DB6

Discuss the occasion and purpose for the writing of Ephesians. Who were the original
recipients of this letter? Who were the opponents (if any) of Paul in these areas? What
was the nature of the opponents’ doctrine, and how did Paul respond to it?

On the continent of Asia Minor, various communities were settled. In the ancient world, this
area that bordered the Aegean Sea was known as Ionia. “Of these Ionian settlements the most
illustrious was Ephesus.1 Paul arrived in this thriving city during the late summer of A.D. 52 and
stayed there for about three years – during which time he directed the evangelization of Ephesus
and of the surrounding province.2 Carson and Moo mention that Paul “spent quite a long time
among them,” citing Acts 19:8, 10 and 20:31 to support that.3 Paul did such an excellent job in
coordinating the growth of the church in this area that Luke states: “all the residents of Asia, both
Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord.4 (NRSV)

Authorship - Some modern scholars have questioned Pauline authorship for several reasons:
 Some point to the vocabulary used in Ephesians. Words are included that are rare in
Paul’s other writings (e.g., politeia used in Eph. 2:12 and translated “citizenship”).
 The sentences in the Greek of Ephesians are long and somewhat cumbersome, and they
lack the passionate quality so evident in a letter such as Galatians.
 Ephesians does not reflect an ardent expectation of the return of Christ, an element
obviously present in many of Paul’s other writings (e.g., Rom. 13:11–12; 1 Thess. 4:13–
18).5

Andrew Lincoln argues that Ephesians is a work of a later follower of Paul, thus denies the direct
Pauline authorship of the work.6 Luke Timothy Johnson makes the point that Ephesians could
have been written by either Paul or one of his disciples.7 But since the work claims to have been
written by Paul, most scholars – especially throughout church history – tend to attribute Pauline
authorship to the work.8 H. J. Cadbury argues this point when he states “Which is more likely—
that an imitator of Paul in the first century composed a writing ninety or ninety-five percent in
accordance with Paul’s style or that Paul himself wrote a letter diverging five or ten per cent [sic]
from his usual style?”9

The book of Ephesians mentions Paul being in prison (Eph. 3:1 and 4:1). This is usually
understood to refer to his imprisonment in Rome toward the end of his life, which would mean
1
F. F. Bruce, Paul: Apostle of the Free Spirit (Milton Keynes, UK: Paternoster, 1977), 287.
2
Bruce, Paul, 288.
3
D. A. Carson and Douglas J. Moo, An Introduction to the New Testament, Second Edition (Grand Rapids, MI:
Zondervan, 2005), 488.
4
Acts 19:10.
5
Thomas D. Lea and David Alan Black, The New Testament : Its Background and Message, 2nd ed. (Nashville,
Tenn.: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2003), 436.
6
Andrew T. Lincoln, vol. 42, Word Biblical Commentary : Ephesians, Word Biblical Commentary (Dallas: Word,
Incorporated, 2002), lx.
7
Luke Timothy Johnson, The Writings of the New Testament (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1986), 371–72.
8
Lea and Black, The New Testament, 436.
9
Lea and Black, The New Testament, 436.
that this work would have been written in the early 60s AD10 -- about a decade after he first
arrived in the city to help expand the church. Lea and Black tell us that minimal evidence exists
to support an Ephesian origin for Ephesians.11 In fact, they go on to write that “there is little
tangible evidence for the Ephesian origin of any of Paul’s letters.”12

Purpose – Scholars are unable to specify a specific purpose for writing this work.13 There is
debate as to whether it is a letter or a speech put to writing. Carson and Moo write that “there is
no unanimity in understanding the letter’s aim.”14 Andrew Lincoln claims it is a letter and writes
that “Ephesians is sometimes classed as a general letter.”15 But he does also mention that the
“bulk of it” is equivalent to a sermon.16

Recipients - As for the intended audience, Carson and Moo state that scholars “do not know for
sure for whom the letter was originally intended.”17 Lincoln does point out that the intended
readers are assumed to know of Paul (he cites as evidence Eph. 1:1; 3:1; 6:21, 22).18 He goes on
to point out that the readers know the Jewish Scriptures, accept their authority, are conversant
with the author’s method of interpreting Jewish Scriptures and are persuaded by the results of
that interpretation.19

Opponents – Within our reading, I did not detect that Paul had any specific opponents whereby
he used this letter to dispute. If I missed this in my reading, I ask someone to point out where it
was listed.

Discuss the occasion and purpose for the writing of Philippians. Where was Paul
imprisoned when he wrote this letter? Who were the opponents (if any) of Paul in these
areas? What was the nature of the opponents’ doctrine, and how did Paul respond to it?

Bruce writes that Philippi bore the name of Philip II of Macedonia (father of Alexander the
Great), who established it in 356 B.C. on the site of the earlier settlement of Krenides.20 Philip
seized this city because it was valuable mining territory.21 The apostle Luke describes it as “a

10
Carson and Moo, Introduction to the New Testament, 486-87. Also see Thomas D. Lea and David Alan Black,
The New Testament : Its Background and Message, 2nd ed. (Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2003),
435.
11
Lea and Black, The New Testament, 433.
12
Ibid., 434.
13
Carson and Moo, Introduction to the New Testament, 490-91. Also see Andrew T. Lincoln, Word Biblical
Commentary : Ephesians, Word Biblical Commentary, vol. 42 (Dallas: Word, Incorporated, 2002), lxxiv. See also
Lea and Black, The New Testament, 439.
14
Carson and Moo, Introduction to the New Testament, 490-91.
15
Lincoln, Ephesians, xl and xli.
16
Lincoln, Ephesians, xli.
17
Carson and Moo, Introduction to the New Testament, 490.
18
Lincoln, Ephesians, lxxvi.
19
Ibid.
20
F. F. Bruce, Paul: Apostle of the Free Spirit (Milton Keynes, UK: Paternoster, 1977), 219.
21
Lea and Black, The New Testament, 442.
city of the first district of Macedonia” and also he adds that it was a Roman colony.22 One aspect
of this city that was different from many other cities that Paul visited was that there does not
appear to have been a synagogue in Philippi, presumably “because there was no Jewish
community worth speaking of.”23

Authorship – Lea and Black write that “Philippians claims Pauline authorship and reflects the
apostle’s personality. Early acceptance of Pauline authorship by such leaders as Clement of
Rome and Ignatius provides additional support for this position.24 Carson and Moo agree by
writing that Philippians “claims to have been written by Paul, and no serious doubt is raised
against this claim. The style is Pauline, and while it is difficult to assign the letter to a specific
point in the life of Paul, the situation presupposed rings true.”25 Paul first visited the city on his
second missionary journey.26

Occasion - Paul wrote this letter while he was a prisoner (see Phil. 1:7, 13, and 17) but this letter
tells us nothing of the location of the prison. Carson and Moo point out that Paul was
imprisoned at Caesarea for two years (Acts 23:33; 24:27) as well as at Rome (Acts 28:16). They
conclude that there are three possibilities: the imprisonment at Caesarea, that at Rome, and an
incarceration on one of the other occasions, of which no record has survived. But, church
tradition states that Paul was imprisoned at Rome and in this letter there is a reference to “the
Praetorium” (Phil. 1:13), understood to refer to the praetorian guard centered at Rome.27 Some
scholars make the case also for Ephesus as the place of writing.28 Donald Guthrie writes that
there is solid evidence for Philippians being written either in Rome or Ephesus.29

Date - Philippians was also written in the 60s as was Ephesians, but Philippians was probably
written at a later time than Ephesians, because Paul’s attitude toward his release was more
optimistic in Philippians.30 While Ephesians could be dated near the middle of Paul’s captivity
in Rome, Philippians was probably written near or at the end of the two-year period.31 Carson
and Moo state: “If it was written during his time under guard in Rome, we must date it about 61–
62. If it came from Caesarea, then its date will be a little earlier, perhaps 59–60. If we could be
sure that Paul wrote it at Ephesus or at Corinth, it would be a few years earlier still.”32

Purpose – Carson and Moo list several reasons for writing this work. First is the matter of
Epaphroditus who had apparently gotten sick and almost died while coming to check on Paul,
The Philippians had heard of the illness, and Epaphroditus was upset about this (Phil. 2:26–27).
Paul tells them to honor people like this man (Phil. 2:29). He writes to make clear to the

22
Acts 16:12.
23
Bruce, Paul, 219. Also see Lea and Black, The New Testament, 442.
24
Lea and Black, The New Testament, 442.
25
Carson and Moo, Introduction to the New Testament, 499.
26
Lea and Black, The New Testament, 442. Also see Acts 16:12.
27
Carson and Moo, Introduction to the New Testament, 503.
28
Ibid., 506.
29
Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 4th ed. (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1990), 555.
30
Lea and Black, The New Testament, 435.
31
Ibid., 436.
32
D. A. Carson and Douglas J. Moo, An Introduction to the New Testament, Second Edition (Grand Rapids, MI:
Zondervan, 2005), 506-07.
Philippians that Epaphroditus had done his task well and that he had undergone great danger in
discharging it. Paul is sending him back with a warm commendation. Second, Paul was writing
to thank the church for a gift they had sent to him. (Phil. 4:14–18). Third, Paul gives the
Philippians news about his own circumstances in prison (Phil. 1:12-18). Fourth, he wrote to
commend Timothy to them and possibly to prepare the way for a visit he himself would make
(Phil. 2:19–24).33

Opponents – As in Ephesians, this letter was not written to combat opponents. Carson and Moo
write that in Phil. 1:28–30 there was a reference to opponents to Christians in Philippi, but they
conclude by saying: “Paul offers warnings against false teachers (3:2–4), people who are
“enemies of the cross of Christ” (3:18). But we go beyond the evidence when we make any one
of these concerns the driving theme that controls the rest of the letter.”34 But some scholars have
attempted to identify the opponents of Christians in Philippi. Carson and Moo cite a scholar
named Klijn who asserts that the opponents were Jews. Other scholars claim the opponents
could be Gnostics due to the libertarianism and perfectionism. Yet, other scholars claim the
opponents were Judaizers.35 Carson and Moo conclude that “references to Jewish practices make
it clear that either Jewish opponents or Judaizers were involved, who may well have held to
some opinions that were later taken up into the great gnostic systems.”36 But, Luke Timothy
Johnson argues that these comments in Philippians do not necessarily refer to any opponents. He
writes that Paul refers to these other people as a counterexample to show his intended audience
what they ought not do.37

33
Carson and Moo, Introduction to the New Testament, 507.
34
Carson and Moo, Introduction to the New Testament, 508.
35
Carson and Moo, Introduction to the New Testament, 511.
36
Ibid., 511.
37
Johnson, Writings of the New Testament, 346.