Estimating Evaporation
Rates to Prevent Plastic
Shrinkage Cracking
Q. The standard specifications I’m modifying for a
project require the contractor to take steps to prevent
plastic shrinkage cracking when the rate of evaporation
exceeds 0.2 lb/ft2/h (1 kg/m2/h). How is the contractor
supposed to measure this?
A. Plastic shrinkage cracks occur when the surface of
the concrete dries rapidly and shrinks before it can
gain sufficient tensile strength to resist cracking. When
ambient conditions and concrete temperatures combine
to produce conditions that create a high evaporation
rate, the chances of the surface drying prematurely and
shrinkage cracks forming increases. Although most
people associate high evaporation rates with hot, dry
weather, it’s important to note that placing hot concrete
on a cold, dry day can actually create a much worse
condition.
The nomograph shown in Fig. 1 is a commonly used
method to estimate evaporation rates. This nomograph
was first published by the National Ready Mixed Con-
crete Association in 19601 and is included in References 2
and 3 as well as several other publications related
to concrete construction. In this nomograph, the rate of
evaporation is estimated by following the four steps
listed on the left side of the chart. The arrows demon-
strate an example for a day where the ambient air
temperature is 80 °F (27 °C), the relative humidity is 50%,
the concrete temperature is 87 °F (31 °C), and the wind
velocity is 12 mph (19 km/h). The resulting rate of
evaporation is about 0.25 lb/ft2/h (1.2 kg/m2/h).
The following equation from a 1998 ACI Materials
Journal paper4 is also used to predict evaporation rates
E = (Tc2.5 – rTa2.5)(1 + 0.4V ) × 10–6 (in.-lb units)
E = 5([Tc – 18]2.5 – r[Ta + 18]2.5)(V + 4) × 10–6 (SI units)
where
E = evaporation rate, lb/ft2/h (kg/m2/h);
Tc = concrete temperature, °F (°C);
80 MArch 2007 / Concrete international
Ta = air temperature, °F (°C);
r = relative humidity in percent/100; and
V = wind velocity, mph (km/h).
Readily solved using commonly available calculators,
the equation provides results nearly identical to those
found using the nomograph—for the previous example,
this equation predicts an evaporation rate of 0.24 lb/ft2/h
(1.15 kg/m2/h).
An additional tool, a free online computer program,5
not only calculates evaporation rates for given conditions,
but can vary one parameter at a time to determine
conditions for an evaporation rate of 0.1 lb/ft2/h. For the
previous example, the program calculates an evaporation
rate of 0.24 lb/ft2/h.
It’s important to obtain the data used to calculate
evaporation rates properly. An average wind speed (not
the maximum gust speed) should be used, and it should
be measured at an elevation about 20 in. (0.5 m) above
the surface of the concrete. Reported wind speeds from
weather stations and airports are typically measured at
an elevation of 33 ft (10 m) above grade. Wind speed
increases with height above grade (the wind speed at
20 in. [0.5 m] above grade will only be about 2/3 of the
wind speed at 33 ft [10 m] above grade4). Because
reported wind speeds also will not include the effects
of local terrain and surrounding obstructions, these
reported wind speeds should not be used in the chart.
The relative humidity and air temperature should be
measured in the shade, upwind of the placement, and 4 to
6 ft (1.2 to 1.8 m) above the concrete surface. Hand-held,
electronic weather stations are now available and cost
less than $250. These devices make it much easier to
obtain site-specific air temperature, relative humidity,
and wind velocity data.
One important variable—concrete bleeding rate—is
not included in the nomograph but affects the probability
of plastic shrinkage cracking.3 If the concrete has a lower
bleeding rate, the evaporation rate needed to prematurely
dry the concrete surface will be reduced. High amounts
of fine material (such as cement, silica fume, or fly ash)
Fig. 1: Nomograph for estimating the rate of evaporation of water from a concrete surface. The arrows demonstrate an example for a
day where the ambient air temperature is 80 °F (27 °C), the relative humidity is 50%, the concrete temperature is 87 °F (31 °C), and
the wind velocity is 12 mph (19 km/h). The resulting rate of evaporation is about 0.25 lb/ft2/h (1.2 kg/m2/h) (Figure courtesy of Portland
Cement Association)2

Concrete international / march 2007 81

 Questions in this column were asked by users of ACI documents and have been answered
by ACI staff or by a member or members of ACI technical committees. The answers do
not represent the official position of an ACI committee. Only a published committee
document represents the formal consensus of the committee and the Institute.

We invite comment on any of the questions and answers published in this column. Write
to the Editor, Concrete International, 38800 Country Club Drive, Farmington Hills, MI
48331; contact us by fax at (248) 848-3701; or e-mail Rex.Donahey@concrete.org.

in the concrete decrease bleeding rate and increase References

susceptibility to plastic shrinkage cracking. Although
synthetic fibers also tend to reduce bleeding, they have
become popular for use in concrete flatwork for control
of plastic shrinkage cracking.6 Conditions that cause high
evaporation rates can make it difficult to judge the proper
time to start finishing high-fines concretes because the
dry surface suggests that finishing can begin before all
of the bleed water has come to the surface. When the
surface is finished before all of the bleed water has
evaporated, a plane of weakness can form near the
surface and decrease durability. When high-fines
concretes are exposed to conditions causing high
evaporation rates, initial curing procedures discussed
in ACI 308R-01, “Guide to Curing Concrete,”7 may be
necessary before the start of finishing operations.
Because the nomograph produces an estimate of the
evaporation rate, and the bleeding rate of various concrete
mixtures can vary significantly, it’s best to view evaporation
rates as an indicator of how quickly initial curing procedures
will have to be started, rather than as a hard limit for the
initiation of plastic shrinkage cracking.
1. Bloem, D., “Plastic Cracking of Concrete,” Engineering Information,
National Ready Mixed Concrete Association/National Sand and Gravel
Association, July 1960, 2 pp.
2. Kosmatka, S.H.; Kerkhoff, B.; and Panarese, W.C., Design and
Control of Concrete Mixtures, Engineering Bulletin 001, 14th Edition,
Portland Cement Association, Skokie, IL, 2002, p. 236.
3. ACI Committee 305, “Hot Weather Concreting (ACI 305R-99),”
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1999, 20 pp.
4. Uno, P.J., “Plastic Shrinkage Cracking and Evaporation Formulas,”
ACI Materials Journal, V. 95, No. 4, July-Aug. 1998, pp. 365-375.
5. Snell, L., and Munir, A., “Evaluating Concrete Curing
Conditions,” http://construction.asu.edu/cim/curing/
curingfirstpage.htm.
6. ACI Committee 544, “Report on Fiber Reinforced Concrete (ACI
544.1R-96),” American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1996,
66 pp.
7. ACI Committee 308, “Guide to Curing Concrete (ACI 308R-01),”
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 2001, 31 pp.
Thanks to Luke Snell at Arizona State University and Khishgee
Radnaabazar at Mongolian University of Science and Technology for
reviewing the answer to this question.

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