ROAD DESIGN MANUAL

2 CHAPTER 2 – DESIGN STANDARDS

2-1 INTRODUCTION
2-2 HIGHWAY SYSTEMS
2-2.01 Jurisdictional System
2-2.02 State Aid System
2-2.03 Federal Aid System
2-2.03.01 National Highway System
2-2.03.02 Surface Transportation Program
2-2.03.03 Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation Program
2-2.03.04 Other Funding Programs of ISTEA
2-3 DESIGN CONTROLS
2-3.01 Driver
2-3.02 Vehicle
2-3.03 Pedestrian and Bicyclist
2-3.04 Mass Transit
2-3.05 Safety
2-3.06 Access Control
2-3.06.01 Full
2-3.06.02 Partial
2-3.06.03 Statute, Zoning and Regulations
2-4 PROJECT SCOPE DETERMINATION
2-4.01 Project Scoping
2-4.01.01 Design Level Goal
2-4.02 Cost Effectiveness
2-4.02.01 User Benefit and Cost Analysis
2-4.02.02 Safety Benefits Based on Accident Experience
2-4.02.03 Safety Benefits Based on Accident Potential (Run off Road Accidents)
2-4.03 Value Engineering
2-5 DESIGN PARAMETERS
2-5.01 Major Section Determination
2-5.01.01 Identification
2-5.01.02 Evaluation
2-5.02 Investment Categories
2-5.02.01 New Construction/Reconstruction
2-5.02.02 Preservation
2-5.03 Functional Classification
 ROAD DESIGN MANUAL

2-5.03.01 Freeways
2-5.03.02 Arterials
2-5.03.03 Collectors
2-5.03.04 Local Roads
2-5.04 Type of Highway
2-5.04.01 Two-Lane Highways
2-5.04.02 Multi-Lane Highways
2-5.04.02.01 Freeway (includes Interstate)
2-5.04.02.02 High Speed (Expressway)
2-5.04.02.03 Low Speed
2-5.04.03 Scenic Byways
2-5.05 Market Artery
2-5.06 Traffic Characteristics
2-5.06.01 Volume
2-5.06.02 Directional Distribution
2-5.06.03 Composition
2-5.06.04 Flow
2-5.07 Speed
2-5.07.01 Design Speed
2-5.07.02 Average Running Speed
2-5.08 Capacity
2-5.08.01 Highway Mainline
2-5.08.02 Signalized Intersections
2-5.08.03 Unsignalized Intersections
2-5.08.04 Level of Service
2-5.09 Sight Distance
2-5.09.01 Stopping Sight Distance
2-5.09.02 Passing Sight Distance
2-5.09.03 Non-Striping Sight Distance
2-5.09.04 Decision
2-5.10 Terrain
2-5.11 Accident Data
2-6 DESIGN STANDARDS
2-6.01 Critical Design Elements
 ROAD DESIGN MANUAL

2-6.01.01 Geometric Design Exceptions

2-6.02 General Design Elements
2-7 DESIGN STANDARDS TABLES
2-7.01 Design Standards Tables for 2-Lane and Multi-Lane Highways
2-8 DESIGN PROCEDURES
2-8.01 Design Report
2-8.02 Coordination with Functional Groups
2-8.03 Intermodal Coordination
2-8.04 Agency Coordination
NOVEMBER, 2003 ROAD DESIGN MANUAL (METRIC) 2-5(7)

2-5.07 SPEED
The speed at which highway users are able to travel is one of the most important measures of a
facility's serviceability. The measures of speed for design and operating characteristics are defined below.

1. Design Speed
Design speed is the selected speed used to determine the various geometric design features of
the roadway.
2. Average Highway Speed
Average highway speed is the weighted average of the design speeds within a highway
section based on each subsection's proportional contribution to total mileage.
3. Running Speed
Running speed is the speed over a specified section of highway equal to the distance divided
by the running time, or the total time required to travel over the highway section.
4. Operating Speed
Operating speed is the speed at which drivers are operating their vehicles during free-flow
conditions under typically good weather and surface conditions. The 85th percentile of the
distribution of observed speeds is the most frequently used measure of the operating speed
associated with a particular location or geometric feature.
5. Average Running Speed
Average running speed is the sum of the distances traveled by vehicles on a highway section
during a specified time period, divided by the sum of their running times.
6. Legal Speed
The legal speed is the value prescribed by Minnesota Statute 169.14 or the posted limit as set
by Commissioner’s authorization. All Commissioner’s authorizations are on file in the
Traffic Engineering Office. See the Mn/DOT Traffic Engineering Manual for accepted
procedures to perform an engineering and traffic investigation for determining a speed limit.
Legal speed is approximately the 85th percentile speed, often determined by observation of a
sizable sample of vehicles’ average running speeds.
7. Posted Speed
The posted speed is the numeric value displayed on an approved Manual on Uniform Traffic
Control Devices (MUTCD) regulatory sign indicating the legal speed as set by the
Commissioner or categorical compliance to statutory provisions.

The Traffic Engineering Manual describes the accepted means to collect field data to determine
the desired speed information.

2-5.07.01 DESIGN SPEED

The design speed, perhaps more so than any other design control on a highway, will have a major
impact on all facets of geometric design and other design elements. The project segment’s appropriate design speed
depends on the functional classification and use, average daily traffic (ADT), anticipated and desirable operating
speed, terrain, and adjacent land use of the highway. Advantages of a higher vehicle operating speed attained by the
use of a higher design speed must be evaluated against the design flexibility that is lost. The most appropriate
design speed may be a lower value that recognizes the importance of attaining maximum design flexibility and a
context sensitive roadway that fits community needs and environmental constraints. Design speed values above the
minimums are usually most appropriate and desirable, but the designer should not be averse to adopting lower
values where significant constraints or opportunities exist. The designer must carefully document all of the
considerations and analyses important to the determination of the most appropriate design speed and weigh the
benefits of a desired degree of safety, access, mobility, design consistency, and efficiency against the community
environmental, right of way, and cost impacts. Design speeds usually fall between 50 and 120 km/h (30 and
75 mph), at 10 km/h (5 mph) increments. High-speed facilities have design speeds that are 70 km/h (45 mph) or
greater, and low-speed facilities have design speeds that are less than 70 km/h (45 mph).

The element of driver expectation must be considered when selecting the design speed. Drivers
expect to be able to drive at certain maximum speeds based on the functional classification and rural or urban
character of the highway. The design speed should fit the travel desires and habits of the majority of drivers. Table
2-5.07A provides the allowable ranges of design speeds for varying conditions. For design work it is typically
desirable to choose a design speed that equals or exceeds the anticipated posted speed, and complements the
highway type, setting, functional classification, traffic volume, and terrain.
2-5(7a) ROAD DESIGN MANUAL (METRIC) MAY, 2004

Terrain is typically classified as level, rolling, or mountainous for the purposes of highway design.
Level terrain generally permits the construction of a highway grade that fits the existing topography with minimal
vertical departure. Rolling terrain is characterized by highway grades requiring substantial soil excavation and fill
operations to satisfy design criteria. Mountainous terrain describes dramatic landforms with abrupt vertical relief,
usually predominated by exposed bedrock, posing significant challenges to highway construction and often
necessitating benching, terraced rock cuts and steep grades.
Table 2-5.07A (Metric)
DESIGN SPEED
Conditions Design Speed, km/h
ADT
Type of Highway Setting Functional Class Terrain <1500 1500-2999 >=3000
2-Lane Highways Rural Principal Arterial Flat 100-120
Rolling 90-110
Mountainous 60-100 80-100
Minor Arterial Flat 100-120
Rolling 80-110
Mountainous 60-100 80-100
Collector Flat 60-100
Rolling 60-100
Mountainous 50-100 60-100
Arterial 50-60
Urban Low Speed All
Collector 50-60
Arterial 70-100
Urban High Speed All
Collector 70-100
Freeway Rural Arterial Flat 110-120
Rolling 110
Mountainous 80-110
Urban Arterial All 80-110
Multi-Lane Rural Arterial Flat 100-120
High Speed Rolling 100-110
Mountainous 70-100
Urban Arterial All 70-110
Multi-Lane Arterial All 50-60
Urban
Low Speed Collector All 50-60

Table 2-5.07A (English)

DESIGN SPEED
Conditions Design Speed, mph
ADT
Type of Highway Setting Functional Class Terrain <1500 1500-2999 >=3000
2-Lane Highways Rural Principal Arterial Flat 60-75
Rolling 55-70
Mountainous 40-60 50-60
Minor Arterial Flat 60-75
Rolling 50-70
Mountainous 40-60 50-60
Collector Flat 40-60
Rolling 40-60
Mountainous 30-60 40-60
Arterial 30-40
Urban Low Speed All
Collector 30-40
Arterial 45-60
Urban High Speed All
Collector 45-60
Freeway Rural Arterial Flat 70-75
Rolling 70
Mountainous 50-70
Urban Arterial All 50-70
Multi-Lane Rural Arterial Flat 60-75
High Speed Rolling 60-70
Mountainous 45-60
Urban Arterial All 45-70
Multi-Lane Arterial All 30-40
Urban
Low Speed Collector All 30-40
NOVEMBER, 2003 ROAD DESIGN MANUAL (METRIC) 2-5(8)

2-5.07.02 AVERAGE RUNNING SPEED

The average running speed offers a meaningful measure of highway service and allows a means of
evaluating highway user costs and benefits. The relationship between design speed and average running speed
varies. At low volumes and low design speeds, average running speed may be very close to the design speed. As
volumes and design speeds increase the differences between the design speed and the average running speed
increases.

On urban streets, the average running speed is more important than the design speed. Urban
streets should be designed and control devices regulated to permit running speeds of 30 to 70 km/h (20 to 45 mph).
The lower range is appropriate for local and collector streets and arterials in the central business district (CBD),
residential areas, and parks while the higher range should be achieved on arterials away from the CBD. A general
approximation is that average running speeds of 30 to 100 km/h (20 to 60 mph) require design speeds of 50 to 120
km/h (30 to 75 mph). If the average running speed will be used for design, a speed study should be conducted.

2.-5.08 CAPACITY

Highways and intersections need to accommodate the design hourly volume (DHV). The detailed
calculation factors and methodology used to determine the DHV are in the Highway Capacity Manual (HCM). The
design service volume is the maximum volume of traffic that a highway would be able to serve without congestion
becoming greater than a predetermined value. It needs to be calculated for each segment. Although capacity
assumes a level of service E, a highway is usually designed to exceed level of service E.

Design normally conducts an initial capacity analysis to determine if a proposed design will
roughly accommodate the DHV. The District Traffic Offices conduct the detailed capacity analyses of signalized
intersections to finalize the design details of the project.

2-5.08.01 HIGHWAY MAINLINE

Many of the factors that affect the capacity of a highway segment are listed below.

1. Traffic composition
As the percentage of trucks and/or buses increases, the capacity decreases. Standard
procedure converts the heavy vehicle volumes to passenger car equivalents.
2. Lane and shoulder width
Capacity has a tendency to decrease as lane and shoulder width decrease. Corresponding
factors are used to incorporate the influence of narrower pavement widths.
3. Lateral clearance
If roadside interferences are within a certain distance of the edge of the travel lane, capacity
decreases. This "shy distance" varies with design speed and one-way or two-way operation.
4. Auxiliary lanes
The presence or absence of auxiliary lanes, such as parking or turn storage lanes, affects
capacity. Because universal factors cannot be used to calculate their impact on capacity,
individual analyses are necessary.
5. Alignment
Horizontal and vertical alignment significantly affect capacity. For traffic operations on
relatively long sections of highway, the frequency and sharpness of curves and grades affect
the "average highway speed" (a weighted average design speed), stopping sight distances,
and passing opportunities. Based on these three characteristics, adjustment factors can be
applied to calculate their impact on capacity. At specific sites, grades can have significant
and measurable impacts on highway capacity. Trucks lose speed when ascending grades.
Section 3-4.0 provides details on the impact of grades on truck speeds and discusses warrants
for climbing lanes.
6. At-grade intersections
Intersections, including driveways, have a major impact on the capacity of a highway.
Intersection capacity analysis must be treated separately because its influence on service
volumes can be so great that it governs the capacity of an entire segment.
2-5(9) ROAD DESIGN MANUAL (METRIC)
(See Page 2-5(8) dated November, 2003.)
7. Freeway interchanges - Weaving sections and exit and en-
trance ramp junctions at interchanges are usually the most
important adjustments to freeway capacity. Operating
conditions within weaving sections are affected by traffic
volumes and the length and width of the section. Chapter
Six "Interchanges" discusses the required design details to
properly allow for weaving maneuvers. The ramp exiting
and entering points introduce capacity-reducing elements
onto the freeway. These have the effect of reducing the
maximum volume that can be carried in the outside lane
through the interchange. The traffic carrying potential of
the ramp itself must also be addressed. Chapter Six also
discusses the design details for ramps.
The Highway Capacity Manual should be referenced when
calculating the capacity or design service volume of the high-
way mainline and freeways.
2-5.08.02 Signalized Intersections
Chapter 9, "Signalized Intersections" in the Highway Ca-
pacity Manual (HCM) should be used to calculate the capacity
of a signalized intersection. The operational analysis method
addresses the capacity and level of service of intersecting ap-
proaches and the level of service of the intersection as a
whole. Capacity is evaluated in terms of the ratio of demand
flow rate to capacity (v/c ratio), while level of service is
evaluated on the basis of average stopped delay per vehicle
(s/veh). The capacity of an intersection as a whole is not ad-
dressed because the design and signalization of intersections
focus on the accommodation of major movements and ap-
proaches comprising the intersection. The methodology can
be used for pre-timed signals, vehicle-actuated signals, or
multiphase signals.
Operational analysis requires that detailed information be
provided concerning geometric, traffic, and signalization
condition at the intersection. These may be known for exist-
ing cases or projected for future situations. Because this
analysis is complex, it is divided into five separate modules.
They are Input, Volume Adjustment, Saturation Flow Rate,
Capacity Analysis and Level of Service. Figure 2-5.08A il-
lustrates the basic procedure. Further detailed information
can be found in the HCM.
The basic unit of capacity for signalized intersections is
1900 passenger cars per hour of green (pchg) per lane under
ideal conditions (3.6 m lanes and no trucks, buses, turns, or
pedestrian movements). This figure reflects the time lost due
to queue start up and signal change intervals.
DECEMBER 31, 1996
2-5.08.03 Unsignalized Intersections
Chapter 10, "Unsignalized Intersections" in the Highway
Capacity Manual should be used for capacity calculations.
The methodology is applicable to intersections controlled by
two-way stop signs or by yield signs; it is not applicable to
uncontrolled intersections or those controlled by 4-way stop
signs. The analysis calculates the available capacity of the
minor road primarily based upon the traffic operating charac-
teristics of the major road. The assumption is made that ma-
jor street traffic is not affected by minor street movements.
Unsignalized intersections make up the majority of at
grade junctions. Stop and Yield signs are used to assign the
right of way to one street of the junction. This designation
forces the drivers of the controlled intersection to select gaps
in the major street to complete their maneuvers. The
capacity of the controlled maneuver is based on two factors:
1. The distribution of gaps in the major street traffic stream,
and
2. Driver judgment in selecting gaps through which to ex-
ecute their maneuvers.
This methodology adjusts for conflicting movements of mi-
nor street flows on each other and accounts for shared use of
lanes by two or three minor street movements. Basic proce-
dures and detailed analyses are further explained in the
Highway Capacity Manual.
2-5.08.04 Level of Service
The average highway user will tolerate a certain level of
congestion and delay before becoming frustrated or annoyed
or attempting unsafe driving maneuvers. This level will vary
according to the type of facility. For instance, a user expects
a relatively free-flow condition on a rural freeway but will ac-
cept a certain number of stops and delays and heavier traffic
volumes on a signalized urban arterial.
To address the issue of acceptable degrees of congestion,
the level of service concept has been developed. The various
levels have been subjectively determined and qualitatively de-
scribed. From these descriptions, quantitative measures of
volume to capacity ratio (v/c), operating speeds, and intersec-
tion load factors have been developed. Table 2-5.08A pro-
vides the information for levels of service from A to F. The
Highway Capacity Manual presents different definitions of
levels of service for freeways in Chapter 3, Basic Freeway
Segments.
The application of level of service involves selecting the
appropriate level for the design year. The highway designer
should strive to provide the highest level feasible. This
DECEMBER 31, 1996 ROAD DESIGN MANUAL (METRIC) 2-5(10)

1. INPUT ANALYSIS

Geometric Conditions
Traffic Conditions
Signalization Conditions

2. VOLUME ADJUSTMENT MODULE 3. SATURATION FLOW RATE MODULE

Peak Hour Factor Ideal saturation flow rate

Establish lane groups Adjustments
Assign Volumes to lane groups

4. CAPACITY ANALYSIS MODULE

Compute lane group capacities

Compute lane group v/c ratios
Aggregate results

5. LEVEL OF SERVICE MODULE

Compute lane group delays

Aggregate delays
Determine levels of service

Operational Analysis for Signalized Intersections

Figure 2-5.08A
2-5(11)
Level
Controlled Access
of
Highways
Service
A Free flow. Average traveling speeds
at or greater than 112 km/h. Service
flow rate of 700 passenger cars per
hour per lane. Each additional lane
serves volume of 1000 vph lane.
B Higher speed range of stable flow.
Operating speed at or greater than
112 km/h. Service volume on
2-lane in one direction not greater
than 1120 passenger vehicles per
hour, per lane, or 51% capacity.
Each additional lane above two in
one direction can serve 1500 vph.
C Operation stable, but becoming
more critical. Average traveling
speed of 110 km/h and service flow
rate at 75% capacity or not greater
than 1640 passenger vehicles per
hour, per lane.
D Lower speed range of stable flow.
Operation approaches instability and
is susceptible to changing
conditions. Average travel speeds
are approximately 101 km/h and
service flow rates at 92% of
capacity. Flow rate cannot exceed
2015 passenger cars per hour, per
lane.
E Unstable flow. Average travel
speeds of 96 km/h. Volumes at
capacity or about 2100 passenger
cars per hour, per lane under ideal
conditions. Traffic stream cannot
dissipate even minor disruptions.
Any incident may produce serious
disruptions.
F Forced flow. Freeway acts as a
storage for vehicles backed-up from
downstream bottleneck. Average
travel speeds range from near 50
km/h to stop-and-go operation.
ROAD DESIGN MANUAL (METRIC)
Table 2-5.08A
Level of Service By Highway Type
Two-Lane
Highways
Average traveling speeds of 93
km/h or higher. More passing
maneuvers can be made with
little or no delay. Under ideal
conditions, a service flow rate of
420 passenger vehicles per
hour, two-way, can be
achieved, About 15% capacity.
Average travel speeds of 88
km/h or higher. Flow rates may
reach 27% of capacity with
continuous passing sight
distance. Volumes of 750
passenger vehicles per hour,
two-way, can be carried under
ideal conditions.
Flow still stable. Average travel
speeds of 84 km/h or above with
total flow rate under ideal
conditions equal to 43% of
capacity with continuous passing
sight distance, or 1200
passenger cars per hour,
two-way.
Approaching unstable flow.
Average travel speeds approx.
80 km/h. Flow rates, two
directional, at 64% of capacity
with continuous passing
opportunities; or 1800
passenger vehicles per hour,
two-way under ideal conditions.
Average travel speeds in the
neighborhood of 72 km/h. Flow
rates under ideal conditions,
two-way, equal to 2800
passenger vehicles per hour.
Level E may never be attained.
Operation may go directly from
level D to level F.
Forced, congested flow with
unpredictable characteristics.
Average travel speeds less than
72 km/h. Volumes under 2000
passenger cars per hour, two-
way.
Multi – Lane Arterial
w/o Access Control
Average traveling speed of 96 km/h
or greater. Under ideal conditions,
volume is limited to 700 passenger
cars per lane per hour or 33% of
capacity.
Reasonable free flow. Volume at
which actions of preceding vehicles
will have some influence on
following vehicles. Flow rates will
not exceed 55% of capacity or 1200
passenger vehicles per lane, per hour
at 96 km/h average travel speed
under ideal conditions.
Stable flow to a volume not
exceeding 75% of capacity or 1650
passenger vehicles, per lane, per
hour, under ideal conditions,
maintaining at least 95 km/h
average travel speed.
Approaching unstable flow at flow
rates up to 89% of capacity or 1940
passenger vehicles per hour, per lane
at an average travel speed of about
92 km/h under ideal conditions.
Flow at 100% of capacity or 2200
passenger vehicles per hour, per lane
under ideal conditions. Average
travel speeds of about 88 km/h or
less.
Forced flow, congested condition
with widely varying volume
characteristics. Average travel
speeds of less than 50 km/h.
DECEMBER 31, 1996
Urban and
Sub-Urban Arterials
Average overall traveled
speed of about 90% of free
flow speed (or 50 km/h or
more). Stopped delay at
signalized intersections is
minimal.
Average overall speeds drop
due to intersection delay and
inter vehicle conflicts, but
remain at 70% free flow
speed or 40 km/h. Delay is
not unreasonable. Load
factor at intersections
approximately 0.1.
Stable operations. Longer
queues at signals result in
average travel speeds of about
50% of free flow speeds.
Motorists will experience
appreciable tension.
(Average over-all travel
speeds of 30 km/h.)
Approaching unstable flow.
Average travel speeds down
to 40% of free flow speed.
Delays at intersections may
become extensive.
Average travel speeds
between 25 and 33% of free
flow speed. Unstable flow.
Continuous backup on
approaches to intersection.
Average travel speeds
between 25% and 33% of free
flow speed. Vehicular
backups, and high approach
delays at signalized
intersections, forced flow.
NOVEMBER, 2003 ROAD DESIGN MANUAL (METRIC) 2-5(12)

entails weighing the desires and tolerances of the user against the resources available for satisfying the user.

2-5.09 SIGHT DISTANCE

The driver must be able to see ahead a sufficient distance to conduct a variety of possible
maneuvers. The type of sight distance that should be provided will depend upon the type of highway and the nature
of the potential hazard. This section discusses the definitions and derivations of the various sight distances,
including stopping, passing, non-striping, and decision sight distances.

Stopping sight distance, the distance required for a vehicle traveling at the design speed to stop
before reaching a stationary object in its path, is the minimum sight distance that should be provided at any point on
any highway. Passing sight distance, the distance required to enable a driver to safely pass another vehicle traveling
an average of 15 km/h (10 mph) slower, is applicable only on two-lane roadways. Non-striping sight distance, the
distance required to complete a passing maneuver in a reasonably safe manner in the absence of no passing zone
pavement markings, is applicable only on two-lane roadways. Decision sight distance, the distance required for a
driver to detect an unexpected or obscure condition or source of information, decide on a course of action, and react
accordingly, should be considered at each individual location.

Applications are discussed under the appropriate topics in other chapters. All sight distance
calculations are based on the passenger car as the design vehicle.

2-5.09.01 STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE

The available stopping sight distance on any roadway should be long enough to enable a vehicle
traveling at the design speed to stop before reaching a stationary object in its path. Stopping sight distance is the
minimum length that should be provided at any point on any roadway. Greater distances should be provided
wherever practical.

Stopping sight distance is the sum of two distances: the distance traveled during driver perception
and reaction time, and the distance traveled during brake application. Based on the results of many studies, 2.5
seconds has been chosen for a perception/reaction time. This time will accommodate approximately 90 percent of
all drivers when confronted with simple to moderately complex highway situations. Where more complex situations
exist, greater times should be allowed for reaction. For more information, see Section 2-5.09.04, "Decision Sight
Distance."

Driver perception/reaction distance is calculated by:

d = 0.278 Vt (Metric)

d = 1.47 Vt (English)

where:
d = driver reaction distance, m (ft)
V = design speed, km/h (mph)
t = brake reaction time 2.5 s

Braking distance is calculated by:

V2
d = 0.039 (Metric)
a

V2
d = 1.075 (English)
a

where:
d = braking distance, m (ft)
V = initial speed, km/h (mph)
a = deceleration rate, m/s2 (ft/s2)
2-5(12a) ROAD DESIGN MANUAL (METRIC) NOVEMBER, 2003

Stopping sight distance represents a near worst-case situation. Approximately 90 percent of all
drivers decelerate at rates greater than 3.4 m/s2 (11.2 ft/s2). These values are within a driver’s ability to stay within
his or her lane and maintain steering control. A threshold of 3.4 m/s2 (11.2 ft/s2) is used to determine stopping sight
distance. Implicit in the choice of this deceleration threshold is the assessment that most vehicle braking systems
and the tire-pavement friction levels of most roadways are capable of providing a deceleration of at least 3.4 m/s2
(11.2 ft/s2). The friction available on most wet pavement surfaces and most vehicle braking systems are capable of
providing braking friction that exceeds this deceleration rate.

In computing and measuring stopping sight distances, the height of the driver’s eye is defined as
1080 mm (3.5 ft) above the pavement, and the height of the object the driver needs to see is 600 mm (2.0 ft), which
is equivalent to the taillight height of most passenger cars.

Table 2-5.09A summarizes the stopping sight distance data for wet pavement on level terrain.

Table 2.5.09A
STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCES ON LEVEL TERRAIN

Metric English
Design Brake Braking Stopping sight Design Brake Braking Stopping sight distance
speed reaction distance distance speed reaction distance
(km/h) distance on level Calculated Design (mph) distance on level Calculated Design
(m) (m) (m) (m) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft)
50 34.8 28.7 63.5 65 30 110.3 86.4 196.7 200
60 41.7 41.3 83.0 85 35 128.6 117.6 246.2 250
70 48.7 56.2 104.9 105 40 147.0 153.6 300.6 305
80 55.6 73.4 129.0 130 45 164.4 194.6 359.8 360
90 62.6 92.9 155.5 160 50 183.8 240.0 423.8 425
100 69.5 114.7 184.2 185 55 202.1 290.3 492.4 495
110 76.5 138.8 215.3 220 60 220.5 345.5 566.0 570
120 83.4 165.2 248.6 250 65 238.9 405.5 644.4 645
70 257.3 470.3 727.6 730
75 275.6 539.9 815.5 820
2 2
Note: Brake reaction distance predicated on a time of 2.5 s; deceleration rate of 3.4 m/s (11.2 ft/s ) used to determine calculated sight distance.
Increases or decreases in the level braking distances in Table 2-5.09A are warranted for grades of
3 percent or more. The braking distance formula should be modified as follows:

V2
d= (Metric)
⎡⎛ a ⎞ ⎤
254 ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ + G⎥
⎣ ⎝ 9.81 ⎠ ⎦

V2
d= (English)
⎡⎛ a ⎞ ⎤
30 ⎢⎜ ⎟+G⎥
⎣ ⎝ 32. 2 ⎠ ⎦

where:
G = the grade expressed as a decimal (6 percent is 0.06). Downgrades are negative and
upgrades are positive. The other terms are as stated in the stopping sight distance equation.
NOVEMBER, 2003 ROAD DESIGN MANUAL (METRIC) 2-5(12b)

Table 2-5.09B provides the adjusted stopping sight distances due to grade assuming wet
pavement.

Table 2-5.09B
STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCES ON GRADES

Metric English
Design Stopping sight distance (m) Design Stopping sight distance (ft)
Speed Downgrades Upgrades Speed Downgrades Upgrades
(km/h) 3% 6% 9% 3% 6% 9% (mph) 3% 6% 9% 3% 6% 9%
50 66 70 74 61 59 58 30 205 215 227 200 184 179
60 87 92 97 80 77 75 35 257 271 287 237 229 222
70 110 116 124 100 97 93 40 315 333 354 289 278 269
80 136 144 154 123 118 114 45 378 400 427 344 331 320
90 164 174 187 148 141 136 50 446 474 507 405 388 375
100 194 207 223 174 167 160 55 520 553 593 469 450 433
110 227 243 262 203 194 186 60 598 638 686 538 515 495
120 263 281 304 234 223 214 65 682 728 785 612 584 561
70 771 825 891 690 658 631
75 866 927 1003 772 736 704

2-5.09.02 PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE

On two-lane highways, sufficient distance should be provided to allow safe passing maneuvers at
frequent intervals. Passing sight distance is the distance needed to enable a driver to pass another vehicle safely
without interfering with the speed of an oncoming vehicle that appears when the passing vehicle begins its
maneuver. Passing sight distance is the sum of four distances:

d1 = the distance traveled during perception, reaction time, and the initial acceleration to the point
of encroachment on the left lane;
d2 = the distance traveled while the passing vehicle occupies the left lane;
d3 = the distance between the passing vehicle at the end of its maneuver and the opposing vehicle;
and
d4 = the distance traveled by an opposing vehicle for 2/3 of the time the passing vehicle occupies
the left lane, or 2/3 of d2 above.

Representative values for each distance have been determined based on extensive field
observations. The summations of these values are presented in Table 2-5.09C as the design values. For application,
an eye height of 1080 mm (3.5 ft) and object height of 1080 mm (3.5 ft) are used. The formulas that AASHTO uses
to calculate the distance traveled during the initial passing maneuver and the distance traveled in the left lane by the
passing vehicle are below

d1 = 0.278ti (v - m + at i ) (Metric)
2
at i
d1 = 1.47ti (v – m + ) (English)
2
where:
ti = time of initial maneuver, s
a = average acceleration, m/s2 (ft/s2)
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h (mph) and
m = difference in speed of passed vehicle and passing vehicle, km/h (mph)
2-5(13) ROAD DESIGN MANUAL (METRIC) NOVEMBER, 2003

d2 = 0.278vt2 (Metric)

d2 = 1.47vt2 (English)

where:
t2 = time passing vehicle occupies the left lane, s
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h (mph)

Upgrades of 3 percent or more will increase the safe distance needed to pass, however, specific
adjustment factors are unavailable. On upgrades, the distances in Table 2-5.09C should be increased by an
appropriate amount using engineering judgment. No adjustments should be made on downgrades.

The frequency of passing opportunities has an important influence on the capacity and
serviceability of two-lane highways. Opportunities should be provided as often as can be reasonably achieved.
Although it is desirable to provide opportunities to pass on 75% of a highway, terrain and cost may inhibit this goal
in some locations. It may be feasible to allow intermittent four-lane passing sections with stopping sight distance
instead of two-lanes with passing sight distance. See provisions for passing in Section 3-4.05.

2-5.09.03 NON-STRIPING SIGHT DISTANCE

Non-striping sight distances are between stopping and passing sight distances. These distances
exceed the minimum sight distances required for marking no passing zones, therefore, they are useful design
controls in rugged terrain where minimum passing sight distances cannot reasonably be attained at the desired
frequencies. A series of non-striping sight distance zones should be avoided, and passing sight distances provided
wherever practicable. The designer should avoid the use of sight distances between those distances used for marking
no-passing zones (MN MUTCD) and the non-striping sight distances as shown in Table 2-5.09D. Where design
passing sight distances cannot be obtained and a series of no-passing zones will occur, using MN MUTCD no
passing criteria, design alternatives should be considered and investigated. Engineering judgment should be used
when incorporating and using non-striping sight distances in plans.