigations.”
to these problems is to place rock slope
For further detailed information on guide protection on the streambank adjacent to the
bank design procedures, refer to HEC 23, drop structure or check dam. Erosion of the
Volume 2, Design Guidelines 14 and 15. streambed can also be reduced by placing
See Tables 873.3A and 873.3B to determine rock riprap in a preformed scour hole
rock class. downstream of the drop structure. A row of
(d) Further Information and Other sheet piling with top set at or below
Countermeasures for Lateral Stream streambed elevation can keep the riprap
Instability. General design considerations from moving downstream. Because of the
and guidance for evaluating scour and problems associated with check dams, the
stream stability at highway bridges is design of these countermeasures requires
contained in HEC 18, HEC 20, and HEC 23. designing the check dams to resist scour by
providing for dissipation of excess energy
For further information on other and protection of areas of the bed and the
countermeasures such as retarder structures, bank which are susceptible to erosive
forces. Refer to HEC 23 Volume 2, Design
July 15, 2016
Guideline 3 and HDS No. 6, Section 6.4.11, 3. A typical cross section indicating dimensions,
for further discussion on the use of check slopes, arrangement and connections.
dams and drop structures. 4. Quantity of materials (per foot, per protection
873.5 Summary and Design Check List unit, or per job).
5. Relation of the foundation treatment with
The designer should anticipate the more significant respect to the existing ground.
problems that are likely to occur during the
construction and maintenance of channel protection 6. Relation of the top of the proposed protection to
facilities. So far as possible, the design should be design high water (historic, with date; or
adjusted to eliminate or minimize those potential predicted, with frequency).
problems. 7. The limits of excavation and backfill as they
may affect measurement and payment.
The logistics of the construction activity such as
access to the site, on-site storage of construction 8. Construction details such as weep holes, rock
materials, time of year restrictions, environmental slope protection fabrics, geocomposite drains
concerns, project specific permits and sequence of and associated materials.
construction should be carefully considered during 9. Location and details of construction joints, cut-
the project design. See Index 872.1, Planning, Index off stubs and end returns.
872.3(6), Construction, Easements, Access and 10. Restrictions to the placement of reinforcement.
Staging, and Index 872.3(7), Biodiversity. The 11. Connections and bracing for framing of timber
stream morphology and its response to construction or steel.
activities is an integral part of the planning process.
Communication between the designer and those 12. Splicing details for timber, pipe, rails and
responsible for construction administration as well structural shapes.
as maintenance are important. 13. Anchorage details, particularly size, type,
location, and method of connection.
Channel protection facilities require periodic
maintenance inspection and repair. Where 14. Size, shape, and special requirements of units
practicable, provisions should be made in the facility such as precast concrete shapes and other
design to provide access for inspection and manufactured items.
maintenance. 15. Number and arrangement of cables and details
of fastening devices.
The following check list has been prepared for both
the designer and reviewer. It will help assure that all 16. Size, mass per unit area, mesh spacing and
necessary information is included in the plans and fastening details for wire-fabric or geosynthetic
specifications. It is a comprehensive list for all types materials.
of protection. Items pertinent to any particular type 17. On timber pile construction the number of piles
can be selected readily and the rest ignored. per bent, number of bents, length of piling,
driving requirements, cut-off elevations, and
1. Location and staging of the planned work with framing details.
respect to:
18. The details of gabions and the filling material.
• The highway. See Standard Plan D100A and D100B and the
• The stream, its morphology, biodiversity Standard Specifications.
and project specific permits. 19. The size of articulated blocks, the placement of
• Right of way. See Index 872.1 and 872.3 steel, and construction details relating to
for construction easements and examination fabrication.
of stream behavior far upstream and 20. The corrosion considerations that may dictate
downstream. specialty concretes, coated reinforcing, or other
2. Datum control of the work, and relation of that special requirements.
datum to gage datum on streams.
July 15, 2016
873.6 Coordination with the Division of analyses, repair and monitoring of in-service
Engineering Services and Structures bridges. Typical maintenance challenges
Maintenance and Investigations include scour, flooding, and lateral migration.
Maintenance related impacts to a bridge will
(1) The Division of Engineering Services and trigger a hydraulic report for that specific
Structures Maintenance and Investigations bridge. The hydraulic report recommendations
Hydraulics Branches. The Division of are used by the District in determining the scope
Engineering Services (DES) and Structures of hydraulic improvements to the bridge
Maintenance and Investigations (SMI) projects. For countermeasure design at bridge
Hydraulics Branches are responsible for the abutments and piers (e.g., rock slope protection,
hydraulic design of bridges. Therefore, for guide banks, check dams, structural repairs etc.)
protection at bridge piers, abutments and the magnitude of the discharge used is the
approaches, the District is responsible for 100-year flood. This standard is independent of
consulting with them to verify the design the design flood used by the District for
parameters (i.e., water surface elevations, protecting the channel bank or the bridge
freeboard requirements, water velocities, scour approach embankment (see Index 873.2).
recommendations etc.) used and also obtaining
the bridge hydraulic model. Since the mid 1990’s, new bridges have been
designed so that the top of the pile cap is at the
Figure 873.6A bottom of anticipated scour (long-term
degradation, contraction and local scour) for the
Bridge Abutment Failure Example 100-year flood using the hypothesis that by
designing the foundations lower than
recommended in HEC 18 for the 100-year flood,
there would be ample safety factor inherent to
withstand the 200-year scour check flood.
Bridges that were designed prior to the first
edition of HEC 18 in 1991 may be more
vulnerable to the possible effects of climate
change or floods larger than the 100-year flood.
See Figure 873.6A.
Depending on location, site considerations may
include constructability and biodiversity, see
Index 872.3(4) and Index 872.3(5). During the
Bridge Abutment Failure at Tex Wash on I-10 after a planning and environmental phases on
Flood Larger Than the Design Flood environmentally sensitive projects (e.g., bridge
structures that require permits for fish passage
The DES Hydraulics branch performs all design under California Fish and Wildlife
hydraulic designs for new bridges or jurisdiction – see Figure 873.3B), the District
replacement bridges that meet the National should initiate contact with resource agencies
Bridge Inventory (NBI) bridge definition. early to propose conceptual design, identify
Modifications to an existing bridge or impacts and any necessary mitigation as part of
constructing a new bridge require obtaining the permitting process. The overriding issue of
permits from the regulatory agencies. The DES concern is the difference in timing of detailed
Hydraulics branch should coordinate with the analyses (e.g., hydraulics, geotechnical,
District to perform conceptual designs for foundation) that takes place on the District side
permit approval. The DES Hydraulics branch is of the project development process verses what
essentially a consultant/designer to the District takes place in DES prior to project approval
Design Offices. during the environmental phase.
The SMI Hydraulics branch within the Division
of Maintenance is responsible for the hydraulic
July 15, 2016
Prematurely approved projects and Coordination with Geotechnical Design and

environmental documents prior to permit Geology within DES may be initiated by the
approval can, and do, result in costly major re- designer when any of the following
work during the design phase. On determinations need to be made:
environmentally sensitive projects the District
• Scour potential of channel material.
should consider the need to shift resources to the
environmental phase so that a more advanced • Natural erosion potential of stream banks
bridge foundation design can be incorporated that may affect project features. See Figure
into the Advanced Planning Study (APS) and 873.6C.
the Environmental Document (ED) to facilitate
permit approval consistent with the Project • The performance of existing cut, fill and
Approval (PA) and to minimize rework. natural slopes including the slope soil/rock
composition.
Figure 873.6B • Slope stability analysis and need for earth
Habitat Enhancement Example retaining systems including crib walls and
gabion walls.
• Embankment constructability and impact to
nearby structures or bridge abutments. See
following link to the Geotechnical Manual
and Figure 873.6D:
http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/esc/geotech/geo_
manual/page/Embankments_Dec2014.pdf
Figure 873.6C
Lateral Stream Migration Within a
Canyon Setting Example
Longitudinal Peaked Stone Toe Protection (LPSTP) with

Rock Vanes for Chinook Salmon Habitat Enhancement,
Route 128, Russian River Bridge in Geyserville
(2) Geotechnical Design and Geology. The Project
Engineer must review the Project Initiation
Document and Preliminary Geotechnical
Design Report, if any, to ascertain the scope of
geotechnical involvement for a project.
For all projects that involve designs for cut
slopes, embankments, earthwork, landslide
remediation, retaining walls, groundwater
studies, erosion control features, subexcavation Figure 873.6D
and any other studies involving geotechnical Conceptual Geotechnical Failures
investigations and engineering geology, a Resulting from Abutment Scour
Geotechnical Design Report (GDR) is to be
prepared by the Roadway Geotechnical
Engineering Branches of the Division of
Engineering Services, Geotechnical Services
(DES-GS).
July 15, 2016
assist with selecting storm scenarios for design wave

CHAPTER 880 heights, the design of high water level (including sea
SHORE PROTECTION or lake level change estimates) using coastal surge
and wave models, flood analysis, water surface
Topic 881 - General elevations/profiles, shear stress computations, scour
analysis and hydraulic analysis for placement of
Index 881.1 - Introduction coastal structures.
Highways, bikeways, pedestrian facilities and There are a number of ways to deal with the problem
appurtenant installations are often attracted to of wave action and shore erosion.
parallel locations along lakes and coastal zones. • Where avoidance is not feasible, the simplest
These locations are under attack from the action of way and generally the surest of success and
waves and may require protective measures. permanence, is to locate the facility away from
Shore protection along coastal zones and lake shores the erosive forces. This is not always feasible or
that are subjected to wave attack can be a major economical, but should be the first
element in the design, construction, and consideration. Locating the facility to higher
maintenance of highways. Chapter 880 deals with ground or solid support should never be
procedures, methods, devices, and materials overlooked, even when it requires excavation of
commonly used to mitigate the damaging effects of solid rock, since excavated rock may serve as a
wave action on transportation facilities and adjacent valuable material for protection at other points
properties. The primary focus is on quantifying of attack.
exposure of these locations to sea level rise, storm • The most commonly used method is to armor
surge, and wave action. The practice of coastal the shore with a more resistant material like rock
engineering is still much of an art. This is for a slope protection. FHWA Hydraulic
variety of reasons including that the physical Engineering Circular 25 (HEC 25), Volume 1,
processes are so complex, often too complex for presents general issues and approaches in
adequate theoretical description, and the design coastal highway design. Types of revetments for
level of risk is often high. wave attack and coastal structures are covered in
Refer to Index 806.2 for definitions of drainage Indexes 6.1 and 7.6.
terms. • Rock Materials. Optimum use should be made
881.2 Design Philosophy of local materials, considering the cost of special
handling. Specific gravity of stone is a major
In each district there should be a designer or advisor, factor in shore protection and the specified
usually the District Hydraulic Engineer, minimum should not be lowered without
knowledgeable in the application of shore protection increasing the mass of stones. See Index
principles and the performance of existing works at 873.3(3)(a)(2)(b) for equations to estimate rock
coastal and lake shore locations vulnerable to wave size.
attack.
881.3 Selected References
Information is also available from headquarters
specialists in the Division of Design and Structures Hydraulic and drainage related publications are
Design in the Division of Engineering Services listed by source under Topic 807. References
(DES). The most effective designs result from specifically related to shore protection measures are
involvement with Design, Environmental, listed here for convenience.
Landscape Architecture, Structures, Construction, (a) FHWA Hydraulic Engineering Circulars (HEC)
and Maintenance (for further discussion on -- The following circulars were developed to
functional responsibilities see Topic 802). For assist the designer in using various types of
habitat characterization and assessment relative to slope protection and channel linings:
design and obtaining project specific permits, the
designer may also require input from biologists. The
District Hydraulic Engineer will typically be able to
July 15, 2016
• HEC 14, Hydraulic Design of Energy Topic 882 - Planning and Location
Dissipators for Culverts and Channels
(2006)
Studies
• HEC 18, Evaluating Scour at Bridges 882.1 Planning
(2012) The development of sustainable, cost effective and
• HEC 20, Stream Stability at Highway environmentally friendly protective works requires
Structures (2012) careful planning and a good understanding of both
the site location and habitat within the shore or
• HEC 23, Bridge Scour and Stream coastal zone subject to wave attack. Planning begins
Instability Countermeasures (2009) with an office review followed by a site
• HEC 25, Highways in the Coastal investigation.
Environment (2008 with 2014 supplement – Google Earth can be a useful tool for determining
Assessing Extreme Events) site location and recent changes to the coastal zone.
(c) AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines -- Nearby bridges should be reviewed for site history
General guidelines for good erosion control and changes in stream cross-section. All bridge files
practices are covered in Volume III - Erosion belong to Structure Maintenance within the Division
and Sediment Control in Highway Construction, of Maintenance.
and Volume XI - Guidelines for Highways
Coastal highways traverse bays, estuaries, beaches,
Along Coastal Zones and Lakeshores.
dunes and bluffs which are some of the most unique
(d) AASHTO Drainage Manual (2014) – Refer to and treasured habitats for humans as well as the
Chapters; 11 – Energy Dissipators; 16 – Erosion habitats of a variety of plants and animals. The list
and Sediment Control; 17 – Bank Protection; of endangered species requiring these coastal
and 18 – Coastal Zone. The MDM provides habitats for survival includes numerous sea turtles,
guidance on engineering practice in birds, mammals, rodents, amphibians and fish.
conformance with FHWA’s HEC and HDS District biologist staff should be consulted early on
publications and other nationally recognized during the project planning phase for subject matter
engineering policy and procedural documents. expertise to perform an initial habitat assessment.
(e) Shore Protection Manual (SPM) (1984) – Contact information for Department biologists can
Comprehensive two volume guidance on wave be accessed through the CalBioRoster.
and shore processes and methods for shore
For habitat characterization and preliminary
protection. No longer in publication but still
assessment relative to design and obtaining project
referenced pending completion of the Coastal
specific permits, the initial site investigation team
Engineering Manual.
should include the project engineer, the district
(f) Design of Coastal Revetments, Seawalls, and hydraulic engineer, and a biologist.
Bulkheads. Engineering Manual 1110-2-1614
The selection of the type of protection can be
(1995) – Supersedes portions of Volume 2 of the
determined during or following site investigation.
Shore Protection Manual (SPM).
For some sites the choice is obvious; at other sites
(g) Coastal Engineering Manual. Engineer Manual several alternatives or combinations may be
(EM) 1110-2-1100 (2002) – Published in six applicable.
parts plus an appendix, this set of documents
Considerations at this stage are:
supersedes the SPM and EM 1110-2-1614.
• Design life and whether the protection need be
permanent or temporary.
• The severity of wave attack.
• The coastal water level and future sea level.
July 15, 2016
• Littoral drift of the beach sands. Older lakes normally have thick beds of
precipitated silt and organic matter. Bank
• Seasonal shifts of the shore. protection along or across such lakes must be
• The ratio of cost of highway replacement versus designed to suit the available foundation. It is
cost of protection. usually more practical to use lightweight or self-
adjusting armor types supported by the soft bed
• Analysis of foundation and materials materials than to excavate the mud to stiffer
explorations. underlying soils. See Index 883.3 for further
• Access for construction information on armor protection.
• Slope (H:V) In fresh waters, effective protection can often be
provided by the establishment of vegetation, but
• Vegetation type and location planners should not overlook the possibility of
• Physical habitat moderate erosion before the vegetative cover
becomes established. A light armor treatment
• Failure mode (see Table 872.2) should be adequate for this transitional period.
• Total length of protection needed (2) Ocean Front Locations. Wave action is the
The second step is the selection and layout of erosive force affecting the reliability of highway
protective elements in relation to the highway locations along the coast. The corrosive effect
facility. of salt water is also a major concern for
hydraulic structures located along the coastline.
882.2 Class and Type of Protection Headlands and rocks that have historically
withstood the relentless pounding of tide and
Protective devices are classified according to their
waves can usually be relied on to continue to
function. They are further categorized as to the type
protect adjacent highway locations founded
of material from which they are constructed or shape
upon them. The need for shore protection
of the device.
structures is, therefore, generally limited to
882.3 Site Consideration highway locations along the top or bottom of
bluffs having a history of sloughing and along
The determination of the lengths, heights,
beach fronts.
alignment, and positioning of the protection is
affected to a large extent by the facility location Beach protection considerations include:
environment.
• Attack by waves.
An evaluation is required for any proposed highway
construction or improvement that encroaches on a • Littoral drift of the beach sands.
floodplain. See Topic 804, Floodplain • Seasonal shifts of the shore.
Encroachments for detailed procedures and
guidelines. • Foundation for protective structures.
(1) Lakes and Tidal Basins. Highways adjacent to Wave attack on a beach is less severe than on a
lakes or basins may be at risk from wave headland, due to the gradual shoaling of the bed
generated erosion. All bodies of water generate which trips incoming waves into a series of
waves. Height of waves is a function of fetch breakers called a surf.
and depth. Erosion along embankments behind Littoral drift of beach sands may either be an
shallow coves is reduced because the higher asset or a liability. If sand is plentiful, a new
waves break upon reaching a shoal in shallow beach will be built in front of the highway
water. The threat of erosion in deep water at embankment, reducing the depth of water at its
headlands or along causeways is increased. toe and the corresponding height of the waves
Constant exposure to even the rippling of tiny attacking it. If sand supply is less plentiful or
waves may cause severe erosion of some soils. subject to seasonal variations, the new beach can
be induced or retained by groins.
July 15, 2016
If sand is in scant supply, backwash from a Topic 883 - Design

revetment tends to degrade the beach or bed
even more than the seasonal variation, and an 883.1 Introduction
allowance should be made for this scour when
A set of plans and specifications must be prepared to
designing the revetment, both as to weight of
define and describe the protection that the design
stones and depth of foundation. Groins may be
engineer has in mind. See Index 873.1.
ineffective for such locations; if they succeeded
in trapping some littoral drift, downcoast Recommendations on slope protection, and erosion
beaches would recede from undernourishment. control materials can be requested from the District
Hydraulic Engineer, the District Materials Branch
Seasonal shifts of the shore line result from
and the Office of State Highway Drainage and Water
combinations of:
Quality Design in Headquarters. The District
• Ranges of tide. Landscape Architect will provide recommendations
for temporary and permanent erosion and sediment
• Reversal of littoral currents.
control measures.
• Changed direction of prevailing onshore The Caltrans Bank and Shore Protection Committee
winds. is available on request to provide advice on
• Attack by swell. extraordinary situations or problems and to provide
evaluation and formal approvals for acceptable non-
Generally the shift is a recession, increasing the standard designs. See Index 802.3 for further
exposure of beach locations to the hazard of information on the organization and functions of the
damage by wave action. On strands or along Committee.
extensive embayments, recession at one end
may result in deposition at the other. 883.2 Design High Water and Design Wave
Observations made during location assessment Height
should include investigation of this
Information needed to design shore protection is:
phenomenon. For strands, the hazard may be
avoided by locating the highway on the • Design High Water Level
backshore facing the lagoon.
• Design Wave Height
Foundation conditions vary widely for beach
locations. On a receding shore, good bearing (1) Design High Water Level
may be found on soft but substantial rock Designs should not be based on an arbitrary
underlying a thin mantle of sand. Bed stones storm, high tide or flood frequency.
and even gravity walls have been founded
Per Index 873.2, a suggested starting point of
successfully on such foundations. Spits and
reference for the determination of the design
strands, however, are radically different, often
with softer clays or organic materials underlying high water level is that the protection withstands
high water levels caused by meteorological
the sand. Sand is usually plentiful at such
conditions having a recurrence interval of one-
locations, subsidence is a greater hazard than
half the service life of the protected facility.
scour, and location should anticipate a "floating"
Depending on the type of facility, it may be
foundation for flexible, self-adjusting types of
protection. appropriate to base the preliminary evaluation
on a high water elevation resulting from a storm
In planning ocean-front locations, the primary or flood with a 2 percent probability of
decision is a choice of (1) alignment far enough exceedance (50 year frequency of recurrence).
inshore to avoid wave attack, (2) armor on the The first evaluation may have to be adjusted to
embankment face, or (3) off shore devices like conform with a subsequent analysis which
groins to aggrade the beach at embankment toe. considers the level of related risks, local historic
high water marks, sea level rise and climate
change. Scour countermeasures protecting
structures designed by the Division of
July 15, 2016
Engineering Services (DES) may include of the 19-yr. metonic cycle) is MHHW, and of
consideration of floods greater than a 1 percent all the lower lows, MLLW. The vertical
probability of exceedance (100 year frequency difference between them is the diurnal range.
of recurrence). See Index 873.6.
Particularly on the Pacific coast where MLLW
There is always some risk associated with the is datum for tide tables, the stage of MHHW is
design of protection features. Significant risks numerically equal to diurnal range.
are classified as those having probability of:
The average of all highs (indicated graphically
• Catastrophic failure with loss of life. as the mean of higher high and lower high) is the
MHW, and of all the lows, MLW. Vertical
• Disruption of fire and ambulance services or difference between these two stages is the mean
closing of the only evacuation route range.
available to a community.
See Index 814.5, Tides and Waves, for
Refer to Topic 804, Floodplain Encroachments, information on where tide and wave data may be
for further discussion on evaluation of risks and obtained. See HEC 25, Volume 1, for a
impacts. discussion on tidal and survey datums.
(a) Lake Shore Locations. The flood stage
elevation on a lake or reservoir is usually the Figure 883.2A
result of inflow from upland runoff. If the
water stored in a reservoir is used for power Nomenclature of Tidal Ranges
generation, flood control, or irrigation, the
design high water elevation should be based
on the owner’s schedule of operation.
(b) Coastal Locations.
Except for inland tidal basins effected by wind
tides, floods and seiches, the static or still-water
level used for design of shore protection is the
highest tide. In tide tables, this is the stage of
the highest tide above "tide-table datum" at
MLLW. To convert this to MSL datum there
must be subtracted a datum equation (2.5 feet to NOTES:
3.9 feet) factor. If datum differs from MSL
datum, a further correction is necessary. These (1) Because of the great variation of tidal elements,
Figure 883.2A was not drawn to scale.
steps should be undertaken with care and
independently checked. Common errors are: (2) The elevation of the design high tide may be taken as
mean sea level (MSL) plus one-half the maximum
• Ignoring the datum equation. tidal range (Rm).
• Adding the factor instead of subtracting it. (2) Design Wave Heights.
• Using half the diurnal range as the stage of (a) General. Even for the simplest of cases, the
high water. estimation of water levels caused by
meteorological conditions is complex.
To clarify the determination of design high- Elaborate numerical models requiring the
water, Fig. 883.2A shows the Highest Tide in its use of a computer are available. See HEC
relation to an extreme-tide cycle and to a 25, Volume 2, Index 2.4.2. Simplified
hypothetical average-tide cycle, together with techniques may be used to predict
nomenclature pertinent to three definitions of acceptable wind wave heights for the design
tidal range. Note that the cycles have two highs of highway protection facilities along the
and two lows. The average of all the higher shores of embayments, inland lakes, and
highs for a long period (preferably in multiples reservoirs. The Coastal Engineering Manual
July 15, 2016
provides a simplified wave prediction height generally used is the significant wave
method which is suitable for most riprap height, Hs, for a 20-year return period.
sizing applications. The method is described
in HEC 23, Volume 2, Index 17.2.2 of Other design wave heights can also be
Design Guideline 17. It is recommended designated, such as H10 and H1. The H10
that for ocean shore protection designs the design wave is the average of the highest
assistance of the U.S. Army Corp of 10 percent of all waves, and the H1 design
Engineers be requested. wave is the average of the highest 1 percent
of all waves. The relationship of H10 and
Shore protection structures are generally
H1 to Hs can be approximated as follows:
designed to withstand the wave that induces
the highest forces on the structure over its H10 = 1.27 HS and H1 = 1.67 HS
economic service life. The design wave is
analogous to the design storm Economics and risk of catastrophic failure
considerations for determining return are the primary considerations in
frequency. A starting point of reference for designating the design wave average height.
shore protection design is the maximum (c) Wave Characteristics. Wave height
significant wave height that can occur once estimates are based on wave characteristics
in about 20-years. Economic and risk that may be derived from an analysis of the
considerations involved in selecting the following data:
design wave for a specific project are
basically the same as those used in the • Wave gage records
analysis of other highway drainage • Visual observations
structures.
• Published wave hindcasts
(b) Wave Distribution Predictions. Wave
prediction is called hindcasting when based • Wave forecasts
on past meteorological conditions and • Maximum breaking wave at the site
forecasting when based on predicted
conditions. The same procedures are used (d) Predicting Wind Generated Waves. The
for hindcasting and forecasting. The only height of wind generated waves is a function
difference is the source of the of fetch length, windspeed, wind duration,
meteorological data. Reference is made to and the depth of the water.
the Army Corps of Engineers, Coastal (1) Hindcasting -- The U.S. Army Corp of
Engineering Manual – Part II, for more Engineers has historical records of
complete information on the theory of wave onshore and offshore weather and wave
generation and predicting techniques. observations for most of the California
The prediction of wave heights from boat coastline. Design wave height
generated waves must be estimated from predictions for coastal shore protection
observations. facilities should be made using this
information and hindcasting methods.
The surface of any large body of water will Deep-water ocean wave characteristics
contain many waves differing in height, derived from offshore data analysis may
period, and direction of propagation. A need to be transformed to the project
representative wave height used in the site by refraction and diffraction
design of bank and shore protection is the techniques. As mentioned previously, it
significant wave height, Hs. The significant is strongly advised that the Corps
wave height is the average height of the technical expertise be obtained so that
highest one-third of all the waves in a wave the data are properly interpreted and
train for the time interval (return frequency) used.
under consideration. Thus, the design wave
July 15, 2016
(2) Forecasting -- Simplified wind wave understanding and ability to describe

prediction techniques may be used to wave phenomena, especially in the
establish probable wave conditions for region of the coastal zone, is limited.
the design of highway protection on Many aspects of physics and fluid
bays, lakes and other inland bodies of mechanics of wave energy have only
water. Wind data for use in determining minor influence on the design of shore
design wind velocities and durations is protection for highway purposes.
usually available from weather stations, Designers interested in a more complete
airports, and major dams and reservoirs. discussion on the rudiments of wave
mechanics should consult the U.S.
The following assumptions pertain to
Army Corps of Engineers' Coastal
these simplified methods:
Engineering Manual – Part II.
• The fetch is short, 75 miles or less
An initial estimate of wind generated
• The wind is uniform and constant significant wave heights can be made by
over the fetch. using Figure 883.2B. If the estimated
wave height from the nomogram is
It should be recognized that these
greater than 2 feet, the procedure may
conditions are rarely met and wind
need to be refined. It is recommended
fields are not usually estimated
that advice from the Army Corps of
accurately. The designer should
Engineers be obtained to refine
therefore not assume that the results are
significant wave heights, Hs, greater
more accurate than warranted by the
than 2 feet.
accuracy of the input and simplicity of
the method. Good, unbiased estimates (e) Breaking Waves. Wave heights derived
of all wind generated wave parameters from hindcasts or any forecasting method
should be sought and the cumulative should be checked against the maximum
results conservatively interpreted. The breaking wave that the design stillwater
individual input parameters should not level depth and nearshore bottom slope can
each be estimated conservatively, since support. The design wave height will be the
this may bias the result. smaller of either the maximum breaker
height or the forecasted or hindcasted wave
The applicability of a wave forecasting
height.
method depends on the available wind
data, water depth, and overland The relationship of the maximum height of
topography. Water depth affects wave breaker which will expend its energy upon
generation and for a given set of wind the protection, Hb, and the depth of water at
and fetch conditions, wave heights will the slope protection, ds, which the wave
be smaller and wave periods shorter if must pass over are illustrated in Figure
the wave generation takes place in 883.2C.
transitional or shallow water rather than The following diagram, with some specific
in deep water. references to the SPM, summarizes an
The height of wind generated waves overly simplified procedure that may be
may also be fetch-limited or duration- used for highway purposes to estimate wind
limited. Selection of an appropriate generated waves and establish a design
design wave may require a wave height for shore protection.
maximization procedure considering (f) Wave Run-up. Run-up is the extent,
depth of water, wind direction, wind measured vertically, that an incoming wave
duration, wind speed, and fetch length. will rise on a structure. An estimate of wave
Procedures for predicting wind run-up, in addition to design wave height,
generated waves are complex and our will typically be needed and is required by
July 15, 2016
Figure 883.2B
Significant Wave Height Prediction Nomograph
July 15, 2016
wave run-up on smooth slopes for wave

Figure 883.2C heights of 2 feet or less.
Design Breaker Wave In protected bays and estuaries, waves
generated by recreational or commercial
boat traffic and other watercraft may
dominate the design over wind generated
waves. Direct observation and
measurements during high tidal cycles may
provide the designer the most useful tool for
establishing wave run-up for these
situations.
Determining Design Wave
Example:
By using hindcast methods, the significant wave height (Hs)
has been estimated at 4 feet with a 3 second period. Find
the design wave height (Hd) for the slope protection if the
depth of water (d) is only 2 feet and the nearshore slope (m)
is 1:10.
Solution:
𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠 2 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
= = 0.007
𝑔𝑔𝑇𝑇 2 (32.2 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓/𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 2 ) × (3 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠)2
From Graph) - Hb/ds = 1.4
Hb = 2 x 1.4 = 2.8 ft
Answer:
Since the maximum breaker wave height, Hb, is smaller
than the significant deepwater wave height, Hs, the design
wave height Hd is 2.8 feet.
T = Wave Period (SPM)
policy for projects subject to California

Coastal Commission (CCC) jurisdiction
(see CCC guidance document “Beach
Erosion and Response,” December 1999).
Procedures for estimating wave run-up for
rough surfaces (e.g., RSP) are contained in
the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers manual,
Design of Coastal Revetments, Seawalls,
and Bulkheads, (EM 1110-2-1614)
published in 1995.
Procedures for estimating wave run-up for (g) Littoral Processes. See Index 882.3(2).
smooth surfaces (e.g., concrete paved Littoral processes result from the interaction
slopes) and for vertical and curved face of winds, waves, currents, tides, and the
walls are contained in the U.S. Army Corps availability of sediment. The rates at which
of Engineers, Shore Protection Manual, sediment is supplied to and removed from
1984. See Figure 873.2D for estimating the shore may cause excessive accretion or
July 15, 2016
erosion that can affect the structural SLR analysis. These projects have a high
integrity of shore protection structures or likelihood of being impacted by SLR at some
functional usefulness of a beach. The aim point during their lifespan. The shorter lifespan
of good shore protection design is to projects may be less likely to face SLR impacts,
maintain a stable shoreline where the and as a result be less inclined to incorporate
volume of sediment supplied to the shore SLR, depending on their proximity to the coast
balances that which is removed. line.
Designers interested in a more complete HEC 25, Volume 2, Index 2.3.1.2 provides
discussion on littoral processes should discussion on projections for SLR and and
consult the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers' example calculation is presented in Index
Coastal Engineering Manual (CEM) – Part 2.3.1.3.
III.
(4) Assessing Extreme Events and Climate Change.
(3) Sea Level Rise. Sea levels have been rising not Chapter 4 of HEC 25, Volume 2 presents
only in the past century, but for the past several guidance on specific methodologies for
millennia. The average rate of relative sea level assessing exposure of coastal transportation
change, which accounts for changes in both land infrastructure to extreme events and climate
and ocean elevation, varies with location. Tide change. For all projects, as a minimum, the use
and current data is available at the following of existing data and resources should be utilized
NOAA web site: through the use of existing inundation (FEMA)
http://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov or tsunami hazard maps to determine the
exposure of infrastructure under selected sea
The National Research Council developed a
(lake) level change scenarios, and sensitivity to
report on sea level changes with specific
depth-limited wave or wave runup processes.
commissioning from the three western states of
See HEC 25, Volume 2, Indexes 4.1.1 and 4.5.1
California, Oregon, and Washington (NRC
Level of Effort 1: Pacific Coast – Storms.
2012). Their projection is for global eustatic
(the rate with landmass elevation effects 883.3 Armor Protection
removed) sea level to rise 2.7 ft by the year
2100. The projected rate of rise is summarized (1) General. Armor is the artificial surfacing of
shore or embankment to resist erosion or scour.
in Figure 883.2D. A range of estimates is shown
to account for the uncertainties in the best- Armor devices can be flexible (self-adjusting) or
available science. The range is from 1.7 ft to rigid. The distinction between revetments
4.6 ft by 2100. (layers of rock or concrete), seawalls, and
bulkheads is one of functional purpose.
The timeframe identified for a project is Revetments usually consist of rock slope
important for sea level rise (SLR) assessments protection on the top of a sloped surface to
and will affect the approach for assessing protect the underlying soil. Seawalls are walls
impacts. Until 2050, there is strong agreement designed to protect against large wave forces.
among the various climate models for the Bulkheads are designed primarily to retain the
amount of SLR that is likely to occur. After soil behind a vertical wall in locations with less
mid-century, projections of SLR are uncertain, wave action. Design issues such as tie-backs,
because modeling results diverge and SLR depth of sheets are primarily controlled by
projections vary depending upon how quickly geotechnical issues. The use of each one of the
the international community reduces three types of coastal protection depends on the
greenhouse gas emissions. Therefore, for relationship between wave height and fetch
projects with timeframes beyond 2050, it is (distance across the water body). Bulkheads are
especially important to consider adaptive most common where fetches and wave heights
capacity, impacts, and risk tolerance to guide are small. Seawalls are most common where
decisions of whether to use low, medium, or fetches and wave heights are large. Revetments
high SLR projections. Projects that have a long are often common in intermediate situations
design life of 20+ years should include further such as on bay or lake shorelines.
July 15, 2016
Figure 883.2D
Global Sea Level Rise Projections(1)
NOTES:
(1) Adapted from NRC 2012.
July 15, 2016
(2) Revetments. • It is salvageable, may be stockpiled and

(a) Rock Slope Protection (RSP). Hard reused if necessary.
armoring of shorelines, primarily with RSP,
has been the most common means of
Figure 883.2E
providing long-term protection for
transportation facilities, and most
Wave Run-up on Smooth
importantly, the traveling public. With Impermeable Slope
many years of use, dozens of formal studies
and thousands of constructed sites, RSP is
the armor type for which there exists the
most quantifiable data on performance,
constructability, maintainability and
durability, and for which there exist several
nationally recognized design methods.
Due to the above factors, RSP is the general
standard against which other forms of
armoring are compared.
The results of internal research led to the
publication of Report No. FHWA-CA-TL-
95-10, “California Bank and Shore Rock
Slope Protection Design”. Within that
report, the methodology for RSP design
adopted as the Departmental standard for
many years, was the California Bank and
Shore, (CABS), layered design. The CABS
layered design methodology and its
associated gradations are now obsolete. For Figure 883.2F
reference only, the full report is available at
the following website: RSP Lined Ocean Shore
http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/oppd/hydrology/
hydroidx.htm.
For RSP designs along coastal and lake
shores, for wave heights five feet or less, the
methodology presented in HEC 23, Volume
2, Design Guideline 17- Riprap Design for
Wave Attack has been formally adopted by
the Caltrans Bank and Shore Protection
Committee. Section 72 of the Standard
Specifications provides all construction and
material specifications.
Rock is usually the most economical type of
In designing the rock slope protection for a
revetment where stones of sufficient size
shore location, the following determinations
and quality are available. It also has the
are to be made for the typical section.
following advantages:
• Depth at which the stones are founded
• Wave run-up is less than with smooth
(bottom of toe trench. See Figure
types (See Figure 883.2E).
883.2G and Figure 17.2 in HEC 23,
Volume 2, Design Guideline 17).
July 15, 2016
• Elevation at the top of protection. height of H=5 feet or less have

performed well. This range of
• Rock size, specific gravity and section design wave heights encompasses
thickness. many coastal revetments along
• Need for geotextile or rock filter highway embankments. When
material. design wave heights get large and
the design water depths get large,
• Face slope. problems with the performance of
Well designed coastal rock slope protection rubble-mound structures can occur.
should: A more conservative design
approach should use a more
• Assure stability and compatibility of the conservative H statistic. The proper
protected shore as an integral part of the input wave height statistic is
shoreline as a whole. required and discussed in Section
• Not be placed on a slope steeper than 6.3 of HEC 25, Volume 1. RSP
1.5H:1V. with design wave heights much
greater than H=5 feet require more
• Use stone of adequate weight to resist judgment and more experience and
erosion, derived from Index input from a trained, experienced
883.3(2)(a)(2)(1). coastal engineer. Therefore, when
• Prevent loss of bank materials through design wave heights are much
interstitial spaces of the revetment. greater than H=5 feet, contact the
Rock slope protection fabric or a filter District Hydraulic Engineer. The
layer should be used. Hudson method considers wave
height, riprap density, and slope of
• Rest on a good foundation on bedrock the bank or shoreline to compute a
or extend below the depth of probable required weight of a median-size
scour. If questionable, use heavy bed riprap particle.
stones and provide a wide base section
with a reserve of material to slough into 𝛾𝛾𝑟𝑟 𝐻𝐻 3 (tan 𝜃𝜃)
𝑊𝑊50 =
local scour holes (i.e., mounded toe). 𝐾𝐾𝑑𝑑 (𝑆𝑆𝑟𝑟 − 𝑆𝑆𝑤𝑤 )3
• Be constructed of rock of such shape as Where:
to form a stable protection structure of W50 = weight of median riprap
the required section. See Index particle size, (lb)
873.3(3)(a)(2)(a).
γr = unit weight of riprap, (lb/ft3)
(1) General Features -- See Index
873.3(3)(a)(1)(a) through (e) for H = design wave height, (ft)
discussions on methods of placement, (Note: Minimum recognized
foundation treatment, rock slope value for use with the
protection fabrics and gravel filters. Hudson equation is the
10 percent wave,
(2) Stone Size -- Two methods for H0.10 = 1.27Hs)
determining riprap size for stability
under wave action are presented in HEC Kd = empirical coefficient equal
23, Volume 2, Design Guideline 17: (1) to 2.2 for riprap
the Hudson method, and (2) the Sr = specific gravity for riprap
Pilarczyk method.
Sw = specific gravity for water
(a) The Hudson Method. Applications (1.0 for fresh water, 1.3 for
of Hudson’s equation in situations sea water)
with a design significant wave
July 15, 2016
θ = angle of slope inclination Table 883.2

The median weight W50 can be
converted to an equivalent particle Dimensionless Breaker Parameter
size d50 by the following and Wave Types
relationship:
Value of the
3 𝑊𝑊50 Dimensionless Type of Wave
𝑑𝑑50 = � Breaker Parameter ξ
0.85𝛾𝛾𝑟𝑟
ξ < 0.5 Spilling
(b) The Pilarczyk Method. Compared
to the Hudson method, the 0.5 < ξ < 2.5 Plunging
Pilarczyk method considers
additional variables associated with 2.5 < ξ < 3.5 Collapsing
particle stability in different wave ξ < 3.5 Surging
environments, and therefore should
more thoroughly characterize the
rock stability threshold. The
hydraulic processes that influence
rock revetment stability are directly
related to the type of wave that
impacts the slope, as characterized
by the breaker parameter. The
breaker parameter is a
dimensionless quantity that relates The Pilarczyk method, like the
the bank slope, wave period, wave Hudson method, uses a general
height, and wave length to empirical relationship for particle
distinguish between the types of stability under wave action. When
breaking waves. This parameter is design wave heights are much
defined as: greater than H=5 feet, contact the
tan 𝜃𝜃 𝐾𝐾𝑢𝑢 𝑇𝑇 District Hydraulic Engineer. The
𝜉𝜉 = = tan 𝜃𝜃 Pilarczyk equation is:
�𝐻𝐻𝑠𝑠�𝐿𝐿 �𝐻𝐻𝑠𝑠
𝑜𝑜 𝐻𝐻𝑠𝑠 cos 𝜃𝜃
≤ ψ𝑢𝑢 ϕ 𝑏𝑏
Where: ∆𝐷𝐷 𝜉𝜉
ξ = dimensionless breaker Where:
parameter Hs = significant wave height, (ft)
θ = angle of slope inclination Δ = relative unit weight of riprap,
Lo = wave height, (ft) Δ = (𝛾𝛾𝑟𝑟 − 𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 )⁄𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤
Hs = significant wave height, (ft) D = armor size thickness, (ft)
T = wave period, (sec) ψu = stability upgrade factor (1.0
for good riprap)
Ku = coefficient equal to 2.25 for
wave height, (ft) ϕ = stability factor (1.5 for good
quality, angular riprap)
The wave types corresponding to
the breaker parameter are listed in θ = angle of slope inclination
Table 883.2 and illustrated
schematically below.
ξ = dimensionless breaker
parameter
July 15, 2016
b = exponent (0.5 for riprap) can be found in HEC 25, Volume 1, and
HEC 23, Volume 2, Index 17.3.2.
Rearranging the Pilarczyk equation
to solve for the required stone size, (3) Bulkheads. The bulkhead types are steep or
and inserting the recommended vertical structures, like retaining walls, that
values for riprap with a specific support natural slopes or constructed
gravity of 2.65 and a fresh water embankments which include the following:
specific gravity of 1.0 yields the
• Gravity or pile supported concrete or
following equation for sizing rock
masonry walls.
riprap for wave attack:
• Crib walls
2 𝐻𝐻𝑠𝑠 𝜉𝜉 0.5
𝑑𝑑50 ≥ � � •
3 1.64 cos 𝜃𝜃 Sheet piling
For salt water locations (specific (a) Concrete or Masonry Walls. The expertise
gravity = 1.03), substitute 1.57 for and coordination of several engineering
1.64 into the denominator of the disciplines is required to accomplish the
above equation. development of PS&E for concrete walls
serving the dual purpose of slope protection
Using standard sizes the and support. The Division of Structures is
appropriate gradation can be responsible for the structural integrity of all
achieved by selecting the next retaining walls, including bulkheads.
larger size class, thereby creating a
slightly over-designed structure, (b) Crib walls. Timber and concrete cribs can
but economically a less expensive be used for bulkheads in locations where
one. For example, if a riprap sizing some flexibility is desirable or permissible.
calculation results in a required d50 Metal cribs are limited to support of
of 16.8 inches, Class V riprap embankment and are not recommended for
should be specified because it has a use as protection because of vulnerability to
nominal d50 of 18 inches. See Table corrosion and abrasion.
873.3A. The design of crib walls is essentially a
Worked examples of the Pilarczyk determination of line, foundation grade, and
and the Hudson method are height with special attention given to
presented in HEC 23, Design potential scour and possible loss of backfill
Guideline 17. Compared with the at the base and along the toe. Design details
Hudson method, the Pilarczyk for concrete crib walls are shown on
method is more complicated and Standard Plans C7A through C7C.
includes the consideration of wave Concrete crib walls used as bulkheads and
period, storm duration, clearly- exposed to salt water require special
defined damage level and provisions specifying the use of coated
permeability of structure. The rebars and special high density concrete.
choice of the appropriate formula is Recommendations from METS Corrosion
dependent on the design purpose Technology Branch should be requested.
(i.e. preliminary design or detailed (c) Sheet Piling. Timber, concrete and steel
design). sheet piling are used for bulkheads that
(3) Design Height -- The recommended depend on deep penetration of foundation
vertical extent of riprap for wave attack materials for all or part of their stability.
includes consideration of high tide High bulkheads are usually counterforted at
elevation, storm surge, wind setup, upper levels with batter piles or tie back
wave height, and wave runup. Details systems to deadmen. Any of the three
materials is adaptable to sheet piling or a
sheathed system of post or column piles.
July 15, 2016
Figure 883.2G
NOTES:
(1) Thickness "T" = 1.5 d50
(2) Face stone size is determined from Index 883.3(2)(b).
(3) RSP fabric not to extend more than 20 percent of the base width of the Mounded Toe past the Theoretical
Toe.
July 15, 2016
Excluding structural requirements, design normally of lighter construction than that

of pile bulkheads is essentially as follows: required for shore installation.
• Recognition of foundation conditions In its simplest or basic form, a groin is a spur
suitable to or demanding deep structure extending outward from the shore over
penetration. Penetration of at least beach and shoal. A typical layout of a shore
15 feet below scour level, or into soft protection groin installation is shown in Figure
rock, should be assured. 883.2H.
• Choice of material. Timber is suitable Assistance from the U.S. Army Corp of
for very dry or very wet climates, for Engineers is necessary to adequately design a
other situations economic comparison slope protection groin installation. For a more
of preliminary designs and alternative complete discussion on groins, designers should
materials should be made. consult Volume II, Chapter 6, Section VI, of the
Corps' Shore
• Determination of line and grade. Fairly
smooth transitions with protection to Protection Manual until Part VI of the Coastal
high-water level should be provided. Engineering Manual is published. Preliminary
studies can be made by using basic information
(4) Sea Walls. Sea walls are structures, often and data available from USGS quadrangle
concrete or stone, built along a portion of a coast sheets, USC & GS navigation charts,
to prevent erosion and other damage by wave hydrographic charts on currents for the
action. Seawalls can be rigid structures or Northeast Pacific Ocean and aerial photos of the
rubble-mound structures specifically designed area.
to withstand large waves. Often they retain
earth against the shoreward face. A seawall is Factors pertinent to design include:
typically more massive and capable of resisting (a) Alignment. Factors which influence
greater wave forces than a bulkhead. Index 6.1 alignment are effectiveness in detaining
of HEC 25, Volume 1 provides several littoral drift, and self-protection of the groin
examples of seawall designs. against damage by wave action.
(5) Groins. A groin is a relatively slender barrier A field of groins acts as a series of
structure usually aligned to the primary motion headlands, with beaches between each pair
of water designed to trap littoral drift, retard aligned in echelon, that is, extending from
bank or shore erosion, or control movement of outer end of the downdrift groin to an
bed load. intermediate point on the updrift groin, see
These devices are usually solid; however, upon Figure 883.2I. The offset in beach line at
occasion to control the elevation of sediments each groin is a function of spacing of groins,
they may be constructed with openings. Groins volume of littoral drift, slope of sea bed and
typically take the following forms of strength of the sea, varying measurably with
construction: the season. Length and spacing must be
complementary to assure continuity of
• Rock mound. beach in front of a highway embankment.
• Concreted-rock dike. A series of parallel spurs normal to the
• Sand filled plastic coated nylon bags. beach extending seaward would be correct
for a littoral drift alternating upcoast and
• Single or double lines of sheet piling. downcoast in equal measure. However, if
The primary use of groins is for ocean shore drift is predominantly in one direction the
protection. When used as stream channel median attack by waves contributes
protection to retard bank erosion and to control materially to the longshore current because
the movement of streambed material they are of oblique approach. In that case the groin
should be more effective if built oblique to
July 15, 2016
the same degree. Such an alignment will For example, with groins 400 feet apart,
warrant shortening of the groin in obliquity up to 20 degrees, on a beach
proportion to the cosine of the obliquity, see sloping 10:1 with a tidal range of 11 feet,
Figure 883.2I.
𝐿𝐿 = 0.35 × 400 + 10 × 11 = 250 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
Conformity of groin to direction of
The same formula would have required
approach of the median sea provides an
L = 390 feet for 800-foot spacing, reducing
optimum ratio of groin length to spacing,
the aggregate length of groins but increasing
and the groin is least vulnerable to storm
the depth of water at the outer ends and the
damage. Attack on the groin will be
average cost per foot. For some
longitudinal during a median sea and
combination of length and spacing the total
oblique on either side in other seas.
cost will be a minimum, which should be
(b) Grade. The top of groins should be parallel sought for economical design.
to the existing beach grade. Sand may pass
If groins are too short, the attack of the sea
over a low barrier. The top of the groin
will still reach the highway embankment
should be established higher than the
with only some reduction of energy. Some
existing beach, say 2 feet as a minimum for
sites may justify a combination of short
moderate exposure combined with an
groins with light revetment to accommodate
abundance of littoral drift, to 5 feet for
this remaining energy.
severe exposure and deficiency of littoral
drift. (d) Section. The typical section of a groin is
shown in Figure 883.2J. The stone may be
The shore end should be tapered upward to
specified as a single class, or by designating
prevent attack of highway embankment by
classes to be used as bed, core, face and cap
rip currents, and the seaward end should be
stones.
tapered downward to match the side slope
of the groin in order to diffuse the direct Face stone may be chosen one class below
attack of the sea on the end of the groin. the requirement for revetment. Full mass
stone should be specified for bed stones, for
(c) Length and Spacing. The length of groin
the front face at the outer end of the groin,
should equal or exceed the sum of the offset
and for cap stones exposed to overrun. Core
in shoreline at each groin plus the width of
stones in wide groins may be smaller.
the beach from low water (LW) to high
water (HW) line, see Figure 883.2I. The Width of groin at top should be at least 1.5
offset is approximately the product of the times the diameter of cap stones, or wider if
groin spacing and the obliquity (in radians) necessary for operation of equipment. Side
of the entrapped beach. The width of beach slopes should be 1.5:1 for optimum
is the product of the slope factor and the economy and ordinary stability. If this slope
range in stage. The relation can be demands heavier stone than is available,
formulated: side slope can be flattened or the cap and
face stones bound together with concrete as
𝐿𝐿 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑟𝑟ℎ
shown in Figure 883.2J.
Where:
L = Length of groin, feet
a = obliquity of entrapped beach in radians
b = beach width between groins, feet
r = reciprocal of beach slope
h = range in stage, feet
July 15, 2016
Figure 883.2H Figure 883.2I

Typical Groin Layout with Alignment of Groins to an Oblique
Resultant Beach Configuration Sea Warrants Shortening
Proportional to Cosine of
Obliquity
Long Groins Without Revetment
Short Groins With Light Stone Revetment

NOTES:
"S", "L" and "θ" are determined by conditions at site.
July 15, 2016
Figure 883.2J
Typical Stone Dike Groin Details
NOTES:
(1) This is not a standard design.
(2) Dimensions and details should be modified as required.
September 1, 2006
others, it may be possible to develop cooperative

CHAPTER 890 agreements allowing joint impact mitigation. See
STORM WATER MANAGEMENT Indexes 803.2 and 803.3 for further discussion on
cooperative agreements and up-grading of existing
highway drainage facilities.
Topic 891 - General
Topic 892 - Storm Water
Index 891.1 - Introduction Management Strategies
The term “storm water management” refers to the
cooperative efforts of public agencies and the 892.1 General
private sector to mitigate, abate, or reverse the Quantity / Quality Relationship. Management of
adverse results, both in water quantity and water storm water quality often requires the assessment of
quality, associated with the altered runoff relatively small runoff producing events. As much
phenomena that typically accompanies as 80 percent of average annual rainfall is produced
urbanization. Storm water management by storms with return periods of less than 2 years.
encompasses a number of control measures, which As a result, water quality facilities are typically
may be either structural or non-structural (including sized to address relatively small runoff volumes.
policy and procedural measures) in nature. Conversely, storm water quantity management is
This chapter will focus primarily on the typically directed at reducing the peak flow rate on
management of storm water runoff quantity. storms with a 10-year or greater return period, and
Information related to the designer’s responsibility water quantity control facilities must be sized
for the management of storm water runoff quality is accordingly.
contained in the Department’s Project Planning and In order to achieve both water quantity and quality
Design Guide. benefits, it may be necessary to use a combination
of strategies or control measures. For example,
891.2 Philosophy placement of a relatively small detention basin or
When runoff impacts result from a Department filtration immediately upstream of a quantity
project, then the cost of mitigating these impacts is attenuating detention basin can provide sediment
a legitimate part of the project cost. Since capture, while allowing larger flows to be mitigated
transportation funds are increasingly limited, and by the major basin. Some types of water quality
because mitigation of runoff problems can be control measures will need to incorporate bypass
expensive, it is important to identify the causative features so that the smaller, more frequent, runoff
factors and responsible parties. When runoff events can be treated while still allowing larger
impacts are caused by others, avenues for assigning flows to be routed away from the traveled way.
these costs to the responsible party should be
evaluated. The local agencies responsible for land 892.2 Types of Strategies
use in the area are a good place to begin this There are various storm water management
evaluation, as many of these local agencies have strategies which may be used to mitigate the effects
enacted land use regulations in an effort to control of storm water runoff problems. They vary from
flooding. These regulations often require that very simple to very complex techniques depending
developers limit changes in the volume and rate of upon specific site conditions and regulatory
discharge between the pre- and post-development requirements which must be satisfied.
site conditions. In addition, many local agencies
must be responsive to their own storm water The Department Storm Water Quality Handbook,
permits which require that they implement “Planning and Design Staff Guide” provides both
programs to control the quality of storm water design guidance on specific water quality control
discharges within their jurisdiction. When runoff measures as well as a more general discussion of
impacts are caused jointly by the Department and
September 1, 2006
how and when to incorporate water quality control become regarded as wetlands themselves,
measures into projects. which would require special permits for
routine maintenance.
In addition to the measures described in the Storm
Water Quality Handbook, the following measures • Facilities should be designed to “blend in”
may provide relief in dealing with the water with their surroundings to the greatest extent
quantity side of storm water management. possible. The district landscape
architecture unit should be contacted for
(1) Detention & Retention Basins. The assistance.
detention and retention basin designs • The effects of the proposed facility on
provided in the Storm Water Quality channel capacities and existing floodways
Handbook are based upon water quality require evaluation. Care must be taken to
control, not quantity control. Refer to the evaluate the effects related to the delayed
Department training course manual “Storm release from detention facilities since an
Water Management Design” for increase in downstream peak discharges may
information related to design result (see Figure 892.3).
considerations for peak flood reduction
through the use of detention and retention • The effects of releasing sediment free
basins. Also, refer to HEC No.22, Chapter “hungry” water into channels and the
8. potential for increased erosion rates
downstream must be determined.
(2) Groundwater Recharge. In some locations
highly permeable underground strata may • Evaluate the effects of depriving downstream
allow percolation of excess runoff into the water users (human, aquatic or vegetative) of
ground. Benefits include recharge of runoff due to retention, percolation or other
underground aquifers and the possible diversion.
reduction or elimination of conveyance Storm water management techniques involving on-
systems along with pollutant removal. site and off-site storage may offer the highway
Special care must be exercised in areas of design engineer the more reasonable and
high groundwater to avoid potential responsive solution to problems relative to the
contamination of the aquifer. handling of excess runoff. The cooperation of
(3) Drainage Easements. In areas where right other jurisdictions is generally a prerequisite to
of way is inexpensive it may be possible to applying these strategies and a cooperative
purchase flood easements. These areas are agreement is almost always necessary. See Chapter
typically used for agriculture and are 12 of the AASHTO Model Drainage Manual for
subject to flooding at any time during additional design criteria for storage facilities.
specified times of the year. Cooperative
agreements with local agencies or flood 892.4 Mixing with Other Waste Streams
control districts will typically be necessary. Storm water runoff from State highways will
usually be carried to a receiving body of water
892.3 Design Considerations without being combined with waste water.
The items presented below describe some of the Although some combined storm and sanitary
issues to be considered prior to, and during, the sewers do exist, their use should be avoided.
design of any storm water management facility. The most common areas of waste stream mixing
General issues common to most storm water have been at maintenance stations. These facilities
management strategies that need to be evaluated may have combined storm water and wash rack
are: systems. Because of wash water and rinse water,
• Access for maintenance must be provided, maintenance stations present unique water quality
and the facility must be maintainable. problems from concentrated levels of pollutant
Storm water control facilities must not loadings. The preferable design has a separate
September 1, 2006
system for the wash rack so that it is not mixed

with storm water and rinse water. For additional
advice on treatment of concentrated waste streams
at maintenance stations, contact the Water/Waste
Water Unit in the Division of Engineering Services
– Structures Design.
Topic 893 - Maintenance

Requirements for Storm Water
Management Features
893.1 - General
As mentioned previously, the ability and the
commitment to maintain storm water management
facilities is necessary for their proper operation.
The designer must consider the maintenance needs,
and the type of maintenance that will take place, in
order to provide for adequate access to and within
the facility site.
Additionally, the designer should initiate both
verbal and written contact with District
maintenance to verify the availability of resources
to provide proper maintenance and to keep them
aware of potential high maintenance items that will
be constructed. Initial estimates of how often
sediment removal should be performed should be
provided by the designer based upon estimated
design loadings. Other types of maintenance, such
as periodic inspections of embankments,
inlet/outlet structures, debris removal, etc. should
also be discussed. Due to the large capital
investment required for constructing storm water
management facilities, proper maintenance cannot
be overlooked.
By definition, detained water contributes to runoff
and therefore detention ponds or basins must have
an outlet and outfall system (see Index 816.4). A
gravity outfall should be used whenever feasible.
Pumping should only be used where there is no
other practical way of handling the excess runoff.
See Topic 839 for further discussion on pumping
stations.
September 1, 2006
Figure 892.3
Example of Cumulative Hydrograph
With and Without Detention
December 16, 2016
Environmental Reference, contains guidelines

CHAPTER 900 and responsibilities for determining scenic
LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE resources during the project development
process. http://www.dot.ca.gov/ser/pear.htm
Topic 901 - General • Chapter 500 of the Encroachments Permits
Manual contains procedures and guidelines for
Index 901.1 - Landscape Architecture planting design and administering planting by
Program others, through permit projects.
The Landscape Architecture Program is responsible • Chapters 4-20 and 4-21 of the Construction
for the development of policies, programs, Manual discuss materials and methods
procedures, and standards for all aspects of the involved in erosion control and planting and
Roadside Program which consists of highway irrigation. Allowable options are described for
planting, replacement highway planting, mitigation materials and work methods called for in the
planting, highway planting revegetation, highway project specifications as well as Landscape
planting restoration, roadside rehabilitation, Architect involvement during construction.
roadside protection and restoration, roadside
improvements, safety roadside rest areas, scenic • Chapter E of the Maintenance Manual contains
highways, classified landscaped freeways, instructions about the maintenance of highway
transportation art, gateway monuments, community planting and other roadside features. Chapter
identification, blue star memorial highways, and C2 of the Maintenance Manual contains
planting in conjunction with noise barriers. instructions about the maintenance of native
and naturalized roadside vegetation.
This chapter provides mandatory, advisory and
permissive standards as defined in Index 82.1. The • The Landscape Architecture Program’s website
Chief, Division of Design is responsible for further explains the Department’s policy and
approving exceptions to all mandatory standards provides guidance for landscape architectural
(boldface text) unless delegated as noted in Index work, including water conservation. The
82.2(1). District Directors are responsible for website is located at:
approving exceptions to all advisory standards http://www.dot.ca.gov/design/lap/.
(indicated by underlining text) as discussed in
Index 82.2(2). All other guidance in this Chapter Topic 902 - Planting Guidance
pertaining to the design of planting and irrigation
systems as well as when noted in the text is the 902.1 General Guidance for Freeways and
responsibility of the Landscape Architecture Expressways
Program. See the Project Development Procedures This section provides standards and guidelines for
Manual (PDPM) Chapter 29 regarding process and the design of planting and irrigation systems.
procedures for approval of deviations from
Landscape standards. Highway planting is vegetation placed for
aesthetic, environmental mitigation, storm water
901.2 Cross References pollution prevention, or erosion control purposes,
• Several highway landscape architectural terms and includes necessary irrigation systems, inert
are defined in Index 62.5 of this manual. materials, and mulches.
In addition, highway planting is used to satisfy the
• The PDPM contains general definitions,
need for headlight glare reduction, fire retardance,
policies, and procedures concerning planting
windbreak protection, or graffiti reduction on
and conservation of vegetation and explains
retaining walls and noise barriers.
procedures and responsibilities for developing
highway planting projects. (1) Design Considerations. Design planting and
irrigation systems to achieve a balance
• The Preliminary Environmental Analysis
between aesthetics, safety, maintainability,
Report (PEAR), included in the Standard
cost-effectiveness, water and resource
December 16, 2016
conservation. Planting and irrigation design Highway planting and irrigation work
should respond to the following community should incorporate design for safety
goals: concepts that include, but are not limited
to, the following:
(a) Aesthetics. Select plants and replacement
planting to integrate the facility with the • Access - Provide access gates for
adjacent community or natural maintenance personnel from local
surroundings; buffer objectionable views streets and frontage roads. Provide
of the highway facility for adjacent paved maintenance vehicle pullout
homes, schools, parks, etc.; soften visual areas away from traffic on high
impacts of large structures or graded volume highways and other areas
slopes; screen objectionable or distracting where access cannot be made from
views; frame or enhance good views; and local streets and roads. Maintenance
provide visually attractive interchanges as access roads provide access to the
entrances to communities. center of loop areas or other wide, flat
Select and arrange regionally appropriate areas.
drought tolerant native and non-native • Minimize Exposure to Traffic and
plants to be visually and culturally Reduce the Need for Shoulder or Lane
compatible with local indigenous plant Closures - Locate vegetation away
communities and the surrounding from shoulder areas, gore areas, and
landscape. narrow island areas between ramps
Place plants according to the perspective and the traveled way to reduce the
of the viewer. For example, compositions need for shoulder or lane closures to
viewed by freeway motorists should be perform pruning or other maintenance
simplified and large scale. Compositions operations. Narrow areas and areas
primarily viewed by pedestrians may be beyond freeway gore entrances and
designed with greater detail. exits should be paved. See Index
504.4(2) for further contrasting
Integrate the highway improvement surface treatment guidance.
within the existing environment using
contour grading that preserves existing • Median Planting - Median planting
natural topographic features and plant should not be permitted on freeways.
material. Exceptions for the planting of freeway
medians are approved by the District
(b) Safety. Planting and irrigation facilities Director if the planting can be
are designed for the safety of both maintained.
highway workers and the public.
(c) Maintainability. Planting and irrigation
To understand potential hazards to designs should minimize ongoing
maintenance workers, designers should be intensive maintenance activities through
familiar with Topic 706 as well as Chapter field observation and discussion with
8, "Protection of Workers", of the maintenance personnel during project
Maintenance Manual. development. Ongoing communication
Select and locate plants to maintain sight between designers, landscape specialists,
distance and clear recovery zone landscape maintenance personnel, and
distances. Planting, without exception, construction inspectors will ensure that
must not interfere with the function of maintenance concerns are addressed.
safety devices (e.g., barriers, guardrail) Select and locate plants to reduce
and traffic control devices (e.g., signals application of herbicides.
and signs), shoulders and the view from
the roadway of bicyclists and pedestrians. Specify plant establishment and irrigation
test periods of sufficient time to identify
December 16, 2016
and resolve problems and minimize long ensure that future growth will not obstruct
term maintenance requirements. sight distance.
(d) Cost-effectiveness. The design should Proposed mature planting should maintain
provide maximum long term benefit for sight distance required by the design speed of
the costs involved. Materials and methods the facility. In cases where, due to geometric
specified should be commercial quality restrictions, the existing freeway facility does
and closely matched to the project not provide 80 miles per hour sight distance,
conditions. no further reduction should be caused by
planting.
(e) Water and Resource Conservation. The
use of potable water for irrigation is For interchanges, all planting must provide
discouraged. Non-potable or recycled ramp and collector-distributor road sight
water should be used instead of potable distance equal to or greater than that required
water wherever possible. by the design speed criteria with a minimum
provision of sight distance for 40 miles per
Conserve water by using regionally
hour. At points within an interchange area
appropriate drought tolerant native and
where ramp connections or channelization are
non-native plants that will require little or
provided, plantings must be clear of the
no supplemental water at the completion
shoulders and sight line shown in Figure
of the plant establishment period. See
504.3J, Location of Ramp Intersections on the
Chapter 29 of the PDPM for plant
Crossroad.
establishment period requirements.
Particular attention should be paid to planting
Conserve water by using wood or gravel
on the inside of curves in interchange loops, in
mulches to reduce evapotranspiration.
median areas, on the ends of ramps, and on
Use “smart” irrigation controllers that cut slopes so that shoulders are clear and
automatically adjust water application designed sight distances are retained for
based upon weather conditions. vehicles, bicycles and pedestrians. See Index
902.3.
902.2 Sight Distance and Clear Recovery
Zone Standards for Freeways and Sight distance requirements restrict the height
Expressways of plants or the horizontal distance of plants
from the traveled way. Low growing plants
Sight distance and safety are of primary may be planted within the plant setback
importance, and are not to be subordinate to distance as long as the requirements for sight
aesthetics. Applicable minimum sight distance distance are met as discussed in Index 201.6
standards are set forth in Topic 201 Sight Distance and illustrated in Figure 201.6. Taller
and Topic 405 Intersection Design Standards. growing plants are to be placed beyond these
Two types of plant setbacks affect the placement of plant setbacks. In interchange areas, generally,
landscape elements: from the edge of traveled way, a 50-foot
horizontal clearance within the loops is
• To keep the continuous length of highway considered as the sight distance plant setback
ahead visible to the driver (sight distance). for trees and shrubs that will grow above a
• To keep the clear recovery zone free of 2-foot height.
physical obstructions. (2) Clear Recovery Zone. The clear recovery
(1) Sight Distance Plant Setbacks. Sight distance zone provides an area for errant vehicles to
limits are measured from the edge of traveled potentially regain control. For tree setback
way to the outside edge of the mature growth. purposes, large trees are defined as plants
Plant setback is measured from the edge of which at maturity, or within 10 years, have
traveled way to the face of tree trunk or face trunks 4 inches or greater in diameter,
of shrub foliage mass. Care must be taken to measured 4 feet above the ground. Examples
December 16, 2016
of large tree species are Coast Redwoood Select and locate large trees to maintain a minimum
(Sequoia sempervirens), Coast Live Oak vertical clearance of 17 feet from the pavement to
(Quercus agrifolia) and Deodar Cedar (Cedrus the lower foliage of overhanging branches over the
deodora). traveled way and shoulder to provide visibility of
highway signs, features, and appurtenances. Select
On freeways and expressways, including
and locate large trees to maintain a minimum
interchange areas, there should be 40 feet or
vertical clearance of 8 feet from the sidewalk to the
more of clearance between the edge of
lower foliage of overhanging branches for
traveled way and large trees; however, a
pedestrian passage. Do not select tree species that
minimum clearance of 30 feet must be
will require regular pruning at maturity to maintain
provided. Special considerations should be
these clearances.
given to providing additional clearance in
potential recovery areas. The 30-foot distance Large trees must not restrict sight distance
is measured horizontally from the edge of requirements.
traveled way to the face of the tree trunk.
Large trees must not visually restrict existing signs
Large trees may be planted within the 30-foot
and signals.
limit where they will not constitute a fixed
object; for example, on cut slopes above a Large trees planted in conventional highways are to
retaining wall or in areas behind guardrail, comply with the requirements in Table 902.3. All
which has been placed for reasons other than distances are measured from the frame of reference
tree planting. specified in Table 902.3 to the face of the tree
trunk. See the District Landscape Architect for
Exceptions to the 30-foot tree setback may
plant selection, plant setback, and spacing
also be considered on cut slopes which are 2:1
consistent with this guidance.
or steeper or where there are physical barriers
such as retaining walls. The minimum tree See Index 305.1(2) for median guidance on
setback in these cases should be 25 feet. conventional highways.
Offset distances greater than 30 feet should be 902.4 Planting Procedures, Selection and
provided at locations such as on the outside of Location
horizontal curves and in the vicinity of ramp
gores. (1) Design Procedures. An overview of the
project development process is covered in the
Large trees should not be planted in Project Development Procedures Manual.
unprotected areas of freeway or expressway
medians with the possible exception of (2) Plant Selection. Select drought tolerant native
separated roadways with medians of sufficient or non-native plants that will survive if
width to meet the plant setback requirements supplemental water is discontinued or
for tree planting. becomes unavailable. Plants should be well
suited to local environmental conditions such
Small trees are those with smaller trunks or as sun exposure, aspect, climate, annual
plants usually considered shrubs, but trained precipitation, temperature extremes, soil type,
in tree form which would not develop 4-inch recycled water quality, and wind.
diameter trunks within 10 years. Examples of
small trees are Crape Myrtle (Lagerstroemia Plants should have a growth rate, longevity,
indica), and Bottle Brush trained as a standard size, and appearance appropriate for their
(Callistemon sp.). intended use, and should not require ongoing
maintenance. California plants that meet
902.3 Planting Guidance for Large Trees on required planting criteria should be used to the
Conventional Highways greatest extent possible. Species availability
and fire risk should also be taken into
When proposing large trees for conventional
consideration.
highways the mature size, form, and growth
characteristics of the species should be considered. Monoculture planting is discouraged.
July 1, 2015
Table 902.3
Large Tree Setback Requirements on Conventional Highways
ROADSIDE
Posted Speed (mph)
Condition
≤ 35 40 – 45 > 45
With curb 18” Min. from curb face 30’ Min from ETW
Min. deflection distance
Min. deflection distance from barrier face (barrier
With barrier from barrier face (barrier
type specific)
type specific)
Without curb or barrier 30’ Min from ETW
MEDIAN(1), (2)
Posted Speed (mph)
Condition
≤ 35 40 – 45 > 45
With curb 5’ Min. from curb face Not Allowed
With curb in Main Street context;
where median width of 12’ is not
feasible and trees are a part of a
community’s transportation plan to
improve livability that also
includes transportation features for
18” Min. to 5’ from curb
traffic calming through physical
face if approved by the Not Allowed
design such as modifying
District Director
intersections or relocating traffic
lanes to make space for bike lanes,
sidewalks and landscaping. See
the Department’s “Main Street,
California” document for more
information.
Concrete Barrier:
18” Min. from face of barrier
Allowed if approved by
With barrier Other Barrier: the District Director
Min. deflection distance for barrier type,
18” Min.
Without curb or barrier Not Allowed
Notes:
(1) Trees in the median shall be located at least 20 feet from manholes.
(2) Trees in the median shall be located at least 100 feet from the longitudinal end of the median.
December 30, 2015
Select diverse plant species with robust Contact District Landscape Architect for
characteristics properly suited to the project further information.
environment.
In areas subject to frost and snow, plantings
Wherever feasible, trees should be used to should not be located where they will cast
create the main structure of the planting shade and create patches of ice on vehicle or
composition. pedestrian ways.
Trees generally recognized to be brittle, (4) Planting on or Near Walls. Vine planting
susceptible to disease, or that increase in size should be included with all sound barrier
by suckering, should not be selected. projects to reduce the potential for graffiti and
to soften the appearance of the wall. If
Plants with edible or attractive fruits, berries
retaining walls or sound barriers are located
or nuts should not be selected.
within the clear recovery zone (see Index
When appropriate, planting projects must 902.2), plants may be placed behind the walls
include California native wildflowers as an and be allowed to grow over (or through) the
integral and permanent part of the planting wall, or plants may be placed in front of the
design. Chapter 29 of the Project wall, but they must be behind a concrete
Development Procedures Manual discusses safety shaped barrier that is placed to shield
wildflower requirements. something other than plants. Plants are not
(3) Plant Location. When locating plants, the permitted on concrete safety shaped barriers
mature size, form, and characteristics of the on the traffic side, unless an exception is
species should be considered, particularly for granted from the Division of Traffic
safety of maintenance workers and the Operations and all of the following
traveling public, and long-term maintenance requirements are met:
costs. (a) Only vines which have a natural tendency
Locate plants so that pruning will not be to cling to noise barriers or retaining walls
required. Do not plant trees under overhead may be planted on the traffic side of
utilities or structures. barriers. Support structures on walls
should not be used. The vines must
Locate plants so that they will not obscure readily adhere to the barriers. No shrubs
existing billboards, or on-premise business or ground cover will be allowed. Vines
identification signs for a distance of 500 feet such as Creeping Fig (Ficus pumila) and
from the billboard sign. Algerian Ivy (Hedera canariensis) will not
Locate plants so they will not obscure be allowed due to their habit of peeling
pedestrians and bicyclists at intersections or off hard surfaces at maturity.
other conflict points. (b) Plant basins must be depressed and
Planting designs that use permanent irrigation minimal in size. Ground surface
systems should group plants with similar irregularities must be insignificant or
water requirements together in hydrozones to nonexistent.
conserve water. (c) Each plant must be individually irrigated.
Plants with thorns or known to be poisonous The plants should not encroach onto the
to humans and animals, (e.g., rose, oleander), shoulder or create sight distance
should not be planted adjacent to sidewalks, problems.
bikeways, areas used for grazing animals, The Maintenance Unit should be consulted as
equestrian activities, with high public vines planted on walls may require
exposure, or where children have access to the maintenance access for pruning. See Index
planting. Designers should be aware of State 1102.7 for maintenance considerations in
and local restrictions on the planting of certain noise barrier design.
species in or adjacent to specified areas.
December 30, 2015
(5) Planting of Vines on Bridge Structures. Vines salinity level and increased particulate content
should not be planted where they might grow often found in recycled and non-potable water
over any portion of the bridge structure. sources.
When the regular inspection of bridge
Minimize exposure to traffic and reduce the
structures is required and where rapid visual
need for shoulder or lane closures by locating
inspection of these structures is required in
irrigation system components away from
areas of high seismic activity, the planting of
shoulder areas, gore areas, and narrow island
vines on bridge structures or columns is not
areas between ramps and the traveled way.
permitted. There are certain conditions such
as low average daily traffic, high redundancy Design irrigation systems to take advantage of
in the substructure, etc. where exceptions from “smart” controllers and remote control devices
Structure Maintenance may be granted, after that minimize worker exposure and conserve
all risk vs. benefit factors are considered, to water.
plant vines. Use standard, commercially available
(6) Planting in Vicinity of Airports and Heliports. irrigation components, avoiding nonstandard
All plants must not exceed the height features unless required to address unique site
restriction standards contained in Topic 207 of conditions.
this manual. Mature plant height must be Security measures, such as locking cabinets,
used to determine if the plant(s) will be enclosures and valve boxes should be
considered an obstruction to navigable provided.
airspace.
Potential damage from pedestrians or vehicles
902.5 Irrigation Guidelines should be considered when selecting and
(1) General. Irrigation systems should be locating all irrigation components. Place
designed to conserve water, minimize irrigation components such as controllers,
maintenance, minimize worker exposure to valves, backflow preventers, and booster
traffic, and sustain the planting. The design pumps far away from gores, narrow areas, and
should be simple, efficient, and straight decision points, preferably behind barriers or
forward. shielded by a structure.
Irrigation systems must comply with State and (2) Valves and Sprinklers. Irrigation systems
local water conservation requirements should be designed for automatic operation.
including the Model Water Efficient When systems are temporary or will be used
Landscape Ordinance (MWELO). infrequently, manual, battery, solar or timer-
operated valves may be used.
Irrigation systems that use recycled, non-
potable, or untreated water must comply with Control valves are to be in manifolds where
State and local water quality health standards practical and a ball valve must be provided.
and regulations. Cluster and locate valves adjacent to
Permanent irrigation systems must not use maintenance vehicle pullouts, access paths or
potable water if recycled or non-potable water in locations accessible from outside the right
is available. Temporary irrigation systems of way via access gates.
may use potable water if designed to be Place irrigation components that require
abandoned and removed at the completion of regular maintenance, such as valves and
the plant establishment period. See Chapter controllers, outside the clear recovery zone or
29 of the PDPM for plant establishment behind safety devices.
period requirements.
When possible, trees and shrubs that require
Water quality should be considered when permanent irrigation spaced greater than
selecting irrigation components. Design the 10 feet on center should be watered
irrigation system taking into consideration the individually.
December 30, 2015
Permanent or temporary overhead irrigation the availability for power distribution, and
systems, e.g., impact or gear driven sprinklers, maintenance access to the pump site.
should be limited to irrigating low shrub OEMW&W will either design the booster
masses, ground cover or establishing native pump system, (including the equipment pad,
grasses. Trees in overhead irrigated ground enclosure, valves and piping, pump
cover areas should receive supplemental basin equipment, and pump control equipment) or
water. Sprinklers should be appropriate for recommend an off-the-shelf booster pump
local wind and soil conditions. Sprinklers package.
should be selected and placed to avoid
spraying paved surfaces. Sprinklers, other Topic 903 - Safety Roadside Rest
than pop-up heads, subject to being damaged Area Standards and Guidelines
by vehicles, bicyclists, or pedestrians should
be relocated or provided with sprinkler 903.1 Minimum Standards
protectors, flexible risers, or flow shutoff
The following standards generally represent
devices. Sprinklers on fixed risers should not
minimum values. When consistent with sound
be placed adjacent to sidewalks and bikeways.
judgment and in response to valid concerns,
Sprinkler protectors should be used on pop-up
variations may be considered. Standards lower
sprinklers and quick coupling valves adjacent
than those indicated herein may not be used
to the roadway.
without approval of the Principal Landscape
(3) Controllers. Irrigation controllers should be Architect, Landscape Architecture Program. See
“smart,” easily accessible, located in vandal Chapter 29 of the Project Development Procedures
resistant cabinets, protected from vehicular Manual (PDPM) for process and procedures for
traffic, and in an area with good lighting. approval of deviations from standards.
Install the irrigation controller cabinet with the
The Division of Design is responsible for
back facing the direction of oncoming traffic
approving nonstandard geometric design as
in the nearest traffic lane. Controllers must
discussed in Topic 82 and Index 901.1. The
not be located near shoulders, in or near dense
District Design Liaison and Project Delivery
shrubbery, or in the path of the spray of
Coordinator should be involved in reviewing the
sprinklers.
geometric features for the design of the on and off
(4) Backflow Preventers. The use of reduced ramps of safety roadside rest areas. Structural
pressure principle backflow devices are sections and drainage should be designed in
required for highway planting projects. accordance with the standards contained in this
Master remote control valves should be used manual.
at all pressured water sources directly
downstream of the backflow preventers. 903.2 General
Backflow preventers should be located in Safety roadside rest areas should be designed to
enclosures. provide safe places for travelers in automobiles,
(5) Booster Pump Systems. When local agency commercial trucks, recreational vehicles, and
water pressure is insufficient, booster pumps bicycles where not prohibited, to stop for a short
may be included in the irrigation design. time, rest and manage their travel needs. Safety
Design of a booster pump system should be roadside rest areas may include vehicle parking,
coordinated with DES-SD, Office of bicycle parking, picnic tables, sanitary facilities,
Electrical, Mechanical, Water and Wastewater telephones, water, landscape tourist information,
Engineering (OEMW&W). After the traveler service information facilities and vending
irrigation system has been designed such that machines. Safety roadside rest areas should be
all branches have close to equal flowrate provided at convenient intervals along the State
requirements, the booster pump system design highway system to accommodate traveler needs.
request should be prepared including flowrate Safety roadside rest areas should comply with State
and discharge pressure needed for the pump, and Federal codes and regulations that address
December 30, 2015
buildings, electrical work, plumbing, lighting, identified and analyzed before selecting a
drinking water, wastewater treatment discharge, preferred site. When offering potential sites
grading, storm water discharge, hazardous material for joint economic development proposals, it
containment and disposal, energy conservation, is best to allow for as many acceptable
accessibility for persons with disabilities, and alternative sites as possible.
environmental protection and mitigation.
(2) Spacing. New safety roadside rest area sites
Safety roadside rest areas should be designed for should be located per the current Safety
cost effective and efficient maintenance. High Roadside Rest Area System Master Plan.
quality, durable and easily cleanable materials
(3) Access. Safety roadside rest areas located on
should be used to accommodate the heavy use that
a freeway or a highway of four lanes or more,
rest area facilities receive. Replaceable
should be planned as a pair of units, each unit
components, such as mirrors, sinks, signs, and
serving a separate direction of traffic. Access
lighting fixtures, should be products that will be
(ingress/egress) should be by means of direct
readily available during the lifetime of the facility.
on and off ramps from the freeway or
Crew rooms and storage space for cleaning
highway. Required minimum distances
supplies, tools and equipment should be provided
should be accommodated between existing
in appropriate locations, away from direct public
and proposed ramps, in accordance with
view. Maintenance access must be provided to
Chapter 500.
plumbing, sewer, electrical, and equipment to
facilitate inspection and repair. Federal law and regulations prohibit direct
access from the freeway to commercial
The freeway interchange should accommodate, or
activities.
be improved to accommodate, the volume and
geometric movements of anticipated traffic. The (4) Right of Way Requirements. A safety roadside
safety roadside rest area should be within one-half rest area unit may require 10 to 15 acres of
mile of the freeway. right of way. Potential negative impacts to
prime agricultural land, native vegetation,
Auxiliary parking lots include parking areas and
natural terrain, drainage and water features
restrooms provided by or jointly developed and
should be considered when identifying
operated by partners (such as existing or new truck
potential sites for rest areas. Consider sites
stops, or at other highway oriented commercial
where natural vegetation has already been
development). These are for longer-duration stops
disturbed and where rest area development
and overnight parking, primarily for commercial
may facilitate restoration.
vehicle operators. These facilities are located
outside of freeway right of way, within one-half Ideally, the Department should own safety
mile of the freeway. roadside rest area right of way in fee simple.
903.3 Site Selection However, it may be necessary or desirable for
safety roadside rest areas to be located on land
(1) Need. New safety roadside rest area and owned by other State, Federal or tribal
auxiliary truck parking sites should be entities. When seeking right of way
consistent with the needs identified in the agreements or easements, consider possible
current Safety Roadside Rest Area System partnerships with the entity landowners that
Master Plan. Proposed locations identified on may facilitate right of way acquisition or
the Safety Roadside Rest Area System Master project acceptance. The opportunity to
Plan, available from the Landscape cooperate on the development of integrated
Architecture Program website, are information, interpretive or welcome centers
approximate only. Actual sites may be may be favorable to another entity.
located within several miles in either direction
from the location indicated on the Safety (5) Economic Factors. Right of way cost may be
Roadside Rest Area System Master Plan. a significant factor in site selection. Advance
More than one alternate site should be protection or acquisition of right of way
December 30, 2015
should be considered when planning and The calculated stopping factor for an existing
programming future safety roadside rest area rest area may not indicate the full demand for
projects. a facility. Overcrowded conditions at a rest
area during weekends and holidays may
The impact of safety roadside rest areas on
discourage many travelers from stopping.
local tourism and economic development
Nevertheless, this method provides a
should be considered, addressed, and
reasonable estimate of the rough percentage of
discussed. Stakeholders who may consider
vehicles that stop at a rest area. Stopping
partnering to develop or operate the safety
factors typically range from 1 percent on high
roadside rest area should be part of this
volume freeways to 35 percent on remote
discussion.
highways.
903.4 Facility Size and Capacity Analysis A stopping factor cannot be directly calculated
Safety roadside rest area parking and restroom for a new safety roadside rest area; however,
capacity should be designed to accommodate the an estimate may be derived from existing
anticipated demand in the design year (20 years safety roadside rest areas of similar size and
from construction). When feasible, the design may situation. The type of highway traffic, the
allow the parking area to be expanded by remoteness of the site, and the availability of
25 percent beyond the 20-year design period. other traveler services should be considered.
Stopping factors for new safety roadside rest
If budget prevents the full facility from being
areas generally range from about 10 percent to
constructed initially, a master site plan should be
15 percent of mainline traffic.
developed that indicates the planned footprint of
parking and rest rooms to accommodate anticipated (2) Number of Visitors. The number of vehicles
demand. Areas designated for future expansion entering a safety roadside rest area during an
should be kept free of development, including average day may be estimated by multiplying
underground utilities. the mainline AADT by the stopping factor.
Safety roadside rest area expansion should not The number of visitors using a safety roadside
excessively diminish the scenic and environmental rest area during an average day then may be
qualities of the existing site. If it is impractical to estimated by multiplying the number of
expand an existing rest area because of cost and vehicles per day by an average vehicle
site conditions, consider strategies for increasing occupancy of 2.2 people.
capacity in the vicinity, such as relocation of the
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 (𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑)
rest area, construction of an auxiliary parking
× 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 (%) × 2.2
facility, or construction of an additional safety
= 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
roadside rest area.
To determine the 20-year design-need, it is
(1) Stopping Factor. The process for estimating
necessary to apply a traffic-growth factor to
required parking capacity begins by
the results. Generally, 3 percent compounded
calculating the percentage of daily traffic that
20-year growth may be estimated by
is expected to stop at the safety roadside rest
multiplying the number of visitors by a factor
area. The Division of Traffic Operations
of 1.8.
provides data on annual average daily traffic
(AADT) for State highway mainlines and Mainline AADT × Stopping Factor (%)
ramps. The average daily ramp count for a × 2.2 × 1.8
safety roadside rest area, when divided by the = Total Visitors Per Day (Year of
mainline AADT, provides a percentage Traffic Data)
stopping factor.
(3) Number of Vehicle Parking Spaces. The total
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 number of parking spaces for all vehicle types
= 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 (%)
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 may be estimated by multiplying the Peak
Hour Traffic (see the Division of Traffic
December 30, 2015
Operations website) by the stopping factor, environmental qualities appropriate for a

and dividing the result by the number of times restful experience. If more than 120 vehicular
the parking space is expected to turn over in parking spaces are needed, it is advisable to
one hour. Multiply by a factor of 1.8 to consider the development of additional safety
include the compounded 20-year growth. roadside rest areas as identified on the Safety
Roadside Rest Area System Master Plan, or
Most visitors in automobiles stay about
development of an auxiliary parking facility.
10 minutes to 20 minutes. Some, however,
Site conditions may limit the amount of
will nap or sleep for longer periods. The
parking that is practical to build. If
California Code of Regulations allows
construction or enlargement of parking areas
travelers to stay up to 8 hours at each safety
to meet anticipated demand will significantly
roadside rest area. For design purposes, it is
diminish the environmental character of the
common to assume a 20-minute stay for all
site, the quantity of parking should be reduced
types of vehicles (assume up to 6 hours,
as appropriate.
extended stay, for commercial truck drivers).
That equals 3 turnovers of each parking space Sites for auxiliary parking facilities should be
each hour. chosen for their suitability in accommodating
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 × 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 (%) × 1.8 large numbers of commercial trucks for longer
stays (up to 8 hours). Auxiliary parking
3 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 facilities are not limited to 120 spaces;
= 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 (𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌) however, the amount of parking should be
(4) Automobile/Long Vehicle Split. Consider the appropriate for the site and its surroundings.
percentage of commercial trucks in the (7) Restroom Capacity and Fixture Counts.
mainline traffic when determining the Restroom fixture counts (water closets, urinals
appropriate ratio of automobile parking spaces for men’s rooms, and lavatories) are
to long-vehicle parking spaces. Typically, one developed by the Division of Engineering
third of the total parking is devoted to long Services-Transportation Architecture, and
vehicles (commercial trucks, transit, based upon average daily visitor and peak
automobiles with trailers and recreational hour visitor data provided by the District. The
vehicles). On certain goods-movement routes, quantity of fixtures provided for men’s rooms
truck traffic can account for half of the should be divided equally among water
vehicular traffic at certain rest areas (consult closets, urinals and lavatories. The quantity of
with District Traffic Operations). For these water closets for women’s rooms should be
highly commercial route segments, consider 1 to 1.5 times the combined quantity of toilets
the potential for auxiliary parking facilities to and urinals provided for men. Restroom
satisfy the long duration stopping needs of facilities should be designed to accommodate
commercial drivers at off-line parking visitor use during the cleaning of restrooms.
locations. When existing restrooms are replaced as part
(5) Bicycle Parking. On highways where of rehabilitation projects, it is preferable that
bicycling is not prohibited, bicycle parking the 20-year design need be constructed, even
should be considered at safety roadside rest when expansion of parking facilities is
areas. Consult the District Bicycle deferred. Restroom facilities must be
Coordinator for information on placement, designed and constructed to be accessible to
capacity, and design requirements for bicycle persons with disabilities in accordance with all
parking. applicable State and Federal law.
(6) Maximum Parking Capacity. The maximum 903.5 Site Planning
parking capacity for a safety roadside rest area
(1) Ingress and Egress. For safety and
unit should not exceed 120 total vehicular
convenience, ingress to the safety roadside
parking spaces. Larger facilities tend to lose rest area, circulation within the facility and
pedestrian scale, context sensitivity and
egress should be simple, direct and obvious to
December 30, 2015
the traveler. See Topic 403 regarding the Travelers entering a safety roadside rest area
principles of channelization. must be directed to the proper parking area -
automobiles (cars, vans, motorcycles),
Rest areas designed for freeways shall have
bicycles, or long-vehicles. Where practical,
standard freeway exit and entrance ramps,
provide ample ramps and transitions, good
in accordance with Chapter 500. Projects to
sight distance, and well-placed signs and
rehabilitate or modify existing ramps, roads,
pavement markings preceding the point where
and parking lots must address any requirement
vehicle types separate. Avoid locating
to upgrade geometrics to current design
potential distractions (non-traffic-control
standards. Safety roadside rest areas on
signs, plantings, vehicle pullouts, dumpsters,
expressways and conventional highways
artwork, etc.) at or preceding this point.
should be designed with standard public road
connections and median left-turn lanes, Within a safety roadside rest area, there are
according to Topic 405. intersections and other points of conflict
where design layout, signage, pavement
The minimum distance between successive
markings and visibility must be carefully
exit ramps on collector-distributor roads into
considered. One of these points is where long
rest areas should be 600 feet. One-way
vehicle traffic, bicycle, and automobile traffic
vehicular circulation should be provided
merge prior to egress from the safety roadside
through the safety roadside rest area to reduce
rest area. Consider the speed and angle at
wrong-way reentry to the freeway. Re-
which the traffic types will merge. Avoid
circulation of traffic within the parking lot is
configurations where one type of traffic is
acceptable if provisions are made to
allowed to gain excessive speed preceding a
discourage wrong-way traffic. Travelers
merge with slow moving traffic. Curvilinear
should be guided towards the proper exit at
road layout, narrow roads and landscaping can
each decision point along internal roads and
be used to manage traffic so that merging is
parking aisles by the angle of intersection and
done at slow and relatively similar speeds.
the placement of curbs, pavement markings,
and signs. The angle of intersection should allow good
visibility of oncoming traffic. Avoid blocking
If the highway will ultimately be a freeway,
intersection sight lines with landscaping, signs
the design should accommodate future
and other elements.
construction. Two-way ingress/egress roads,
if used, should be a minimum 32 feet wide. Assess and improve, as necessary, ramp
When a rest area or auxiliary parking facility lengths, radii and superelevation, parking aisle
is developed outside the freeway right of way widths, parking stall dimensions, and
at an interchange location, the interchange bicycle parking when rehabilitating a safety
ramps, bridges and general geometric design roadside rest area. When the scope of work is
should be capable of accommodating the limited to routine pavement maintenance, such
volume of traffic anticipated and the turning as minor repairs, seal coats and striping, or
movements of commercial trucks. Geometric work on building, sidewalks, utilities and
and structural improvements should be landscaping, upgrading to current design
completed prior to public use of the safety standards may be deferred.
roadside safety roadside rest area or parking
(2) Layout. Roads, parking areas and associated
facility.
earthwork largely define the layout of a safety
Whenever possible, ingress maneuvers should roadside rest area. Roads and parking areas
utilize simple and direct movements. Egress should be arranged to fit the terrain, views and
may be more complex, if necessary, as site configuration. If the site has few physical
travelers are more rested and better prepared constraints, roads and parking areas should be
for a circuitous route to the freeway or designed with generous curves and curvilinear
highway. Provide clear signage for travelers parking to help avoid circulation conflicts. If
as they approach and depart the rest area. the site is heavily wooded, roads and parking
December 30, 2015
should be designed to retain the healthiest and advising “Patrolled by Highway Patrol”
most attractive trees and tree groupings. should be placed on the freeway exit sign
preceding each rest area.
Walking distance from the most remote
parking space to restrooms should not exceed Parking facilities are to be designed accessible
350 feet. to all modes of travel and are to conform to
California MUTCD and DIB 82 guidance.
Bicycle parking should be located in a safe
Designated accessible parking spaces must be
area.
provided for automobiles and vans. As space
To maintain visual quality and avoid permits and need requires, one accessible
environmental damage to soils, vegetation and parking space for long vehicles may be
water quality, paved service roads should be provided at each rest area unit. Refer to
provided for maintenance access to service Chapters 600 through 670 for pavement
facilities. Service roads should be 10 feet to structure guidance.
12 feet wide.
(5) Pavement. Pavement for ramps, roads and
(3) Grading and Drainage. Grading should be parking should be designed in accordance
designed to accommodate and integrate the with Chapters 600 through 670. Parking lots
required development with as little may be constructed of flexible or rigid
disturbance to the site as practical. Drainage pavement. Rigid pavement has the advantage
should be designed in accordance with of being resistant to deterioration from
Chapter 800 through 860. Grading and dripping fuel and antifreeze.
drainage should be harmonious with natural
landforms and follow the direction of existing Table 903.5
slopes and drainage patterns. Cuts and fills Vehicle Parking Stall Standards
should be shaped and rounded to blend with
existing land forms, and the revised terrain
should complement the layout of parking Vehicle Min Stall Aisle Aisle
areas and sidewalks. Type Width Width Location
(ft) (ft)
(4) Parking Areas. Ramps, interior roads and
parking areas should be designed to encourage 1 Auto 9 5 Passenger
safe and orderly traffic movement and side
parking. These areas should be well defined
and when appropriate include the use of 2 Autos 9 5 Between
concrete curbs and striping. stalls
The design of all roads, aisles, parking spaces
and parking lot islands should ensure that 1 Van 9 8 Passenger
commercial truck maneuvers can be side
accommodated without damage to curbs,
sidewalks, pavement edges or parked vehicles. 1 Van/ 9 8 Between
See Topic 407 for truck and bus turning 1 Auto stalls
template guidance.
1 long 12 8 Passenger
Provide one dedicated parking space for use vehicle side
by the California Highway Patrol (CHP). The
CHP space should be located in an area that 2 long 12 8 Between
provides maximum visibility to the public. If vehicles stalls
a CHP drop-in office is planned, the CHP
space should be visible from the office
location. Provide a sign and pavement (6) Signage. Standard reflectorized signs should
markings to designate the CHP space. A sign be placed along the roadside to inform and
December 30, 2015
direct travelers as they approach a safety Walkways should be a minimum 10 feet wide.
roadside rest area. A roadside sign should be Steps should be avoided. Sidewalks in front
placed one mile in advance of each safety of automobile parking spaces should be a
roadside rest area that indicates the distance to minimum of 12 feet wide to compensate for
that rest area and to the next rest area beyond. the overhang of automobiles where wheel
In remote areas an additional sign may be stops are not provided. Tree wells smaller
placed in advance of a safety roadside rest than 4 feet in dimension should not be placed
area indicating the distance to the facility. in sidewalks or pedestrian plazas to avoid
Additional panels may be included on or near displacement of pavement by tree roots. Trees
this sign to inform travelers of the availability adjacent to walkways are to provide a
of vending machines, recreational vehicle minimum clearance of 8 feet from pavement
waste disposal stations, traveler information, to lower foliage.
wireless internet or other special services. A
Accessible paths of travel must be provided to
directional sign should be placed at the safety
restrooms and other pedestrian facilities,
roadside rest area ingress ramp. Standard
including picnic shelters, picnic tables,
reflectorized traffic control signs should be
benches, drinking fountains, telephones,
used within the rest area for all traffic
vending machines, information kiosks,
guidance. These signs may be enhanced with
interpretive displays, and viewing areas. The
aesthetic backing or frames. Non-traffic signs
path of travel from designated accessible
may be of customized design, provided they
parking to accessible facilities should be as
are easy to maintain or replace should they be
short and direct as practical, must have an
damaged or stolen.
even surface, and must include curb ramps,
Freestanding signs should be placed in safety marked aisles and crosswalks, and other
roadside rest areas only to provide traveler features, as required to facilitate visitors with
direction. However, a welcome sign wheelchairs, walkers and other mobility aids.
indicating the safety roadside rest area name The Department of General Services, Division
may be placed within the pedestrian portion of of State Architect, as well as the California
the rest area. Welcome signs should not be Department of Transportation enforce the
placed along ramps or at traffic decision California Building Code (Title 24) for the
points. Welcome signs must not be placed various on-site improvements. Many of these
within the clear recovery zone of the highway design requirements are contained in DIB 82
or ramps. Informational signs indicating use for exterior features, but many other design
regulations, anti-litter regulations, reclaimed requirements are not in DIB 82 and still must
water use, safety roadside rest area adoptions, be followed. The Division of Engineering
maintenance crews presence/hours, Services - Transportation Architecture may be
proximity/use of agricultural crops, scenic consulted for assistance.
highways designation, environmental features,
(8) Service Facilities. Service facilities including,
etc., should be placed in kiosks, display cases,
crew rooms, equipment storage rooms,
or interpretive displays designed for
dumpster enclosures, service yards, and utility
pedestrian viewing (see DIB 82 for guidance
equipment, can be distracting and unattractive
on exhibits).
to rest area users. Service facilities should be
(7) Walkways. It is important to provide a clearly aesthetically attractive, separated and oriented
defined and ADA compliant path of travel for away from public-use areas (restrooms,
pedestrians. Primary walkways should be pedestrian core and picnic areas).
located to direct users from automobile,
bicycle, and long-vehicle parking areas to core 903.6 Utility Systems
facilities and restroom entrances. See DIB 82 Utility systems should be designed in conformance
for further information on accessibility with Title 24 Energy Requirements of the
requirements. California Code of Regulations (State Building
December 30, 2015
Code), and other applicable State and Federal for toilets and landscape irrigation. Irrigation
requirements. systems should be isolated from the general
water system using appropriate backflow
(1) Electrical Service. Electrical power systems
prevention devices.
should be designed to accommodate the
demands, as applicable, of outdoor lighting (3) Wastewater Disposal. Wastewater disposal
(ramps, parking areas, pedestrian walkways facilities should be designed to handle the
and plazas), water supply systems (pumps, peak sewage demand. Waterborne sewage
pressure tanks, irrigation controllers), disposal systems should be provided.
restrooms (lighting, hand dryers), pedestrian Structures Design will arrange for soil
facilities (lighting, water chillers, telephones, analysis and percolation tests, and upon
wireless internet, kiosks), crew room (lighting, completion of testing will obtain approval of
heating, air conditioning, refrigerator, the proposed sewage treatment system from
microwave), CHP drop-in office (lighting, the Regional Water Quality Control Board.
heating, air conditioning), and vending Recreation vehicle waste disposal stations
(lighting, vending machines, change machine, may be provided at rest areas where there is a
storage-room air conditioning). recognized need and commercial disposal
stations are not available.
Primary electrical power sufficient for basic
safety needs should be supplied by (4) Telephones. Provide locations, conduit and
conventional power providers. Supplemental wiring for a minimum of three public pay
power may be provided using innovative telephones at each safety roadside rest area
technologies such as solar panels or wind unit. To comply with accessibility laws and
generation or conventional means, such as regulations, at least one telephone must be
backup generators. Consider security, public wheelchair accessible, at least one telephone
safety and environmental protection when must allow for audio amplification, and at
considering the type of fuel and fuel storage least one telephone must include text
facilities for electrical generation. Provide messaging for the hearing impaired.
vehicular access to fuel storage facilities for Whenever possible, all telephones should
refueling, and include fencing and gates as allow for audio amplification.
necessary to prevent access by the general
Telephones should be wall or pedestal
public.
mounted, and located in pedestrian areas that
(2) Water. Water supply systems should be are well lighted, and whenever possible,
designed to accommodate the 20-year protected from rain, snow and wind. Consider
projected demand and to handle the peak flow placing telephones, commercial advertising
required for restroom fixtures and landscape displays and public information displays in
irrigation. Pumps, pressure tanks, chlorinators close proximity. Information should be
and associated equipment should be located placed near telephones indicating local
outside of pedestrian use areas and screened emergency numbers and indicating the rest
from view. Enclosures should be provided for area name and location. 120-volt power
water supply equipment to discourage should be provided to operate keyboards and
vandalism and minimize the appearance of pedestal lighting.
clutter. Water lines beneath parking areas,
Conduits and pull wires should be provided
pedestrian plazas and the highway should be
from the telephone service point to the
placed in conduits. Maintain appropriate
maintenance crew room and to the California
distance between wells and wastewater
Highway Patrol (CHP) drop-in office.
disposal facilities (applicable laws should be
Provide telephone service for maintenance
followed). Potable water must be provided to
contractors and the CHP.
sinks, drinking fountains, exterior faucet
assemblies and pet-watering stations. (5) Call Boxes. Call Boxes generally are not
Untreated or non-potable water may be used placed in safety roadside rest areas.
December 30, 2015
(6) Telecommunications Equipment and construction and maintenance is warranted.

Transmission Towers. The Department seeks Building forms, rooflines, construction materials
revenue from placement of wireless (stone, timber, steel, etc.), colors and detailing
telecommunications facilities on State-owned should express the local context including history,
right of way. Transmission towers and cultural influences, climate, topography, geology
associated equipment, structures and fencing and vegetation. Structures must be designed and
should be located outside of pedestrian use constructed to be accessible to persons with
areas and views. Telecommunications disabilities in accordance with all applicable State
equipment and transmission towers should be and Federal law.
aesthetically integrated into the site. Consider
(1) Restrooms. Two restrooms should be
future safety roadside rest area expansion,
provided for each gender to allow for
and, when possible, locate facilities outside of
uninterrupted public access to facilities during
areas planned for future development.
janitorial cleaning operations. Unisex or
(7) Lighting. Site and building lighting are to be family restrooms may be provided to facilitate
designed in conformance with Title 24 Energy assistance by others to young children, elderly
Requirements of the California Code of persons and persons with disabilities. These
Regulations (State Building Code). Also refer facilities are not considered part of the total
to the Traffic Manual, Chapter 9 for further capacity used, but may be counted as
Highway Lighting guidance. For functionality women’s restrooms.
and safety, rest areas should be lighted for
Entrances to restrooms should be visible from
24-hour-a-day use. Lighting should be
the parking area. They should be well lighted
automatically controlled and include manual-
and clearly identified with signs and/or
shutoff capability. Restroom entrances and
graphics. Restroom entrances should not be
the interiors of restrooms, utility corridors,
located in areas of dead-end circulation.
crew rooms, CHP drop-in offices and storage
Facilities intended for general public use
buildings, pedestrian plazas, primary
should not be located near restroom entrances.
sidewalks, crosswalks, ramps, picnic areas,
Privacy screens at restroom entrances should
kiosks, bicycle parking, and interpretive
allow visibility from the ground to a height of
displays should be brightly illuminated.
12 inches to 18 inches above the ground.
Lighting should illuminate walking surfaces
Lockable steel doors should be provided for
and avoid strong shadows. An average level
entrances to rest rooms, storage rooms, crew
of 1 foot-candle is generally acceptable for
rooms and CHP drop-in offices.
primary pedestrian areas. Peripheral areas of
the site should be lighted only where To deter vandalism, signs should be made of
nighttime pedestrian use is anticipated. Non- metal or other durable material and should be
pedestrian areas of the site do not require recessed into, or securely mounted on a wall.
lighting. Signs identifying the entrance to each
restroom should be clearly visible from the
903.7 Structures parking area. A sign, in English and Braille,
Safety roadside rest area structures include should be placed on the building wall or on
restrooms, storage rooms, equipment rooms, crew the privacy screen at each restroom entrance
rooms, CHP drop-in offices, picnic shelters, utility to identify the gender. Signs may also be
enclosures, dumpster enclosures, kiosks, arbors and provided in other languages as appropriate. A
other architectural elements. Safety roadside rest standard sign should be installed near the
area architecture should be designed for a service entrance to each restroom advising that,
life of approximately 20 years. Safety roadside rest pursuant to Streets and Highways Code
areas are high-profile public works projects, which Section 223.5, a person of the opposite sex
represent the State, Department and local may accompany a person with a disability into
community to millions of visitors each year. the restroom. A sign should be installed near
Attention to quality architectural design, the restroom doors advising that, State law
December 30, 2015
prohibits smoking in restrooms and the area (6) Caretakers/Managers. Residential facilities
within 20 feet of the restroom doors. or offices for caretakers or managers may be
included with a safety roadside rest area when
(2) Crew Room. A maintenance crew room,
prior provisions have been made for the use
separate from equipment and supply storage,
and staffing of such facilities. Caretakers and
should be provided at each safety roadside rest
managers may be employed or otherwise
area. When appropriate, a single crew room
compensated, sponsored by others, or work as
may be provided for a pair of safety roadside
volunteers.
rest area units. The crew room should be
heated and air-conditioned. Conduits or (7) Public Information Facilities. At least
wiring for telephone service, by others, may 96 square feet of lighted display space should
be provided. be provided at each safety roadside rest area
for display of public information, such as rest
(3) CHP Drop-in Office. A dedicated office and
area regulations, maps, road conditions, rest
restroom should be provided for use by the
area closures, safety tips, and missing children
CHP. Consult with the CHP to determine
posters. Space should consist of wall-
need. The office should be located adjacent to
mounted cases or freestanding kiosks.
the pedestrian core and near the dedicated
CHP parking stall. The restroom may have 903.8 Security and Pedestrian Amenities
double entries to allow cleaning by
maintenance crews; however, the CHP office Proper safety roadside rest area design will help
should be designed to allow access only by ensure user safety with the installation of adequate
CHP. lighting, providing accessible walking surfaces and
allowing open visibility through the site.
(4) Vending Machine Facilities. Vegetation, walls, recesses and other areas that
Accommodations for vending machines allow concealment should not be located near
should be considered when designing safety restroom entrances. Site security may also include
roadside rest areas. Vending machines may the presence of a CHP office and the use of
be installed with a project or installed at any surveillance cameras. Fences should be provided
other time by initiative of the California only for access control, traffic control, or safety
Department of Rehabilitation, Business purposes. Fencing should be designed to be as
Enterprise Program (BEP). unobtrusive as practical. A 4-foot high fence must
A storage room should be provided within be provided between the highway and the safety
150 feet of the vending machines for storage roadside rest area. Perimeter fencing should be of
of vended products. The safety roadside rest the minimum height and design necessary. Where
area project should provide conduits from the adjacent property is developed, more substantial
electrical service panel to the vending storage fencing or screening may be required. Fencing in
room for possible installation of air rural or natural areas may be required to control or
conditioning by the BEP. protect wildlife or livestock.
(5) Storage Rooms or Buildings. Storage rooms Pedestrian amenities include trash and recycling
or buildings should be provided to house facilities, pedestrian signs, pet areas and drinking
maintenance equipment, tools and supplies. fountains. Landscape architectural elements such
Janitorial cleaning supplies and tools should as shade structures, kiosks, benches, seat walls,
be located in the vicinity of the restrooms, picnic tables, and other miscellaneous features
reasonably close to parking for maintenance should be included. Landscaping should be
service vehicles. Grounds-maintenance provided and may include areas for monuments,
equipment and supplies should be located artwork, interpretive facilities, and informal
outside of public-use areas and views. exercise and play facilities. Newspaper and
Shelving for paper goods, cleaning supplies traveler coupon booklet vending machines are
and other materials must be provided. owned by others and placed in safety roadside rest
areas by encroachment permit. Pedestrian
amenities must be designed and constructed to be
December 30, 2015
accessible to persons with disabilities in accordance where development is anticipated should be

with all applicable State and Federal law. avoided.
Wireless internet facilities may be installed in (3) Access. A site must be accessible from a State
safety roadside rest areas with funding borne by the highway or intersecting road. A site must
provider or others. have adequate sight distance for safe access.
Coin operated binocular viewing as authorized by (4) Adequate Space. A site must be of adequate
law is provided privately through a competitively size to accommodate the necessary features
awarded revenue-generating agreement. and facilities. However, development of a site
can not detract from the scenic quality of the
Topic 904 - Vista Point Standards area. Adequate space should be available for
and Guidelines earth mounding and planting to minimize the
visual impact of larger facilities. Adequate
904.1 General space for future expansion is desirable.
New vista points should be considered during 904.3 Design Features and Facilities
planning and design of new alignments for
(1) Road Connections. The design of connections
inclusion with the highway contract (see Index
to vista points should be in accordance with
109.3). Vista points may also be provided on
Index 107.1. Vista points designed for
existing routes. Existing vista points should be
freeways shall have standard freeway exit
periodically inspected for needed restoration or
and entrance ramps (see Chapter 500).
upgrading.
(2) Parking. Parking areas should be inclusive of
The District Landscape Architect is responsible for
all user modes. Parking capacity should be
approving site selection, concept, and design for all
based on an analysis of current traffic data.
areas to be signed as vista points. Pavement
However, at least five vehicle spaces should
structure and drainage should be designed in
be provided. Parking should not exceed 0.025
accordance with the standards contained in this
times the DHV or 50 spaces, whichever is
manual.
less. This number may be exceeded at high
Vista points should be designed to be accessible to use trailheads. Parking stalls should be
all travelers and conform to the Americans with delineated by striping. Approximately one-
Disabilities Act and DIB 82. quarter to one-third of the spaces should be
allocated to long vehicles (cars with trailers,
904.2 Site Selection recreational vehicles, and buses). Geometrics
Site selection is based on the following criteria: should be such that all types of vehicles
entering the vista point can safely negotiate
(1) Quality. A site should have views and
and exit the facility. Accessible parking
scenery of outstanding merit or beauty.
should be provided as discussed in Index
Locations on designated State scenic
903.5(4) and DIB 82.
highways or in areas of historical or
environmental significance should be given Consult the District Bicycle Coordinator for
special emphasis. A site should provide the guidance on bicycle parking.
best viewing opportunities compared to other
(3) Pedestrian Areas. Vista points should
potential locations within the vicinity.
provide a safe place where motorists can
(2) Compatibility. A site should be located on observe the view from outside their vehicles
State highway right of way or on right of way and bicyclists off their bicycles. Accessible
secured by easement or agreement with walkways that exclude vehicles may be
another public agency. A site should be provided within the viewing area.
obtainable without condemnation. Sites on or
(4) Interpretive Displays. An interpretive display
adjacent to developed property or property
should be provided within the pedestrian area
of each vista point. The display should be
December 16, 2016
appropriate to the site, both in design and graded areas. Plants requiring permanent
content and accessible; see DIB 82 for exhibit irrigation should be avoided.
guidance. Display structures should not
(11) Barriers. Railings, bollards, or other
overwhelm or dominate the site, and they
appropriate barriers should be used to protect
should be placed at the proper location for
pedestrians, and discourage entry into
viewing the attraction.
sensitive or hazardous areas.
Information should pertain to local
The design of such barriers should be
environmental, ecological, and historical
sensitive to pedestrian scale and reflect the
features. It should interpret the features being
scenic character of the site.
viewed to inform and educate the public.
(12) Other Features. Benches, telephones, and
Historical plaques, monuments, vicinity maps,
viewing machines are optional items. Picnic
and directions to other public facilities are
tables are not to be included in vista points.
examples of other appropriate informational
items. In general, the inclusion of items which do not
either facilitate the viewing of the scenic
(5) Vending Machines and Public Information
attraction, or blend the vista point into its
Displays. Designers should be familiar with
surroundings, should be avoided.
the provisions of the California Streets and
Highways Code, Section 225-225.5. The Topic 905 - Park and Ride
designer should adequately consider and plan
for uses and facilities that may reasonably be Standards and Guidelines
anticipated.
905.1 General
(6) Sanitary Facilities. Comfort stations are
Park and Ride facilities must be considered for
usually not provided. Exceptions must be
inclusion on all major transportation projects that
approved by the Principal Landscape
include, but are not limited to, new freeways,
Architect, Landscape Architecture Program.
interchange modifications, lane additions, transit
(7) Water. Potable water may be provided at a facilities, and HOV lanes. See Chapter 8, Section 7
reasonable cost. Non-potable water should of the Project Development Procedures Manual for
not be provided in a vista point. additional information.
(8) Trash Receptacles. Trash receptacles should The District Park and Ride Coordinator is
be provided in each vista point. As a guide, responsible for approving site selection. The
one receptacle should be provided for every concept and general design for Park and Ride
four cars, but a minimum of two receptacles facilities must be coordinated by the District
should be provided per vista point. Dumpsters Landscape Architect. Additional information on
should not be located at a vista point. Park and Ride facilities can be obtained from the
(9) Signs. Directional, regulatory, and warning Headquarters Park and Ride Coordinator in the
signs must conform to the California Office of System Management Operations in the
MUTCD. Division of Traffic Operations. Additional
guidance on Park and Ride facilities can be found
(10) Planting. Existing vegetation, rock in the AASHTO Publication “Guide for Park and
outcroppings, and other natural features Ride Facilities” (2004).
should be conserved and highlighted.
Removal or pruning of existing plants to Park and Ride facilities must accommodate all
frame the view should be held to a minimum modes of travel and conform to the American with
and be directed by the District Landscape Disabilities Act and DIB 82.
Architect. Earth mounding and contour 905.2 Site Selection
grading may be employed to restore and
naturalize the site. Planting, including erosion Park and Ride facilities are typically placed to
control, should be provided to revegetate enhance corridor efforts to reduce congestion, and
December 30, 2015
to improve air quality usually associated with other

transportation opportunities such as HOV lanes and
transit. The specific choice as to location and
design should be supported by a detailed analysis
of demand and the impact of a Park and Ride
facility based upon these parameters:
• Corridor congestion
• Community Values
• Air Quality
• Transit Operations
• Overall Safety
• Multi-modal Opportunities
Full involvement of the project development team
should be engaged in the evaluation and
recommendation of Park and Ride type,
classification, site and appurtenant facilities.
905.3 Design Features and Facilities
Park and Ride facilities are to be designed as multi-
modal facilities. Provisions for pedestrians,
bicyclists, transit, single-occupancy vehicles, and
multi-occupancy vehicles are to be provided as
appropriate. The local transit provider should be
consulted to determine if the facility should provide
connections to transit. In general, the function of
the facility is to take precedent over the form of the
facility; however, special consideration for the
safety and security of all users is fundamental to
the success of the facility.
The design of a Park and Ride facility should take
into account the operations and maintenance of the
facility, both in terms of effort as well as safety.
Appurtenant facilities as allowed by law should be
carefully evaluated and included as appropriate.
Any necessary funding and agreements need to
allow appurtenant facilities on site and should be in
place early in the project development process.
December 30, 2015
(c) Section 887.8 -- Payment for construction and

CHAPTER 1000 maintenance of nonmotorized facilities
BICYCLE TRANSPORTATION approximately paralleling State highways.
DESIGN (d) Section 888 -- Severance of existing major non-
motorized route by freeway construction.
Topic 1001 - Introduction (e) Section 888.2 -- Incorporation of nonmotorized
facilities in the design of freeways.
Index 1001.1 – Bicycle Transportation
(f) Section 888.4 -- Requires Caltrans to budget not
The needs of nonmotorized transportation are an less than $360,000 annually for nonmotorized
essential part of all highway projects. Mobility for facilities used in conjunction with the State
all travel modes is recognized as an integral element highway system.
of the transportation system. Therefore, the
guidance provided in this manual complies with (g) Section 890.4 -- Class I, II, III, and cycle tracks
Deputy Directive 64-R2: Complete Streets - or separated bikeway definitions.
Integrating the Transportation System. See (h) Section 890.6 - 890.8 -- Caltrans and local
AASHTO, “Guide For The Development Of agencies to develop design criteria and symbols
Bicycle Facilities”. for signs, markers, and traffic control devices
Design guidance for Class I bikeways (bike paths), for bikeways and roadways where bicycle travel
Class III bikeways (bike routes) and Trails are is permitted.
provided in this chapter. Design guidance that (i) Section 891 -- Local agencies must comply with
addresses the mobility needs of bicyclists on all design criteria and uniform symbols.
roads as well as on Class II bikeways (bike lanes) is
distributed throughout this manual where (j) Section 892 -- Use of abandoned right-of-way
appropriate. Design guidance for Class IV as a nonmotorized facility.
bikeways (separated bikeways) is provided in DIB 1001.3 Vehicle Code References
89. The AASHTO Guide for the Development of
Bicycle Facilities also provides additional bikeway (a) Section 21200 -- Bicyclist's rights and
guidance not included in this chapter. In addition, responsibilities for traveling on highways.
bikeway publications and manuals developed by (b) Section 21202 -- Bicyclist's position on
organizations other than FHWA and AASHTO also roadways when traveling slower than the
provide guidance not covered in this manual. normal traffic speed.
See Topic 116 for guidance regarding bikes on (c) Section 21206 -- Allows local agencies to
freeways. regulate operation of bicycles on pedestrian or
1001.2 Streets and Highways Code bicycle facilities.
References (d) Section 21207 -- Allows local agencies to
The Streets and Highways Code Section 890.4 establish bike lanes on non-State highways.
defines a “bikeway” as a facility that is provided (e) Section 21207.5 -- Prohibits motorized bicycles
primarily for bicycle travel. Following are other on bike paths or bike lanes.
related definitions, found in Chapter 8
Nonmotorized Transportation, from the Streets and (f) Section 21208 -- Specifies permitted
Highway Code: movements by bicyclists from bike lanes.
(a) Section 887 -- Definition of nonmotorized (g) Section 21209 -- Specifies permitted
facility. movements by vehicles in bike lanes.
(b) Section 887.6 -- Agreements with local agencies (h) Section 21210 -- Prohibits bicycle parking on
to construct and maintain nonmotorized sidewalks unless pedestrians have an adequate
facilities. path.
December 30, 2015
(i) Section 21211 -- Prohibits impeding or (2) Decision to Develop Bikeways

obstruction of bicyclists on bike paths.
Providing an interconnected network of
(j) Section 21400 – Adopt rules and regulations for bikeways will improve safety for all users and
signs, markings, and traffic control devices for access for bicycles. The development of well
roadways user. conceived bikeways can have a positive effect
on bicyclist and motorist behavior. In addition,
(k) Section 21401 -- Only those official traffic
providing an interconnected network of
control devices that conform to the uniform
bikeways along with education and enforcement
standards and specifications promulgated by
can improve safety and access for bicyclists.
the Department of Transportation shall be
The decision to develop bikeways should be
placed upon a street or highway.
made in coordination with the local agencies.
(l) Section 21717 -- Requires a motorist to drive in
a bike lane prior to making a turn. Topic 1002 - Bikeway Facilities
(m) Section 21960 -- Use of freeways by bicyclists. 1002.1 Selection of the Type of Facility
(n) Section 21966 -- No pedestrian shall proceed The type of facility to select in meeting the
along a bicycle path or lane where there is an bicyclist’s need is dependent on many factors, but
adjacent adequate pedestrian facility. the following applications are the most common for
1001.4 Bikeways each type.
(1) Role of Bikeways (1) Shared Roadway (No Bikeway Designation).
Most bicycle travel in the State now occurs on
Bikeways are one element of an effort to streets and highways without bikeway
improve bicycling safety and convenience - designations and this may continue to be true in
either to help accommodate motor vehicle and the future as well. In some instances, entire
bicycle traffic on the roadway system, or as a street systems may be fully adequate for safe
complement to the road system to meet the and efficient bicycle travel, where signing and
needs of the bicyclist. pavement marking for bicycle use may be
Off-street bikeways in exclusive corridors can unnecessary. In other cases, prior to designation
be effective in providing new recreational as a bikeway, routes may need improvements
opportunities, and desirable for bicycle travel.
transportation/commuter routes. Off-street Many rural highways are used by touring
bikeways can also provide access with bridges bicyclists for intercity and recreational travel. It
and tunnels which cross barriers to bicycle might be inappropriate to designate the
travel (e.g., freeway or river crossing). highways as bikeways because of the limited
Likewise, on-street bikeways can serve to use and the lack of continuity with other bike
enhance safety and convenience, especially if routes. However, the development and
other commitments are made in conjunction maintenance of 4-foot paved roadway shoulders
with establishment of bikeways, such as: with a standard 4 inch edge line can
elimination of parking or increased roadway significantly improve the safety and
width, elimination of surface irregularities and convenience for bicyclists and motorists along
roadway obstacles, frequent street sweeping, such routes.
established intersection priority on the bike
route street as compared with the majority of (2) Class I Bikeway (Bike Path). Generally, bike
cross streets, and installation of bicycle- paths should be used to serve corridors not
sensitive loop detectors at signalized served by streets and highways or where wide
intersections. right of way exists, permitting such facilities to
be constructed away from the influence of
parallel streets. Bike paths should offer
opportunities not provided by the road system.
December 30, 2015
They can either provide a recreational Design guidance that addresses the mobility
opportunity, or in some instances, can serve as needs of bicyclists on Class II bikeways (bike
direct high-speed commute routes if cross flow lanes) is also distributed throughout this
by motor vehicles and pedestrian conflicts can manual where appropriate.
be minimized. The most common applications
(4) Class III Bikeway (Bike Route). Bike routes
are along rivers, ocean fronts, canals, utility
are shared facilities which serve either to:
right of way, abandoned railroad right of way,
within school campuses, or within and between (a) Provide continuity to other bicycle
parks. There may also be situations where such facilities (usually Class II bikeways); or
facilities can be provided as part of planned (b) Designate preferred routes through high
developments. Another common application of demand corridors.
Class I facilities is to close gaps to bicycle travel
caused by construction of freeways or because As with bike lanes, designation of bike routes
of the existence of natural barriers (rivers, should indicate to bicyclists that there are
mountains, etc.). particular advantages to using these routes as
compared with alternative routes. This means
(3) Class II Bikeway (Bike Lane). Bike lanes are that responsible agencies have taken actions to
established along streets in corridors where assure that these routes are suitable as shared
there is significant bicycle demand, and where routes and will be maintained in a manner
there are distinct needs that can be served by consistent with the needs of bicyclists.
them. The purpose should be to improve Normally, bike routes are shared with motor
conditions for bicyclists in the corridors. Bike vehicles. The use of sidewalks as Class III
lanes are intended to delineate the right of way bikeways is strongly discouraged.
assigned to bicyclists and motorists and to
provide for more predictable movements by (5) Class IV Bikeways (Separated Bikeways). See
each. But a more important reason for DIB 89 for guidance.
constructing bike lanes is to better A Class IV bikeway (separated bikeway) is a
accommodate bicyclists through corridors bikeway for the exclusive use of bicycles and
where insufficient room exists for side-by-side includes a separation required between the
sharing of existing streets by motorists and separated bikeway and the through vehicular
bicyclists. This can be accomplished by traffic. The separation may include, but is not
reducing the number of lanes, reducing lane limited to, grade separation, flexible posts,
width, or prohibiting or reconfiguring parking inflexible posts, inflexible barriers, or on-street
on given streets in order to delineate bike lanes. parking. See DIB 89 for further Class IV
In addition, other things can be done on bike guidance.
lane streets to improve the situation for
bicyclists that might not be possible on all It is emphasized that the designation of bikeways as
streets (e.g., improvements to the surface, Class I, II,III, and IV should not be construed as a
augmented sweeping programs, special signal hierarchy of bikeways; that one is better than the
facilities, etc.). Generally, pavement markings other. Each class of bikeway has its appropriate
alone will not measurably enhance bicycling. application.
If bicycle travel is to be provided by In selecting the proper facility, an overriding
delineation, attention should be made to assure concern is to assure that the proposed facility will
that high levels of service are provided with not encourage or require bicyclists or motorists to
these lanes. It is important to meet bicyclist operate in a manner that is inconsistent with the
expectations and increase bicyclist perception rules of the road.
of service quality, where capacity analysis An important consideration in selecting the type of
demonstrates service quality measures are facility is continuity. Alternating segments of Class
improved from the bicyclist’s point of view. I to Class II (or Class III) bikeways along a route are
generally incompatible, as street crossings by
December 30, 2015
bicyclists is required when the route changes way bike path shall be 5 feet. It should
character. Also, wrong-way bicycle travel will be assumed that bike paths will be used
occur on the street beyond the ends of bike paths for two-way travel. Development of a
because of the inconvenience of having to cross the one-way bike path should be undertaken
street. However, alternating from Class IV to Class only in rare situations where there is a
II may be appropriate due to the presence of many need for only one-direction of travel.
driveways or turning movements. The highway Two-way use of bike paths designed for
context or community setting may also influence the one-way travel increases the risk of head-
need to alternate bikeway classifications. on collisions, as it is difficult to enforce
one-way operation. This is not meant to
Topic 1003 - Bikeway Design apply to two one-way bike paths that are
Criteria parallel and adjacent to each other within
a wide right of way.
1003.1 Class I Bikeways (Bike Paths) Where heavy bicycle volumes are
Class I bikeways (bike paths) are facilities with anticipated and/or significant pedestrian
exclusive right of way, with cross flows by vehicles traffic is expected, the paved width of a
minimized. Motor vehicles are prohibited from bike two-way bike path should be greater than
paths per the CVC, which can be reinforced by 10 feet, preferably 12 feet or more.
signing. Class I bikeways, unless adjacent to an Another important factor to consider in
adequate pedestrian facility,(see Index 1001.3(n)) determining the appropriate width is that
are for the exclusive use of bicycles and pedestrians, bicyclists will tend to ride side by side on
therefore any facility serving pedestrians must meet bike paths, and bicyclists may need
accessibility requirements, see DIB 82. However, adequate passing clearance next to
experience has shown that if regular pedestrian use pedestrians and slower moving bicyclists.
is anticipated, separate facilities for pedestrians See Index 1003.1(16) Drainage, for cross
maybe beneficial to minimize conflicts. Please slope information.
note, sidewalks are not Class I bikeways because
they are primarily intended to serve pedestrians, (b) Shoulder. A minimum 2-foot wide
generally cannot meet the design standards for Class shoulder, composed of the same
I bikeways, and do not minimize vehicle cross pavement material as the bike path or
flows. See Index 1003.3 for discussion of the issues all weather surface material that is free
associated with sidewalk bikeways. of vegetation, shall be provided
adjacent to the traveled way of the bike
(1) Widths and Cross Slopes. See Figure 1003.1A path when not on a structure; see Figure
for two-way Class I bikeway (bike path) width, 1003.1A. A shoulder width of 3 feet
cross slope, and side slope details. The term should be provided where feasible. A
“shoulder” as used in the context of a bike path wider shoulder can reduce bicycle
is an unobstructed all weather surface on each conflicts with pedestrians. Where the
side of a bike path with similar functionality as paved bike path width is wider than the
shoulders on roadways with the exception that minimum required, the unpaved shoulder
motor vehicle parking and use is not allowed. area may be reduced proportionately. If
The shoulder area is not considered part of the all or part of the shoulder is paved with
bike path traveled way. the same material as the bike path, it is to
Experience has shown that paved paths less be delineated from the traveled way of the
than 12 feet wide can break up along the edge bike path with an edgeline.
as a result of loads from maintenance vehicles. See Index 1003.1(16), Drainage, for cross
(a) Traveled Way. The minimum paved slope information.
width of travel way for a two-way bike (2) Bike Path Separation from a Pedestrian
path shall be 8 feet, 10-foot preferred. Walkway. If there is an adjacent pedestrian
The minimum paved width for a one-
December 30, 2015
walkway, the edge of the traveled way of the the one with the most beneficial intersection
bike path is to be separated from the pedestrian characteristics should be selected.
walkway by a minimum width of 5 feet of
Where motor vehicle cross traffic and bicycle
unpaved material. The 5-foot area of unpaved
traffic is heavy, grade separations are desirable
material may include landscaping or other
to eliminate intersection conflicts. Where
features that provide a continuous obstacle to
grade separations are not feasible, assignment
deter bike path and walkway users from using
of right of way by traffic signals should be
both paths as a single facility. These obstacles
considered. Where traffic is not heavy,
may be fences, railings, solid walls, or dense
”STOP” or “YIELD” signs for either the path
shrubbery. Flexible delineators, poles, curbs,
or the cross street (depending on volumes) may
or pavement markers are not to be used
suffice.
because they will not deter users from using
both paths as a single facility. These obstacles Bicycle path intersections and their approaches
between the pedestrian walkways and bike should be on relatively flat grades. Stopping
paths are not to obstruct stopping sight distance sight distances at intersections should be
along curves or corner sight distance at checked and adequate warning should be given
intersections with roadways or other paths. to permit bicyclists to stop before reaching the
intersection, especially on downgrades. When
(3) Clearance to Obstructions. A minimum
contemplating the placement of signs the
2-foot horizontal clearance from the paved
designer is to discuss the proposed sign details
edge of a bike path to obstructions shall be
with their Traffic Liaison so that conflicts may
provided. See Figure 1003.1A. 3 feet should
be minimized. Bicycle versus motor vehicle
be provided. Adequate clearance from fixed
collisions may occur more often at
objects is needed regardless of the paved
intersections, where bicyclists misuse
width. If a path is paved contiguous with a
pedestrian crosswalks; thus, this should be
continuous fixed object (e.g., fence, wall, and
avoided.
building), a 4-inch white edge line, 2 feet from
the fixed object, is recommended to minimize When crossing an arterial street, the crossing
the likelihood of a bicyclist hitting it. The should either occur at the pedestrian crossing,
clear width of a bicycle path on structures where vehicles can be expected to stop, or at a
between railings shall be not less than location completely out of the influence of any
10 feet. It is desirable that the clear width of intersection to permit adequate opportunity for
structures be equal to the minimum clear width bicyclists to see turning vehicles. When
of the path plus shoulders (i.e., 14 feet). crossing at midblock locations, right of way
should be assigned by devices such as
The vertical clearance to obstructions across
“YIELD” signs, “STOP” signs, or traffic
the width of a bike path shall be a minimum
signals which can be activated by bicyclists.
of 8 feet and 7 feet over shoulder. Where
Even when crossing within or adjacent to the
practical, a vertical clearance of 10 feet is
pedestrian crossing, ”STOP” or “YIELD” signs
desirable.
for bicyclists should be placed to minimize
(4) Signing and Delineation. For application and potential for conflict resulting from turning
placement of signs, see the California autos. Where bike path “STOP” or “YIELD”
MUTCD, Section 9B. For pavement marking signs are visible to approaching motor vehicle
guidance, see the California MUTCD, Section traffic, they should be shielded to avoid
9C. confusion. In some cases, Bike Xing signs
may be placed in advance of the crossing to
(5) Intersections with Highways. Intersections are
alert motorists. Ramps should be installed in
an important consideration in bike path design.
the curbs, to preserve the utility of the bike
Bicycle path intersection design should address
path. Ramps should be the same width as the
both cross-traffic and turning movements. If
bicycle paths. Curb cuts and ramps should
alternate locations for a bike path are available,
December 30, 2015
Figure 1003.1A
Two-Way Class I Bikeway (Bike Path)
NOTES:
(1) See Index 1003.1(13) for pavement structure guidance of bike path.
(2) For sign clearances, see California MUTCD, Figure 9B-1.
(3) The AASHTO Guide for the Development of Bicycle Facilities provides detailed guidance for creating a
forgiving Class I bikeway environment.
* 1% cross-slope minimum.
July 1, 2015
Figure 1003.1B
Typical Cross Section of Class I Bikeway (Bike Path) Parallel to Highway
NOTE:
(1) See Index 1003.1(6) for guidance on separation between bike paths and highways.
* One-Way: 5’ Minimum Width
Two-Way: 8’ Minimum Width
December 30, 2015
provide a smooth transition between the not a substitute for designing the road to meet
bicycle paths and the roadway. bicyclist’s mobility needs. Use of bicycle
paths adjacent to roads is not mandatory in
Assignment of rights of way is necessary
California, and many bicyclists will perceive
where bicycle paths intersect roadways or other
these paths as offering a lower level of
bicycle paths. See the California MUTCD,
mobility compared with traveling on the road,
Section 9B.03 and Figure 9B-7 for guidance on
particularly for utility trips. Careful
signals and signs for rights of way assignment
consideration regarding how to address the
at bicycle path intersections.
above points needs to be weighed against the
(6) Paving at Crossings. At unpaved roadway or perceived benefits of providing a bike path
driveway crossings, including bike paths or adjacent to a street or highway. Factors such
pedestrian walkways, the crossing roadway or as urban density, the number of conflict points,
driveway shall be paved a minimum of 15 feet the presence or absence of a sidewalk, speed
to minimize or eliminate gravel intrusion on and volume should be considered.
the path. The pavement structure at the
(8) Bike Paths in the Median of Highway or
crossing should be adequate to sustain the
Roadway. Bike paths should not be placed in
expected loading at that location
the median of a State highway or local road,
(7) Bike Paths Parallel and Adjacent to Streets and shall not be in the median of a freeway
and Highways. A wide separation is or expressway. Bike paths in the median are
recommended between bike paths and adjacent generally not recommended because they may
highways (see Figure 1003.1B). The require movements contrary to normal rules of
minimum separation between the edge of the road. Specific problems with such facilities
pavement of a one-way or a two-way bicycle may include:
path and the edge of traveled way of a
(a) Right-turns by bicyclists from the median
parallel road or street shall be 5 feet plus the
of roadways are unexpected by motorists.
standard shoulder widths. Bike paths within
the clear recovery zone of freeways shall (b) Devoting separate phases to bicyclist
include a physical barrier separation. The movements to and from a median path at
separation is unpaved and does not include signalized intersections increases
curbs or sidewalks. Separations less than intersection delay.
10 feet from the edge of the shoulder are to
(c) Left-turning motorists must cross one
include landscaping or other features that
direction of motor vehicle traffic and two
provide a continuous barrier to prevent
directions of bicycle traffic, which may
bicyclists from encroaching onto the highway.
increase conflicts.
Suitable barriers may include fences or dense
shrubs if design speeds are less than or equal to (d) Where intersections are infrequent,
45 miles per hour. Obstacles low to the ground bicyclists may choose to enter or exit bike
or intermittent obstacles (e.g., curbs, dikes, paths at midblock.
raised traffic bars, posts connected by cable or (e) Where medians are landscaped, visibility
wire, flexible channelizers, etc.) are not to be between bicyclists on the path and
used because bicyclists could fall over these motorists at intersections may be
obstacles and into the roadway. diminished. See Chapter 900 for planting
Bike paths immediately adjacent to streets and guidance.
highways are not recommended. While they (9) Bicycle Path Design Speed. The design speed
can provide separation between vehicles and of bicycle paths is established using the same
nonmotorized traffic, they typically introduce principles as those applied to highway design
significant conflicts at intersections. In speeds. The design speed given in Table
addition, they can create conflicts with
1003.1 shall be the minimum.
passengers at public transit facilities, and with
vehicle occupants crossing the path. They are
December 30, 2015
Table 1003.1 nonstandard curves can also be partially offset

by widening the pavement through the curves.
Bike Path Design Speeds
(11) Stopping Sight Distance. To provide bicyclists
Type of Facility Design Speed with an opportunity to see and react to the
(mph)(1) unexpected, a bicycle path should be designed
with adequate stopping sight distances. The
Bike Paths with Mopeds minimum stopping sight distance based on
20
Prohibited design speed shall be 125 feet for 20 miles
Bike Paths with Mopeds per hour, 175 feet for 25 miles per hour and
30
Permitted 230 feet for 30 miles per hour. The distance
Bike Paths on Long Downgrades required to bring a bicycle to a full controlled
(steeper than 4%, and longer than 30 stop is a function of the bicyclist’s perception
500') and brake reaction time, the initial speed of the
bicycle, the coefficient of friction between the
NOTE: tires and the pavement, and the braking ability
(1) On bike paths with mopeds prohibited, a of the bicycle.
lower design speed can be used for the crest Stopping sight distance is measured from a
vertical curve, equivalent to 1 mile per hour bicyclist’s eyes, which are assumed to be
per percent grade for grades exceeding a 4 ½ feet above the pavement surface to an
vertical rise of 10 feet, when at a crest in object ½-foot high on the pavement surface.
path.
(12) Length of Crest Vertical Curves. Figure
1003.1C indicates the minimum lengths of
Installation of "speed bumps", gates, obstacles, crest vertical curves for varying design speeds.
posts, fences or other similar features intended
to cause bicyclists to slow down are not to be (13) Lateral Clearance on Horizontal Curves.
used. Figure 1003.1D indicates the minimum
clearances to line of sight obstructions, m, for
(10) Horizontal Alignment and Superelevation. The horizontal curves. It is assumed that the
minimum radius of curvature negotiable by a bicyclist’s eyes are 4 ½ feet above the
bicycle is a function of the superelevation of pavement surface to an object ½-foot high on
the bicycle path surface, the coefficient of the pavement surface.
friction between the bicycle tires and the
bicycle path surface, and the speed of the Bicyclists frequently ride abreast of each other
bicycle. on bicycle paths, and on narrow bicycle paths,
bicyclists have a tendency to ride near the
For all bicycle path applications the maximum middle of the path. For these reasons, lateral
superelevation rate is 2 percent. clearances on horizontal curves should be
The minimum radius of curvature should be calculated based on the sum of the stopping
90 feet for 20 miles per hour, 160 feet for sight distances for bicyclists traveling in
25 mile per hour and 260 feet for 30 miles per opposite directions around the curve. Where
hour. No superelevation is needed for radius of this is not possible or feasible, the following or
curvature meeting or exceeding 100 feet for combination thereof should be provided: (a)
20 miles per hour, 180 feet for 25 miles per the path through the curve should be widened
hour, and 320 feet for 30 miles per hour. to a minimum paved width of 14 feet; and(b) a
When curve radii smaller than those given yellow center line curve warning sign and
because of right of way, topographical or other advisory speed limit signs should be installed.
considerations, standard curve warning signs (14) Grades. Bike path grades must meet DIB 82.
and supplemental pavement markings should The maximum grade rate recommended for
be installed. The negative effects of bike paths should be 5 percent. Sustained
grades should be limited to 2 percent.
December 30, 2015
(15) Pavement Structure. The pavement material (a) Post signs identifying the entry as a bicycle
and structure of a bike path should be designed path with regulatory signs prohibiting motor
in the same manner as a highway, with a vehicle entry where roads and bicycle paths
recommendation from the District Materials cross and at other path entry points.
Branch. It is important to construct and
(b) Design the path entry so it does not look
maintain a smooth, well drained, all-weather
like a vehicle access and makes intentional
riding surface with skid resistant qualities, free
access by unauthorized users more difficult.
of vegetation growth. Principal loads will
Dividing a path into two one-way paths
normally be from maintenance and emergency
prior to the intersection, separated by low
vehicles.
plantings or other features not conducive to
(16) Drainage. For proper drainage, the surface of motor vehicle use, can discourage motorists
a bike path should have a minimum cross slope from entering and reduce driver error.
of 1 percent to reduce ponding and a maximum
(c) Assess whether signing and path entry
of 2 percent per DIB 82. Sloping of the
design prevents or minimizes unauthorized
traveled way in one direction usually simplifies
entry to tolerable levels. If there are
longitudinal drainage design and surface
documented issues caused by unauthorized
construction, and accordingly is the preferred
motor vehicle entry, and other methods
practice. The bike path shoulder shall slope
have proven ineffective, assess whether the
away from the traveled way at 2 percent to
issues posed by unauthorized vehicle entry
5 percent to reduce ponding and minimize
exceed the crash risks and access issues
debris from flowing onto the bike path.
posed by obstacles.
Ordinarily, surface drainage from the path will
be adequately dissipated as it flows down the If the decision is made to add bollards,
gently sloping shoulder. However, when a plantings or similar obstacles, they should be:
bike path is constructed on the side of a hill, a
• Yielding to minimize injury to bicyclists
drainage ditch of suitable dimensions may be
and pedestrians who may strike them.
necessary on the uphill side to intercept the
hillside drainage. Where necessary, catch • Removable or moveable (such as gates) for
basins with drains should be provided to carry emergency and maintenance access must
intercepted water under the path. Such ditches leave a flush surface when removed.
should be designed in such a way that no undue
• Reflectorized for nighttime visibility and
obstacle is presented to bicyclists.
painted, coated, or manufactured of
Culverts or bridges are necessary where a bike material in a bright color to enhanced
path crosses a drainage channel. daytime visibility.
(17) Entry Control for Bicycle Paths. Obstacle • Illuminated when necessary.
posts and gates are fixed objects and placement
within the bicycle path traveled way can cause • Spaced to leave a minimum of 5 feet of
them to be an obstruction to bicyclists. clearance of paved area between obstacles
Obstacles such as posts or gates may be (measured from face of obstacle to face of
considered only when other measures have adjacent obstacle). Symmetrically about
failed to stop unauthorized motor vehicle entry. the center line of the path.
Also, these obstacles may be considered only • Positioned so an even number of bicycle
where safety and other issues posed by actual travel lanes are created, with a minimum of
unauthorized vehicle entry are more serious two paths of travel. An odd number of
than the safety and access issues posed to openings increase the risk of head-on
bicyclists, pedestrians and other authorized collisions if traffic in both directions tries
path users by the obstacles. to use the same opening.
The 3-step approach to prevent unauthorized
vehicle entry is:
July 1, 2015
Figure 1003.1C
Minimum Length of Bicycle Path Crest Vertical Curve (L)

Based on Stopping Sight Distance (S)
1600 Double line represents S = L
L = 2S - when S > L
A L = Minimum length of vertical curve – feet
A = Algebraic grade difference - %
AS2
L= when S < L S = Stopping sight distance – feet
1600
Refer to Index 1003.1(11) to determine “S”, for a given
design speed “V”
Height of cyclist eye = 4½ feet Height of object = ½ foot
A S = Stopping Sight Distance (ft)

(%) 70 90 110 125 130 150 170 175 190 210 230 250 270
3 7
4 20 60 100 140
5 20 30 60 100 140 180 220
6 S>L 33 73 83 113 153 193 233 270
7 21 31 71 111 121 151 191 231 273 319
8 20 50 60 100 140 150 180 221 265 313 365
9 2 42 72 82 122 162 172 203 248 298 352 410
10 20 60 90 100 140 181 191 226 276 331 391 456
11 35 75 105 115 155 199 211 248 303 364 430 501
12 7 47 87 117 127 169 217 230 271 331 397 469 547
13 17 57 97 127 137 183 235 249 293 358 430 508 592 S <L
14 26 66 106 137 148 197 253 268 316 386 463 547 638
15 33 73 113 146 158 211 271 287 338 413 496 586 683
16 40 80 121 156 169 225 289 306 361 441 529 625 729
17 46 86 129 166 180 239 307 325 384 469 562 664 775
December 30, 2015
Figure 1003.1D
Minimum Lateral Clearance (m) on Bicycle Path Horizontal Curves
S = Sight distance in feet.
R = Radius of ℄of lane in feet.
m = Distance from ℄ of lane in feet.
Refer to Index 1003.1(11) to determine

“S” for a given design speed “V”.
Angle is expressed in degrees
28.65S
𝑚𝑚 = R �1- cos � ��
R
R R-m
S= �cos -1 � ��
28.655 R
Formula applies only when S is equal
to or less than length of curve.
Line of sight is 28” above ℄ inside

lane at point of obstruction.
Height of bicyclist’s eye is 4 ½ feet.
S = Stopping Sight Distance (ft)

R (ft)
60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260
25 15.9
50 8.7 15.2 23.0 31.9 41.5
75 5.9 10.4 16.1 22.8 30.4 38.8 47.8 57.4 67.2
95 4.7 8.3 12.9 18.3 24.7 31.8 39.5 48.0 56.9 66.3 75.9
125 6.3 9.9 14.1 19.1 24.7 31.0 37.9 45.4 53.3 1.76
155 5.1 8.0 11.5 15.5 20.2 25.4 31.2 37.4 44.2 51.4
175 4.6 7.1 10.2 13.8 18.0 22.6 27.8 33.5 39.6 46.1
200 4.0 6.2 8.9 12.1 15.8 19.9 24.5 29.5 34.9 40.8
225 5.5 8.0 10.8 14.1 17.8 21.9 26.4 31.3 36.5
250 5.0 7.2 9.7 12.7 16.0 19.7 23.8 28.3 33.1
275 4.5 6.5 8.9 11.6 14.6 18.0 21.7 25.8 30.2
300 4.2 6.0 8.1 10.6 13.4 16.5 19.9 23.7 27.7
350 5.1 7.0 9.1 11.5 14.2 17.1 20.4 23.9
390 4.6 6.3 8.2 10.3 12.8 15.4 18.3 21.5
500 4.9 6.4 8.1 10.0 12.1 14.3 16.8
565 4.3 5.7 7.2 8.8 10.7 12.7 14.9
600 4.1 5.3 6.7 8.3 10.1 12.0 14.0
700 4.6 5.8 7.1 8.6 10.3 12.0
800 4.0 5.1 6.2 7.6 9.0 10.5
900 4.5 5.6 6.7 8.0 9.4
1000 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.2 8.4
December 16, 2016
• Placed so additional, non-centerline/lane prohibited, in sag curves (see Index 201.5), at

line posts are located a minimum of 2 feet intersections, at locations where nighttime
from the edge of pavement. security could be a problem, and where
obstacles deter unauthorized vehicle entry to
• Delineated as shown in California bicycle paths. See Index 1003.1(17). Daytime
MUTCD Figure 9C-2. lighting should also be considered through
• Provide special advance warning signs or underpasses or tunnels.
painted pavement markings if sight Depending on the location, average maintained
distance is limited. horizontal illumination levels of 5 lux to 22 lux
• Placed 10 to 30 feet back from an should be considered. Where special security
intersection, and 5 to 10 feet from a bridge, problems exist, higher illumination levels may
so bicyclists approach the obstacle straight- be considered. Light standards (poles) should
on and maintenance vehicles can pull off meet the recommended horizontal and vertical
the road. clearances. Luminaires and standards should
be at a scale appropriate for a pedestrian or
• Placed beyond the clear zone on the bicycle path. For additional guidance on
crossing highway, otherwise breakaway. lighting, consult with the District Traffic
When physical obstacles are needed to control Electrical Unit .
unauthorized vehicle access, a single non- 1003.2 Class II Bikeways (Bike Lanes)
removable, flexible, post on the path centerline
with a separate gate for Design guidance that address the safety and
emergency/maintenance vehicle access next to mobility needs of bicyclists on Class II bikeways
the path, is preferred. The gate should swinging (bike lanes) is distributed throughout this manual
away from the path, where appropriate.
Fold-down obstacle posts or fold-down For Class II bikeway signing and lane markings, see
bollards shall not be used within the paved the California MUTCD, Section 9C.04.
area of bicycle paths. They are often left in 1003.3 Class III Bikeways (Bike Routes)
the folded down position, which presents a
crash hazard to bicyclists and pedestrians. Class III bikeways (bike routes) are intended to
When vehicles drive across fold-down provide continuity to the bikeway system. Bike
obstacles, they can be broken from their routes are established along through routes not
hinges, leaving twisted and jagged obstructions served by Class I or II bikeways, or to connect
that project a few inches from the path surface. discontinuous segments of bikeway (normally bike
lanes). Class III facilities are facilities shared with
Obstacle posts or gates must not be used to motor vehicles on the street, which are established
force bicyclists to slow down, stop or by placing bike route signs along roadways.
dismount. Treatments used to reduce vehicle Additional enhancement of Class III facilities can be
speeds may be used where it is desirable to provided by adding shared roadway markings along
reduce bicycle speeds. the route. For application and placement of signs
For obstacle post visibility marking, and and pavement markings, see the California MUTCD
pavement markings, see the California Section 9C.
MUTCD, Section 9C.101(CA). Minimum widths for Class III bikeways are
(18) Lighting. Fixed-source lighting raises represented, in the minimum standards for highway
awareness of conflicts along paths and at lanes and shoulder.
intersections. In addition, lighting allows the Since bicyclists are permitted on all highways
bicyclist to see the bicycle path direction, (except prohibited freeways), the decision to
surface conditions, and obstacles. Lighting for designate the route as a bikeway should be based on
bicycle paths is important and should be the advisability of encouraging bicycle travel on the
considered where nighttime use is not route and other factors listed below.
December 30, 2015
(1) On-street Bike Route Criteria. To be of benefit exclusive use transit lanes for buses with
to bicyclists, bike routes should offer a higher bicycles is discouraged.
degree of service than alternative streets.
Bus and bicycle lane sharing should be
Routes should be signed only if some of the
considered only under special circumstances to
following apply:
provide bikeway continuity, such as:
(a) They provide for through and direct travel
(a) If bus operating speed is 25 miles per hour
in bicycle-demand corridors.
or below.
(b) Connect discontinuous segments of bike
(b) If the grade of the facility is 5 percent or
lanes.
less.
(c) They provide traffic actuated signals for
bicycles and appropriate assignment of
1003.4 Trails
right of way at intersections to give greater Trails are generally, unpaved multipurpose facilities
priority to bicyclists, as compared with suitable for recreational use by hikers, pedestrians,
alternative streets. equestrians, and off-road bicyclists. While many
(d) Street parking has been removed or Class I facilities are named as trails (e.g. Iron Horse
restricted in areas of critical width to Regional Trail, San Gabriel River Trail), trails as
provide improved safety. defined here do not meet Class I bikeways standards
and should not be signed as bicycle paths. Where
(e) Surface imperfections or irregularities have equestrians are expected, a separate equestrian trail
been corrected (e.g., utility covers adjusted should be provided. See DIB 82 for trail
to grade, potholes filled, etc.). requirements for ADA. See Index 208.7 for
(f) Maintenance of the route will be at a equestrian undercrossing guidance.
higher standard than that of other • Pavement requirements for bicycle travel are
comparable streets (e.g., more frequent not suitable for horses. Horses require softer
street sweeping). surfaces to avoid leg injuries.
(2) Sidewalk as Bikeway. Sidewalks are not to be • Bicyclists may not be aware of the need to go
designated for bicycle travel. Wide sidewalks slow or of the separation need when
that do not meet design standards for bicycle approaching or passing a horse. Horses reacting
paths or bicycle routes also may not meet the to perceived danger from predators may behave
safety and mobility needs of bicyclists. Wide unpredictably; thus, if a bicyclist appears
sidewalks can encourage higher speed bicycle suddenly within their visual field, especially
use and can increase the potential for conflicts from behind they may bolt. To help horses not
with turning traffic at intersections as well as be surprised by a bicyclist, good visibility
with pedestrians and fixed objects. should be provided at all points on equestrian
In residential areas, sidewalk riding by young paths.
children too inexperienced to ride in the street • When a corridor includes equestrian paths and
is common. It is inappropriate to sign these Class I bikeways, the widest possible lateral
facilities as bikeways because it may lead separation should be provided between the two.
bicyclists to think it is designed to meet their A physical obstacle, such as an open rail fence,
safety and mobility needs. Bicyclists should adjacent to the equestrian trail may be beneficial
not be encouraged (through signing) to ride to induce horses to shy away from the bikeway,
their bicycles on facilities that are not designed as long as the obstacle does not block visibility
to accommodate bicycle travel. between the equestrian trail and bicycle path.
(3) Shared Transit and Bikeways. Transit lanes and See FHWA-EP-01-027, Designing Sidewalks and
bicycles are generally not compatible, and Trails for Access and DIB 82 for additional design
present risks to bicyclists. Therefore sharing guidance.
December 30, 2015
1003.5 Miscellaneous Criteria materials should be considered to keep the

flangeway depth and width to a minimum.
The following are miscellaneous bicycle treatment
criteria. Specific application to Class I, and III Pavement should be maintained so ridge
bikeways are noted. Criteria that are not noted as buildup does not occur next to the rails. In
applying only to bikeways apply to any highway, some cases, timber plank crossings can be
roadways and shoulders, except freeways where justified and can provide for a smoother
bicycles are prohibited), without regard to whether crossing.
or not bikeways are established. All railroad crossings are regulated by the
Bicycle Paths on Bridges – See Topic 208. California Public Utilities Commission
(CPUC). All new bicycle path railroad
(1) Pavement Surface Quality. The surface to be crossings must be approved by the CPUC.
used by bicyclists should be smooth, free of Necessary railroad protection will be
potholes, and with uniform pavement edges. determined based on a joint field review
(2) Drainage Grates, Manhole Covers, and involving the applicant, the railroad company,
Driveways. Drainage inlet grates, manhole and the CPUC.
covers, etc., should be located out of the travel Cattle guards across any roadway are to be
path of bicyclists whenever possible. When clearly marked with adequate advance
such items are in an area that may be used for warning. Cattle guards are only to be used
bicycle travel, they shall be designed and where there is no other alternative to manage
installed in a manner that meets bicycle surface livestock.
requirements. See Standard Plans. They shall
be maintained flush with the surface when The California MUTCD has specific guidance
resurfacing. on Rail and Light Rail crossings. See Part 8 of
the California MUTCD.
If grate inlets are to be located in roadway or
shoulder areas (except freeways where bicycles Figure 1003.5
are prohibited) the inlet design guidance of
Index 837.2(2) applies. Railroad Crossing
Future driveway construction should avoid Class I Bikeway
construction of a vertical lip from the driveway
to the gutter, as the lip may create a problem for
bicyclists when entering from the edge of the
roadway at a flat angle. If a lip is deemed
necessary, the height should be limited to
½ inch.
(3) At-grade Railroad Crossings and Cattle
Guards. Whenever it is necessary for a Class I
bikeway, highway or roadway to cross railroad
tracks, special care must be taken to ensure that
the safety of users is protected. The crossing
must be at least as wide as the traveled way of
the facility. Wherever possible, the crossing
should be straight and at right angles to the rails.
For bikeways or highways that cross tracks and
where a skew is unavoidable, the shoulder or
bikeway should be widened, to permit bicyclists NOTE:
to cross at right angles (see Figure 1003.5). If See Index 403.3 Angle of Intersection for Class
this is not possible, special construction and II and Class III facilities.
December 30, 2015
exist for flexible and rigid pavements on and

CHAPTER 1100 off of structures. Refer to the Quiet Pavement
HIGHWAY TRAFFIC NOISE Bulletin dated October 6, 2009 and the
Pavement Program for more information. Low
ABATEMENT noise rumble strips are under development for
reducing exterior roadside noise levels while
Topic 1101 - General maintaining or increasing interior vehicle noise
Requirements and tactile feedback.
Index 1101.1 - Introduction (2) Encouraging Compatible Adjacent Land Use.

The Department encourages local governments
The abatement of highway traffic noise is a design controlling development or land use near
consideration that is required by State and Federal known highway locations to exercise their
Statutes and regulations and by Department policy. powers and responsibility to minimize the
This chapter provides design standards relating to effect of highway vehicle noise through
the location, height and length of noise barriers and appropriate land use control. For example,
includes discussion on alternative designs, cities and counties have the power to control
maintenance and emergency access considerations development by the adoption of land use plans
and aesthetics of noise barriers. Procedures and and zoning, subdivision, building and housing
policies on minimum attenuation, design goals, regulations.
assessing noise impacts, noise abatement criteria
levels, priorities, feasibility and reasonableness, and (3) Noise Abatement. The Department will
cost-effectiveness are contained in the Project attempt to locate, design, construct, and operate
Development Procedures Manual (produced by the State highways to minimize the intrusion of
Division of Design), the California Traffic Noise traffic noise into adjacent areas. When this is
Analysis Protocol, and its companion publication, not possible, noise impacts may be attenuated
Technical Noise Supplement (both produced by the by the construction of noise barriers.
Division of Environmental Analysis). Construction of noise barriers must result in at
least a 5 decibel reduction of noise at the
1101.2 Objective impacted receptors.
The objectives are: for new construction or (4) Noise Abatement by Others. An increasing
reconstruction of highways, to limit the intrusion of number of requests are being made to the
highway noise into adjacent areas; on existing Department by owners or developers to
freeways to limit the noise intrusion to achievable attenuate noise reaching adjacent properties for
levels within practical and financial limitations; and which the State's mitigation priority is low or
to limit the noise to the levels specified by statute for nonexistent. The general policy is that all
qualifying schools adjacent to freeways. To achieve feasible steps must be taken in the design of the
these objectives the Department supports the adjacent development to attenuate noise so as
following four approaches to alleviate traffic noise not to require encroachment on the State's right
impacts: of way. The State shall assume NO review
(1) Reduction at the Source. Reduction of traffic authority or responsibility of any kind for the
noise at the source is the most cost effective structural integrity or the effectiveness of the
noise control strategy. Therefore, the sound attenuation of walls constructed by
Department encourages and supports design others outside of the State's right of way.
measures that reduce traffic noise impacts on Where it is determined to be necessary to
adjacent roadside communities. permit others to construct a noise barrier within
the State's right of way, the general policy is
Designers are encouraged to consider that the design will meet geometric, structural,
mitigating traffic noise at the tire/pavement acoustic, and safety standards as established in
interface in order to minimize noise emanating this and other manuals and that the effects of
from the highway. Quieter pavement strategies the barrier on operation, maintenance and
December 30, 2015
aesthetics of the highway will be more Various types of Department standards and pre-
beneficial than detrimental. approved alternative noise barrier designs are
referenced. Noise barrier design procedures, from
1101.3 Terminology the acoustical standpoint, are included in the
The terms “noise barrier” and “soundwall” are often California Traffic Noise Analysis Protocol. Noise
used interchangeably. Technically, a “noise barrier” level criteria and guidelines on noise reduction can
may be any feature which blocks, prevents or be found in the California Traffic Noise Analysis
diminishes the transmission of noise. An earth berm Protocol and the Project Development Procedures
could serve this purpose. A large building could Manual.
serve as a noise barrier to shield receptors from the
1102.2 Noise Barrier Location
noise source. A dense growth of vegetation, if it
were wide enough and dense enough, could be (1) Lateral Clearances. Minimum lateral
considered a noise barrier. Studies have shown, clearance to noise barriers shall be as
however, that adequate density would equate to a provided in Topic 309.1, Horizontal
vegetative expanse of at least 100 feet. A Clearances, of this manual, but shall not be
“soundwall” is a particular type of noise barrier. It less than 10 feet. Lateral clearances greater
is a wall, which may be constructed of concrete than the minimums should be used whenever
panels, masonry blocks, wood boards or panels, or a feasible. Where terrain permits, the most
variety of other materials. desirable location for a noise barrier from a
safety perspective is just inside the right of way
1101.4 Procedures for Assessing Noise or, alternatively, 30 feet or more from the
Impacts traveled way.
Highway traffic noise impacts are identified in the When lateral clearance is 15 feet or less, the
project noise study report and are listed in the noise barrier shall be placed on a safety
environmental document. The procedures for shape concrete barrier. Guardrail or safety
assessing noise impacts for new highway shape barrier protection should be considered
construction or reconstruction projects, retrofit when the noise barrier is located between
projects (Community Noise Abatement Program - 15 feet and 30 feet from the edge of traveled
HB311) along existing freeways, and School Noise way.
Abatement Projects (HB312), are included in Title
23, United States Code of Federal Regulations Part When the noise barrier is placed closer than
772, the California Traffic Noise Analysis Protocol, 16 feet from the traveled way, Traffic
the Project Development Procedures Manual, and Operations should be consulted early in the
Section 216 of the Streets and Highways Code. design. Signs (overhead and ground mounted)
and other poles and standards for lighting,
1101.5 Prioritizing Construction of Retrofit Transportation Management items, call boxes,
Noise Barriers etc. should be detailed for mounting on the
Legal requirements and procedures for prioritizing wall, incorporated into the wall foundation and
the construction of noise attenuation barriers are possibly recessed into the surface of the wall.
provided in Section 215.5 of the Streets and (2) Sight Distance Requirements. The stopping
Highway Code and in the California Traffic Noise sight distance is of prime importance for noise
Analysis Protocol. barriers located on the edge of shoulder along
the inside of a curve. Horizontal clearances
Topic 1102 - Design Criteria which reduce the stopping sight distance
should be avoided. Noise barriers within gore
1102.1 General areas should begin or end at least 200 feet from
This section covers the noise barrier location, the theoretical curb nose location.
various design aspects such as height and length of (3) Ultimate Location. Noise barriers should be
noise barriers, alternative designs, maintenance constructed at the ultimate location -- at the
considerations, and aesthetic considerations. appropriate height and upon the proper
December 30, 2015
foundation -- for the facility as discussed in the effectiveness. As a result of research

Project Development Procedures Manual and performed by the Department and others,
the California Traffic Noise Analysis Protocol. reflective parallel barriers should have a width-
to-height ratio (W:H) of at least 10:1 to avoid
1102.3 Noise Barrier Height and Position the risk of perceptible reduction in performance
(1) Minimum Height. Noise barriers should have a of both noise barriers. The width is the distance
minimum height of 6 feet (measured from the between the two barriers, and the height is the
top of the barrier to the top of the foundation). average height of both barriers with reference
to the roadway elevation. For example, two
(2) Maximum Height. Noise barriers should not
parallel barriers, one 10 feet, the other 14 feet
exceed 14 feet in height (measured from the
high, should be separated by at least 120 feet to
pavement surface at the face of the safety-
avoid a noticeable degradation in performance.
shape barrier) when located 15 feet or less from
A perceptible, or noticeable decrease in
the edge of the traveled way, and should not
performance is defined as a reduction of
exceed 16 feet in height above the ground line
3 decibels or more in noise attenuation.
when located more than 15 feet from the
traveled way. (6) Potential Reflection. Reflected noise may be
an issue for elevated receptors on the opposite
(3) Truck Exhaust Intercept. Current FHWA noise
side of the roadway. Paving to the base of the
barrier design procedures result in noise barrier
noise barrier can create a ‘hard’ surface and in
heights which often do not intercept noise
combination with a soundwall can form a
emitted from the exhaust stack of trucks. For
concave shape which might focus sound energy
design purposes, the noise barrier should
on an opposite roadside community. When
intercept the line of sight from the exhaust
possible, keep the finish grade to the base of the
stack of a truck to the receptor. The truck stack
noise barrier composed of less-reflective ‘soft’
height is assumed to be 11.5 feet above the
material such as uncompacted dirt or ground
pavement. The receptor is assumed to be 5 feet
vegetation. Parallel barriers (discussed above)
above the ground and located 5 feet from the
may also raise reflected noise concerns. Traffic
living unit nearest the roadway. If this location
variation and metrological influences make
is not representative of potential outdoor
noise measurements at large distances
activities, then another appropriate location
imprecise, while extensive noise studies in the
should be justified in the noise study report.
past are inconclusive at finding any
(4) Multi-story Development. The noise barrier distinguishable or discernable change in
should not be designed to shield more than the acoustics due to reflection only. To address
first story of multi-story residences unless it concerns and/or complaints regarding reflected
provides a minimum reduction of 5 decibels for noise, a number of absorptive noise barrier
a substantial number of residences at a systems have been pre-approved for use both
reasonable increase in cost. If the noise barrier on and off of structures. The list of pre-
is extended in height to provide attenuation approved absorptive noise barrier systems is
beyond the first story, attenuation should available on the Division of Engineering
effectively reduce noise by at least 5 decibels Services Authorized Materials List at:
at the receptors precipitating the increase in http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/esc/approved_produ
height. cts_list/ .
(5) Parallel Noise Barriers. Frequently, noise 1102.4 Noise Barrier Length
barriers are constructed to shield noise
receivers on both sides of a highway. These are (1) General. Careful attention should be given to
referred to as parallel barriers. If the barrier the length of a noise barrier to assure that it
surfaces are hard, relatively smooth, and provides adequate attenuation for the end
nonporous, such as concrete or masonry dwelling. The California Traffic Noise
surfaces, the barriers can reflect noise back and Analysis Protocol provides guidance on
forth between the barriers, decreasing their determining how far beyond the end dwelling a
December 30, 2015
noise barrier should be extended. When Other design alternatives may be considered
appropriate, consideration should be given to provided they meet the structural and noise
terminating the noise barrier with a section of attenuation criteria. Questions regarding the
the barrier perpendicular to the freeway. This approval status of various designs or products
could reduce the overall barrier length, but may should be directed to the Division of Design,
require an easement or acquisition from the Office of Special Projects.
property owner to permit construction of the
Project Files for each noise barrier project
noise barrier off the right of way.
should include the justification and background
(2) Gap Closures. In some cases, short gaps may for the design type or the options allowed on
exist between areas qualifying for a noise each project.
barrier. The closure of these gaps should be
(2) Design Procedures. As a minimum, the
considered on a project by project basis and be
soundwall plans are to show each of the
justified in the Project Report.
following:
(3) Local Street Connections. At on- and off-ramp
• Horizontal alignment
connections to local streets, the Department's
responsibility for noise abatement should be • Wall profile made up of a top of Soundwall
limited to areas where the traffic noise level line and a Top of Footing/Concrete,
from the State highway is the predominant Barrier/Retaining Wall line
noise source.
• Applicable standard soundwall detail
(4) Barrier Overlaps. When the noise barrier has sheets
overlapping sections, such as when concealing
an access opening, the walls must be • Pile spacing
overlapped a minimum of 2.5 to 3 times the • Footing steps
offset distance in order to maintain the integrity
of the sound attenuation. • Locations of expansion joints
1102.5 Alternative Noise Barrier Designs • Access gates
(1) General. Every noise barrier that is • Aesthetic features sheet

constructed as a part of new highway The following guidance should also be used:
construction or reconstruction, or along
freeways as a part of the Community and • If the profile grade of the soundwall
School Noise Abatement Programs, requires at exceeds six (6) percent, the Top of the
least two alternative designs included in the bid Soundwall line should be stepped.
package. Bridge Reference Specifications 51- • If the soundwall is on a footing and the Top
561(51SWAL), located on the Division of of Soundwall line is stepped, the Top of
Engineering Services (DES) website provides Footing line should also be stepped.
the means to include alternative soundwall
systems in the bid package. The contract plans • If the Top of Soundwall line is parallel to
should include masonry block as the state the profile grade, the Top of Footing line
design and at least one of the approved should be parallel to the profile grade of the
soundwall systems listed in the Specification soundwall.
51-56 (51SWAL). An aesthetic features sheet • If the soundwall is on a concrete barrier,
should be included in the plans for both the the Top of Concrete Barrier line must be
masonry block soundwall and for each of the constant height above the profile grade and
alternatives selected. the Bottom of Concrete Barrier line should
The masonry block soundwall sheets (B15-1 to be shown on the plans.
B15-15) can be found in the Standard Plans.
• If the soundwall is on a Retaining Wall, the
Top of Retaining Wall line or the Bottom
December 30, 2015
of Footing line and Retaining Wall height • Locate overhead and underground utilities.
should be shown on the plans.
• Review drainage and show any
• The original ground (OG) line and any modifications on the plans.
known utilities should be shown on the
Soundwall Plan sheets. • Determine and specify architectural
treatment.
(3) Pay Quantities. Soundwalls are to be measured
by the square foot between the elevation lines • Determine the need for special design, and
shown on the plans and the length of the wall. coordinate with the Office of Structures
Soundwall footings are to be paid as minor Design during the early stages of design.
concrete and concrete barriers are to be paid for 1102.6 Noise Barrier Aesthetics
as concrete barrier (modified). Piles are to be
paid for separately to facilitate minor changes (1) General. A landscaped earth berm or a
in the field. combination wall and berm tend to minimize
the apparent noise barrier height and are an
Refer to the Standard Special Provisions for aesthetically acceptable alternative among
more information on measurement and pay noise barrier options; however, these
quantities. alternatives are not always suitable for many
When calculating costs for determining sites due to limited space.
“reasonableness,” all pay quantities associated Some additional cost to enhance the aesthetic
with the proposed soundwalls should be quality of the noise barrier is usually warranted.
included in the analysis. Refer to the California Early community involvement toward
Traffic Noise Analysis Protocol for a proposing asesthetic treatment improvements
discussion on this topic. on noise barriers is recommended to
(4) Working Drawings. Working Drawings are no accommodate contextual considerations.
longer required for state designed masonry However, accountability for designs that
block soundwalls in view of the fact that all the significantly increase the cost of the noise
information necessary to construct the wall barrier should be a topic for discussion early in
should be shown in the contract plans. The the design process.
Special Provisions for Alternative Soundwall Soundwalls should not be designed with abrupt
systems should require the successful bidder to beginnings or ends. Generally, the ends of the
submit four (4) sets of drawings for initial soundwall should be tapered or stepped if the
review and between six (6) and twelve (12) height of the soundwall exceeds 6 feet. See
additional sets, as requested by the Engineer, Standard Plans for further details. Consult the
for final approval and use during construction. District Landscape Architect regarding the
Refer to Bridge Reference Specification 51- design of tapers or stepped ends, aesthetic
561(51SWAL) for more information. treatment, highway planting and landscaping
(5) Preliminary Site Data. In using the "Top of adjacent to noise barriers.
Soundwall/Bottom of Concrete Barrier" line (2) Aesthetic Treatment. Standard aesthetic
concept, it is important that the preliminary site treatments have been developed by the DES
data be as complete as possible. To eliminate Office of Structure Design for the various
or minimize construction change orders the alternative materials.
following guidance is provided:
When treatment that is not a standard aesthetic
• Provide accurate ground line profiles. treatment is proposed for noise barriers, contact
• Select only standard or pre-approved the District Landscape Architect for selection
design alternative soundwall types. of the most appropriate treatment. The
Headquarters Traffic Liaison should be
• Provide adequate information based on consulted in these instances to ensure that the
foundation investigation.
December 30, 2015
treatment of choice satisfies all safety Location of the access openings must be
requirements. coordinated with the District maintenance
office.
(3) Planting Near Noise Barriers. The use of
plants in conjunction with noise barriers can (3) Noise Barrier Material. The alternative
help to combat graffiti and promote public materials selected for the noise barrier should
acceptance of the noise barrier. When be appropriate for the environment in which it
landscaping is to be placed adjacent to the is placed. For walls that are located at or near
soundwall, which will eventually screen a the edge of shoulder, the portion of the noise
substantial portion of the wall, only minimal barrier located above the safety-shape concrete
aesthetic treatment is justified. barrier should be capable of withstanding the
force of an occasional vehicle which may ride
See Index 902.3 and the Project Development
up above the top of the safety barrier.
Procedures Manual for additional information.
(4) Transparent Barriers. Noise barriers may 1102.8 Emergency Access Considerations in
impact viewsheds where consideration of Noise Barrier Design
transparent barriers may be warranted. A list (1) General. In addition to access gates being
of pre-qualified transparent barrier systems is constructed in noise barriers to satisfy the
available on the new products list at: Department’s maintenance needs, they may
www.dot.ca.gov/hq/esc/approved_products_li also be constructed to provide a means to
st/. access the freeway in the event of a
1102.7 Maintenance Consideration in Noise catastrophic event which makes the freeway
impassable for emergency vehicles. These
Barrier Design
gates are not intended to be used as an alternate
(1) General. Noise barriers placed within the area means of emergency access to adjacent
between the shoulder and right of way line neighborhoods. Access to those areas should
complicate the ongoing maintenance be planned and provided from the local street
operations. When there is a substantial system. Small openings may also be provided
distance behind the noise barriers and in front in the noise barrier which would allow a fire
of the right of way line, special consideration is hose to be passed through it. Local emergency
required. If the adjoining land is occupied with response agencies should be contacted early in
streets, roads, parks, or other large parcels, an the design process to determine the need for
effort should be made during the right of way emergency access gates and fire hose openings.
negotiations to have the abutting property
(2) Emergency Access Gate Requirements. Access
owners maintain the area. In this case, the
gates in noise barriers should be kept to a
chain link fence at the right of way line would
minimum and should be at least 1,000 feet
not be required. Maintenance by others may
apart. Locations of access should be
not be practical if a number of small individual
coordinated with the District Maintenance
properties abut the noise barrier.
office. Only one opening should be provided
(2) Access Requirements. Access to the back side at locations where there is a need for access
of the noise barrier must be provided if the area openings to serve both the emergency response
is to be maintained by the Department. In agency and the Department’s maintenance
subdivided areas, access can be via local forces. Gates should be designed to comply
streets, when available. If access is not with the soundwall details developed by the
available via local streets, access gates or Office of Structures Design.
openings are essential at intervals along the
(3) Fire Hose Access Openings. When there is no
noise barrier. Access may be provided via
other means of providing fire protection to the
offsets in the barrier. Offset barriers must be
freeway, small openings for fire hoses may be
overlapped a minimum of 2.5 to 3 times the
provided. Fire hose access should be located
offset distance in order to maintain the integrity
as close as possible to the fire hydrants on the
of the sound attenuation of the main barrier.
December 30, 2015
local street system. Where possible, fire hose

access should be combined with emergency or
maintenance access openings. The Office of
Structures Design should be requested to
design fire hose access openings.
1102.9 Drainage Openings in Noise Barrier
Drainage through noise barriers is sometimes
required for various site conditions. Depending on
the size and spacing, small, unshielded openings at
ground level can be provided in the barriers to allow
drainage and not adversely impact the noise
attenuation of the barrier. The following sizes of
unshielded openings at ground level are allowed for
this purpose:
(a) Openings of 8" x 8" or smaller, if the openings
are spaced at least 10 feet on center.
(b) Openings of 8" x 16" or smaller, if the openings
are spaced at least 20 feet on center, and the
noise receiver is at least 10 feet from the nearest
opening.
The location and size of the drainage openings need
to be designed based on the hydraulics of the area.
The design should take into consideration possible
erosion problems that may occur at the drainage
openings.
Where drainage requirements dictate openings that
do not conform to the above limitations, shielding of
the opening will be necessary to uphold the noise
attenuation of the barrier. The shielding designed
must consider the hydraulic characteristics of the
site. When shielding is determined to be necessary,
consultation with the District Hydraulics Unit and
the HQ Traffic Liaison is recommended, as well as
the Division of Environmental Analysis.
HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL Index 1
December 30, 2015
Planting ------------------------------------------------ 902.1

A Retaining Walls -------------------------------------- 210.5
AGGRADATION
AASHTO STANDARDS Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
Policy on Use of -------------------------------------- 82.3
AGGREGATE BASE
ABANDONMENT see BASE Engineering Criteria ---------------------- 663
Water Wells ------------------------------------------- 110.2
AGGREGATE SUBBASE
ABBREVIATIONS, OFFICIAL NAMES Engineering Criteria --------------------------------- 663
----------------------------------------------------------- 61.1
AGGRESSIVE
ABRASION Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 855.2
AGREEMENTS
ACCELERATION LANE Drainage, Cooperative ------------------------------- 803.2
At Rural Intersections ------------------------------- 405.1 Materials ---------------------------------------------- 111.4
ACCESS CONTROL AIR POLLUTION
Definition ----------------------------------------------- 62.6 Control of Burning ----------------------------------- 110.3
----------------------------------------------------------- 104 Control of Dust --------------------------------------- 110.3
Alignment, Existing --------------------------------- 104.3
Alignment, New -------------------------------------- 104.3 AIR RIGHTS
Frontage Roads --------------------------------------- 104.3 ----------------------------------------------------------- 62.6
Frontage Roads Financed by Others --------------- 104.3
General Policy ---------------------------------------- 104.1 AIRWAY-HIGHWAY
Highways, Definition -------------------------------- 62.3 ----------------------------------------------------------- 207
Interchanges ------------------------------------------ 504.8 Clearances --------------------------------------------- 207.2
Intersections ------------------------------------------ 405.6 Submittal of Data ------------------------------------ 207.3
Openings ---------------------------------------------- 104.2
Openings, Financial Responsibility ---------------- 205.5 ALIGNMENT
Openings on Expressways -------------------------- 205.1 Aesthetic Factors ------------------------------------- 109.3
Openings in Relation to Median Openings---------- 104.5 Bridges ------------------------------------------------ 203.9
Rights, Protection of --------------------------------- 104.4 Channel ------------------------------------------------ 862.2
Consistency (Horizontal) ---------------------------- 203.3
ACCESSIBILITY REQUIREMENTS Controls (Horizontal) -------------------------------- 203.1
Curb Ramps, Guidelines for ------------------------ 105.4 Coordination (Horizontal/Vertical) ---------------- 204.6
Driveways ---------------------------------------------- 205.3 Culverts ------------------------------------------------ 823.2
Provisions for Disabled Persons -------------------- 105.3 Horizontal --------------------------------------------- 203
Refuge Areas ----------------------------------------- 403.7 Vertical (Grade) -------------------------------------- 204
ACCIDENT DATA ALLEY
Intersections ------------------------------------------ 402.2 Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.3
ACCRETION ALLUVIUM
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
ACQUISITION ALTERNATIVES FOR CULVERT PIPES
Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.6 ----------------------------------------------------------- 857
Partial -------------------------------------------------- 62.6
of Material and Disposal Sites --------------------- 111.5 ALUMINUM PIPE
----------------------------------------------------------- 852.5
ADT/AADT
see AVERAGE DAILY TRAFFIC ANGLE OF INTERSECTION
----------------------------------------------------------- 403.3
AESTHETIC FACTORS
Contour Grading and Slope Rounding ------------ 304.4 APPRAISAL
In Design ---------------------------------------------- 109.3 ----------------------------------------------------------- 62.6
Materials and Color Selection ---------------------- 705
Noise Barrier ----------------------------------------- 1102.6
Index 2 HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL
July 15, 2016
APPROACH SLABS, STRUCTURE AVULSION

New Construction Projects ------------------------ 208.11(2) Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
Rehabilitation Projects ------------------------------- 673
AXIS OF ROTATION
APPROVALS
Superelevation --------------------------------------- 202.4
Nonstandard Design Features ----------------------- 82.2
Proprietary Items ------------------------------------- 110.10 AXLE LOADS, EQUIVALENT SINGLE
----------------------------------------------------------- 601.5 see EQUIVALENT SINGLE AXLE LOADS
Special Pavement Structural Section Designs --- 601.5
AREAS OF CONFLICT B
Intersections ------------------------------------------ 403.2
ARTERIAL BACKFILL, CULVERTS
Minor, Definition ------------------------------------ 81.4 ----------------------------------------------------------- 829.2
Principal, Definition -------------------------------- 81.4
BACKWATER
AQUEDUCT
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 ----------------------------------------------------------- 821.4
AQUIFER ----------------------------------------------------------- 864.4
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 BAFFLE
----------------------------------------------------------- 841.2 ----------------------------------------------------------- 873.4
ARCH CULVERTS BANK
----------------------------------------------------------- 852.3 Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 852.4 Guide -------------------------------------------------- 873.4
----------------------------------------------------------- 852.5 Protection, Definition ------------------------------- 806.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 852.6
BANK PROTECTION
ARMOR
------------------------------------------------------------ 870
----------------------------------------------------------- 873.3 Armor ------------------------------------------------- 873.3
ARTERIAL HIGHWAYS Design, Concepts ------------------------------------ 873.1
Design, High Water and Hydraulics -------------- 873.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 62.3 Geomorphology and Site Considerations -------- 872.3
ARTESIAN WATERS Training ----------------------------------------------- 873.4
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 BARRIER
ASPHALT CONCRETE Concrete on Walls ----------------------------------- 210.6
Median ------------------------------------------------ 305.3
see FLEXIBLE PAVEMNT Noise -------------------------------------------------- 1100
ASPHALT TREATED PERMEABLE BASE Railing ------------------------------------------------ 208.10
Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.7 BASE
Design, Asphalt Pavement ------------------------- 633.1 Definitions --------------------------------------------- 62.7
Design, Concrete Pavement ------------------------ 623.1 Aggregate ---------------------------------------------- 662.1
Pavement Drainage --------------------------------- 662.3 Asphalt Treated --------------------------------------- 662.2
AUXILIARY LANES Asphalt Treated Permeable ------------------------- 662.3
Cement Treated --------------------------------------- 662.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 62.1 Cement Treated Permeable ------------------------- 662.3
Interchange ------------------------------------------- 504.5 Description -------------------------------------------- 602.1
AVAILABLE HEAD, USE OF Engineering Criteria --------------------------------- 663
Granular, Untreated ---------------------------------- 662.1
----------------------------------------------------------- 821.1 Hot Mix Asphalt Concrete -------------------------- 662.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 821.4 Lean Concrete ---------------------------------------- 662.2
AVERAGE DAILY TRAFFIC Treated Permeable ----------------------------------- 662.3
----------------------------------------------------------- 62.8 BASEMENT SOIL
----------------------------------------------------------- 103.1 See SUBGRADE
July 15, 2016
Alignment --------------------------------------------- 203.9

BASIN CHARACTERISTICS Approach Railing ------------------------------------ 208.10
Elevation ---------------------------------------------- 812.7 Clearances --------------------------------------------- 309
Land Use ---------------------------------------------- 812.4 Deer Crossing ----------------------------------------- 208.8
Orientation -------------------------------------------- 812.8 Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.2
Shape -------------------------------------------------- 812.2 Embankment Slopes --------------------------------- 208.5
Size ----------------------------------------------------- 812.1 Equipment Crossings -------------------------------- 208.8
Slope --------------------------------------------------- 812.3 Falsework Clearance --------------------------------- 204.8
Soil & Geology --------------------------------------- 812.5 Flood Design ------------------------------------------ 821.3
Storage ------------------------------------------------- 812.6 Grade Line -------------------------------------------- 204.7
Overloads --------------------------------------------- 110.1
BEDLOAD Slope Treatment, End -------------------------------- 707
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 Structure Depth --------------------------------------- 204.8
----------------------------------------------------------- 851.2 Structure, Open End --------------------------------- 208.5
Types of Structures ----------------------------------- 62.2
BENCHES also see GRADE SEPARATION STRUCTURES
Drains -------------------------------------------------- 834.4
Slope --------------------------------------------------- 304.3 BROKEN-BACK CURVE
see CURVES
BERM
----------------------------------------------------------- 835 BULBOUTS
see CURB, EXTENTIONS
BIKEWAY
Class I, Design Criteria ----------------------------- 1003 BULKHEADS
Class II Width --------------------------------------- 301.2 Type ---------------------------------------------------- 873.3
Class III ----------------------------------------------- 1003.3 ----------------------------------------------------------- 883.3
Class IV ---------------------------------------------- 1002.1
Definitions ------------------------------------------- 62.1 BULKING
---------------------------------------------------------- 1001.4 Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
Design Considerations ------------------------------ 404.2 Factors ------------------------------------------------- 813.8
Facilities ---------------------------------------------- 1002 ----------------------------------------------------------- 861.2
Markings --------------------------------------------- 1004 ----------------------------------------------------------- 864.3
Overcrossings ---------------------------------------- 208.6
Planning Criteria ------------------------------------ 1002 BUSBAYS
Railings ----------------------------------------------- 208.10 see CURB, EXTENTIONS
Refuge Areas ---------------------------------------- 403.7
Standards --------------------------------------------- 1000 BUSBULBS
Traffic Control Devices ---------------------------- 1004 see CURB, EXTENTIONS
Trails -------------------------------------------------- 1003.4
Undercrossings -------------------------------------- 208.6 BUSINESS DISTRICT
Definitions -------------------------------------------- 62.6
BITUMINOUS
Coatings On Pipes ----------------------------------- 852.4 BYPASS HIGHWAY
----------------------------------------------------------- 62.3
BORDER INSPECTION STATIONS
----------------------------------------------------------- 107.3 C
BORROW
Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.7 CALIFORNIA OPERATIONAL SAFETY AND
HEALTH (CAL-OSHA)
BRANCH CONNECTION
Tunnel Safety Orders --------------------------------- 110.12
----------------------------------------------------------- 62.4
Freeway-to-freeway --------------------------------- 504.4 CALIFORNIA R-VALUE
Interchange, Entrances and Exits ------------------ 504.2 Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.7
Measurement of -------------------------------------- 614.3
BRIDGE REPLACEMENT & REHABILITATION
Record Keeping -------------------------------------- 605.1
PROGRAM
------------------------------------------------------------ 43.3 CALIFORNIA ROAD SYSTEM MAP
----------------------------------------------------------- 81.4
BRIDGES
----------------------------------------------------------- 208
July 15, 2016
Unlined ----------------------------------------------- 861.9

CAMBER
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 CHANNELIZATION
----------------------------------------------------------- 829.2 ----------------------------------------------------------- 62.4
Design Standards ------------------------------------- 405
CANTILEVER WALLS Left-turn ---------------------------------------------- 405.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 210.1 Principles of ------------------------------------------- 403
Right-turn --------------------------------------------- 405.3
CAPACITY
Drainage Structure ---------------------------------- 806.2 CHANNELIZATION, PRINCIPLES OF
Highway ----------------------------------------------- 102 ------------------------------------------------------------ 403
Intersection 402.1Operational Features Affecting Design Angle of Intersection -------------------------------- 403.3
----------------------------------------------------------- 402.1 Areas of Conflict ------------------------------------ 403.2
Ramp Intersection ------------------------------------ 406 Major Movements ----------------------------------- 403.1
Safety Roadside Rests ------------------------------ 903.5 Points of Conflict ------------------------------------ 403.4
Precautions ------------------------------------------- 403.12
CAPILLARITY Prohibited Turns ------------------------------------- 403.8
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 Refuge Areas ----------------------------------------- 403.7
Signal Control --------------------------------------- 403.9
CAPILLARY WATER Speed-change Areas -------------------------------- 403.5
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 Summary --------------------------------------------- 403.11
----------------------------------------------------------- 841.2 Traffic Control Devices ---------------------------- 403.10
Turning Traffic -------------------------------------- 403.6
CAPITAL PREVENTATIVE MAINTENANCE
------------------------------------------------------------ 603.3 CHECK DAM
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
CATCH BASIN
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 CIENEGA
Inlets -------------------------------------------------- 837.2 Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
CATCH POINT CLEANOUT
Clearance to Right of Way Line ------------------- 304.2 Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
Side Slope Standards -------------------------------- 304.1 ----------------------------------------------------------- 842.4
CATTLE PASSES CLEAR DISTANCE
----------------------------------------------------------- 208.8 Stopping Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves - 201.6
CEMENT TREATED PERMEABLE BASE CLEAR RECOVERY ZONE
also see BASE Definition----------------------------- 62.7 ----------------------------------------------------------- 309.1
CENTRAL ANGLE CLEARANCES
----------------------------------------------------------- 203.4 ------------------------------------------------------------- 309
Airway-highway -------------------------------------- 207
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE Falsework --------------------------------------------- 204.6
Formula ----------------------------------------------- 202.1 Lateral, for Elevated Structures ------------------- 309.4
Superelevation ---------------------------------------- 202 Minimum ----------------------------------------------- 309.1
Pedestrian Over Crossings ------------------------- 309.2
CHAIN LINK Railroad ----------------------------------------------- 309.5
Fences ------------------------------------------------- 701.2 Signs, Vertical --------------------------------------- 309.2
Railings, Bridges ------------------------------------ 208.10 Slope to Right of Way Line ------------------------ 304.2
Structures, Horizontal ------------------------------- 309.1
CHANNEL, ROADSIDE Structures, Vertical ---------------------------------- 309.2
Alignment & Grade --------------------------------- 862.2 Tunnel ------------------------------------------------- 309.3
Changes ------------------------------------------------ 867
Characteristics ---------------------------------------- 813 CLIMATE
Cross Section ----------------------------------------- 863 Pavement Map ---------------------------------------- 615
Design Consideration -------------------------------- 861
Flow Classifications -------------------------------- 866.2 CLIMBING LANES
Flow Equations -------------------------------------- 866.3 Transitions -------------------------------------------- 206.2
Linings ------------------------------------------------- 865 Sustained Grades ------------------------------------ 204.5
Stability ------------------------------------------------ 864
July 15, 2016
CLOVERLEAF INTERCHANGE ----------------------------------------------------------- 662.2

Gravity Walls ----------------------------------------- 210.2
Local Streets ------------------------------------------ 502.2 Painting ------------------------------------------------ 705.1
Freeway-to-freeway --------------------------------- 502.3 Pavement, Rigid -------------------------------------- 620
COATINGS Portland Cement Pavement (PCCP)
see RIGID PAVEMENT
Pipe ---------------------------------------------------- 852.4 Retaining Walls -------------------------------------- 210.2
COEFFICIENT OF ROUGHNESS CONDEMNATION
Channels ----------------------------------------------- 866.3 Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.6
Conduit ------------------------------------------------ 851.2 Inverse ------------------------------------------------- 62.6
COEFFICIENT OF RUNOFF CONDUIT
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 Cross Section ----------------------------------------- 851.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 819.2 Crossover, Irrigation --------------------------------- 706.4
COLLECTOR ROAD Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
Protective Coating ----------------------------------- 854.3
Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.3
----------------------------------------------------------- 81.4 CONGESTION MITIGATION AND AIR QUALITY
IMPROVEMENT PROGRAM (CMAQ)
COLLISIONS
----------------------------------------------------------- 43.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 402.2
CONNECTIONS
COLORS, SELECTION
Access Openings on Expressways ----------------- 205.1
Concrete ----------------------------------------------- 705.1
Branch ------------------------------------------------- 62.4
Steel Structures --------------------------------------- 705.2
Branch Interchange, Entrances and Exits --------- 504.2
COMFORT FACILITIES Driveways on Frontage Roads --------------------- 205.4
Driveways on Rural Roads ------------------------- 205.4
Roadside Rests --------------------------------------- 903
Driveways on Urban Roads ------------------------- 205.3
COMFORTABLE SPEEDS Financial Responsibility ----------------------------- 205.5
Freeway-to-freeway --------------------------------- 62.4
see MAXIMUM COMFORTABLE SPEED
----------------------------------------------------------- 504.4
COMMERCIAL DRIVEWAYS Freeway with Local Roads -------------------------- 106.2
Local Facility ----------------------------------------- 203.1
----------------------------------------------------------- 205
Private Road ------------------------------------------ 205.2
COMMUNITY NOISE ABATEMENT PROGRAM Roadway ---------------------------------------------- 107.1
--------------------------------------------------------- 1101.4 CONSERVATION OF MATERIALS AND
COMPOSITE PAVEMENT ENERGY
Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.7 ----------------------------------------------------------- 110.11
Engineering Properties ------------------------------ 642.1 CONSTRUCTIBILITY
Mechanistic-Emperical Method -------------------- 606.3
New Construction ------------------------------------ 643 Pavement ---------------------------------------------- 618.2
Pavement Preservation ------------------------------ 644 CONTINUOSLY REINFORCED CONCRETE
Performance Factors --------------------------------- 642.2 PAVEMENT
Reconstruction ---------------------------------------- 643
Rehabilitation ----------------------------------------- 645 ----------------------------------------------------------- 621.2
Types -------------------------------------------------- 641 also see RIGID PAVEMENT
COMPOUND CURVES CONSTRUCTION

----------------------------------------------------------- 203.5 Freeway Connections with Local Roads ---------- 106.2
Superelevation ---------------------------------------- 202.6 Initial and Stage -------------------------------------- 106.1
Temporary Features ---------------------------------- 82.1
CONCENTRATED FLOW Temporary Pavements and Detours --------------- 612.6
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 CONTOUR GRADING
CONCENTRATION ----------------------------------------------------------- 304.4
Drainage, Definition --------------------------------- 806.2 Aesthetics --------------------------------------------- 109.3
CONCRETE CONTRACTORS YARDS/PLANT SITES

Base, Lean --------------------------------------------- 62.7 ----------------------------------------------------------- 112
July 15, 2016
CONTRAST TREATMENT Multilane, All Paved -------------------------------- 307.5

Multilane, Divided ---------------------------------- 307.4
------------------------------------------------------------ 704 Multilane, 2R & 3R Criteria ----------------------- 307.6
Policy ------------------------------------------------- 704.1 Outer Separation ------------------------------------- 310.2
CONTROL State Highway ---------------------------------------- 307
Two-lane, New Construction ---------------------- 307.2
Drainage, Definition -------------------------------- 806.2 Two-lane, 2R & 3R --------------------------------- 307.3
Erosion ------------------------------------------------ 110.2 Warrants for ------------------------------------------ 307.1
Traffic, Devices -------------------------------------- 62.8
----------------------------------------------------------- 403.10 CROSS SECTION, OTHER THAN STATE
Traffic, Special Problems -------------------------- 110.7 HIGHWAY ROADS
CONTROL OF ACCESS ------------------------------------------------------------ 308
City and County Roads ----------------------------- 308.1
see ACCESS CONTROL
CROSS SECTION, STATE HIGHWAY
CONTROL OF POLLUTION
see CROSS SECTION
see POLLUTION CONTROL
CROSS SLOPES
CONTROLLED ACCESS HIGHWAY
Effects on Drainage ---------------------------------- 833
----------------------------------------------------------- 62.3
Gutter ------------------------------------------------- 303.2
CONTROLLING CRITERIA Median ------------------------------------------------ 305.2
Pavement --------------------------------------------- 301.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 82.1
Shoulder ------------------------------------------------- 302.2
CONVENTIONAL HIGHWAYS Structures --------------------------------------------- 208.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 62.3 CROSSINGS
Sidewalks --------------------------------------------- 105.1
Bicycle ------------------------------------------------ 208.6
COORDINATION WITH OTHER AGENCIES Deer --------------------------------------------------- 208.8
Equestrian -------------------------------------------- 208.7
------------------------------------------------------------ 108
Equipment -------------------------------------------- 208.8
Transit Loading Facilities -------------------------- 108.2
Pedestrian --------------------------------------------- 208.6
Divided Nonfreeway Facilities -------------------- 108.1
Railroad ----------------------------------------------- 104.3
with FHWA ------------------------------------------ 108.3
CROSSOVER
COST REDUCTION INCENTIVE PROPOSALS
Irrigation, Conduits --------------------------------- 706.3
Walls -------------------------------------------------- 210.4
CUL-DE-SAC STREET
COUNTERFORT WALLS
----------------------------------------------------------- 62.3
----------------------------------------------------------- 210.2
CULVERTS
CRASH CUSHIONS
Alignment & Slope ---------------------------------- 823.4
----------------------------------------------------------- 702.1
Alternative Pipes ------------------------------------- 857
CRIB WALLS Anchorage -------------------------------------------- 829.5
Available Head -------------------------------------- 821.4
----------------------------------------------------------- 210.2
Backwater -------------------------------------------- 825.1
CRITICAL Bedding & Backfill --------------------------------- 829.2
Box and Arch ---------------------------------------- 852.3
Depth, Definition ------------------------------------ 806.2
Bridges ------------------------------------------------ 821.3
Flow, Definition ------------------------------------- 806.2
Buoyant Forces -------------------------------------- 826.3
Slope, Definition ------------------------------------ 806.2
Camber ------------------------------------------------ 823.2
Velocity, Definition --------------------------------- 806.2
Choice of Type -------------------------------------- 851.2
CROSS DRAINAGE Culvert Design System ----------------------------- 825.3
Curvature --------------------------------------------- 823.2
------------------------------------------------------------ 820
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
CROSS SECTION Design Discharge ------------------------------------ 821.2
Design Flood, Definition --------------------------- 806.2
City Streets and County Roads -------------------- 308.1
Design Frequency, Definition --------------------- 806.2
Clear Recovery Zone, ------------------------------- 309.1
Design Storm, Definition --------------------------- 806.2
Effects on Drainage ---------------------------------- 833
End Treatment --------------------------------------- 826.2
Frontage Roads -------------------------------------- 310.1
Entrance Design -------------------------------------- 826
Geometric -------------------------------------------- 62.1
Entrance Riser --------------------------------------- 826.3
Grade -------------------------------------------------- 204.2
July 15, 2016
Gradeline ---------------------------------------------- 823.2 CUT WIDENING

Headwall ---------------------------------------------- 826.3 ----------------------------------------------------------- 304.3
Headwater --------------------------------------------- 821.4
Height of Cover -------------------------------------- 829.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 856 D
Hydrologic Considerations ------------------------- 821.2
Improved Inlets --------------------------------------- 826.4
Inlet Control ------------------------------------------ 825.2 D-LOAD
Joints --------------------------------------------------- 829.4 Cracking D-Load ------------------------------------- 856.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 854.1 Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
Length ------------------------------------------------- 828.3 Reinforced Concrete Pipe --------------------------- 852.1
Minimum Cover -------------------------------------- 856.5
Multiple Pipes ---------------------------------------- 824.2 DAM
Outlet Design ----------------------------------------- 827 ----------------------------------------------------------- 829.9
Piping -------------------------------------------------- 829.3
Roughness --------------------------------------------- 851.2 DEAD END STREET
Sag ----------------------------------------------------- 829.7 Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.3
Service Life ------------------------------------------- 855
Settlement --------------------------------------------- 829.2 DEBRIS
Slope --------------------------------------------------- 823.2 ----------------------------------------------------------- 813.8
Transitions -------------------------------------------- 826.4 Barrier, Definition ----------------------------------- 806.2
Type Selection ---------------------------------------- 824 Basin, Definition ------------------------------------- 806.2
CURB RAMPS Bulking ------------------------------------------------ 813.8
Control Structure ------------------------------------- 822.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 105.4 Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
Guidelines for ----------------------------------------- 105.4 Rack, Definition -------------------------------------- 806.2
Policy and Procedure --------------------------------- 105.3 Riser --------------------------------------------------- 822.2
CURBS DECELERATION LANE
----------------------------------------------------------- 303 ----------------------------------------------------------- 403.4
Bridges ------------------------------------------------ 303.5 Left Turns ----------------------------------------------- 405.2
Design Considerations ------------------------------- 404.2 Right Turns --------------------------------------------- 405.3
Extensions --------------------------------------------- 303.4
Frontage Roads and Streets ------------------------- 303.6 DECISION SIGHT DISTANCE
General Policy ---------------------------------------- 303.1 ----------------------------------------------------------- 201.7
Grade Separations ------------------------------------ 303.5
Gutter Pan, Cross Slope ----------------------------- 303.2 DEER CROSSINGS
Median ------------------------------------------------- 305.4 ----------------------------------------------------------- 208.8
Position of --------------------------------------------- 303.5
Ramps ------------------------------------------------- 504.3 DEFENSE ROUTE
Returns, for City Streets ----------------------------- 405.8 Rural and Single Interstate Routes ------------------ 309.2
Structures ---------------------------------------------- 303.5
Types and Uses --------------------------------------- 303.2 DEFINITIONS
----------------------------------------------------------- 62
CURVES
Drainage ----------------------------------------------- 806.2
Broken-back ------------------------------------------ 203.7 Pavement Structural Section ------------------------ 62.7
Compound -------------------------------------------- 203.5 Deflection Studies ------------------------------------ 635.1
Compound, Superelevation of ---------------------- 202.6
Horizontal --------------------------------------------- 203 DEGRADATION
Length and Central Angle --------------------------- 203.4 Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
Location of Ramp on --------------------------------- 504.2
Maximum Comfortable Speeds ---------------------- 202.2 DELAY
Radius ------------------------------------------------- 203.2 Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.8
Ramp Widening -------------------------------------- 504.3
Reversing ---------------------------------------------- 203.6 DENSITY
Reversing, Superelevation Transition for --------- 202.5 ----------------------------------------------------------- 62.8
Spiral --------------------------------------------------- 203.8
Superelevation ---------------------------------------- 202 DESIGN
Three-Center ------------------------------------------ 405.7 Bank Protection -------------------------------------- 873.1
Vertical ------------------------------------------------ 204.4 Capacities --------------------------------------------- 102
Designation ------------------------------------------ 103
July 15, 2016
Discharge --------------------------------------------- 811.3 General ------------------------------------------------ 401.1

Discharge, Estimating ------------------------------- 819 Pavement ---------------------------------------------- 611
Flood, Establishing ---------------------------------- 818.2 Pedestrian --------------------------------------------- 401.5
Frequency, Definition ------------------------------- 806.2 Vehicle ------------------------------------------------ 401.3
Geometric Standards --------------------------------- 200
Hourly Volume -------------------------------------- 103.1 DESIGN, OPERATIONAL FEATURES
Hourly Volume, Definition ------------------------ 62.8 AFFECTING
Interchange -------------------------------------------- 504 ------------------------------------------------------------ 402
Intersection -------------------------------------------- 405 Accidents --------------------------------------------- 402.2
Period ------------------------------------------------- 103.2 Capacity ---------------------------------------------- 402.1
Philosophy -------------------------------------------- 81.1 Undesirable Geometric Features ------------------ 402.2
Shore Protection ------------------------------------- 883.1
Speed (See DESIGN SPEED) DESIGNATION, DESIGN
Standards, Applications ----------------------------- 80 Design Period ---------------------------------------- 103.2
Storm -------------------------------------------------- 821.2 Relation to Design ----------------------------------- 103.1
Storm, Definition ------------------------------------ 806.2
Wave Heights ---------------------------------------- 883.2 DETOURS
----------------------------------------------------------- 110.7
DESIGN DESIGNATION Local Roads Used as -------------------------------- 106.2
Design Period ---------------------------------------- 103.2
Relation to Design ----------------------------------- 103.1 DETRITUS
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
DESIGN HOURLY VOLUME
----------------------------------------------------------- 62.8 DHV
----------------------------------------------------------- 103.1 see DESIGN HOURLY VOLUME
DESIGN LIFE DIAMOND INTERCHANGE
Pavement ---------------------------------------------- 612 ----------------------------------------------------------- 502.2
Relation to Design Period ---------------------------- 103.1
DIKES
DESIGN SPEED Frontage Roads and Streets ------------------------ 303.6
------------------------------------------------------------ 101 General Policy --------------------------------------- 303.1
Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.8 Guide, Earthen ---------------------------------------- 873.4
Entrances & Exits ----------------------------------- 504.2 PCC Grouted Riprap -------------------------------- 873.4
Freeway-to-freeway Minimum -------------------- 504.4 Position of -------------------------------------------- 303.5
Freeway Entrances & Exits ------------------------ 504.2 Ramp -------------------------------------------------- 504.3
Local Facility ---------------------------------------- 101.1 Toe, Earthen ------------------------------------------ 873.4
Scenic Values ----------------------------------------- 109 Types and Uses -------------------------------------- 303.3
Selection ---------------------------------------------- 101.1
Standards --------------------------------------------- 101.2 DISCHARGE
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
DESIGN VEHICLE Design ------------------------------------------------- 811.3
Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.10 Estimating --------------------------------------------- 819
------------------------------------------------------------ 404 Peak --------------------------------------------------- 811.3
Transit ------------------------------------------------- 404.2
California Truck ------------------------------------- 404.2 DISPOSAL SITES/MATERIALS SITES
Offtracking ------------------------------------------- 404.1 ------------------------------------------------------------ 111
STAA Truck ----------------------------------------- 404.2 Acquisition of ---------------------------------------- 111.5
Swept Width ----------------------------------------- 404.2 Environmental Requirements ---------------------- 111.1
Tracking With --------------------------------------- 404.2 Information Furnished to Prospective Bidders -- 111.3
Turning Templates ---------------------------------- 404.3 Investigation of Local Material Sources --------- 111.2
Wheelbase -------------------------------------------- 404.2 Mandatory, on Federal-aid Projects --------------- 111.6
Material Arrangements ----------------------------- 111.4
DESIGN VOLUME
see DESIGN HOURLY VOLUME DISTANCE, CLEAR
Stopping Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves - 201.6
DESIGN, FACTORS AFFECTING
------------------------------------------------------------ 401 DITCHES
Bicycles ----------------------------------------------- 401.6 Grade -------------------------------------------------- 834.3
Driver ------------------------------------------------- 401.2 Side ---------------------------------------------------- 303.2
Environment ----------------------------------------- 401.4 ----------------------------------------------------------- 834.3
July 15, 2016
Slope --------------------------------------------------- 834.3 Horizontal --------------------------------------------- 841.5

Outlet Treatment ------------------------------------- 834.4
DIVERGING Overside, Spacing & Location --------------------- 834.4
----------------------------------------------------------- 62.8 Service Life ------------------------------------------- 857.1
----------------------------------------------------------- 857.2
DIVERSION Slope --------------------------------------------------- 834.4
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 Subsurface Types ------------------------------------ 841.5
DIVIDED HIGHWAY DRIVEWAYS
Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.3 ----------------------------------------------------------- 205
Grade Line -------------------------------------------- 204.2 Access Openings on Expressways ----------------- 205.1
Commercial ------------------------------------------- 205.3
DIVIDED NONFREEWAY FACILITY Financial Responsibility ----------------------------- 205.5
----------------------------------------------------------- 108.1 Frontage Roads --------------------------------------- 205.4
Local Standards -------------------------------------- 205.3
DIVISION OF DESIGN Pedestrian Access ------------------------------------ 205.3
----------------------------------------------------------- 10 Private, Definition ----------------------------------- 62.3
Residential -------------------------------------------- 205.3
DOWEL BAR Rural Areas ------------------------------------------- 205.4
----------------------------------------------------------- 622.4 Urban -------------------------------------------------- 205.3
Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.7
DRY WEATHER FLOWS
DOWNDRAINS Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
Flume -------------------------------------------------- 834.4 DUFF
Pipe ---------------------------------------------------- 834.4 Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.5
DRAIN
Edge System (See EDGE DRAIN) E
DRAINAGE
Area, Definition -------------------------------------- 806.2 EARTH RETAINING SYSTEMS
Area ---------------------------------------------------- 819.2 Anchored Wall --------------------------------------- 210.2
Basic Policy ------------------------------------------- 803.1 Cantilever Wall --------------------------------------- 210.2
Channels ----------------------------------------------- 861 Concrete Gravity Wall ------------------------------ 210.2
Computer Programs ---------------------------------- 819.6 Counterfort Wall -------------------------------------- 210.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 825.3 Crib Wall; Concrete, Steel and Timber ----------- 210.2
Cooperative Projects Policy ------------------------ 803.2 Drainage ----------------------------------------------- 210.8
Course, Definition ----------------------------------- 806.2 Electroliers and Signs ------------------------------- 210.8
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 Footings ----------------------------------------------- 210.8
Design Responsibility ------------------------------- 802.1 Gabion Basket Wall --------------------------------- 210.2
Detention Basins ------------------------------------- 891.3 Gravity Wall ------------------------------------------ 210.2
Divide, Definition ------------------------------------ 806.2 L-Type Wall ------------------------------------------ 210.2
Easement, Definition -------------------------------- 806.2 Masonry Wall ----------------------------------------- 210.2
Economics of Design -------------------------------- 801.5 Mechanically Stabilized Wall ---------------------- 210.2
Galleries ----------------------------------------------- 841.5 Non-Gravity Cantilevered Walls ------------------- 210.2
Glossary of Terms ----------------------------------- 806.2 Proprietary -------------------------------------------- 210.2
Median ------------------------------------------------- 834.2 Reinforced Embankments --------------------------- 210.2
Objectives of Design -------------------------------- 801.4 Rock Gravity Wall ----------------------------------- 210.2
Pavement ---------------------------------------------- 650 Rock/Soil Anchors ----------------------------------- 210.2
by Pumping ------------------------------------------- 839 Safety Railings --------------------------------------- 210.6
Roadway ---------------------------------------------- 830 Salvaged Material Retaining Wall ----------------- 210.2
Section, Duties of ------------------------------------ 802.1 Secant Soldier Pile Wall ---------------------------- 210.2
Subsurface -------------------------------------------- 840 Sheet Pile Wall --------------------------------------- 210.2
System, Definition ----------------------------------- 806.2 Slurry Diaphragm Wall ----------------------------- 210.2
Soil Mix Wall ----------------------------------------- 210.2
DRAINS Soil Nail Wall ---------------------------------------- 210.2
Anchorage --------------------------------------------- 834.4 Soil Reinforcement Systems ------------------------ 210.2
Benches ------------------------------------------------ 834.4 Soldier Pile Wall with Lagging -------------------- 210.2
Entrance Standards ----------------------------------- 834.4 Tangent Soldier Pile Wall --------------------------- 210.2
Geotextile --------------------------------------------- 841.5 Tire Anchored Timber Wall ----------------------- 210.2
July 15, 2016
Utilities ----------------------------------------------- 210.8

EQUALIZER
EARTHQUAKE CONSIDERATIONS Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 110.6 ----------------------------------------------------------- 826.3
EASEMENT EQUESTRIAN TRAILS
Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.6 see TRAILS, MULTIPURPOSE
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
EQUESTRIAN
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.10
see LIFE-CYCLE COST ANALYSIS Undercrossing and Overcrossing ------------------ 208.7
EDDY LOSS EQUIPMENT CROSSINGS
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 ----------------------------------------------------------- 208.8
EDGE DRAIN EQUIVALENT SINGLE AXLE LOADS
----------------------------------------------------------- 606.3 Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.7
System, Definition ---------------------------------- 62.7 Conversion ESAL to Traffic Index ----------------- 613.3
ESAL Constants ------------------------------------- 613.3
ELECTROLIERS AND SIGNS Lane Distribution Factors -------------------------- 613.3
Walls -------------------------------------------------- 210.7 Projections, Truck Traffic -------------------------- 613.3
EMBANKMENT EROSION
Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.7 And Accretion, Definition ------------------------- 806.2
Side Slope Standards --------------------------------- 304 Control, Channel & Shore -------------------------- 871.1
Slopes at Structures --------------------------------- 208.5 Control, Planting ------------------------------------- 902
Structure Approach Embankment ----------------- 208.11 Control, Water Pollution --------------------------- 110.2
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
EMINENT DOMAIN Vegetative Control ---------------------------------- 62.5
Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.6
EVAPORATION
ENCROACHMENT Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.6 ----------------------------------------------------------- 812.8
----------------------------------------------------------- 814.4
END OF FREEWAY ----------------------------------------------------------- 819.2
Connections with Local Roads -------------------- 106.2
EXITS
ENDWALL Freeway Interchange -------------------------------- 504.2
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
EXPRESSWAY
ENERGY ----------------------------------------------------------- 62.3
Dissipator, Definition ------------------------------- 806.2
Dissipator --------------------------------------------- 827.2
Grade Line, Definition ------------------------------ 806.2 F
Head, Definition ------------------------------------- 806.2
ENTRANCE FAA
Design (Hydraulic) ----------------------------------- 826 Abbreviation ----------------------------------------- 61.1
Freeway Interchange -------------------------------- 504.2 Notice Requirements -------------------------------- 207.3
Head, Definition ------------------------------------- 806.2
Loss, Definition -------------------------------------- 806.2 FACTORS AFFECTING INTERSECTION DESIGN
see DESIGN, FACTORS AFFECTING
ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS
Transit Loading Facilities -------------------------- 108.2 FALSEWORK
Contractor's Yard and Plant Site ------------------- 112 ----------------------------------------------------------- 204.8
FHWA ------------------------------------------------ 108.3 Grade Line ------------------------------------------- 204.8
Material Sites and Disposal Sites ------------------ 111 Vertical Clearance ----------------------------------- 204.8
Median Width ---------------------------------------- 305.1 Width of Traffic Openings ------------------------- 204.8
Project Development -------------------------------- 81.1 Worker Safety --------------------------------------- 204.8
Special Considerations ------------------------------ 110
July 15, 2016
80th percentile Deflection -------------------------- 635.1

FAN Deflection Studies ------------------------------------ 635.1
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 Emperical Method ----------------------------------- 633.1
Engineering Analysis Software -------------------- 637
FEDERAL-AID Full Depth Hot Mix Asphalt ------------------------ 633.1
----------------------------------------------------------- 40 Gravel Equivalent ------------------------------------ 633.1
Funding Determination ------------------------------ 44 Gravel factor (Gf) ------------------------------------ 633.1
Programs (see also PROGRAMS) ----------------- 43 Grouping ---------------------------------------------- 635.1
System ------------------------------------------------- 42 Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) ---------------------------- 631
Hot Mixed Asphalt Base ---------------------------- 633.1
FEDERAL LANDS PROGRAM Hot Recycled Asphalt ------------------------------- 635.1
----------------------------------------------------------- 43.4 International Roughness Index (IRI) -------------- 635.1
Intersections ------------------------------------------ 636.3
FENCES Lean Concrete Base (LCB) ------------------------- 635.1
----------------------------------------------------------- 701 Lime Treated Subbase ------------------------------- 633.1
Approval ---------------------------------------------- 701.1 Mainline ----------------------------------------------- 636.1
Barbed Wire, Type BW ----------------------------- 701.2 Mill and Overlay ------------------------------------- 635.1
Chain Link -------------------------------------------- 701.2 Open Graded Friction Course (OGFC) ------------ 631.2
Exceptions to Standard Types ---------------------- 701.2 Park & Ride Facilities ------------------------------- 636.4
Freeways and Expressways ------------------------- 701.2 Pavement Condition Report ------------------------ 635.1
Location of -------------------------------------------- 701.2 Pavement Preservation ------------------------------ 634
Locked Gates ----------------------------------------- 701.2 Percent Reduction in Deflection ------------------- 635.1
Median ------------------------------------------------- 701.2 Percent Reduction in deflection required
on Other Highways ---------------------------------- 701.3 at the Milled depth ----------------------------------- 635.1
Policy and Purpose ----------------------------------- 701.1 Performance Factors --------------------------------- 632.2
Retaining Walls -------------------------------------- 210.6 Performance Graded (PG) -------------------------- 632.1
Safety Roadside Rests ------------------------------- 903.5 Polymer modified binders -------------------------- 632.1
Standard Types --------------------------------------- 701.2 RAC-G ------------------------------------------------ 631.3
Vinyl-clad --------------------------------------------- 705.1 RAC-O ------------------------------------------------ 631.3
Weathering Type Steel ------------------------------ 705.1 Ramp Termini ---------------------------------------- 636.1
Wire Mesh, Type WM ------------------------------ 701.2 Reflective crack retardation ------------------------- 635.1
Remove and Replace -------------------------------- 635.1
FHWA Rich-Bottom Concept ------------------------------- 633.1
Approval of Locked Gates -------------------------- 701.2 Ride Quality ------------------------------------------ 635.1
Approval of Mandatory Sites ----------------------- 111.6 Roadside Facilities ----------------------------------- 636.4
Coordination With ----------------------------------- 108.3 Safety Roadside Rest Areas ------------------------ 636.4
Federal-aid -------------------------------------------- 40 Rubberized Asphalt Concrete ---------------------- 631.3
Liaison With ------------------------------------------ 11.2 SAMI-F ------------------------------------------------ 631.5
SAMI-R ----------------------------------------------- 631.5
FILTER FABRIC Shoulders ---------------------------------------------- 636.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 841.5 Smoothness ------------------------------------------- 632.1
Stress Absorbing Membrane Interlayers (SAMI) - 631.5
FLAP GATES Structural Adequacy --------------------------------- 635.1
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 Subgrade Enhancement Fabrics -------------------- 633.1
----------------------------------------------------------- 821.6 Test Sections ------------------------------------------ 635.1
----------------------------------------------------------- 838.5 Tolerable Deflection at the Surface (TDS) ------- 635.1
Tolerable Deflections -------------------------------- 635.1
FLARED END SECTION Traffic Index (TI) ------------------------------------ 633.1
----------------------------------------------------------- 826.3 Traveled Way ----------------------------------------- 636.1
----------------------------------------------------------- 834.4 Treated Permeable Base (TPB) -------------------- 633.1
Wearing Course -------------------------------------- 631.2
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT Whitetopping ----------------------------------------- 635.1
Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.7
Aged Residue (AR) ----------------------------------- 632.1 FLOOD
Analytical Depth ------------------------------------- 635.1 Base ---------------------------------------------------- 818.1
Transit Pads ------------------------------------------- 636.4 Control Projects -------------------------------------- 803.2
California R-value ----------------------------------- 633.1 Design ------------------------------------------------- 818.1
Climate Region --------------------------------------- 632.1 Design Criteria, Recommended -------------------- 821.3
Cold in-Place Recycled Asphalt ------------------- 635.1 ----------------------------------------------------------- 831.3
Concrete Overlay ------------------------------------- 635.1 Greatest of Record ----------------------------------- 821.3
Data Collection --------------------------------------- 635.1 Magnitude --------------------------------------------- 817
July 15, 2016
Maximum Historical -------------------------------- 818.1 Financed by Others ---------------------------------- 104.3

Measurement ----------------------------------------- 817.2 Headlight Glare -------------------------------------- 310.3
Plain, Definition ------------------------------------- 806.2 Horizontal Clearance ------------------------------- 309.1
Plane, Definition ------------------------------------- 806.2 Outer Separation ------------------------------------- 310.2
Stage, Definition ------------------------------------- 806.2 Railroad Crossings ---------------------------------- 104.3
Waters, Definition ----------------------------------- 806.2 Sidewalks --------------------------------------------- 105.1
FLOW FUNDING
Channel ----------------------------------------------- 816.6 ------------------------------------------------------------ 44
Critical ------------------------------------------------ 864.3 Federal-Aid Eligibility ------------------------------ 44.1
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 Federal Participation Ratio ------------------------- 44.2
Line ---------------------------------------------------- 806.2
Subcritical -------------------------------------------- 864.3 FUNNELING
Supercritical ------------------------------------------ 864.3 ----------------------------------------------------------- 403.1
FREE
Outlet, Definition ------------------------------------ 806.2 G
Water, Definition ------------------------------------ 806.2
FREEBOARD GALLERIES
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 Drainage ---------------------------------------------- 841.5
------------------------------------------------------------ 866
GEOMETRIC CROSS SECTIONS
FREEWAY ------------------------------------------------------------ 300
----------------------------------------------------------- 62.3 Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.1
Entrances and Exits at Interchanges -------------- 504.2
Landscape -------------------------------------------- 62.5 GEOMETRIC DESIGN
------------------------------------------------------------ 900 Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.4
Structure Standards ---------------------------------- 200
FREEWAY CONNECTIONS WITH EXISTING Undesirable Geometric Features, Intersections -- 402.2
ROADS
----------------------------------------------------------- 106.2
GEOTECHNICAL DESIGN REPORT
------------------------------------------------------------ 113
FREEWAY-TO-FREEWAY CONNECTIONS Content ------------------------------------------------ 113.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 62.4 Local Materials Sources ---------------------------- 111.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 504.4 Policy ------------------------------------------------- 113.1
Branch Connections ---------------------------------- 504.4 Side Slope Standards -------------------------------- 304.1
Grade Line ------------------------------------------- 204.2 Submittal and Approval ---------------------------- 113.3
Grades -------------------------------------------------- 504.4
Lane Drops -------------------------------------------- 504.4
GORE
Metering ---------------------------------------------- 504.3 ----------------------------------------------------------- 62.4
------------------------------------------------------------ 504.4 Contrasting Surface Treatment -------------------- 504.2
Shoulder Width --------------------------------------- 504.4 Paved Gore ------------------------------------------- 504.2
FREEWAY-TO-FREEWAY INTERCHANGES GRADE

----------------------------------------------------------- 502.3 Cross Section, Position with Respect to ---------- 204.2
to Drain, Definition --------------------------------- 806.2
FRENCH DRAINS Freeway Entrance Standards ----------------------- 504.2
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 Freeway Exit Standards ----------------------------- 504.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 841.5 Freeway-to-freeway Connection Standards ----- 504.4
General Controls ------------------------------------ 204.1
FRICTION FACTORS Horizontal Alignment, Coordination with ------- 204.6
----------------------------------------------------------- 202.1 Ramps ------------------------------------------------- 504.2
Rolling Profile --------------------------------------- 204.1
FRONTAGE ROADS Safety Roadside Rests ------------------------------ 903.5
Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.3 Separate Lines --------------------------------------- 204.7
Cross Section Standards ----------------------------- 310 Separation -------------------------------------------- 62.4
Access Control --------------------------------------- 104.3 Separation Structures -------------------------------- 208
Cross Section ---------------------------------------- 310.1 Separation, Pedestrian ------------------------------ 105.2
Curbs -------------------------------------------------- 303.6 Standards --------------------------------------------- 204.3
Driveways -------------------------------------------- 205.4 Stopping Sight Distance at Crests ----------------- 201.4
July 15, 2016
Stopping Sight Distance at Sags ------------------- 201.5 GUTTERS, SIDE

Structures ---------------------------------------------- 204.8 ----------------------------------------------------------- 834.3
Sustained Grades ------------------------------------- 204.5 Capacity ----------------------------------------------- 836.2
Vertical Curves --------------------------------------- 204.4 Grade -------------------------------------------------- 836.2
GRADE LINE Intersection, at ---------------------------------------- 836.2
Types -------------------------------------------------- 836.1
Bridge Decks ----------------------------------------- 204.8 Valley -------------------------------------------------- 836.2
Depressed, Under Structures ----------------------- 204.8
General ------------------------------------------------ 204.1
Separate ----------------------------------------------- 204.7 H
Structures ---------------------------------------------- 204.8
GRADE SEPARATION STRUCTURES HAULING
----------------------------------------------------------- 208 Overloaded Material/Equipment , Design for ----- 110.1
Cattle Passes, Equipment, and Deer Crossings -- 208.8
Cross Slope ------------------------------------------- 208.2 HEAD
Curbs --------------------------------------------------- 303.5 Available ---------------------------------------------- 821.4
Equestrian Undercrossing --------------------------- 208.7
Median ------------------------------------------------- 208.3 HEADLIGHT GLARE
Open End Structures --------------------------------- 208.5 ----------------------------------------------------------- 310.3
Pedestrian --------------------------------------------- 105.2
Pedestrian Overcrossings and Undercrossing ---- 208.6 HEADLIGHT SIGHT DISTANCE
Railings ------------------------------------------------ 208.10 Grade Sags -------------------------------------------- 201.5
Railroad Underpasses and Overheads ------------- 208.9
Sidewalks --------------------------------------------- 208.4 HEADWAY
Widths ------------------------------------------------- 208.1 ----------------------------------------------------------- 62.8
GRADIENT (SLOPE) HIGH SPEED RAIL
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 Definition ---------------------------------------------- 62.10
GRADING PLANE Clearances --------------------------------------------- 309.1
Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.7 HIGHWAY
GRATED LINE DRAIN ----------------------------------------------------------- 62.3
Capacity ----------------------------------------------- 102
----------------------------------------------------------- 837.2 Context ------------------------------------------------ 81.6
GRAVEL EQUIVALENT Controlled Access ------------------------------------ 62.3
Conventional ------------------------------------------ 62.3
----------------------------------------------------------- 604.3 Federal Lands Program ------------------------------ 43.4
GRAVITY WALL Interstate, Definition --------------------------------- 81.4
Landscape Architect Definitions ------------------- 62.5
----------------------------------------------------------- 210.2 Major -------------------------------------------------- 62.3
GROIN National Highway System --------------------------- 42
Parkway ----------------------------------------------- 62.3
----------------------------------------------------------- 883.3 Pedestrian Facilities ---------------------------------- 105
GROUND WATER Planting ------------------------------------------------ 62.5
Radial -------------------------------------------------- 62.3
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 Route Numbers --------------------------------------- 21.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 841.2 Scenic -------------------------------------------------- 62.3
GUARDRAIL State System ------------------------------------------ 81.4
Structures, Definitions ------------------------------- 62.2
Bridge Approach Railings -------------------------- 208.10
Structures, Grade Line ------------------------------- 204.8
References -------------------------------------------- 702
Through ----------------------------------------------- 62.3
GUIDE BANK Types, Definitions ----------------------------------- 62.3
----------------------------------------------------------- 873.4 HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL STANDARDS
GUTTER PAN ----------------------------------------------------------- 82.1
Cross Slope -------------------------------------------- 303.2 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
General Policy ---------------------------------------- 303.1
Aesthetic Factors ------------------------------------- 109.3
Uses, Curb Types ------------------------------------ 303.2
Alignment Consistency ------------------------------ 203.3
Bridges ------------------------------------------------ 203.9
July 15, 2016
Broken Back Curves -------------------------------- 203.7 Field Investigations --------------------------------- 815.3

Compound Curves ---------------------------------- 203.5 Precipitation ------------------------------------------ 815.2
Curve Length and Central Angle ------------------ 203.4 ------------------------------------------------------------ 815.3
General Controls ------------------------------------ 203.1 Rainfall ----------------------------------------------- 815.5
Grade, Coordination with -------------------------- 204.6 Sources ------------------------------------------------ 815.3
Radius ------------------------------------------------- 203.2 Stream Flow ------------------------------------------ 815.4
Reversing Curves ------------------------------------ 203.6 Surface Runoff --------------------------------------- 815.2
Standards for Curvature ---------------------------- 203.2 Transfer of Data ------------------------------------- 819.5
Spiral Transition ------------------------------------- 203.8
HYDROLOGICAL ANALYSIS
HORIZONTAL CLEARANCE Gumbel Extreme Value Distribution ------------- 819.3
Bridges ------------------------------------------------ 309.1 Log Normal Distribution --------------------------- 819.3
Between Elevated Structures ---------------------- 309.4 Log Pearson Type III Distribution ---------------- 819.3
Clear Distance --------------------------------------- 201.6 Objectives -------------------------------------------- 811.2
Noise Barriers ---------------------------------------- 1102.2 Rational Methods ------------------------------------ 819.2
Off-track Maintenance ------------------------------ 309.5 Regional Analysis Methods ------------------------ 819.2
Railroad Walkway ---------------------------------- 309.5 SCS Triangular Hydrograph ----------------------- 819.4
Railroads, Adjacent to ------------------------------ 309.5 Synthetic Hydrograph ------------------------------ 819.4
Retaining Walls -------------------------------------- 309.1 Unit Hydrograph ------------------------------------ 819.4
Structure ---------------------------------------------- 309.1
Tunnels ----------------------------------------------- 309.3 HYDROLOGY
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
HORIZONTAL DRAINS ----------------------------------------------------------- 811.1
----------------------------------------------------------- 841.5
HYDROPLANING
HOT MIX ASPHALT CONCRETE BASE Definition --------------------------------------------- 831.4
also see BASE Engineering Criteria ---------------- 663
HOT MIXED ASPHALT I
----------------------------------------------------------- 631.1
also see FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
INFILTRATION
HYDRAULIC ----------------------------------------------------------- 606.3
Gradient, Definition --------------------------------- 806.2 ----------------------------------------------------------- 819.2
Jump, Definition ------------------------------------- 806.2 Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
Mean Depth, Definition ---------------------------- 806.2
Mean Depth ------------------------------------------ 864.3 INITIAL CONSTRUCTION
Radius, Definition ----------------------------------- 806.2 and Stage --------------------------------------------- 106.1
HYDRAULIC DESIGN DISCHARGE INLETS
Empirical Methods ---------------------------------- 819.2 Combination ----------------------------------------- 837.2
Field Investigation ---------------------------------- 815.3 Curb Opening ---------------------------------------- 837.2
Hydrograph Methods ------------------------------- 816.5 Grate -------------------------------------------------- 837.2
Rational Methods ------------------------------------ 819.2 Hydraulic Design ------------------------------------ 837.4
Regional Analysis ----------------------------------- 819.2 Location and Spacing ------------------------------- 837.3
Statistical Methods ---------------------------------- 819.3 Pipe Drop --------------------------------------------- 837.2
Summary of Methods ------------------------------- 819.1 Time, Definition ------------------------------------- 806.2
Transition --------------------------------------------- 826.4
HYDROGRAPH Types -------------------------------------------------- 837.2
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 Use of ------------------------------------------------- 837.1
----------------------------------------------------------- 816.5
SCS Triangular -------------------------------------- 819.4 INSPECTION STATIONS, BORDER
Synthetic ---------------------------------------------- 819.4 ----------------------------------------------------------- 107.3
Unit ---------------------------------------------------- 819.4
INTERCHANGES
HYDROGRAPHY Access Control --------------------------------------- 504.8
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 Aesthetic Factors ------------------------------------ 109.3
Approval of Design --------------------------------- 503.2
HYDROLOGIC DATA Auxiliary Lanes -------------------------------------- 504.5
Basin Characteristics --------------------------------- 812 Cloverleaf -------------------------------------------- 502.2
Federal Agencies ------------------------------------ 815.3 Concepts ---------------------------------------------- 501.1
July 15, 2016
Data Required for Design --------------------------- 503.1 Public Road ------------------------------------------- 405.7
Definition ----------------------------------------------- 62.4 Ramp --------------------------------------------------- 406
Design, Procedure ------------------------------------ 503 Refuge Area ------------------------------------------- 403.7
Design, Standards ------------------------------------ 504 Returns and Corner Radii, City Street ------------- 405.8
Diamond ----------------------------------------------- 502.2 Right-turn Channelization -------------------------- 405.3
Elements ----------------------------------------------- 62.4 Right-turn Lanes at Off Ramp ---------------------- 405.3
Freeway Entrances and Exits, Design ------------- 504.2 Roundabout, Definition ----------------------------- 62.4
Freeway-to-freeway --------------------------------- 502.3 Sight Distance ---------------------------------------- 405.1
Freeway-to-freeway Connections, Definition ---- 62.4 Signal Control ---------------------------------------- 403.9
Freeway-to-freeway Connections, Standards ---- 504.4 Speed-change Areas --------------------------------- 403.5
Freeway-to-freeway, Minimum Design Speed --- 504.4 Traffic Control Devices ----------------------------- 403.10
Freeway-to-freeway Omission of Movements --- 502.3 Traffic Islands ---------------------------------------- 405.4
Grade Separations ------------------------------------ 62.4 Turning Traffic --------------------------------------- 403.6
Grades Exits/Entrances ------------------------------ 504.2 Types -------------------------------------------------- 401.5
Lane Reduction --------------------------------------- 504.6 Undesirable Geometric Features ------------------- 402.2
Local Streets ------------------------------------------ 502.2 Vehicle, Affecting Design of ----------------------- 401.3
Parallel Street Systems ------------------------------ 502.2 Widening at Signalized Intersections -------------- 405.9
Ramps ------------------------------------------------- 504.3
Reviews ----------------------------------------------- 503.2 INTERSTATE
Sight Distance for Planting ------------------------- 902.2 Definition --------------------------------------------- 81.4
Single Point Interchange ---------------------------- 502.2 Funding ------------------------------------------------ 42.2
Spacing ------------------------------------------------ 501.3 Numbering -------------------------------------------- 21.2
Traffic ------------------------------------------------- 500
Trumpet ----------------------------------------------- 502.2 INUNDATE
Two-quadrant Cloverleaf --------------------------- 502.2 Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
Types -------------------------------------------------- 502
Warrants ----------------------------------------------- 501.2 INVERSE CONDEMNATION
Weaving Sections ------------------------------------ 504.7 Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.6
also see RAMPS
INVERT
INTERMODAL SURFACE TRANSPORTATION Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
EFFICIENCY ACT (ISTEA) Paving, Definition ------------------------------------ 806.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 40 Paving ------------------------------------------------- 852.1
----------------------------------------------------------- 852.4
INTERSECTION ----------------------------------------------------------- 853.6
Access Control --------------------------------------- 405.6 Protection --------------------------------------------- 852.4
Accidents ---------------------------------------------- 402.2 ----------------------------------------------------------- 852.5
Angle of Intersection -------------------------------- 403.3
Areas of Conflict ------------------------------------- 403.2
INVERTED SIPHON
Bicycle, Affecting Design of ----------------------- 401.6 Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
Capacity ----------------------------------------------- 402.1 ----------------------------------------------------------- 829.7
Capacity, Ramps ------------------------------------- 406
IRRIGATION SYSTEM
Channelization ---------------------------------------- 403
Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.4 Crossover Conduits ---------------------------------- 706.4
Design, Factors Affecting --------------------------- 401
ISLAND
Design, Operational Features Affecting ---------- 402
Design, Standards ------------------------------------ 405 ----------------------------------------------------------- 62.4
Design Vehicle ---------------------------------------- 404 Traffic ------------------------------------------------- 405.4
Driver, Affecting Design of ------------------------ 401.2
ISOHYETAL
Environment, Affecting Design of ----------------- 401.4
General, Factors Affecting Design ---------------- 401.1 Line, Definition -------------------------------------- 806.2
at Grade ------------------------------------------------ 400 Map, Definition -------------------------------------- 806.2
ISOVEL
Left-turn Channelization ---------------------------- 405.2
Major Movement, Preference to ------------------- 403.1 Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
Median Openings ------------------------------------ 405.5
ISTEA
Operational Features --------------------------------- 402
Pedestrian, Affecting Design of -------------------- 401.5 ------------------------------------------------------------ 41.1
Points of Conflict ------------------------------------ 403.4 ------------------------------------------------------------ 42.2
Precautions -------------------------------------------- 403.12
Prohibited Turns -------------------------------------- 403.8
July 15, 2016
J ------------------------------------------------------------ 900
Highway ---------------------------------------------- 62.5
LANE
JACK
Addition ---------------------------------------------- 206.2
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 Addition on Ramps ---------------------------------- 504.3
JACKING OPERATIONS Auxiliary ---------------------------------------------- 62.1
----------------------------------------------------------- 504.5
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 Climbing ---------------------------------------------- 204.5
JETTY ------------------------------------------------------------ 206.2
Deceleration ------------------------------------------ 405.2
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 ------------------------------------------------------------ 405.3
Types -------------------------------------------------- 873.4 Definitions -------------------------------------------- 62.1
JOINT Distribution Factors --------------------------------- 602.3
Drops -------------------------------------------------- 206.3
Longitudinal ------------------------------------------ 62.7 Drops on Freeway-to-freeway Connectors ------ 504.4
Pavement --------------------------------------------- 622.3 Drops on Ramps ------------------------------------- 504.3
Seals --------------------------------------------------- 62.7 Express Toll Lanes ---------------------------------- 62.8
JOINT BANK PROTECTION COMMITTEE High-Occupancy Vehicle -------------------------- 62.8
High Occupancy Toll ------------------------------- 62.8
----------------------------------------------------------- 802.3 Left Turn --------------------------------------------- 405.2
JOINT PLAIN CONCRETE PAVEMENT Managed, Definition -------------------------------- 62.8
Median, Definition ---------------------------------- 62.1
----------------------------------------------------------- 621.1 Multiple, Definition --------------------------------- 62.1
also see RIGID PAVEMENT Numbering ------------------------------------------- 62.1
JOINTS Passing ------------------------------------------------ 204.5
Reductions -------------------------------------------- 206.3
Culverts ----------------------------------------------- 829.4 Reduction at Interchanges --------------------------- 504.6
----------------------------------------------------------- 854.1 Right Turn -------------------------------------------- 405.3
JUNCTION STRUCTURES Separate Turning ------------------------------------ 403.6
Speed Change ---------------------------------------- 403.5
----------------------------------------------------------- 838.5
Speed Change, Definition -------------------------- 62.1
Traffic, Definition ----------------------------------- 62.1
K Two-way Left-turn Lanes --------------------------- 405.2
Width -------------------------------------------------- 301.1
Width on Curves ------------------------------------- 504.3
KINEMATIC WAVE EQUATION Width of Opening for Falsework ------------------ 204.8
Width, Ramps ---------------------------------------- 504.3
----------------------------------------------------------- 816.6
LATERAL
KIRPICH EQUATION
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 816.6
----------------------------------------------------------- 838.4
K-RAIL ----------------------------------------------------------- 838.5
----------------------------------------------------------- 204.8 LEAN CONCRETE BASE
See BASE
L Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.7
Engineering Criteria --------------------------------- 663
Design, Flexible (Asphalt) Pavement ------------- 633.1
L-TYPE WALL Design, Rigid (Concrete) Pavement -------------- 623.1
----------------------------------------------------------- 210.2 LEFT-TURN CHANNELIZATION
LAG ----------------------------------------------------------- 405.2
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 LEFT-TURN REFUGE
LAMINAR FLOW ----------------------------------------------------------- 403.7
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 LEGISLATION
LANDSCAPE ------------------------------------------------------------ 41
ISTEA ------------------------------------------------- 41.1
Aesthetic Factors ------------------------------------- 109.3
Architecture ------------------------------------------ 62.5
July 15, 2016
LEVEE MANDATORY MATERIAL SITES

Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 Federal-aid Projects ---------------------------------- 111.6
LEVEL OF SERVICE MANDATORY STANDARDS
Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.8 ----------------------------------------------------------- 82.1
----------------------------------------------------------- 102
MANNING
LIFE-CYCLE COST ANALYSIS (LCCA)
Equation ----------------------------------------------- 866.3
----------------------------------------------------------- 619 Roughness Coefficient ------------------------------ 851.2
LIME ----------------------------------------------------------- 866.3
Treatment Definition -------------------------------- 614.4 MARKERS
Use of -------------------------------------------------- 633.1 ----------------------------------------------------------- 702.1
LIME TREATED SUBBASE Contrast Treatment ----------------------------------- 704.1
see SUBBASE MATERIALS
LOAD TRANSFER DEVICE Availability, Pavement ------------------------------ 617.1
Color Selection for Steel Structures --------------- 705.2
See DOWEL BAR Conservation of --------------------------------------- 110.11
LOADING FACILITIES Hauling, Overloaded Design ----------------------- 110.1
Information Furnished to Prospective Bidders --- 111.3
Transit ------------------------------------------------- 108.2 Plants -------------------------------------------------- 112
LOCAL STREETS/ROADS Recycling, Pavement -------------------------------- 617.2
Report (see MATERIALS REPORT)
Cross Section ----------------------------------------- 308.1 Sites ---------------------------------------------------- 111
Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.3 Sites, Acquisition ------------------------------------ 111.5
----------------------------------------------------------- 81.4 Sites, Arrangements --------------------------------- 111.4
Design Speed ------------------------------------------ 101.1 Sites, Environmental Requirements --------------- 111.1
Driveways --------------------------------------------- 205.3 Sites, Investigation of Local Sources -------------- 111.2
Grade ---------------------------------------------------- 204.1 Sites, Mandatory ------------------------------------- 111.6
Horizontal Alignment --------------------------------- 203.1 Special Treatment ------------------------------------ 705.1
Interchanges ------------------------------------------ 502.2
Returns and Corner Radii --------------------------- 405.8 MATERIALS REPORT
Superelevation ---------------------------------------- 202.7 Content ------------------------------------------------ 114.3
LOCKED GATES Local Materials Sources ----------------------------- 111.2
Policy -------------------------------------------------- 114.1
----------------------------------------------------------- 701.2 Preliminary -------------------------------------------- 114.4
LOG OF TEST BORINGS Requesting -------------------------------------------- 114.2
Retention of Records -------------------------------- 114.5
----------------------------------------------------------- 210.8 Reviews ----------------------------------------------- 114.5
MAXIMUM COMFORTABLE SPEED
M
Chart --------------------------------------------------- 202.2
Superelevation ---------------------------------------- 202.2
MAINTAINABILITY MAY
Pavement ---------------------------------------------- 618.1 Definition and Usage -------------------------------- 82.1
MAINTENANCE MEAN VELOCITY
Definitions -------------------------------------------- 62.7 ----------------------------------------------------------- 864.3
MAINTENANCE VIHICLE PULLOUT MECHANISTIC-EMPERICAL
Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.3 ----------------------------------------------------------- 606.3
MAINTENANCE YARDS MEDIAN
On Freeways ------------------------------------------ 107.2 Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.1
MAJOR STREET/MAJOR HIGHWAY Aesthetic Factors ------------------------------------- 109.3
Barriers ------------------------------------------------ 305.3
Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.3 Cross Slope ------------------------------------------- 305.2
Curbs --------------------------------------------------- 305.4
July 15, 2016
Decking on Bridge ---------------------------------- 208.3 NAVIGABLE WATERS

Fencing ----------------------------------------------- 701.2 Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
Grade -------------------------------------------------- 834.2
Lane --------------------------------------------------- 62.1 NEGATIVE PROJECTING CONDUIT
Left-turn Lane --------------------------------------- 405.2 Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
Openings ---------------------------------------------- 405.5
Paved -------------------------------------------------- 305.5 NOISE ABATEMENT
Position ------------------------------------------------ 303.5 ----------------------------------------------------------- 1100
Separate Roadways --------------------------------- 305.6 By Others --------------------------------------------- 1101.2
Standards ---------------------------------------------- 305 Objective --------------------------------------------- 1101.2
Width -------------------------------------------------- 305.1 Prioritizing ------------------------------------------- 1101.5
MERGING Terminology ----------------------------------------- 1101.3
Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.8 NOISE BARRIERS
METEOROLOGY Aesthetics --------------------------------------------- 1102.6
Alternate Designs ----------------------------------- 1102.5
Evapo-transpiration --------------------------------- 814.4 Clearances -------------------------------------------- 1102.2
Rainfall ----------------------------------------------- 814.2 Design Criteria --------------------------------------- 1102
Snow -------------------------------------------------- 814.3 Design Procedures ---------------------------------- 1102.5
Tides and Waves ------------------------------------ 814.5 Drainage Openings ---------------------------------- 1102.9
Tsunami ----------------------------------------------- 814.5 Emergency Access ---------------------------------- 1102.8
METERING Heights ------------------------------------------------ 1102.3
Lengths ----------------------------------------------- 1102.4
----------------------------------------------------------- 504.3 Location ---------------------------------------------- 1102.2
Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.8 Maintenance Considerations ----------------------- 1102.7
Freeway-to-Freeway Connections ---------------- 504.4 Pay Quantities --------------------------------------- 1102.5
Lane Merges ----------------------------------------- 206.3 Planting ----------------------------------------------- 1102.6
Ramp Lane Drops ----------------------------------- 504.3 Preliminary Site Data ------------------------------- 1102.5
MINIMUM TURNING RADIUS Sight Distance Requirements ---------------------- 1102.2
Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.4 NONFREEWAY FACILITIES
MINOR ARTERIAL Conversion to Divided ------------------------------ 108.1
Definition --------------------------------------------- 81.4 NONMOTORIZED TRAFFIC
MISCELLANEOUS STANDARDS Provisions for ---------------------------------------- 104.3
------------------------------------------------------------ 700 NORMAL DEPTH
Fences -------------------------------------------------- 701 Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
Guardrail ----------------------------------------------- 702 ----------------------------------------------------------- 864.2
Mailboxes --------------------------------------------- 702
Markers ------------------------------------------------ 702
O
MUD FLOW
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
OFFICE OF
MULTILANE CROSS SECTIONS
State Landscape Architecture ---------------------- 901.1
All Paved --------------------------------------------- 307.5
Divided ----------------------------------------------- 307.4 OFF-SET LEFT-TURN LANE
MULTIPLE LANES Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.4
Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.1 OFF-SITE DRAINAGE
MULTIPLE PIPES Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 824.2 OFFTRACKING
Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.4
N Design Considerations ------------------------------ 404.1
ON-SITE DRAINAGE
NATIONAL HIGHWAY SYSTEM Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 42.1
July 15, 2016
Condition Survey ------------------------------------- 603.8

ON-STREET PARKING Cross Slopes ------------------------------------------ 301.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 402.3 Design Life, Definition ------------------------------ 62.7
Design Life -------------------------------------------- 612
OPEN CHANNEL Detours ------------------------------------------------ 603.6
Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.8 Drainage, Impact of ---------------------------------- 651.1
Flexible see FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
OUTER SEPARATION Joints --------------------------------------------------- 622.3
Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.1 Layers -------------------------------------------------- 602
----------------------------------------------------------- 310.2 New ---------------------------------------------------- 603.1
Performance see PAVEMENT SERVICE LIFE - 62.7
OUTFALL Portland Cement Concrete -------------------------- 603
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 Preservation ------------------------------------------- 603.3
Reconstruction ---------------------------------------- 603.5
OUTWASH ----------------------------------------------------------- 602.2
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 Reductions -------------------------------------------- 206.3
Rehabilitation, Pavement --------------------------- 603.3
OVERFLOW Rehabilitation, Roadway ---------------------------- 603.4
Channel ------------------------------------------------ 861.5 Rehabilitation, Definition --------------------------- 62.7
Rigid see RIGID PAVEMENT
OVERLAND FLOW Safety Edge -------------------------------------------- 302.3
----------------------------------------------------------- 816.6 Serviceability, Definition --------------------------- 62.7
Service Life, Definition ----------------------------- 62.7
OVERLAYS Structure ----------------------------------------------- 62.7
Asphalt On Structure Decks ------------------------ 607.6 Surface Course --------------------------------------- 62.7
Definitions -------------------------------------------- 62.7 Temporary -------------------------------------------- 603.6
Transitions -------------------------------------------- 206
OVERLOADS Transitions for Freeways, Temporary ------------- 206.4
Design for --------------------------------------------- 110.1 Type Selection ---------------------------------------- 611.2
Types of Projects ------------------------------------- 603
Widening ---------------------------------------------- 603.2
P
Width -------------------------------------------------- 301.1
PEAK FLOW
PAINTING
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
Concrete ----------------------------------------------- 705.1 ----------------------------------------------------------- 811.3
Steel ---------------------------------------------------- 705.2
PEDESTRIAN FACILITIES
PARALLEL STREET SYSTEMS
----------------------------------------------------------- 105
Interchanges ------------------------------------------ 502.2 Accessibility Requirements ------------------------- 105.3
Bridges ------------------------------------------------ 208.4
PARK AND RIDE LOTS
Conventional Highways ----------------------------- 105.1
Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.5 Crosswalk, Definition ------------------------------ 62.4
Pavement Structural Section Design -------------- 604.7 Curb Ramps, Guidelines ---------------------------- 105.4
Design Considerations ------------------------------- 404.2
PARKWAY
Freeway Facilities ------------------------------------ 105.1
Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.3 Frontage Roads --------------------------------------- 105.1
PARTIAL ACQUISITION
Pedestrian, Definition ------------------------------ 62.10
Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.6 Overcrossings ----------------------------------------- 105.2
PASSING LANE Overcrossing/Undercrossing, Standards ---------- 208.6
Railings ------------------------------------------------ 208.10
----------------------------------------------------------- 204.5 Refuge, Definition ---------------------------------- 62.4
PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE Refuge Areas ----------------------------------------- 403.7
Replacement in Kind -------------------------------- 105.1
----------------------------------------------------------- 201.2 School Walkways ------------------------------------ 105.1
PAVEMENT/PAVEMENT STRUCTURE Sidewalks --------------------------------------------- 105.1
Sidewalks, Definition ------------------------------- 62.1
Capital Preventive Maintenance ------------------- 603.3 Sidewalks, Structures -------------------------------- 208.4
Composite see COMPOSITE PAVEMENT Trails -------------------------------------------------- 1003.4
July 15, 2016
Undercrossings -------------------------------------- 105.2 Replacement ----------------------------------------- 62.5

----------------------------------------------------------- 208.6 Restoration ------------------------------------------- 62.5
Safety Requirements -------------------------------- 902.2
PENETRATION TREATMENT Safety Roadside Rests ------------------------------ 903.5
----------------------------------------------------------- 604.6 Sight Distance --------------------------------------- 902.2
Trees -------------------------------------------------- 902.3
PERCHED WATER Vista Points ------------------------------------------ 904.3
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 Water Supply ---------------------------------------- 706.5
----------------------------------------------------------- 841.4
PLASTIC COATINGS
PERCOLATING WATERS ----------------------------------------------------------- 852.4
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
POINT OF CONCENTRATION
PERMEABILITY Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 606.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 841.2 POINTS OF CONFLICT
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 Intersections ------------------------------------------ 403.4
PHYSICALLY DISABLED PERSONS POLICE FACILITIES
See ACCESSIBILITY REQUIREMENTS ----------------------------------------------------------- 107.2
PIPE POLLUTION CONTROL
Alternative Pipe Culvert Selection Procedure Air ----------------------------------------------------- 110.3
Using AltPipe ---------------------------------------- 857.2 Water -------------------------------------------------- 110.2
Cast in Place Concrete ------------------------------ 852.2
Concrete Box and Arch, Strength Requirements - 852.3 PONDING
Corrugated Aluminum Pipe and Arch, Strength ----------------------------------------------------------- 821.4
Requirements ---------------------------------------- 852.5
Corrugated Steel Pipe and Arch, Strength PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE
Requirements ---------------------------------------- 852.4 Channel Linings ------------------------------------- 865.2
Culverts ----------------------------------------------- 828.2 Pavement see RIGID PAVEMENT
----------------------------------------------------------- 828.3
Minimum Cover ------------------------------------- 856.5 POSITIVE PROJECTING CONDUIT
Minimum Diameter --------------------------------- 838.4 Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
Multiple ----------------------------------------------- 824.2
Plastic, Strength Requirements -------------------- 852.7 POTAMOLOGY
Protective Coatings --------------------------------- 852.4 Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
Reinforced Concrete, Strength Requirements --- 852.1
Standards for Drain --------------------------------- 838.4 PRECAST PANEL CONCRETE PAVEMENT
Structural Metal Pipe and Arch, Strength ----------------------------------------------------------- 621.3
Requirements ---------------------------------------- 852.6 also see RIGID PAVEMENT
PIPING PRECIPITATION
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 Area, Definition ------------------------------------- 806.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 829.3 Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
Mean Annual ----------------------------------------- 819.2
PLACE TYPES Point, Definition ------------------------------------- 806.2
Definition --------------------------------------------- 81.3
Rural Area -------------------------------------------- 81.3 PRELIMINARY HYDRAULIC DATA
Suburban Area --------------------------------------- 81.3 ----------------------------------------------------------- 805.1
Urban Area ------------------------------------------- 81.3
PRESENT WORTH
PLANT SITES/CONTRACTOR'S YARD see ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
------------------------------------------------------------ 112
PRIORITY NETWORK
PLANTING 42 000 km --------------------------------------------- 309.2
Aesthetic Factors ------------------------------------ 109.3
Design -------------------------------------------------- 902 PRINCIPAL ARTIRIAL
Guidelines -------------------------------------------- 902.3 Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.3
Highway ---------------------------------------------- 62.5
Irrigation ---------------------------------------------- 902.4
July 15, 2016
PRIVATE ROAD RADIAL HIGHWAY

PRIVATE ROAD CONNECTIONS RADIUS

----------------------------------------------------------- 205.2 Curb ---------------------------------------------------- 405.8
Financial Responsibility ----------------------------- 205.5 Horizontal Alignment ------------------------------- 203.2
Sight Distance ---------------------------------------- 405.1 RAILINGS
PROCEDURAL REQUIREMENTS Bicycle ------------------------------------------------- 208.10
----------------------------------------------------------- 82.4 Bridge -------------------------------------------------- 208.10
Bridge Approach ------------------------------------- 208.10
PROGRAMS, FEDERAL-AID Cable --------------------------------------------------- 210.6
Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation Program -- 43.3 Chain Link -------------------------------------------- 208.10
Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement Earth Retaining Systems ---------------------------- 210.6
Program (CMAQ) ------------------------------ 43.2 Guardrail ---------------------------------------------- 208.10
Federal Lands Program ------------------------------ 43.4 ----------------------------------------------------------- 702.1
Special Programs ------------------------------------- 43.5 Pedestrian --------------------------------------------- 208.10
Surface Transportation Program (STP) ----------- 43.1 Vehicular ---------------------------------------------- 208.10
PROHIBITED TURNS RAIL

----------------------------------------------------------- 403.8 Clearances --------------------------------------------- 309.2
Structures Adjacent to ------------------------------- 309.5
PROJECTING BARREL Commuter, Definition ------------------------------- 62.10
----------------------------------------------------------- 826.3 Conventional, Definition ---------------------------- 62.10
Crossings ---------------------------------------------- 104.3
PROJECTING ENDS Grade Line of Structures ---------------------------- 204.8
----------------------------------------------------------- 826.3 High Speed, Definition ------------------------------ 62.10
High Seed, Clearances ------------------------------- 309.1
PROPRIETARY ITEMS Light, Definition ------------------------------------- 62.10
----------------------------------------------------------- 110.10 Overheads --------------------------------------------- 208.9
Earth Retaining Systems ---------------------------- 210.2 Slope Treatment, Structures ------------------------ 707
Underpasses ------------------------------------------- 208.9
PROTECTION OF ACCESS RIGHTS
RAINFALL
----------------------------------------------------------- 104.4
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
PROTECTION OF WETLANDS Sources of Data --------------------------------------- 815.3
see WETLANDS
RAIN GAGE
PROTECTIVE COATINGS ----------------------------------------------------------- 819.5
----------------------------------------------------------- 852.4
RAINWASH
PUBLIC ROAD INTERSECTION Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 405.7
RAMPS
Sight Distance --------------------------------------- 405.1
Curbs on ----------------------------------------------- 504.3
PULL OUTS Curb Ramps ------------------------------------------- 105.4
see TURNOUTS Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.4
Dikes --------------------------------------------------- 504.3
PUMPING Distance Between Exits ----------------------------- 504.3
Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.7 Distance Between On-Ramps ---------------------- 504.3
Entrance and Exit ------------------------------------ 504.2
PUMPING PLANT Grade -------------------------------------------------- 504.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 839.1 Grade Line -------------------------------------------- 204.2
Grade, Standards ------------------------------------- 204.3
Hook ---------------------------------------------------- 502.2
R Intersection Capacity -------------------------------- 406
Intersections on Crossroad, Location of ---------- 504.3
Lane Drops -------------------------------------------- 504.3
R-VALUE Loop --------------------------------------------------- 504.3
see CALIFORNIA R-VALUE Metering (see METERING) ----------------------
Pavement, Flexible ----------------------------------- 636.1
July 15, 2016
Pavement, Rigid ------------------------------------- 626.1 REHABILITATION, ROADWAY

Pavement, Traffic Considerations ----------------- 613.5 ----------------------------------------------------------- 603.4
Pavement Transitions -------------------------------- 206 Definitions -------------------------------------------- 62.7
Single Lane ------------------------------------------- 504.3 Design Life ------------------------------------------- 612.4
Structural Design ------------------------------------ 602.3 Composite Pavement -------------------------------- 645
----------------------------------------------------------- 603.5 Flexible Pavement ------------------------------------ 635
----------------------------------------------------------- 604.5 Rigid Pavement --------------------------------------- 625
Superelevation --------------------------------------- 504.3
Tapers ---------------------------------------------------- 206.3 REINFORCED EARTH SLOPES
Termini, Flexible Pavement ----------------------- 636.1 ------------------------------------------------------------ 210
Termini, Rigid Pavement --------------------------- 626.1
Transitions ---------------------------------------------- 504.3 RELICTION
Two-lane Entrance ---------------------------------- 504.3 Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
Two-lane Exit ---------------------------------------- 504.3
Width -------------------------------------------------- 504.3 RELINQUISHMENT
Widening for Trucks -------------------------------- 504.3 Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.6
RATIONAL METHOD REPLACEMENT IN-KIND
----------------------------------------------------------- 819.2 Sidewalks --------------------------------------------- 105.1
RAVELING REPLACEMENT PLANTING
Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.7 Aesthetic Factors ------------------------------------ 109.3
REACH Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.5
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 RESEARCH/SPECIAL DESIGNS
RECORD KEEPING Research, Experimentation ------------------------- 606.1
Special Designs -------------------------------------- 606. 2
Documentation, Type of Pavement --------------- 605.1 Mechanistic-Empirical Design -------------------- 606.3
Revisions --------------------------------------------- 605.2
RESOURCES
RECOVERY AREA
Other, Pavement ------------------------------------- 604.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 309.1
RESTORATION PLANTING
RECYCLING, ASPHALT CONCRETE
Aesthetic Factors ------------------------------------ 109.3
General ------------------------------------------------ 110.11 Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.5
Hot, Definition --------------------------------------- 62.7
RESURFACING
REFUGE AREAS
Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.7
----------------------------------------------------------- 403.7 see PRESERVATION, PAVEMENT
REGIME see REHABILITATION, PAVEMENT
see REHABILITATION, ROADWAY
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
RETAINING WALLS
REHABILITATION, CULVERTS
------------------------------------------------------------ 210
General ------------------------------------------------ 853.1 Aesthetic Considerations --------------------------- 210.5
Caltrans Host Pipe Structural Philosophy -------- 853.2 Construction Methods and Types ----------------- 210.2
Problem Identification and Coordination -------- 853.3 Guidelines for Plan Preparation ------------------- 210.8
Alternative Pipe Liner Materials ------------------ 853.4 Safety Railing, Fences, and Concrete Barriers -- 210.6
Cementitious Pipe Lining -------------------------- 853.5
Invert Paving with Concrete ----------------------- 853.6 RETARD
Structural Repairs with Steel Tunnel Liner Types -------------------------------------------------- 873.4
Plate --------------------------------------------------- 853.7
RETARDING BASIN
REHABILITATION, PAVEMENT
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
Capital Preventive Maintenance, part of --------- 603.3
Definitions -------------------------------------------- 62.7 RETENTION BASIN
Design Life ------------------------------------------- 612.4 Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
Composite --------------------------------------------- 645
Flexible Pavement ------------------------------------ 635 RETROGRESSION
Rigid Pavement --------------------------------------- 625 Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
July 15, 2016
RETURN WALLS ROADBED

----------------------------------------------------------- 210.8 Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.1
RETURNS, CITY STREET AND CORNER RADII ----------------------------------------------------------- 62.7
----------------------------------------------------------- 405.8 ROADSIDE
REVEGETATION Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.1
----------------------------------------------------------- 62.5 ROADSIDE INSTALLATIONS
Aesthetic Factors ------------------------------------- 109.3 ----------------------------------------------------------- 107
REVERSING CURVES Border Inspection Stations, Location of ---------- 107.3
Define Roadside -------------------------------------- 62.1
----------------------------------------------------------- 203.6 Maintenance Yards and Police Facilities --------- 107.2
Superelevation Transitions -------------------------- 202.5 Roadway Connections ------------------------------- 107.1
REVETMENT ROADSIDE RESTS, SAFETY
RIGHT OF ACCESS Design Standards ------------------------------------- 903
Facilities and Features ------------------------------- 903.5
Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.6 Fencing ------------------------------------------------ 903.5
RIGHT OF WAY Grading ------------------------------------------------ 903.5
Minimum Standards --------------------------------- 903.1
Definitions -------------------------------------------- 62.6 Pavement Design ------------------------------------- 613.5
Through Public Domain ----------------------------- 306.2 Pavement, Flexible ----------------------------------- 636.4
Width -------------------------------------------------- 306.1 Pavement, Rigid -------------------------------------- 626.4
RIGHT-TURN CHANNELIZATION Planting and Irrigation ------------------------------- 903.5
Site Feasibility ---------------------------------------- 903.4
----------------------------------------------------------- 405.3 Size and Capacity ------------------------------------ 903.5
RIGID PAVEMENT Water Supply ----------------------------------------- 110.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 706.6
Catalog ------------------------------------------------ 623.1 ----------------------------------------------------------- 903.5
Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.7
Design Procedure for -------------------------------- 623 ROADSIDE TREATMENT
Engineering Properties ------------------------------ 622.1 Irrigation Crossover Conduits ---------------------- 706.4
Joints --------------------------------------------------- 622.5 Roadside Management ------------------------------- 706.1
New Construction ------------------------------------ 623 Topsoil ------------------------------------------------- 706.3
Mechanistic-Empirical Procedures ---------------- 606.3 Vegetation Control ----------------------------------- 706.2
Pavement Preservation ------------------------------ 624 Water Supply ----------------------------------------- 706.5
Performance Factors --------------------------------- 622.2
Reconstruction ---------------------------------------- 623 ROADWAY
Rehabilitation ----------------------------------------- 625 Connections ------------------------------------------- 107.1
Texturing ---------------------------------------------- 622.7 Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.1
Types -------------------------------------------------- 621 Drainage ----------------------------------------------- 830
also see CONCRETE Structural Elements ---------------------------------- 601.2
RIPARIAN ROCKFALL RESTRAINING NETS
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 ----------------------------------------------------------- 703.2
RIPRAP ROUNDABOUTS
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 Access Control --------------------------------------- 405.10
----------------------------------------------------------- 827.2 Bicyclist Use ------------------------------------------ 405.10
----------------------------------------------------------- 873.3 Central Island ---------------------------------------- 62.4
RISER Circulatory Roadway ------------------------------- 62.4
Definition -------------------------------------------- 62.4
Culvert Entrance ------------------------------------- 822.2 Design Guidance ------------------------------------- 405.10
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 Design Vehicle --------------------------------------- 405.10
RISK ANALYSIS Entry Speeds ------------------------------------------ 405.10
Exit Design -------------------------------------------- 405.10
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 Inscribed Circle Diameter -------------------------- 62.4
----------------------------------------------------------- 818.2 ----------------------------------------------------------- 405.10
Landscape Buffer/Strip ----------------------------- 62.4
July 15, 2016
----------------------------------------------------------- 405.10 Reviews ----------------------------------------------- 110.8

Lighting ----------------------------------------------- 405.10 Roadside Rests ---------------------------------------- 903
Number of Legs ------------------------------------- 405.10 Tunnel Safety Orders ------------------------------- 110.12
Path Alignment (Natural Path) -------------------- 405.10 Worker ------------------------------------------------ 110.7
Pedestrian Refuge ----------------------------------- 62.4 Worker, Falsework Clearance --------------------- 204.8
Pedestrian Use --------------------------------------- 405.10
Splitter Island ---------------------------------------- 62.4 SAFETY ROADSIDE RESTS
----------------------------------------------------------- 405.10 Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.5
Stopping Sight Distance and Visibility ----------- 405.10 Design Standards ------------------------------------- 903
Transit Use ------------------------------------------- 405.10 Facilities and Features ------------------------------ 903.5
Truck Apron ----------------------------------------- 62.4 Fencing ----------------------------------------------- 903.5
Vertical Clearance ----------------------------------- 405.10 Grading ----------------------------------------------- 903.5
Minimum Standards -------------------------------- 903.1
ROUNDED INLET Planting and Irrigation ------------------------------ 903.5
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 Sewage Facilities ------------------------------------ 903.5
Site Feasibility --------------------------------------- 903.4
ROUNDED LIP Size and Capacity ----------------------------------- 903.5
----------------------------------------------------------- 826.3 Water Supply ---------------------------------------- 706.6
Water Supply ---------------------------------------- 903.5
RRR CRITERIA
Design Period ---------------------------------------- 103.2 SAG CULVERT
Left-Turn Lanes ------------------------------------- 405.2 Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
Multi lane Cross Section --------------------------- 307.6 ----------------------------------------------------------- 829.7
Pavement Design Life ------------------------------ 612.5
Two-lane Cross Section ---------------------------- 307.3 SCENIC
Highway ---------------------------------------------- 62.3
RUNNING Values -------------------------------------------------- 109
Speed -------------------------------------------------- 62.8 Values, Safety Roadside Rests -------------------- 903.4
Time --------------------------------------------------- 62.8
SCENIC VALUES IN PLANNING AND DESIGN
RUNOFF ------------------------------------------------------------ 109
------------------------------------------------------------ 816 Aesthetic Factors ------------------------------------ 109.3
Drainage, Definition -------------------------------- 806.2 Basic Precepts --------------------------------------- 109.1
Factors Affecting ------------------------------------ 811.5 Design Speed ---------------------------------------- 109.2
Superelevation Transition -------------------------- 202.5
SCHOOL PEDESTRIAN WALKWAYS
RURAL ----------------------------------------------------------- 105.1
Acceleration Lane at Intersection ----------------- 405.1
Access Control --------------------------------------- 504.8 SCOUR
Area, Definition ------------------------------------- 81.3 Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
Design Speed ---------------------------------------- 101.2 ----------------------------------------------------------- 827.2
Driveway Connection ------------------------------- 205.4
Interchange Spacing -------------------------------- 501.3 SEA LEVEL RISE
Median Standards ----------------------------------- 305.1 ----------------------------------------------------------- 883.2
Outer Separation ------------------------------------- 310.2
Weaving Section ------------------------------------ 504.7 SEAL
Fog ---------------------------------------------------- 604.6
RURAL AND SINGLE INTERSTATE ROUTING Slurry -------------------------------------------------- 603.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 309.2
SEDIMENTATION
RUTTING Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.7 ----------------------------------------------------------- 823.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 862.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 865.2
S
SEPARATE ROADWAY
----------------------------------------------------------- 305.6
SAFETY
Planting ----------------------------------------------- 902.2 SERVICEABILITY
Planting and Irrigation ------------------------------ 902.1 Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.7
Railings on Walls ------------------------------------ 210.5
July 15, 2016
SETTLEMENT Corner ------------------------------------------------- 405.1

Decision ----------------------------------------------- 201.7
Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.7 Decision at Intersections ----------------------------- 405.1
Structure Approach ---------------------------------- 208.11 Exit Nose ---------------------------------------------- 504.2
SEVERANCE DAMAGES General ------------------------------------------------ 201.1
Headlight, at Grade Sags ---------------------------- 201.5
Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.6 Intersection -------------------------------------------- 405.1
SHALL Passing ------------------------------------------------- 201.2
Planting ------------------------------------------------ 902.2
Definition and Usage -------------------------------- 82.1 Ramp Intersections ----------------------------------- 504.3
SHEET FLOW Standards ---------------------------------------------- 201.1
Stopping ----------------------------------------------- 201.3
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 Stopping at Grade Crests ---------------------------- 201.4
SHOALING Stopping at Grade Sags ------------------------------ 201.5
Stopping on Horizontal Curves -------------------- 201.6
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 Stopping at Intersections ---------------------------- 405.1
SHORE PROTECTION SIGNAL CONTROL
----------------------------------------------------------- 880 ----------------------------------------------------------- 403.9
Armor -------------------------------------------------- 883.3
Design, Concepts ------------------------------------- 883.1 SIGNALIZED INTERSECTION
Design, High Water and Design Wave Height --- 883.2 Widening ---------------------------------------------- 405.9
Planning ----------------------------------------------- 882.1
Site Considerations ---------------------------------- 882.3 SIGNS
SHOULD Vertical Clearance ----------------------------------- 309.2
Definition and Usage -------------------------------- 82.1 SILT
SHOULDER Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
Cross Slope ------------------------------------------- 302.2 SILTATION
Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.1 ----------------------------------------------------------- 110.2
Pavement, Flexible ----------------------------------- 636.2 SIPHONS
Pavement, Rigid -------------------------------------- 626.2 ----------------------------------------------------------- 829.7
Standards, Geometric -------------------------------- 302
Standards, Pavement --------------------------------- 613.5 SKEW
Superelevation Transitions -------------------------- 202.5 Angle -------------------------------------------------- 62.4
Transitions (Widen, Reduction) -------------------- 206 Angle of Intersection -------------------------------- 403.3
Width -------------------------------------------------- 302.1 Definition (Hydraulic) ------------------------------- 806.2
Width, Right Turn Channelization ----------------- 405.3
Width, Two-lane Roads, New Construction ------ 307.2 SLIDE
SIDE GUTTERS/DITCHES Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 834.3 SLIPOUT
SIDE SLOPES Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 304 SLOPE
Benches and Cut Widening ------------------------- 304.3 Aesthetic Factors ------------------------------------- 109.3
Clearance to Right of Way Line ------------------- 304.2 Cross --------------------------------------------------- 301.2
Contour Grading and Slope Rounding ------------ 304.4 Crown -------------------------------------------------- 301.2
Standards ---------------------------------------------- 304.1 Definition (Hydraulic) ------------------------------- 806.2
Stepped ------------------------------------------------ 304.5 Rounding ---------------------------------------------- 304.4
Structures ---------------------------------------------- 208.5 Protection --------------------------------------------- 873.3
Transition Slopes ------------------------------------- 304.1 Shoulder Cross Slopes ------------------------------- 302.2
Widening ---------------------------------------------- 304.3 Side ---------------------------------------------------- 304
SIDEWALKS Side, Benches and Cut Widening ------------------ 304.3
Standards, Side Slopes ------------------------------ 304.1
See PEDESTRIAN FACILITIES Stepped ------------------------------------------------- 304.5
SIGHT DISTANCE Treatment Under Structures ------------------------ 707
Clear Distance (m) ----------------------------------- 201.6
July 15, 2016
SLOPE TREATMENT UNDER STRUCTURES Design (See DESIGN SPEED)

High, Defintion -------------------------------------- 62.8
------------------------------------------------------------ 707 Low, Definition -------------------------------------- 62.8
Guidelines -------------------------------------------- 707.2 Operating --------------------------------------------- 62.8
Policy ------------------------------------------------- 707.1 Posted ------------------------------------------------- 62.8
Procedure --------------------------------------------- 707.3 Running - ---------------------------------------------- 62.8
SLOTTED DRAINS Speed Change Areas -------------------------------- 402.5
----------------------------------------------------------- 837.2 SPEED-CHANGE LANES
SLOUGH ----------------------------------------------------------- 62.1
Intersections ------------------------------------------ 403.5
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 Left-turn Channelization --------------------------- 405.2
SLUG FLOW Pavement Transitions -------------------------------- 206
Right-turn Channelization -------------------------- 405.3
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 Speed Change Areas -------------------------------- 402.5
SNOW PACK SPILLWAY
----------------------------------------------------------- 812.8 Paved -------------------------------------------------- 834.4
----------------------------------------------------------- 814.3
SPIRAL TRANSITIONS
SOFFIT
----------------------------------------------------------- 203.8
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
STABILIZATION TRENCHES
SOIL
----------------------------------------------------------- 841.5
Characteristics for Pavements --------------------- 614.1
Imported Topsoil, Definition ---------------------- 62.5 STAGE
Local Topsoil, Definition ---------------------------- 62.5 Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
Soil Horizon ”A” ------------------------------------ 62.5
Soil Horizon “O” ------------------------------------- 62.5 STAGE CONSTRUCTION
Topsoil ------------------------------------------------ 706.3 ----------------------------------------------------------- 106.1
Unified Soil Classification System --------------- 614.2 Freeway Connections with Local Roads --------- 106.2
SPACING STANDARDS
Drainage Pipes --------------------------------------- 824.2 ------------------------------------------------------------ 80
Vehicle ------------------------------------------------ 62.8 Advisory ---------------------------------------------- 82.1
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS Approval for Nonstandard Design ---------------- 82.2
FHWA and AASHTO ------------------------------ 82.3
------------------------------------------------------------ 110 Mandatory -------------------------------------------- 82.1
Air Pollution, Control of --------------------------- 110.3 Other Approval -------------------------------------- 82.1
Control of Noxious Weeds -------------------------- 110.5 Permissive -------------------------------------------- 82.1
Earthquake Consideration -------------------------- 110.6
Overloaded Material Hauling, Design for ------- 110.1 STATE HIGHWAY, CROSS SECTIONS
Safety Reviews -------------------------------------- 110.8 ------------------------------------------------------------ 307
Traffic Control Plans -------------------------------- 110.7 also see CROSS SECTIONS
Water Pollution, Control of ------------------------ 110.2
Wetlands Protection --------------------------------- 110.4 STEEL STRUCTURES
SPECIAL DESIGNS Colors ------------------------------------------------- 705.2
See RESEARCH/SPECIAL DESIGNS STEPPED SLOPES
SPECIAL STRUCTURES AND INSTALLATION ----------------------------------------------------------- 304.5
------------------------------------------------------------ 703 STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE
SPECIFIC ENERGY see SIGHT DISTANCE
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 STORAGE
----------------------------------------------------------- 864.3 ----------------------------------------------------------- 838.4
SPEED Basin, Definition ------------------------------------ 806.2
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.8 Depression -------------------------------------------- 819.2
Comfortable (see MAXIMUM COMFORTABLE Detention --------------------------------------------- 812.6
SPEED) Interception ------------------------------------------- 812.6
July 15, 2016
Left-turns ---------------------------------------------- 405.2 SUBDRAIN

Retention, Definition -------------------------------- 806.2 Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
Right-turns -------------------------------------------- 405.3 ----------------------------------------------------------- 841.5
STORM SUBGRADE
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 ----------------------------------------------------------- 614
Design, Establishing --------------------------------- 818.2 Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.7
Design, Recommended Criteria -------------------- 821.2 Description -------------------------------------------- 602.1
Drain, Definition ------------------------------------- 806.2 Engineering Considerations ------------------------ 614.1
STP Enhancement Fabrics -------------------------------- 614.5
see SURFACE TRANSPORTATION PROGRAM SUBSEAL
STREAM WATERS ----------------------------------------------------------- 607.6
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE
STREETS ----------------------------------------------------------- 840
Definitions -------------------------------------------- 62.3 SUBURBAN
STREET FURNITURE ----------------------------------------------------------- 81.3
Definitions -------------------------------------------- 62.5 SUMP
STRUCTURAL PLATE Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 831.3
Arches ------------------------------------------------- 852.6
Vehicular Underpasses ------------------------------ 852.6 SUPERCRITICAL FLOW
STRUCTURAL SECTION Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 864.3
see PAVEMENT STRUCTURE
SUPERELEVATION
STRUCTURE APPROACH
Axis of Rotation -------------------------------------- 202.4
Design Responsibilities ----------------------------- 601.3 Basic Criteria ----------------------------------------- 202.1
Foundation: Embankment Design ------------------ 208.11 Bridge --------------------------------------------------- 203.9
Pavement Systems ----------------------------------- 672 Channels ----------------------------------------------- 866.2
Slab-New Construction Projects ------------------- 208.11 City Streets and County Roads --------------------- 202.7
Slab-Rehabilitation Projects ------------------------ 673 Comfortable Speeds --------------------------------- 202.2
STRUCTURE CLEARANCE Compound Curves ----------------------------------- 202.6
Ramps ------------------------------------------------- 504.3
----------------------------------------------------------- 309 Relationship to Speed on Curves ------------------ 203.2
Elevated Structures ----------------------------------- 309.4
Reversing Curves ------------------------------------ 203.6
Horizontal --------------------------------------------- 309.1
Runoff ------------------------------------------------- 202.5
Railroad ----------------------------------------------- 309.5
Standards ---------------------------------------------- 202.2
Tunnel ------------------------------------------------- 309.3
Transition --------------------------------------------- 202.5
Vertical ------------------------------------------------ 309.2
SURFACE
STRUCTURES, SLOPE TREATMENT UNDER
Course, Definition ----------------------------------- 62.7
See SLOPE TREATMENT
Course, Description ---------------------------------- 602.1
STRUTTING Runoff, Definition ----------------------------------- 806.2
Water, Definition ------------------------------------- 806.2
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
Water -------------------------------------------------- 831.1
SUBBASE SURFACE TRANSPORTATION PROGRAM
Definition ---------------------------------------------- 62.7
---------------------------------------------------------- 43.1
Description -------------------------------------------- 602.1
Engineering Criteria --------------------------------- 663 SWALE
Lime Treated ------------------------------------------ 662.2
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
Treated ------------------------------------------------- 662.2
SWEPT WIDTH
SUBCRITICAL FLOW
Definition -------------------------------------------- 62.4
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 404.1
----------------------------------------------------------- 864.3
July 15, 2016
T TRAILS
Multipurpose ---------------------------------------- 1003.5
TAPERED INLET TRANSIT
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) --------------------------- 62.10
----------------------------------------------------------- 826.4 Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.10
TEXTURING Design Vehicle -------------------------------------- 404.3
Factors Affecting Design --------------------------- 401.6
Rigid Pavement -------------------------------------- 622.7 Loading Facilities ----------------------------------- 108.2
THREE-CENTER CURVE Turning Templates ---------------------------------- 404.5
Intersections ------------------------------------------ 405.7 TRANSITIONS
THROUGHWAY General Standards, Pavement ---------------------- 206.1
Lane Additions -------------------------------------- 206.2
Definition ---------------------------------------------- 62.3 Lane Drops ------------------------------------------- 206.3
TIME OF CONCENTRATION Pavement ---------------------------------------------- 206
Spiral -------------------------------------------------- 203.8
Channel Flow ---------------------------------------- 816.6 Superelevation --------------------------------------- 202.5
Combined Flow -------------------------------------- 816.6 Temporary Freeway --------------------------------- 206.4
Culvert Flow ----------------------------------------- 816.6
Kinematic Wave Equation ------------------------- 816.6 TRANSPIRATION
Kirpich Equation ------------------------------------ 816.6 ----------------------------------------------------------- 812.8
Overland Equation ---------------------------------- 816.6 ----------------------------------------------------------- 819.2
Soil Conservation Service (SCS) Equation ------ 816.6
Upland Method -------------------------------------- 816.6 TRANSPORTATION MANAGEMENT AREA
TOLL ROAD, BRIDGE OR TUNNEL Definition --------------------------------------------- 81.3
Interchange Spacing -------------------------------- 501.3
----------------------------------------------------------- 62.3
TRASH RACK
TOPSOIL
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
Roadside Treatment --------------------------------- 706.3 ----------------------------------------------------------- 822.2
TRACKING WIDTH TRAVELED WAY
----------------------------------------------------------- 404.1 Design Considerations ------------------------------ 404.2
Design Considerations ------------------------------ 404.2 Standards ----------------------------------------------- 301
TRAFFIC TREATED BASE AND SUBBASE
Axle Load Spectra ----------------------------------- 613.4 ----------------------------------------------------------- 662.2
Considerations --------------------------------------- 401.3
Considerations in Pavement Engineering --------- 613 TREATED PERMEABLE BASE AND SUBBASE
Control Devices ------------------------------------- 62.8 ----------------------------------------------------------- 662.3
Control Devices ------------------------------------- 403.10
Control Plans, Special Problems ------------------ 110.7 TREES
Definitions -------------------------------------------- 62.8 Conventional Highways ---------------------------- 902.3
Engineering ------------------------------------------ 82.7 Freeways and Expressways ------------------------ 902.2
Index, TI ---------------------------------------------- 613.3
Interchanges ------------------------------------------- 500 TRUCK
Islands ------------------------------------------------- 405.4 Critical Lengths of Grade -------------------------- 204.5
Lane --------------------------------------------------- 62.1 Design Vehicle -------------------------------------- 404.3
Markings ---------------------------------------------- 62.8 Escape Ramps --------------------------------------- 702.1
Noise Abatement ------------------------------------ 1100 Turning Templates ---------------------------------- 404.5
Pedestrian Refuge ----------------------------------- 405.4 Turns -------------------------------------------------- 404.5
Ramp Intersection Flow ----------------------------- 406 Weighing Facilities --------------------------------- 703.1
Sign ---------------------------------------------------- 62.8
Signals ------------------------------------------------ 62.8 TRUMPET INTERCHANGE
Specific Loading Considerations ------------------ 613.5 ----------------------------------------------------------- 502.2
Volume Projections --------------------------------- 613.2
Volumes ---------------------------------------------- 102.1 TRUNK LINE
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
July 15, 2016
----------------------------------------------------------- 838.4 Selection of Type ------------------------------------ 842.7

Service Life ------------------------------------------- 842.6
TUNNEL
Classification ----------------------------------------- 110.12 UNDERFLOW
Clearances --------------------------------------------- 309.3 Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
Liner Plate --------------------------------------------- 852.6
Projects ------------------------------------------------ 110.12 UNDERPASS
Structural Repairs with Steel Tunnel Liner Railroad, Grade Line -------------------------------- 204.8
Plate ---------------------------------------------------- 853.7 Railroad ----------------------------------------------- 208.9
TURBULENCE UNDIVIDED HIGHWAYS
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 Axis of Rotation -------------------------------------- 202.4
Grade Line -------------------------------------------- 204.2
TURBULENT FLOW
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2 UNTREATED GRANULAR BASE
see BASE
TURNING LANES
Left-turn Channelization ---------------------------- 405.2 URBAN/URBANIZED
Right-turn Channelization -------------------------- 405.3 Access Control --------------------------------------- 504.8
Separate ---------------------------------------------- 62.1 Corner Radii ------------------------------------------ 405.8
Traffic ------------------------------------------------- 403.6 Definition --------------------------------------------- 81.3
Two-way Left-turn ----------------------------------- 405.2 Design Speed ----------------------------------------- 101.2
Drive way --------------------------------------------- 205.3
TURNING RADIUS Horizontal Clearance -------------------------------- 309.1
Minimum ---------------------------------------------- 62.4 Interchange Spacing --------------------------------- 501.3
Median Standards ------------------------------------ 305.1
TURNING TEMPLATES Outer Separation ------------------------------------- 310.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 404.3 Position of Curbs and Dikes ------------------------ 303.5
Truck and Transit ------------------------------------ 407 Weaving Section ------------------------------------- 504.7
TURNOUTS UTILITIES
----------------------------------------------------------- 204.5 at Walls ------------------------------------------------ 210.8
TURNS, PROHIBITED
Intersections ------------------------------------------ 403.8 V
TWO-LANE CROSS SECTIONS

New Construction ------------------------------------ 307.2 VACATION
RRR Projects ----------------------------------------- 307.3 Definition --------------------------------------------- 110.9
TWO-QUADRANT CLOVERLEAF VALUE ANALYSIS
INTERCHANGE ----------------------------------------------------------- 110.9
----------------------------------------------------------- 502.2
VEGETATIVE EROSION CONTROL
TWO-WAY LEFT-TURN LANES ----------------------------------------------------------- 62.5
----------------------------------------------------------- 405.2
VELOCITY HEAD
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
U ----------------------------------------------------------- 864.3
VERTICAL CLEARANCE
UNDERCUT see CLEARANCES
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
----------------------------------------------------------- 865.2 VERTICAL CURVES
----------------------------------------------------------- 204.4
UNDERDRAINS also see SIGHT DISTANCE
Design Criteria --------------------------------------- 842.4
Installations ------------------------------------------- 842.2 VISTA POINTS
Open Joint --------------------------------------------- 842.5 Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.5
Perforated Pipe --------------------------------------- 842.5 Aesthetic Factors ------------------------------------- 109.3
Pipe ---------------------------------------------------- 842.5 Design Standards ------------------------------------- 904
July 15, 2016
Features and Facilities ------------------------------ 904.3 Water, Abandonment ------------------------------- 110.2

General ------------------------------------------------ 904.1
Minimum Standards -------------------------------- 904.1 WETLANDS PROTECTION
Site Selection ---------------------------------------- 904.2 ----------------------------------------------------------- 110.4
Water Supply ---------------------------------------- 706.6
WHEELBASE
VOLUME Definition --------------------------------------------- 62.4
----------------------------------------------------------- 62.8
Design Hourly Volume ----------------------------- 103.1 WHEELCHAIR RAMPS
Design Volume -------------------------------------- 62.8 see CURB RAMPS
WIDENING
W Pavement ---------------------------------------------- 206.2
Ramps, for Trucks ----------------------------------- 504.3
Pavement Design Life ------------------------------ 612.3
WALKWAYS Pavement, Project Type ---------------------------- 603.2
see PEDESTRIAN FACILITIES Signalized Intersections ---------------------------- 405.9
Slope Benches and Cut Widening ----------------- 304.3
WALLS
Head --------------------------------------------------- 826.3 WIDTH
Driveway, Access Openings on Expressways --- 205.1
WALLS, RETAINING Driveway, Urban ------------------------------------ 205.3
see EARTH RETAINING SYSTEMS Lane --------------------------------------------------- 301.1
Lane, on Curves ------------------------------------- 504.3
WATER Left Turn Lanes -------------------------------------- 405.2
Course, Definition ----------------------------------- 806.2 Median ------------------------------------------------ 305.1
Pollution, Control of -------------------------------- 110.2 Opening for Falsework ----------------------------- 204.8
Quality Control Boards ----------------------------- 110.2 Pavement --------------------------------------------- 301.1
Shed --------------------------------------------------- 819.2 Right of Way ------------------------------------------ 306
Table, Definition ------------------------------------ 806.2 Shoulder ---------------------------------------------- 302.1
Way, Definition -------------------------------------- 806.2 Structures --------------------------------------------- 208.1
Wells, Abandonment -------------------------------- 110.2 Swept, Definition ------------------------------------ 62.4
Swept, Design Considerations --------------------- 404.2
WATER SUPPLY Tracking, Definition -------------------------------- 62.4
Roadside Rests --------------------------------------- 903.5 Tracking, Design Considerations ----------------- 404.2
Roadside Rests and Landscaping ----------------- 706.6
Vista Points ------------------------------------------ 706.6
Y
WAVE
Height ------------------------------------------------- 873.2
Run-up ------------------------------------------------ 873.2 YARDS
Maintenance ------------------------------------------ 107.2
WEAVING Plant Sites, Contractors ------------------------------ 112
----------------------------------------------------------- 62.8
Sections ----------------------------------------------- 62.4
Sections, Interchange ------------------------------- 504.7
WEED CONTROL
Noxious, Control of ---------------------------------- 110.5
WEEPHOLES
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
WEIGHING FACILITIES
Truck -------------------------------------------------- 703.1
WEIR
Definition --------------------------------------------- 806.2
WELLS
----------------------------------------------------------- 841.5

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HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL

continue to be delivered in Metric units. Only those

Common Conversion Factors to Metric

Light footcandle lux (lx)

Land Surveying Conversion Factors

CHAPTER 10 - DIVISION OF DESIGN

CHAPTER 20 - DESIGNATION OF HIGHWAY ROUTES

62.2 Highway Structures 60-2

CHAPTER 80 - APPLICATION OF DESIGN STANDARDS

CHAPTER 100 - BASIC DESIGN POLICIES

108.6 High-Occupancy Toll and Express Toll Lanes 100-19

113.3 Submittal and Review 100-42

CHAPTER 200 - GEOMETRIC DESIGN AND STRUCTURE STANDARDS

203.3 Alignment Consistency 200-21

208 Bridges, Grade Separation Structures, and Structure Approach Embankment

CHAPTER 300 – GEOMETRIC CROSS SECTION

303 Curbs, Dikes, and Side Gutters

308 Cross Sections for Roads Under Other Jurisdictions

CHAPTER 400 – INTERSECTIONS AT GRADE

403.5 Currently Not In Use 400-6

CHAPTER 500 – TRAFFIC INTERCHANGES

502 Interchange Types

CHAPTERS 600 – 670 – PAVEMENT ENGINEERING

605 Record Keeping

CHAPTER 610 – PAVEMENT ENGINEERING CONSIDERATIONS

614.5 Subgrade Enhancement Geotextile (SEG) 610-15

CHAPTER 620 – RIGID PAVEMENT

624.2 Capital Preventive Maintenance (CAPM) 620-21

CHAPTER 630 – FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

636.3 Intersections 630-20

CHAPTER 640 – COMPOSITE PAVEMENTS

CHAPTER 650 – PAVEMENT DRAINAGE

CHAPTER 660 – PAVEMENT FOUNDATIONS

CHAPTER 670 – TAPERS AND SHOULDER BACKING

671.2 Engineering Requirements and Considerations 670-1

CHAPTER 700 – MISCELLANEOUS STANDARDS

707 Slope Treatment Under Structures

CHAPTERS 800-890 – HIGHWAY DRAINAGE DESIGN

804.10 National Flood Insurance Program 800-10

CHAPTER 810 – HYDROLOGY

811.4 Flood Severity 810-2

815.6 Adequacy of Data 810-8

CHAPTER 820 – CROSS DRAINAGE

822 Debris Control

829.3 Piping 820-11

CHAPTER 830 – TRANSPORTATION FACILITY DRAINAGE

836 Curbs and Gutters

CHAPTER 840 – SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE

842.2 Single Installations 840-3

CHAPTER 850 – PHYSICAL STANDARDS

855.3 Corrosion 850-30

CHAPTER 860 – OPEN CHANNELS

863 Channel Section

CHAPTER 870 – BANK PROTECTION – EROSION CONTROL

871.3 Selected References 870-2

CHAPTER 880 – SHORE PROTECTION

CHAPTER 890 – STORM WATER MANAGEMENT

891.2 Philosophy 890-1

CHAPTER 900 – LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE

904.3 Design Features and Facilities 900-18

CHAPTER 1000 – BICYCLE TRANSPORTATION DESIGN

CHAPTER 1100 – HIGHWAY TRAFFIC NOISE ABATEMENT

1102.5 Alternative Noise Barrier Designs 1100-4

CHAPTER 10 – DIVISION OF DESIGN