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Chapter 7: Computer Integrated Manufacturing Systems
Chapter 7: Computer Integrated Manufacturing Systems
7.1 Introduction
(1) In the previous chapters, we have studied various aspects of manufacturing, including
- Design: engineering design, design for manufacturing, design for quality and etc.
- Planning: process planning (feature recognition, optimization), and systems planning
(scheduling, bill of material, and Material Requirement Planning (MRP))
- Machine tools and control: CNC, PLC, bar code, smart card, and etc.
- Material handling: conveyor, AGV, warehouse and etc.
- Quality control: Taguchi’s quality loss, failure mode and effect analysis (FMEA),
statistic quality control (SPC) and etc.
(2) In this (last) chapter, we will study the manufacturing from a system point of view.
Process Quality
planning control
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- As shown in Figure 7.2, such a system is a push system, in which the materials (solid
line) and information (dash line) flow in the same direction
Raw Finished
material Process 1 Process 1 Process 1 product
- The push system is a open-loop system that may create following problems:
- It may lead to starvation or excessive stocks simultaneously at different stages
because of imbalances of stocks between the stages.
- It may lead to conditions of having excessive equipment and surplus of workers.
- In Japan, the problem is called the 3 Ms problems:
- Muda (waste): waste for correction, waster of overproduction, waster for
processing, waste for inventory, waste of motion, waste for waiting, …
- Mura (unevenness): uneven workload, uneven schedule, …
- Muri (overburden): overburden machine, overburden process, …
- In order to solve these problems, Toyota developed a JIT manufacturing approach,
which is a pull system as shown below.
Raw Finished
material Process 1 Process 1 Process 1 product
Note that the information flow serves as a feedback loop that minimizes the 3 Ms
problem.
- This approach is called the JIT manufacturing approach.
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- Through the Kanbans, the production plan is initiated backwards from the finished
product (pull system).
- There are various types of Kanbans, and the following are the most important:
- Withdraw Kanbans, which is used to pass the authorization for movement of parts
from one process to another
- Production Kanbans, which is used to release an order to the preceding process to
build parts equal to the lot size specified
A typical example is shown below.
Material flow
PPS1
Withdrawal
kanban
f
f e
f
e f
e
Production kanban
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(3) Kanban planning and control
- Kanban is the heart of the JIT system. It is very important to determine the number of
kanbans needed and hence, determine the JIT system structure.
- The deterministic model for determining the number of Kanbans by Toyota Motor
Inc.
- Let y be the number of Kanbans needed,
- The model:
D(Tw Tp )(1 )
y
a
where, D = demand per unit time,
Tw = waiting time of kanban
Tp = processing time
a = container capacity (not more than 10 percent of daily requirement)
= a policy variable and (1 + ) represents the safety factor
- The objective is to reduce the values of a, and lead time (Tw + Tp) continuously.
- Based on this simple model, we can determine:
(a) how to determine the number of kanbans
(b) impact of lead time on the number of kanbans and work-in-process inventory
(c) interactions between the withdrawal and production kanbans.
- An example (Example 11.1 in the textbook):
- XYZ company produces n = 10,000 units per month, the shipping container
capacity is 50 items, the production lead time is 0.5 days, and the policy variable
is set at = 0.4 (the smaller the , the smaller the safety factor)
- The number of production kanbans
- Daily demand:
D = 10,000 / 20 (working days per month) = 500 parts
- The number of kanbans:
y = (500)(0.5)(1.4) / (50) = 7
- The average inventory is:
(7)(50) = 350 units
This implies that we can cut down the inventory by cut down the safety margin
- Suppose = 0, which implies that a withdrawal kanban must always be delivered
on time, whenever parts are needed; then:
y = (500)(0.5)(1) / (50) = 5
This implies that we can cut down the inventory by cut down the manufacturing
lead time.
- Suppose the production lead time is changed to 1 day, then the number of kanbans
needed is:
- The number of kanbans:
y = (500)(1)(1.4) / (50) = 14
at this time, the average inventory is:
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(14)(50) = 700 units
- Example 2 (Example 11.2 in the textbook)
- ABC company produces product Z, which is assembled from two parts, X and Y,
also manufactured in the company
- The factory layout is shown in Figure 7.6
Preceding Subsequent
processes PK-X WK-X processes
PK-Y WK-Y
Process SA-
Y Y
- determining the withdrawal kanbans (the assembly process pulls from the
manufacturing process):
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yX = (2000)(1.0)(1) / 100 = 20
yY = (800)(0.5)(1.25) / 50 = 10
- determining the production kanbans (the manufacturing process pulls from the
supplier)
yX = (2000)(0.5)(1.2) / 100 = 12
yY = (800)(1)(1) / 50 = 16
- now, let us assume that the assembly process is shipped to mainland. As a result, the
lead time increases to 4 days. The withdrawal kanbans will be:
yX = (2000)(4)(1) / 100 = 80
yY = (800)(4)(1.25) / 50 = 80
but the production kanbans remain the same. This implies that in order to keep the
same supply, we must increase the process capability a, which in turn, will increase
the total production cause.
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- An example (Example 11.3 in the textbook)
- Suppose the probability mass function of the number of kanbans is known as
follows.
No. of kanbans 0 1 2 3 4 5
Probability 0 0.2 0.3 0.35 0.1 0.05
- the holding cost and shortage cost per container per unit time are $50 and
$200 respectively
- Solution:
- The cost ratio: (cs) / (cs + ch) = (200) / (200 + 50) = 0.8
- The probability function:
P(0) = 0, P(1) = 0.2, P(2) = 0.5, P(3) = 0.85, P(4) = 0.95, P(5) = 1
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Raw Work
material center
Lot
inventory
size
storage
Standard kanban
process B A
- An example
- A stamping plant runs two shifts: 2 x 8 = 16 hrs. / day
- The press utilization is 80%: 16 x 0.8 = 12.8 hrs. / day
- The rest of the time (20%) is used for setup (die changes): 16 x 0.2 = 3.2 hrs. /
day
- Average setup (die change) time is 32 min.: 32 / 60 hrs.
- The maximum number of possible setup is 2
- The demand for the parts, D: 1400 / day
- The safety factor: = 0.2
- The minimal lot size per setup is:
Minimum lot size per setup = (Demand)(safety) / (time of setup)
or
Minimum lot size per setup = (1400)(1.2) / (2) = 840.
- Suppose the size of the container is 100 parts, then the number of containers
needed is:
840 / 100 9
- The position of the production-order signal kanban is determined by the kanban
cycle time. The kanban cycle time, Tc, consists of several elements such as
waiting time, transfer time, and lot processing time. The formula to calculate the
position of the production-order signal kanban is as follows:
D(1 )Tc
Production signal kanban position
a
- Suppose the kanban cycle time is 3 hrs.: 3 / 16 days
- The production signal kanban is:
Production signal kanban position = (1400)(1.2)(3/16) / (100) = 3.15 4
containers.
- Similarly, we can calculate the material-ordering signal kanban.
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- The concept of kanban has been extended greatly to carry out various “feedback”
control functions in the manufacturing systems. They all use kanbans, such as
- Express kanban
- Emergency kanban
- …
- It is interesting to know that in additional to push and pull, there are other types of
manufacturing models such as:
- Periodic pull
- Constant work-in-process
- Long pull
- …
- Finally, there has been effort to combine JIT in purchasing.
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- Coding is for classification – the process of categorization of a set of parts into part
families.
- Various coding systems have been developed and these systems can be grouped into
three types:
- Monocode or hierarchical code: the structure of these codes is like a tree in which
each symbol amplifies the information provided in the previous digit.
- Polycode: also known as chain code in which each digit is independent and
describes a specific information
- Mixed-mode code: a combination of monocode and polycode.
- We will present a few commonly used codes below.
- The code structure and the definition are shown in Figure 12.3 (in the textbook).
- An example
Form code 1 3 1 0 6
Interpretation:
- First digit = 1: it is a rotation part with 0.5 < L / D < 3 (9.6 / 5 1.9)
- Second digit = 3: the external shape has a functional groove
- Third digit = 1: the internal shape has a through hole
- Fourth digit = 0: the plain surface does not exist
- Fifth digit = 6: there are spur gear teeth on the part.
- The part is shown in Figure 7.8
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- Note that the code does not contain detailed engineering design information. Instead,
it shows the design features. Based on the design features, the manufacturing plan can
be determined.
- The benefit of GT:
- Help engineering design
- Help layout planning
- Help design / selection of equipment, tools, jigs and fixtures
- Help manufacturing process planning
- Help production control
- Help quality control
- Help purchasing
- Help customer services
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- Example: The machines and components information (the output of Stages 1 and 2) is
as follows.
- We use the Rank Order Clustering (ROC) algorithm for factory flow analysis and
use Single-Linkage Cluster Analysis (SLCA) algorithm for machine-component
group analysis.
- Step 1 (ROC): assign binary weight and calculate a decimal weight for each row
and column using the formula below:
m
Decimal weight for row i bip 2 m p
p 1
n
Decimal weight for column j b pj 2 n p
p 1
where, bip (and bpj) are binary weights. If the jth machine is used to process pth
component, bip = 1; else bip = 0. For the data shown above, the resulting decimal
equivalents are as follows.
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Table 4: The ROC row weighting of the example above
Components
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Binary Binary weight
Machines weight 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
M5 24 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
M1 23 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
M3 22 1 1 1 1
M4 21 1 1 1 1 1 1
M2 20 1 1 1 1 1
Column decimal 28 27 27 27 28 20 28 26 11 11
equivalent
- Step 3 (RCO): re-arrange the columns by sorting the column decimal weights in
decreasing order. For the data above, the resulting matrix is as follows:
- Step 4 (RCO): repeat steps 2 and 3 until there are no changes in row and column
positions. This completes the factory flow analysis. For the data above, there is no
change in further iteration.
- Step 5 (SLCA): compute similarity coefficients for all possible pairs of machines.
Several similarity measures have been used, and one of them is the single-linkage
cluster analysis (SLCA). According to SLCA, the similarity coefficient between
two machines is defined as the ratio of the number of parts visiting both machines
and the number of parts visiting one of the two machines as follows:
N
X ijk
Sij k 1
Y Z jk X ijk
N
ik
k 1
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Number of operations performed both on machines 1 and 2: 5
Number of operations performed on machine 1: 9
Number of operations performed on machine 2: 5
S12 = (5) / (9 + 5 – 5) = 0.556
The calculation results are summarized in the following table:
n X k ijk
SVij k 1
n Y Z jk X ijk
N
k ik
k 1
The result should be similar (but no the same).
- Step 6 (SLCA): select the machine pair that has the largest similarity and use
them to form the first cell. For the data above, it is M2 – M4.
- Step 7 (SLCA): select the machine pair that the second largest similarity and use
them to form the second cell. Note that if one of the machines has been used for a
cell, form the cell by using the machine and the cell. For the data above, it is M1 –
M5.
- Step 8 (SLCA): repeat Step 7. For the data above, in the first iteration the cell
formation is M4 – M2 and M5 – M1. In the second iteration, the cell formation is
made of M5 – (M4 – M2) and M5 – M1. The result is a dendrogram as shown in
Figure 7.10. The final cell formation is shown in the table as well.
M4 M2 M5 M1 M3
1.00
0.83
0.70
0.67
0.50
0.30
0.00
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The actual cell formation depends on the threshold value. For example, if the
threshold is set at 0.8, only M4 and M2 will form a cell. On the other hand, if the
threshold is set at 0.5, all the machines will form a cell. The following table
summarizes all the possible cell configurations.
where, N is number of machines in the group. For rectangle layout, the expected
distance moved is:
M L
d
3
where, M is number of rows and L is number of machines in each row. For square
layout, the expected distance moved is:
N
d 2
3
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- The total distance moved in jth cell for the ith configuration:
m
TDi dij kij
j
- The total cost of inter- and intra-cellular movements (TC) for the ith configuration:
m
TCi C1 N i C2 d ij kij
j
Also, it can be seen that there are 10 intra-cell moves. Hence, the total cost is:
TC3 = ($2)(10) + ($1)(12) = $32
- The following table summarizes the total cost of moves under different cell
formations. From the table, it is seen that best formation is 3. In other words, we shall
use the 3-cell design, which will minimize the material handling cost.
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- Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS) is a strategic approach to answer the
competitive global manufacturing challenge
- FMS is made possible by advanced technologies such as CAD, CAM, CAPP, CIM,
GT and etc.
- In this section, we will briefly describe the basics of FMS including
- Flexibility
- Volume-variety
- Layout
- Part / tool management
(2) Flexibility
- Flexibility can be defined as a collection of properties of a manufacturing system that
support changes in production activities or capabilities
- A number of types of flexibility have been discussed including
- Machine flexibility: use multi-purpose CNC machines
- Routing flexibility: use CAPP
- Process flexibility: use multi-purpose CNC machines
- Product flexibility
- Production flexibility
- Expansion flexibility
(3) Volume-Variety
- There are five types of manufacturing systems:
- Transfer line
- Stand-alone CNC machine
- Manufacturing cell
- Special manufacturing system
- Flexible manufacturing system.
- Different systems have different characteristics and hence, suit for different products
and production types.
- Key characteristics of various manufacturing systems
- Transfer line
- Flexible manufacturing module
- Manufacturing cell
- Special manufacturing systems
- Flexible manufacturing systems
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productivity Transfer
line
FMS
CNC machines
flexibility
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dc = number of slots required to hold tools in the tool magazine of each machine
1 if part type i is selectedin the batch
zi
0 otherwise
1 if tool c is loaded on a machine
yc
0 otherwise
Note that zi and yc are decision variables. The goal is:
Maximize zi
i
subject to: d
c
c yc 1
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7.6 Computer Integrated Manufacturing and Enterprise Integration
(1) An introduction to Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)
- According to SME, CIM is the integration of the total manufacturing enterprise
through the use of integrated systems and data communications coupled with new
managerial philosophies that improve organizational and personal efficiency.
- CIM is made possible by the computer technology today and has many advantages
over the traditional manufacturing systems.
- A step forward is enterprise integration.
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Fig. 7.9: Illustration of network topology
- The network access control: there are several commonly used method for network
access control
- Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) or Ethernet
(IEEE 802.3 standard). Physically, two ethernet coaxial cables are connected
together using a repeater (an amplifier). Through the cables, the ethernet cards can
send and receive packets. Figure 7.10 shows the format of CSMA/CD. It is a
series communication link. While one computer sends a message the other one
waits. While two computers sends message together, it may crash. CSMA/CD is
widely used in manufacturing because of its simplicity.
Bytes
7 1 2 or 6 2 or 6 2 0-1500 0-46 4
preamble Destination Source data pad Check
address address -sum
- Token ring (IEEE 802.5 standard) and Token bus (IEEE 802.4 standard) are
designed to resolve the communication crash problem. They use multiple coaxial
cables to connect the computers into a ring. So when a communication path is
busy the other one can take over.
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- The network protocol
- The interpretation of the transmitted data among a network is done based on
network protocol.
- A protocol is a set of rules of information exchange between two devices
- According to ISO/OSI (open system interconnection), protocols can be divided
into seven layers:
- The physical layer: specifies the hardware
- The data link layer: handles the data transformation such as synchronization,
error control and flow control
- The network layer: decides the paths of the information in the network
- The transport layer: establishes the connection, initiate the data transfer and
manage the data transfer
- The session layer: controls communication
- The presentation layer: coding and decoding
- The application layer: user interface
- Based on ISO/OSI, several different protocols have been developed. For example,
the Manufacturing Automation Protocol (MAP) is developed by General Motors
Co. The most commonly used protocol is however, the Transmission Control
Protocol / Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) developed by US Dept. of Defense. TCP/IP
suit now consists of several protocols including Telnet, FTP, Network file
systems (NFS), and simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP).
- Network hardware. In addition to the computers, various hardware devices are needed
in network connections. These include:
- Reapeater: circuit used to connect the devices with same protocols
- Bridge: circuit used to connect two similar or dissimilar LANs
- Routers: a combination of both repeater and bridge
- Gateway: a special purpose computer that does the protocol conversions.
- Network performances. The network performances can be measured by the following
criteria: network availability and response time.
- Network availability can be determined based on the reliability theory. If there are
n components connected in series and the their probability of being available is ai,
i = 1, 2…, n, then the system availability is:
n
A ai
i 1
On the other hand, suppose the n components are connected in parallel, the
system availability is:
n
A 1 ai
i 1
- the response time is determined by the summation of service time and waiting.
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- Data base: a collection of files as an organized assembly of information that users
can access for various purposes.
- Data model: a logic representation of a collection of data elements. It is the
building block for databases.
- In modern engineering, a great deal amount of information is required for any task to
be accomplished. Imaging that a manufacturing company producing simple gears.
The following data must be available:
- Work material
- Dimensions, surface finish and tolerance
- Machines to be used in manufacturing
- Tools
- ….
Therefore, it is very important to have a proper database management system.
- Data model. There are two types data models:
- Record based models, which can further decomposed as network model,
hierarchical model, and relational model.
- Object-oriented models
- In recent years, object-oriented models become dominant. The object-oriented model
is based on following important concept.
- Object: any physical or imagery entities may be referred to as an object
- Attribute and methods: objects are characterized by attributes, which may include
its intrinsic properties or its relationship with other objects. A method is an
operation applied to the objects.
- Message: a method is invoked by a client by sending a message to the object.
- Class: objects can be categorized into classes, which describes the common
behavior of the object with respect to its family.
- For those who have learnt the object-oriented programming (C++), the above
concepts should be easy to follow. Following is an example
- Object: robot
- Class:
Class name: robot
Attribute: robot_id
Robot_type
Method: move
Pickup
Drop off
- A particular instance is:
Class name: PUMP1
Attribute: 1023
Articulate
Method: Pickup(Work1)
Note that “Work11” is another object (a workpiece), the interactions between the
two objects are defined by the operation (association) “Pickup”.
- The procedure of designing an object-oriented database system is as follows:
(a) develop a conceptual model of the system by identifying key objects
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(b) associate attributes and methods with each object identified in step 1
(c) arrange objects into a class inheritance hierarchy
(d) refine the hierarchy by emphasizing, specialization, and generalizing
(e) identify client-server relationships and message exchanges among objects to
capture system dynamics
(f) develop a prototype implementation to validate requirements
(g) refine the system design iteratively by modifying or adding objects, attributes,
operations, or associations.
(5) Groupware
- Groupware is the networked hardware and software that allow people to support each
other in their effort to achieve work goals regardless of where and when they want to
do this.
- Groupware shall have consider the following issues
- Re-eneineer, re-tool, re-size, re-invent, re-manufacture, …
- Teamwork, virtual teaming
- Focus on customer needs
- Focus on core competencies
- The network enterprise
- Flatter, leaner organizations
- Drive for efficiency and productive gain.
- Tow of the most important groupware handware tools are email and networking.
- Also, now there are several software systems that can be used as groupwares, such as
I-DEAS, Unigrphics, and ProEngineering.
By now we have pretty much described all the important technologies used in modern
manufacturing systems. These technologies will help you to understand and hence, to
solve the practical problems in manufacturing systems. If you have any problems, please
do not hesitate to contact me at the following address.
Ruxu Du
Dept. of Industrial Engineering
University of Miami
Coral Gables, FL 33102
U. S. A.
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