UNL Food Science and Technology Department

FDST425 – Food Toxicology

Introduction of a New Food Ingredient, Peanut Hull Fiber, into the U.S. Market –
A New Fiber Source
Leonardo M. Calixto

Executive Summary
Peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) is an important crop grown in the worldwide, originating
in South America, the peanut spreads beyond the Mediterranean, in countries such as
China, Africa, Indian, Japan and United States of America. The main uses for peanuts
grown in the world include oil production, peanut butter, confections, roasted peanuts
and snack products, extenders in meat product formulations, soups and desserts.
Substantial amounts of by-products are generated in the manufacture of such peanut
products. Peanut meals, skins, hulls, and vines are considered by-products and may
be used as animal feed, and treated as a fertilizer, however a large portion is regarded
as agriculture wastes. An estimated total of over 10 million metric tons of peanut hulls
are generated annually worldwide as a by-product of the peanut industry. Peanut hulls
are a rich source of dietary fiber and other biological activity components. Dietary
fibers have high nutritional value, functional properties and low cost, besides,
consuming dietary fibers is associated with multiple health implications, such as
reducing the risk of colon cancer for laxation, blood cholesterol and the overall
glycemic response for glucose attenuation.
This study provides a summary of information regarding the two major toxicological
concerns involving the use of peanut hull as a new dietary fiber source:
1. Aflatoxin, and
2. Allergens.
Aflatoxins
Aflatoxins B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1) and G2 (AFG2) are toxic metabolites
produced by food spoilage fungi Aspergillus, particularly, A. flavus and A. parasiticus.
Aflatoxin B1 is listed as a carcinogen of group I by the International Agency for
Research on Cancer. Aflatoxins have been found as contaminants in agricultural and
food products, being peanut ant their derivative products the main commodities to
have high aflatoxin contamination. The two major factors affecting aflatoxin
contamination of peanuts are drought stress and temperature, and these two factors
are interrelated, meaning that neither alone will lead to increased concentrations of
aflatoxin.
Aflatoxins, especially AFB1, will have direct effect in the quality of peanuts and their
products used for animal and human food consumption. After the ingestion, these
mycotoxins are absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract, and are bio-transformed in the
liver by microsomal enzymes of cytochrome P 450 system, creating the active form of
AFB1 (AFB1 epoxide), which is able to affect the metabolism of nucleic acids, such as
DNA and RNA, and protein synthesis. Covalent binding of aflatoxin results in a
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FDST425 – Food Toxicology

decrease in both DNA and RNA synthesis rates in the liver. The inhibition of protein
synthesis is not as rapid or extensive as that of nucleic acids. Polysomal
disaggregation parallels this inhibition and is likely to represent the mode of inhibition
of protein synthesis.
Aflatoxins are considered unavoidable contaminants of food and feed, even where
good manufacturing practices have been followed. Unfortunately, although aflatoxin
infection is no longer a problem in peanuts produced and used in North America, it is
still a major problem in peanuts produced in many tropical countries. As a rule
therefore, peanuts originating from tropical countries are rather held suspect in North
America, until they are shown to be free of aflatoxin. The FDA and the USDA monitor
peanuts for aflatoxin and can remove any food or feed with unacceptable levels of it
(>25 ppb aflatoxin), produced either inside or outside the United States.
The FDA offers no objection to the shipment of peanuts over the 25 ppb level for
aflatoxin to processors if facilities are available to remove moldy or otherwise defective
nuts from the lot before incorporation into the finished product. Lots of raw peanuts
which have been shipped to processors containing aflatoxin above 25 ppb level may
be subject to appropriate action in cases where there is a lack of assurance that the
finished product will comply with the current action level.
Food Safety Management Programs for aflatoxin include the establishment of
regulatory limits and monitoring programs, the control of aflatoxin through good
agricultural practices and proper storage and handling, reduction of aflatoxin levels in
contaminated commodities through processing and decontamination procedures, and
adequate education programs for agricultural producers, food and feed processors
and consumers.
Allergens
Peanut is among the eight most common allergen foods in the world. It is the third
most common allergy in young children and the most common food allergy in older
children, adolescents and adults. In addition to its substantial prevalence, it is the food
allergen most capable of causing severe, life-threatening and even fatal allergic
reactions. Trace amounts of peanut can cause an allergic reaction. Casual contact
with peanuts is less likely to trigger a severe reaction. Casual contact becomes a
concern if the area that is exposed to peanuts then encounters the eyes, nose or
mouth. Peanut allergies tend to be lifelong, although studies indicate that
approximately 20 percent of children with peanut allergy do eventually outgrow their
allergy. Furthermore, allergy to peanuts appears to be increasing among children. A
study funded by FARE (Food Allergy Research and Education) demonstrated that the
number of children in the U.S. with peanut allergy more than tripled between 1997 and
2008.
Food allergens are usually food proteins capable of eliciting allergic symptoms in
predisposed individuals, including severe, even life-threatening allergic reactions. In
peanuts, the allergen proteins found are Ara h1, Ara h2 and Ara h3. Allergens are
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FDST425 – Food Toxicology

specific antigens having the capacity to elicit IgE mediated reactions, the IgE, or
immunoglobulin E, is one of the five immunoglobulins produced by the immune system
that causes the body to react against foreign substances such as food allergens. The
allergenic proteins have certain site(s), which can recognize the specific antibody to
provoke immune response called epitope. The epitopes are either linear or
conformational. Knowledge about IgE epitopes is also useful for better understanding
of the pathogenesis and tolerance induction of food allergy reactions.
At present, there is no cure for food allergies and food allergic consumers must avoid
foods containing the allergen to which they are allergic. For that reason, according to
the Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer Protection Act of 2004 (FALCPA), food
products that are or contain ingredients bearing or containing a major food allergen
must be labeled with the word “Contains” followed by the name of the food source
from which the major food allergen is derived. Alternatively, with the common or usual
name of the major food allergen in the list of ingredients followed in parentheses by
the name of the food source from which the major food allergen is derived.
Recommendations
Aflatoxins, especially AFB1, directly affect the quality of peanuts and their derivatives
used for animal and human food consumption. The potential for aflatoxin
contamination in peanuts is exhaustively documented; this potential may be extended
to peanut hulls. In the case of peanuts for human consumption, to provide consumer
protection peanuts are analyzed for aflatoxin thus reducing the aflatoxin contamination
potential. Similarly, the introduction of peanut hull fibers into the manufacture of food
products will create the need for analysis of the mycotoxin in peanut hulls. Also,
creating the need for the introduction of Food Safety Management Programs specific
to aflatoxins, to ensure that peanut hulls do not contain aflatoxin, or, in case of
presence, that the levels are within the acceptable limits.
Peanut allergy is a major clinical concern. However, this is not necessarily a problem
to the introduction of peanut hull fiber into food products. Since peanut is among the
major food allergens, it is required special labeling of products containing peanut hull
fiber, an ingredient derived from peanuts, following the guidelines present in the
FALCPA. However, even with proper labeling, it is necessary to evaluate the products
in which the new source of fiber is going to be used because if it is not a food product
already containing peanuts, it might limit the number of consumers willing to purchase
such products.
Based on the information gathered in this report, from a toxicological standpoint, as
long as the company complies with labeling regulations and implement necessary
Food Safety Management Programs for aflatoxins, the introduction of peanut hull fiber
as a new food ingredient is viable.
 UNL Food Science and Technology Department
FDST425 – Food Toxicology

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